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, Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV wrote that both Fernandez and Padukone " strut around like wound @-@ up automatons that are all decked @-@ up but have nowhere to go . " Fernandez also appeared in an item number ( music video ) titled " Jaadu Ki Jhappi " for Prabhu Deva 's Ramaiya Vasta Vaiya .
= = = 2014 – present = = =
In 2014 , Fernandez appeared in Sajid Nadiadwala 's directorial debut — the action film Kick , a remake of a 2009 Telugu film of same name . She starred opposite Salman Khan , playing Shaina , a psychiatry student . She retained her real voice for the first time in Kick . While Sneha May Francis commented that she is : " incredibly dazzling , and moves like a magic " , Raja Sen of Rediff.com was more critical of her dialogue delivery , calling it " unfortunate . " The film received mixed reviews from critics , but with worldwide revenue of over ₹ 3 @.@ 75 billion ( US $ 56 million ) , it became the fourth highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film . The film established Fernandez as one of the most popular Bollywood actresses .
In 2015 , Fernandez featured in Vicky Singh 's Roy , a romantic thriller , which critic Sarita A. Tanwar described as a " boring , exhausting and pretentious " film . Fernandez played dual roles , Ayesha Aamir , a filmmaker in a relationship with another filmmaker ( played by Arjun Rampal ) and Tia Desai , a girl in love with a thief ( played by Ranbir Kapoor ) . While India TV called it " her best act till date " , critic Rajeev Masand felt that she " appears miscast in a part that required greater range . " Roy failed to meet its box @-@ office expectations , and was a commercial failure . Later that year , she appeared in a guest appearance for the comedy @-@ satire Bangistan .
Karan Malhotra 's action drama Brothers was Fernandez 's next release . Co @-@ starring alongside Akshay Kumar and Sidharth Malhotra , Fernandez played Jenny , a fearless mother struggling for her child , a role which she described as " challenging " , " intense " , and " difficult " . The role marked a departure from the glamorous characters that she had a reputation for portraying . Film critics praised her performance , though their response to the film was mixed . Dhriti Sharma of Zee News called her character " soft , timid and promising " , and praised her for : " convincingly pull [ ing ] off a pleasing character of a street fighter 's wife " . Film critic Subhash K. Jha noted that she : " ... in a limited role gives her finest emotive shot " , while critic Raja Sen remarked : " [ she ] plays Kumar 's long @-@ sobbing wife who gets so deliriously happy on seeing a text message that it may well have contained news about a Kick sequel . "
As of September 2015 , Fernandez has several projects in various stages of production . She has completed shooting for Chandran Rutnam 's English @-@ Sri Lankan crime @-@ thriller According to Mathew , and the horror thriller Definition of Fear , which marks her Hollywood debut . Fernandez has also signed on to appear in three other projects — Rohit Dhawan 's Dishoom opposite Varun Dhawan and John Abraham as a part of three @-@ film deal with Nadiadwala Grandson Entertainment , Remo D 'Souza 's Flying Jat opposite Tiger Shroff , and in an Indo @-@ Chinese film starring opposite Abhay Deol , Amitabh Bachchan , and Jackie Chan titled Gold Struck .
= = Personal life and other work = =
Fernandez shares a close bond with her family , and admits to missing being around them . She says : " I miss them so much everyday . You don 't realise when you live away from home how difficult life can be [ ... ] At the same time , staying away from them has taught me to be more responsible . It has taught me so many things about myself , about priorities and time management . " In March 2012 , Fernandez turned vegetarian for a 40 @-@ day period to observe Lent , a period from Ash Wednesday to Holy Saturday .
In 2008 , Fernandez started dating Bahraini prince Hassan bin Rashid Al Khalifa , whom she met at a mutual friend 's party ; they separated in 2011 . While filming Housefull 2 in 2011 , Fernandez began a romantic relationship with director Sajid Khan . The relationship attracted media coverage in India and there was speculation of an impending wedding . However , the relationship ended in May 2013 .
In addition to acting in films , Fernandez has supported charitable organisations and a number of causes . In 2011 , on the behalf of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) , she sent a letter to the Mumbai Municipal Commissioner asking for an end to horse @-@ drawn carriage rides in Mumbai . In early 2013 , she asked the consulate general of the Philippines , William John T Perera in Colombo , to hasten the transfer of an elephant from its inadequate housing at the Manila Zoo to a humane sanctuary . Later that year , she auctioned a breakfast in Mayfair , London , where she raised around £ 4000 for the Pratham NGO , which helps children 's primary education . In 2014 , Fernandez was named " Woman Of The Year " by PETA ( India ) for advocating the protection of animals . The following year , she auctioned her outfits on an online portal for a philanthropic cause . Some of her outfits included the ones she wore in the song " Party On My Mind " ( from Race 2 ) and " Hangover " ( from Kick ) . In March 2016 , she was part of " Jacqueline Builds " campaign that raised funds for the victims of the 2015 South Indian floods .
Fernandez has participated in several concert tours and televised award ceremonies . In 2013 , she performed at the Temptations Reloaded in Auckland , Perth , and Sydney alongside Shah Rukh Khan , Rani Mukerji , and Madhuri Dixit . She also performed at the live talent show " Got Talent World Stage Live " with Khan , Priyanka Chopra and Varun Dhawan the following year . In July 2014 , Fernandez opened a restaurant in Colombo , Kaema Sutra , in collaboration with chef Dharshan Munidasa , which specialises in contemporary Sri Lankan cuisine .
= = In the media = =
In the early 2013 , Fernandez became the ambassador for HTC One , which she endorses in India . She was the face of Indian Bridal Fashion Week — IBFW of 2013 . Later that year , she became the spokesperson for Gareth Pugh 's designed Forevermark Diamonds in Mumbai , and was at the inaugural opening of the Forever 21 store in Mumbai . That year , she also launched Gillette Shaving System with Arbaaz Khan and Aditya Roy Kapur . While analysing Fernandez 's career , India TV noted : " Slowly and steadily Jacqueline Fernandez is climbing up the ladder of success [ ... ] Jacqueline is comfortably grasping every aspect of the work , which an actress is required to do and is accordingly giving results . " On the contrary , Charu Thakur of India Today criticized her acting skills , but remarked that : " [ she has ] managed to find her feet in Bollywood now by banking on glamorous roles " .
In 2008 and 2011 , Fernandez featured in the UK magazine Eastern Eye 's " World 's Sexiest Asian Women " list , ranking twelfth . She was ranked third on The Times of India 's listing of the " Most Desirable Woman " in 2013 and 2014 , after being ranked eighth , seventh and fourteenth , respectively , in the preceding three years . In 2013 , Rediff.com placed her on their list of " Bollywood 's Best Dressed Actresses " . The following year , she held the sixty second position in the Indian edition of the Forbes ' Celebrity 100 , a list based on the income and popularity of India 's celebrities . She has been the cover model for many Indian editions of magazines , including : Vogue , FHM , Maxim , Cosmopolitan , Grazia , Elle , Verve , Harper 's Bazaar , Women 's Health , and L 'Officiel among others .
= = Filmography = =
= = TV Appearances = =
= = Awards = =
= John Cullen =
Barry John Cullen ( born August 2 , 1964 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey centre who played in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Pittsburgh Penguins , Hartford Whalers , Toronto Maple Leafs and Tampa Bay Lightning . He was a standout player for Boston University and is the school 's all @-@ time leading scorer . After the Buffalo Sabres selected him in the 1986 NHL Supplemental Draft but chose not to offer him a contract , Cullen signed with the Flint Spirits of the International Hockey League ( IHL ) for the 1987 – 88 season where he was named the IHL 's co @-@ Rookie of the Year and Most Valuable Player after leading the league in scoring .
His career was halted in 1997 when he was diagnosed with Non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma . He attempted a brief comeback in 1998 after an 18 @-@ month battle with the disease , for which the NHL awarded him the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy , before retiring to serve as an assistant coach for a year with the Lightning . Cullen played in two NHL All @-@ Star Games in his career . He joined his brother in the car dealership business after leaving the game , and briefly operated his own dealership until forced to close during the automotive industry crisis of 2008 – 10 .
= = Early life = =
Cullen was born in Puslinch @-@ Ontario on August 2 , 1964 . He is one of six children of Barry and Loretta Cullen . His father and uncles Brian and Ray all played in the NHL , and while Cullen and his three brothers all played as well , their father never pressured them , preferring that they enjoy the game .
He idolized his elder brother Terry , who was considered a top NHL prospect until Terry 's career was ended when he suffered a broken neck after being hit from behind into the boards during a college game . While his brother was highly sought by American universities , John received only two scholarship offers , choosing to play for Boston University ( BU ) in 1983 .
At the same time , his mother Loretta was diagnosed with skin cancer . Following her death early in his freshman year , Cullen contemplated returning to his Ontario home , but was convinced by his father to continue with both school and hockey . He used the game to cope with the loss and dedicated every game he played to his mother 's memory . Cullen felt that the inspiration he drew from his mother 's battle allowed him to become a better player .
= = Playing career = =
Cullen was a standout with BU ; he was named the East Coast Athletic Conference Rookie of the Year in 1983 – 84 after leading his team in scoring with 56 points . The National Hockey League passed him over , however , as he went unclaimed in the 1984 NHL Entry Draft . He was named to the Hockey East All @-@ Star Teams in 1985 , 1986 and 1987 , and a National Collegiate Athletic Association East Second Team All @-@ American in 1986 . He graduated as BU 's all @-@ time scoring leader with 241 points , and was named to BU 's Hockey East 25th anniversary team in 2009 .
Passed over in the Entry Draft , Cullen was finally selected by the Buffalo Sabres in the 1986 NHL Supplemental Draft . When the Sabres failed to offer him a contract , Cullen signed with the Flint Spirits of the International Hockey League ( IHL ) for the 1987 – 88 season . He led the league with 157 points , scoring 48 goals , and won the James Gatschene Memorial Trophy as league most valuable player while sharing the Gary F. Longman Memorial Trophy with Ed Belfour as rookie of the year . Cullen 's outstanding season in Flint caught the attention of the Sabres and the Pittsburgh Penguins . He signed a contract with the Penguins for the league minimum , passing up a superior contract offer from Buffalo as he remained upset at how they released him the year before .
= = = National Hockey League = = =
Cullen made his NHL debut in 1988 – 89 , appearing in 79 games with the Penguins and scoring 49 points . He was given a greater role with the Penguins the following year after Mario Lemieux missed 21 games due to a back injury and responded by scoring 32 goals and 92 points to finish third in team scoring . Additionally , he played for Team Canada at the 1990 World Championship , scoring four points in ten games . Cullen had his best season in 1990 – 91 . As one of the team 's top offensive centres , he scored 94 points in the Penguins ' first 65 games and played in his first NHL All @-@ Star Game . However , when Lemieux returned after missing an additional 50 @-@ games due to injury , Cullen 's playing time and production declined .
The Penguins ' needs led them to complete a blockbuster trade on March 1 , 1991 . Cullen was sent to the Hartford Whalers , along with Zarley Zalapski and Jeff Parker in exchange for Hartford 's all @-@ time leading scorer , Ron Francis , along with Ulf Samuelsson and Grant Jennings . The Penguins almost turned down the deal as they were concerned about giving up Cullen 's playmaking and leadership abilities , while his former teammates credited Cullen as being the primary reason they were in a playoff position at the time the trade happened . After the Penguins won their first Stanley Cup that season , Phil Bourque later said it " broke his heart " that Cullen was not able to share in that championship .
In Hartford , Cullen worked to overcome the team 's fans ' disappointment at losing Francis . The Hartford fans initially booed him to show their dissatisfaction with the trade . He scored 16 points in 13 regular season games to finish the season with 110 points combined between the Penguins and Whalers , and was the team 's best player in their first round loss to the Boston Bruins in the 1991 Stanley Cup Playoffs . He initially accepted an invitation to join the Canadian team at the 1991 Canada Cup , but subsequently chose not to participate as his contract had expired , leading to greater insurance concerns . Still without a contract when the 1991 – 92 season began , Cullen missed the first four games before signing a four @-@ year deal with Hartford worth a total of $ 4 million . He returned to score 77 points in 77 games in his first full season with the Whalers and represented the team at the 1992 All @-@ Star Game .
Midway through the 1992 – 93 NHL season , the Whalers sent Cullen to the Toronto Maple Leafs for Toronto 's second round selection at the 1993 NHL Entry Draft . Cullen was excited to play for his father 's old team , but injuries reduced his ability to perform . His most significant injury was a herniated disc in his neck that doctors initially feared would end his career . A bulky neck brace allowed Cullen to return and play out his contract in Toronto . When the Leafs chose not to re @-@ sign him following the 1993 – 94 season , he returned to the Penguins for one season before Tony Esposito convinced him to sign with the Tampa Bay Lightning in 1995 .
Cullen enjoyed immediate success with linemates Shawn Burr and Alexander Selivanov as the trio combined to score 130 points and helped lead the Lightning to the first playoff appearance in franchise history . They were eliminated by the Philadelphia Flyers in five games while Cullen led the team in playoff scoring with three goals and three assists . The Lightning looked to improve in 1996 – 97 ; Cullen was leading the team in scoring , but was suffering flu @-@ like symptoms that he could not shake . As Tampa was fighting for a playoff spot , he played through his condition for weeks .
= = = Cancer and comeback = = =
After two months of quietly dealing with his symptoms , Cullen 's wife finally called team trainers and asked them to check into his illness . The team took an x @-@ ray and found a large black shadow in his chest . He underwent a CAT scan which revealed Cullen had a baseball @-@ sized tumor ; he was diagnosed as having Non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma . The diagnosis ended his season , and he immediately began chemotherapy treatments that quickly reduced his cancer . The tumor was gone by September 1997 , but a precautionary test prior to training camp revealed that Cullen still had cancer cells in his body . He missed the entire 1997 – 98 NHL season as he continued to battle the disease , while his teammates wore a uniform patch with his # 12 in support throughout the year .
On one day during his treatments , as his wife was wheeling him down a hospital corridor , Cullen went into cardiac arrest , requiring doctors to use a defibrillator to revive him . He underwent a bone marrow transplant that briefly reduced his immune system to the point that he could have very little human contact . Another examination in April 1998 revealed that the cancer was finally gone , and Cullen immediately began training for a comeback .
The Lightning signed Cullen to a one @-@ year , $ 500 @,@ 000 contract for the 1998 – 99 season . He played his first game in nearly 18 months on September 18 , 1998 , in an exhibition game between the Lightning and Sabres at Innsbruck , Austria . Cullen scored the game @-@ winning goal in a 3 – 1 victory , after which he said he sat on the bench in disbelief over how he was given a second chance . He was named to the roster and was greeted with a loud standing ovation by the fans in Tampa Bay when he was introduced prior to their season opening game .
Cullen appeared in four of the Lightning 's first eight games , but it was evident that he had lost much of his speed and strength . The Lightning assigned him to the IHL 's Cleveland Lumberjacks , but also gave him the option of retiring and taking up a position as an assistant coach . He chose to accept the demotion , giving himself one month to determine if he could continue playing . He appeared in six games for Cleveland , and in one game against the Chicago Wolves tied an IHL record when he scored seven points in a 7 – 3 victory .
However , a bout of bronchitis led Cullen to fear that his cancer had returned . Tests came back negative , but after spending time with his family , he realized that neither he nor his family were interested in returning to Cleveland . Cullen announced his retirement on November 28 , 1998 , and accepted the Lightning offer to become an assistant coach . In recognition of his comeback attempt , the NHL named him the 1999 winner of the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy for dedication and perseverance , while the IHL renamed its Comeback Player of the Year award the John Cullen Award .
Former Lightning head coach Terry Crisp has stated publicly that Cullen was a player that stood out as something special saying “ John Cullen ... beat cancer and came back to play and helped us win . ”
= = Off the ice = =
Cullen and his wife Valerie have three daughters , Kennedy and twins Karlyn and Kortland . Unwilling to spend so much time away from his family , he left the Lightning in 1999 and settled in the Atlanta area , joining his brother 's car dealership in Jonesboro , Georgia . He had always expected to become a car dealer after his hockey career , as his father , uncles and brother all worked in the industry . After apprenticing under his brother for five years , he bought a Dodge dealership in Newnan , Georgia in 2007 . However , he owned the dealership for less than two years before Chrysler closed him down as part of its recovery plan in response to the Automotive industry crisis of 2008 – 2010 . He has since returned to his brother 's dealership , serving as its general manager .
Cullen 's battle with cancer inspired Timm Harmon of the Moffitt Cancer Centre to partner with the Lightning to raise awareness and money for cancer research . The NHL itself joined the cause in the winter of 1998 , creating the Hockey Fights Cancer program to raise money for research . Cullen has spent time promoting the initiative .
Prior to marrying his wife Valerie , John dated Carolyn Bessette the future wife of John F. Kennedy , Jr . The two met while attending University in Boston .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
Cullen is the namesake of the John Cullen Award , previously given to key IHL players .
= SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max =
For the ironclad present at the Battle of Lissa of the same name , see SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( 1865 ) .
SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( German : " His Majesty 's ship Archduke Ferdinand Max " ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in 1902 . The second ship of the Erzherzog Karl class , she was launched on 3 October 1903 . She was assigned to the III Battleship Division .
For most of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max remained in her home port of Pola , in present @-@ day Croatia , except for four engagements . In 1914 , she formed part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian flotilla sent to protect the escape of the German ships SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau from the British @-@ held Mediterranean ; she advanced as far as Brindisi before being recalled to her home port . Her sole combat engagement occurred in late May 1915 , when she participated in the bombardment of the Italian port city of Ancona . She also took part in suppressing a major mutiny among the crew members of several armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro between 1 – 3 February 1918 . She also attempted to break through the Otranto Barrage in June of that year , but had to retreat when the dreadnought SMS Szent István was sunk . After the war , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was awarded to the United Kingdom as a war prize in 1920 .
= = Design = =
Erzherzog Ferdinand Max displaced 10 @,@ 472 long tons ( 10 @,@ 640 t ) . She was 414 feet 2 inches ( 126 @.@ 2 m ) long , had a beam of 71 feet 5 inches ( 21 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 24 feet 7 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) . She was manned by 700 men . She and her sisters were the last and largest pre @-@ dreadnought class built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , surpassing the Habsburg class by approximately 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 968 long tons ) . She was propelled by two two @-@ shaft , four cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines . On trials , they developed 18 @,@ 000 ihp ( 13 @,@ 423 kW ) , which propelled the ship at a speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) .
Erzherzog Ferdinand Max carried a primary armament of four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) / 40 caliber guns in two twin turrets on the centerline . These guns were an Austro @-@ Hungarian replica of the British 24 cm / 40 ( 9 @.@ 4 " ) Krupp C / 94 , which was used on the Habsburgs . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 19 @-@ centimeter ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) / 42 caliber guns , also made by Škoda , mounted in eight single casemates on either wing of the ship and two twin turrets on the centerline. shell 20 @,@ 000 metres ( 22 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation with a muzzle velocity of 800 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . The gun weighed 12 @.@ 1 tons and could fire three rounds per minute.The ships had a tertiary armament for protection against torpedo boats in the form of the 6 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) / 45 caliber gun , also manufactured by Škoda . Anti @-@ aircraft and airship protection was covered by the four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Vickers anti @-@ aircraft guns on the ship bought from Britain in 1910 and mounted onto Erzherzog Karl . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was also fitted with two above water 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , although rarely used .
= = Service history = =
At the outbreak of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was in the III division of the Austrian @-@ Hungarian battle @-@ fleet . She was mobilized on the eve of the war along with the remainder of the fleet to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The two German ships were attempting to break out of Messina , which was surrounded by British troops , and make their way to Turkey . The breakout succeeded . When the flotilla had advanced as far south as Brindisi in south eastern Italy , the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships were recalled . In company with other units of the Austro Hungarian navy , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max took a minor part in the bombardment of Ancona on 24 May 1915 . There she and her sisters expended 24 rounds of 240 mm armor @-@ piercing shells at signal and semaphore stations as well as 74 rounds of 190 mm shells aimed at Italian gun @-@ batteries and other port installations .
A major mutiny among crews of the armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro , including Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI , began on 1 February 1918 . Two days later , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters arrived in the port and assisted with the suppression of the mutiny . Following the restoration of order in the naval base , the armored cruisers Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI were decommissioned and Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters were stationed in Cattaro in their place . On the morning of 11 June , Admiral Miklos Horthy planned a major assault on the Otranto Barrage ; the three Erzherzog Karls and the four Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships were to provide support for the Novara @-@ class cruisers on an assault on the Allied defenses at the Strait of Otranto . The plan was intended to replicate the success of the raid conducted one year earlier . Horthy 's plan was to destroy the blockading fleet by luring Allied ships to the cruisers and lighter ships , which were protected from the heavier guns of the battleships , including the guns of the Erzherzog Karl class . However , on the morning of 10 June , the dreadnought Szent István was torpedoed and sunk by an Italian torpedo boat . Horthy felt that the element of surprise had been compromised , and therefore called off the operation . This was to be the last military action Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was to take part in , and she and her sisters spent the rest of their career in port .
Near the end of World War I , the Erzherzog Karl @-@ class battleships were handed over to the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs but Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was later transferred to Great Britain as a war reparation . She was later broken up for scrap in 1921 .
= Ancient Egyptian deities =
Ancient Egyptian deities are the gods and goddesses worshipped in ancient Egypt . The beliefs and rituals surrounding these gods formed the core of ancient Egyptian religion , which emerged sometime in prehistory . Deities represented natural forces and phenomena , and the Egyptians supported and appeased them through offerings and rituals so that these forces would continue to function according to maat , or divine order . After the founding of the Egyptian state around 3100 BC , the authority to perform these tasks was controlled by the pharaoh , who claimed to be the gods ' representative and managed the temples where the rituals were carried out .
The gods ' complex characteristics were expressed in myths and in intricate relationships between deities : family ties , loose groups and hierarchies , and combinations of separate gods into one . Deities ' diverse appearances in art — as animals , humans , objects , and combinations of different forms — also alluded , through symbolism , to their essential features .
In different eras , various gods were said to hold the highest position in divine society , including the solar deity Ra , the mysterious god Amun , and the mother goddess Isis . The highest deity was usually credited with the creation of the world and often connected with the life @-@ giving power of the sun . Some scholars have argued , based in part on Egyptian writings , that the Egyptians came to recognize a single divine power that lay behind all things and was present in all the other deities . Yet they never abandoned their original polytheistic view of the world , except possibly during the era of Atenism in the 14th century BC , when official religion focused exclusively on the impersonal sun god Aten .
Gods were assumed to be present throughout the world , capable of influencing natural events and the course of human lives . People interacted with them in temples and unofficial shrines , for personal reasons as well as for larger goals of state rites . Egyptians prayed for divine help , used rituals to compel deities to act , and called upon them for advice . Humans ' relations with their gods were a fundamental part of Egyptian society .
= = Definition = =
The beings in ancient Egyptian tradition who might be labeled as deities are difficult to count . Egyptian texts list the names of many deities whose nature is unknown and make vague , indirect references to other gods who are not even named . The Egyptologist James P. Allen estimates that more than 1 @,@ 400 deities are named in Egyptian texts , whereas his colleague Christian Leitz says there are " thousands upon thousands " of gods .
The Egyptian language 's terms for these beings were nṯr , " god " , and its feminine form nṯrt , " goddess " . Scholars have tried to discern the original nature of the gods by proposing etymologies for these words , but none of these suggestions has gained acceptance , and the terms ' origin remains obscure . The hieroglyphs that were used as ideograms and determinatives in writing these words show some of the traits that the Egyptians connected with divinity . The most common of these signs is a flag flying from a pole . Similar objects were placed at the entrances of temples , representing the presence of a deity , throughout ancient Egyptian history . Other such hieroglyphs include a falcon , reminiscent of several early gods who were depicted as falcons , and a seated male or female deity . The feminine form could also be written with an egg as determinative , connecting goddesses with creation and birth , or with a cobra , reflecting the use of the cobra to depict many female deities .
The Egyptians distinguished nṯrw , " gods " , from rmṯ , " people " , but the meanings of the Egyptian and the English terms do not match perfectly . The term nṯr may have applied to any being that was in some way outside the sphere of everyday life . Deceased humans were called nṯr because they were considered to be like the gods , whereas the term was rarely applied to many of Egypt 's lesser supernatural beings , which modern scholars often call " demons " . Egyptian religious art also depicts places , objects , and concepts in human form . These personified ideas range from deities that were important in myth and ritual to obscure beings , only mentioned once or twice , that may be little more than metaphors .
Confronting these blurred distinctions between gods and other beings , scholars have proposed various definitions of a " deity " . One widely accepted definition , suggested by Jan Assmann , says that a deity has a cult , is involved in some aspect of the universe , and is described in mythology or other forms of written tradition . According to a different definition , by Dimitri Meeks , nṯr applied to any being that was the focus of ritual . From this perspective , " gods " included the king , who was called a god after his coronation rites , and deceased souls , who entered the divine realm through funeral ceremonies . Likewise , the preeminence of the great gods was maintained by the ritual devotion that was performed for them across Egypt .
= = Origins = =
The first written evidence of deities in Egypt comes from the Early Dynastic Period ( c . 3100 – 2686 BC ) . Deities must have emerged sometime in the preceding Predynastic Period ( before 3100 BC ) and grown out of prehistoric religious beliefs . Predynastic artwork depicts a variety of animal and human figures . Some of these images , such as stars and cattle , are reminiscent of important features of Egyptian religion in later times , but in most cases there is not enough evidence to say whether the images are connected with deities . As Egyptian society grew more sophisticated , clearer signs of religious activity appeared . The earliest known temples appeared in the last centuries of the predynastic era , along with images that resemble the iconographies of known deities : the falcon that represents Horus and several other gods , the crossed arrows that stand for Neith , and the enigmatic " Set animal " that represents Set .
Many Egyptologists and anthropologists have suggested theories about how the gods developed in these early times . Gustave Jéquier , for instance , thought the Egyptians first revered primitive fetishes , then deities in animal form , and finally deities in human form , whereas Henri Frankfort argued that the gods must have been envisioned in human form from the beginning . Some of these theories are now regarded as too simplistic , and more current ones , such as Siegfried Morenz ' hypothesis that deities emerged as humans began to distinguish themselves from and personify their environment , are difficult to prove .
Predynastic Egypt originally consisted of small , independent villages . Because many deities in later times were strongly tied to particular towns and regions , many scholars have suggested that the pantheon formed as disparate communities coalesced into larger states , spreading and intermingling the worship of the old local deities . But others have argued that the most important predynastic gods were , like other elements of Egyptian culture , present all across the country despite the political divisions within it .
The final step in the formation of Egyptian religion was the unification of Egypt , in which rulers from Upper Egypt made themselves pharaohs of the entire country . These sacred kings and their subordinates assumed the exclusive right to interact with the gods , and kingship became the unifying focus of the religion .
New gods continued to emerge after this transformation . Some important deities like Isis and Amun are not known to have appeared until the Old Kingdom ( c . 2686 – 2181 BC ) . Places and concepts could suddenly inspire the creation of a deity to represent them , and deities were sometimes created to serve as opposite @-@ sex counterparts to established gods or goddesses . Kings were said to be divine , although only a few continued to be worshipped long after their deaths . Some non @-@ royal humans were said to have the favor of the gods and were venerated accordingly . This veneration was usually short @-@ lived , but the court architects Imhotep and Amenhotep son of Hapu were regarded as gods centuries after their lifetimes , as were some other officials .
Through contact with neighboring civilizations , the Egyptians also adopted foreign deities . Dedun , who is first mentioned in the Old Kingdom , may have come from Nubia , and Baal , Anat , and Astarte , among others , were adopted from Canaanite religion during the New Kingdom ( c . 1550 – 1070 BC ) . In Greek and Roman times , from 332 BC to the early centuries AD , deities from across the Mediterranean world were revered in Egypt , but the native gods remained , and they often absorbed the cults of these newcomers into their own worship .
= = Characteristics = =
Modern knowledge of Egyptian beliefs about the gods is mostly drawn from religious writings produced by the nation 's scribes and priests . These people were the elite of Egyptian society and were very distinct from the general populace , most of whom were illiterate . Little is known about how well this broader population knew or understood the sophisticated ideas that the elite developed . Commoners ' perceptions of the divine may have differed from those of the priests . The populace may , for example , have mistaken the religion 's symbolic statements about the gods and their actions for literal truth . But overall , what little is known about popular religious belief is consistent with the elite tradition . The two traditions form a largely cohesive vision of the gods and their nature .
= = = Roles = = =
Most Egyptian deities represent natural or social phenomena . The gods were generally said to be immanent in these phenomena — to be present within nature . The types of phenomena they represented include physical places and objects as well as abstract concepts and forces . The god Shu was the deification of all the world 's air ; the goddess Meretseger oversaw a limited region of the earth , the Theban Necropolis ; and the god Sia personified the abstract notion of perception . Major gods often had many roles and were involved in several types of phenomena . For instance , Khnum was the god of Elephantine Island in the midst of the Nile , the river that was essential to Egyptian civilization . He was credited with producing the annual Nile flood that fertilized the nation 's farmland . Perhaps as an outgrowth of this life @-@ giving function , he was said to create all living things , fashioning their bodies on a potter 's wheel . Gods could share the same role in nature ; Ra , Atum , Khepri , Horus , and other deities acted as sun gods . Despite their diverse functions , most gods had an overarching role in common : maintaining maat , the universal order that was a central principle of Egyptian religion and was itself personified as a goddess . But some deities represented disruption to maat . Most prominently , Apep was the force of chaos , constantly threatening to annihilate the order of the universe , and Set was an ambivalent member of divine society who could both fight disorder and foment it .
Not all aspects of existence were seen as deities . Although many deities were connected with the Nile , no god personified it in the way that Ra personified the sun . Short @-@ lived phenomena , like rainbows or eclipses , were not represented by gods ; neither were elements like fire and water or many other components of the world .
The roles of each deity were fluid , and each god could expand its nature to take on new characteristics . As a result , gods ' roles are difficult to categorize or define . But despite their flexibility , the gods had limited abilities and spheres of influence . Not even the creator god could reach beyond the boundaries of the cosmos that he created , and even Isis , though she was said to be the cleverest of the gods , was not omniscient . Richard H. Wilkinson , however , argues that some texts from the late New Kingdom suggest that , as beliefs about the god Amun evolved , he was thought to approach omniscience and omnipresence and to transcend the limits of the world in a way that other deities did not .
The deities with the most limited and specialized domains are often called " minor divinities " or " demons " in modern writing , although there is no firm definition for these terms . Among these lesser deities , Egyptologist Claude Traunecker draws a distinction between " genies " — specialized patron spirits of certain places , objects , or activities , such as the sea or marsh god Wadj @-@ Wer and the harvest goddess Renenutet — and demons , who have a more dangerous character . Many demons are hostile , causing illness and other troubles among humans . Their power can also be protective ; they may guard certain places in the Duat , the realm of the dead , or advise and watch over humans . Egyptians believed the landscape was full of these unpredictable divine powers . Demons often act as servants and messengers to the greater gods , but their position in the hierarchy is not fixed . The protective deities Bes and Taweret originally had minor , demon @-@ like roles , but over time they came to be credited with great influence .
= = = Behavior = = =
Divine behavior was believed to govern all of nature . Except for the few deities who disrupted the divine order , the gods ' actions maintained maat and created and sustained all living things . They did this work using a force the Egyptians called heka , a term usually translated as " magic " . Heka was a fundamental power that the creator god used to form the world and the gods themselves .
The gods ' actions in the present are described and praised in hymns and funerary texts . In contrast , mythology mainly concerns the gods ' actions during a vaguely imagined past in which the gods were present on earth and interacted directly with humans . The events of this past time set the pattern for the events of the present . Periodic occurrences were tied to events in the mythic past ; the succession of each new pharaoh , for instance , reenacted Horus ' accession to the throne of his father Osiris . Myths are metaphors for the gods ' actions , which humans cannot fully understand . They contain seemingly contradictory ideas , each expressing a particular perspective on divine events . The contradictions in myth are part of the Egyptians ' many @-@ faceted approach to religious belief — what Henri Frankfort called a " multiplicity of approaches " to understanding the gods .
In myth , the gods behave much like humans . They feel emotion ; they can eat , drink , fight , weep , sicken , and die . Some have unique character traits . Set is aggressive and impulsive , and Thoth , patron of writing and knowledge , is prone to long @-@ winded speeches . Yet overall , the gods are more like archetypes than well drawn characters . Their behavior is inconsistent , and their thoughts and motivations are rarely stated . Most myths about them lack highly developed characters and plots , because the symbolic meaning of the myths was more important than elaborate storytelling .
The first divine act is the creation of the cosmos , described in several creation myths . They focus on different gods , each of which may act as creator deities . The eight gods of the Ogdoad , who represent the chaos that precedes creation , give birth to the sun god , who establishes order in the newly formed world ; Ptah , who embodies thought and creativity , gives form to all things by envisioning and naming them ; Atum produces all things as emanations of himself ; and Amun , according to the myths promoted by his priesthood , preceded and created the other creator gods . These and other versions of the events of creation were not seen as contradictory . Each gives a different perspective on the complex process by which the organized universe and its many deities emerged from undifferentiated chaos . The period following creation , in which a series of gods rule as kings over the divine society , is the setting for most myths . The gods struggle against the forces of chaos and among each other before withdrawing from the human world and installing the historical kings of Egypt to rule in their place .
A recurring theme in these myths is the effort of the gods to maintain maat against the forces of disorder . They fight vicious battles with the forces of chaos at the start of creation . Ra and Apep , battling each other each night , continue this struggle into the present . Another prominent theme is the gods ' death and revival . The clearest instance where a god dies is the myth of Osiris ' murder , in which that god is resurrected as ruler of the Duat . The sun god is also said to grow old during his daily journey across the sky , sink into the Duat at night , and emerge as a young child at dawn . In the process he comes into contact with the rejuvenating water of primordial chaos . Funerary texts that depict Ra 's journey through the Duat also show the corpses of gods who are enlivened along with him . Instead of being changelessly immortal , the gods periodically died and were reborn by repeating the events of creation , thus renewing the whole world . But it was always possible for this cycle to be disrupted and for chaos to return . Some poorly understood Egyptian texts even suggest that this calamity is destined to happen — that the creator god will one day dissolve the order of the world , leaving only himself and Osiris amid the primordial chaos .
= = = Locations = = =
Gods were linked with specific regions of the universe . In Egyptian tradition , the world includes the earth , the sky , and the Duat . Surrounding them is the dark formlessness that existed before creation . The gods in general were said to dwell in the sky , although gods whose roles were linked with other parts of the universe were said to live in those places instead . Most events of mythology , set in a time before the gods ' withdrawal from the human realm , take place in an earthly setting . The deities there sometimes interact with those in the sky . The Duat , in contrast , is treated as a remote and inaccessible place , and the gods who dwell there have difficulty communicating with those in the world of the living . The space outside the cosmos is also said to be very distant . It too is inhabited by deities , some hostile and some beneficial to the other gods and their orderly world .
In the time after myth , most gods were said to be either in the sky or invisibly present within the world . Temples were their main means of contact with humanity . Each day , it was believed , the gods moved from the divine realm to their temples , their homes in the human world . There they inhabited the cult images , the statues that depicted deities and allowed humans to interact with them in temple rituals . This movement between realms was sometimes described as a journey between the sky and the earth . As temples were the focal points of Egyptian cities , the god in a city 's main temple was the patron god for the city and the surrounding region . Deities ' spheres of influence on earth centered on the towns and regions they presided over . Many gods had more than one cult center , and their local ties changed over time . They could establish themselves in new cities , or their range of influence could contract . Therefore , a given deity 's main cult center in historical times is not necessarily his or her place of origin . The political influence of a city could affect the importance of its patron deity . When kings from Thebes took control of the country at start of the Middle Kingdom ( c . 2055 – 1650 BC ) , they elevated Thebes ' patron gods — first the war god Montu and then Amun — to national prominence .
= = = Names and epithets = = =
In Egyptian belief , names express the fundamental nature of the things to which they refer . In keeping with this belief , the names of deities often relate to their roles or origins . The name of the predatory goddess Sekhmet means " powerful one " , the name of the mysterious god Amun means " hidden one " , and the name of the goddess Nekhbet , who was worshipped in the city of Nekheb , means " she of Nekheb " . But many other names have no certain meaning , even when the gods who bear them are closely tied to a single role . The names of the sky goddess Nut and the earth god Geb do not resemble the Egyptian terms for sky and earth .
The Egyptians also devised false etymologies giving more meanings to divine names . A passage in the Coffin Texts renders the name of the funerary god Sokar as sk r , meaning " cleaning of the mouth " , to link his name with his role in the Opening of the Mouth ritual , while one in the Pyramid Texts says the name is based on words shouted by Osiris , connecting Sokar with the most important funerary deity .
The gods were believed to have many names . Among them were secret names that conveyed their true natures more profoundly than others . To know the true name of a deity was to have power over it . The importance of names is demonstrated by a myth in which Isis poisons the superior god Ra and refuses to cure him unless he reveals his secret name to her . Upon learning the name , she tells it to her son , Horus , and by learning it they gain greater knowledge and power .
In addition to their names , gods were given epithets , like " possessor of splendor " , " ruler of Abydos " , or " lord of the sky " , that describe some aspect of their roles or their worship . Because of the gods ' multiple and overlapping roles , deities can have many epithets — with more important gods accumulating more titles — and the same epithet can apply to many deities . Some epithets eventually became separate deities , as with Werethekau , an epithet applied to several goddesses meaning " great enchantress " , which came to be treated as an independent goddess . The host of divine names and titles expresses the gods ' multifarious nature .
= = = Relationships = = =
Egyptian deities are connected in a complex and shifting array of relationships . A god 's connections and interactions with other deities helped define its character . Thus Isis , as the mother and protector of Horus , was a great healer as well as the patroness of kings . Such relationships were the base material from which myths were formed .
Family relationships are a common type of connection between gods . Deities often form male and female pairs , reflecting the importance of procreation in Egyptian religious thought . Families of three deities , with a father , mother , and child , represent the creation of new life and the succession of the father by the child , a pattern that connects divine families with royal succession . Osiris , Isis , and Horus formed the quintessential family of this type . The pattern they set grew more widespread over time , so that many deities in local cult centers , like Ptah , Sekhmet , and their child Nefertum at Memphis and Amun , Mut , and Khonsu at Thebes , were assembled into family triads . Genealogical connections like these are changeable , in keeping with the multiple perspectives in Egyptian belief . Hathor , as a fertility goddess , could act as mother to any child god , including the child form of the sun god , although in other circumstances she was the sun god 's daughter .
Other divine groups were composed of deities with interrelated roles , or who together represented a region of the Egyptian mythological cosmos . There were sets of gods for the hours of the day and night and for each nome ( province ) of Egypt . Some of these groups contain a specific , symbolically important number of deities . Paired gods can stand for opposite but interrelated concepts that are part of a greater unity . Ra , who is dynamic and light @-@ producing , and Osiris , who is static and shrouded in darkness , merge into a single god each night . Groups of three are linked with plurality in ancient Egyptian thought , and groups of four connote completeness . Rulers in the late New Kingdom promoted a particularly important group of three gods above all others : Amun , Ra , and Ptah . These deities stood for the plurality of all gods , as well as for their own cult centers ( the major cities of Thebes , Heliopolis , and Memphis ) and for many threefold sets of concepts in Egyptian religious thought . Sometimes Set , the patron god
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of the Nineteenth Dynasty kings and the embodiment of disorder within the world , was added to this group , which emphasized a single coherent vision of the pantheon .
Nine , the product of three and three , represents a multitude , so the Egyptians called several large groups " enneads " , or sets of nine , even if they had more than nine members . The most prominent ennead was the Ennead of Heliopolis , an extended family of deities descended from the creator god Atum , which incorporates many important gods . The term " ennead " was often extended to include all of Egypt 's deities .
This divine assemblage had a vague and changeable hierarchy . Gods with broad influence in the cosmos or who were mythologically older than others had higher positions in divine society . At the apex of this society was the king of the gods , who was usually identified with the creator deity . In different periods of Egyptian history , different gods were most frequently said to hold this exalted position . Horus was the most important god in the Early Dynastic Period , Ra rose to preeminence in the Old Kingdom , Amun was supreme in the New , and in the Ptolemaic and Roman periods , Isis was the divine queen and creator goddess . Newly prominent gods tended to adopt characteristics from their predecessors . Isis absorbed the traits of many other goddesses during her rise , and when Amun became the ruler of the pantheon , he was conjoined with Ra , the traditional king of the gods , to become a solar deity .
= = = Manifestations and combinations = = =
The gods were believed to manifest in many forms . The Egyptians had complex conception of the human soul , consisting of several parts . The spirits of the gods were composed of many of these same elements . The ba was the component of the human or divine soul that affected the world around it . Any visible manifestation of a god 's power could be called its ba ; thus , the sun was called the ba of Ra . A depiction of a deity was considered a ka , another component of its being , which acted as a vessel for that deity 's ba to inhabit . The cult images of gods that were the focus of temple rituals , as well as the sacred animals that represented certain deities , were believed to house divine bas in this way . Gods could be ascribed many bas and kas , which were sometimes given names representing different aspects of the god 's nature . Everything in existence was said to be one of the kas of Atum the creator god , who originally contained all things within himself , and one deity could be called the ba of another , meaning that the first god is a manifestation of the other 's power . Divine body parts could act as separate deities , like the Eye of Ra and Hand of Atum , both of which were personified as goddesses .
Nationally important deities gave rise to local manifestations , which sometimes absorbed the characteristics of older regional gods . Horus had many forms tied to particular places , including Horus of Nekhen , Horus of Buhen , and Horus of Edfu . Such local manifestations could be treated almost as separate beings . During the New Kingdom , one man was accused of stealing clothes by an oracle supposed to communicate messages from Amun of Pe @-@ Khenty . He consulted two other local oracles of Amun hoping for a different judgment . Gods ' manifestations also differed according to their roles . Horus could be a powerful sky god or vulnerable child , and these forms were sometimes counted as independent deities .
Gods were combined with each other as easily as they were divided . A god could be called the ba of another , or two or more deities could be joined into one god with a combined name and iconography . Local gods were linked with greater ones , and deities with similar functions were combined . Ra was connected with the local deity Sobek to form Sobek @-@ Ra ; with his fellow ruling god , Amun , to form Amun @-@ Ra ; with the solar form of Horus to form Ra @-@ Horakhty ; and with several solar deities as Horemakhet @-@ Khepri @-@ Ra @-@ Atum . On rare occasion , even deities of different sexes were joined in this way , producing combinations like Osiris @-@ Neith and Mut @-@ Min . This linking of deities is called syncretism . Unlike other situations for which this term is used , the Egyptian practice was not meant to fuse competing belief systems , although foreign deities could be syncretized with native ones . Instead , syncretism acknowledged the overlap between their roles , and extended the sphere of influence for each of them . Syncretic combinations were not permanent ; a god who was involved in one combination continued to appear separately and to form new combinations with other deities . But closely connected deities did sometimes merge . Horus absorbed several falcon gods from various regions , such as Khenty @-@ irty and Khenty @-@ khety , who became little more than local manifestations of him ; Hathor subsumed a similar cow goddess , Bat ; and an early funerary god , Khenti @-@ Amentiu , was supplanted by Osiris and Anubis .
= = = The Aten and possible monotheism = = =
In the reign of Akhenaten ( c . 1353 – 1336 BC ) in the mid @-@ New Kingdom , a single solar deity , the Aten , became the sole focus of the state religion . Akhenaten ceased to fund the temples of other deities and erased the gods ' names and images on monuments , targeting Amun in particular . This new religious system , sometimes called Atenism , differed dramatically from the polytheistic worship of many gods in all other periods . Whereas , in earlier times , newly important gods were integrated into existing religious beliefs , Atenism insisted on a single understanding of the divine that excluded the traditional multiplicity of perspectives . Yet Atenism may not have been full monotheism , which totally excludes belief in other deities . There is evidence suggesting that the general populace was still allowed to worship other gods in private . The picture is further complicated by Atenism 's apparent tolerance for some other deities , like Shu . For these reasons , the Egyptologist Dominic Montserrat suggested that Akhenaten may have been monolatrous , worshipping a single deity while acknowledging the existence of others . In any case , Atenism 's aberrant theology did not take root among the Egyptian populace , and Akhenaten 's successors returned to traditional beliefs .
= = = Unity of the divine in traditional religion = = =
Scholars have long debated whether traditional Egyptian religion ever asserted that the multiple gods were , on a deeper level , unified . Reasons for this debate include the practice of syncretism , which might suggest that all the separate gods could ultimately merge into one , and the tendency of Egyptian texts to credit a particular god with power that surpasses all other deities . Another point of contention is the appearance of the word " god " in wisdom literature , where the term does not refer to a specific deity or group of deities . In the early 20th century , for instance , E. A. Wallis Budge believed that Egyptian commoners were polytheistic , but knowledge of the true monotheistic nature of the religion was reserved for the elite , who wrote the wisdom literature . His contemporary James Henry Breasted thought Egyptian religion was instead pantheistic , with the power of the sun god present in all other gods , while Hermann Junker argued that Egyptian civilization had been originally monotheistic and became polytheistic in the course of its history .
In 1971 , Erik Hornung published a study rebutting these views . He points out that in any given period many deities , even minor ones , were described as superior to all others . He also argues that the unspecified " god " in the wisdom texts is a generic term for whichever deity the reader chooses to revere . Although the combinations , manifestations , and iconographies of each god were constantly shifting , they were always restricted to a finite number of forms , never becoming fully interchangeable in a monotheistic or pantheistic way . Henotheism , Hornung says , describes Egyptian religion better than other labels . An Egyptian could worship any deity at a particular time and credit it with supreme power in that moment , without denying the other gods or merging them all with the god that he or she focused on . Hornung concludes that the gods were fully unified only in myth , at the time before creation , after which the multitude of gods emerged from a uniform nonexistence .
Hornung 's arguments have greatly influenced other scholars of Egyptian religion , but some still believe that at times the gods were more unified than he allows . Jan Assmann maintains that the notion of a single deity developed slowly through the New Kingdom , beginning with a focus on Amun @-@ Ra as the all @-@ important sun god . In his view , Atenism was an extreme outgrowth of this trend . It equated the single deity with the sun and dismissed all other gods . Then , in the backlash against Atenism , priestly theologians described the universal god in a different way , one that coexisted with traditional polytheism . The one god was believed to transcend the world and all the other deities , while at the same time , the multiple gods were aspects of the one . According to Assmann , this one god was especially equated with Amun , the dominant god in the late New Kingdom , whereas for the rest of Egyptian history the universal deity could be identified with many other gods . James P. Allen says that coexisting notions of one god and many gods would fit well with the " multiplicity of approaches " in Egyptian thought , as well as with the henotheistic practice of ordinary worshippers . He says that the Egyptians may have recognized the unity of the divine by " identifying their uniform notion of ' god ' with a particular god , depending on the particular situation . "
= = Descriptions and depictions = =
Egyptian writings describe the gods ' bodies in detail . They are made of precious materials ; their flesh is gold , their bones are silver , and their hair is lapis lazuli . They give off a scent that the Egyptians likened to the incense used in rituals . Some texts give precise descriptions of particular deities , including their height and eye color . Yet these characteristics are not fixed ; in myths , gods change their appearances to suit their own purposes . Egyptian texts often refer to deities ' true , underlying forms as " mysterious " . The Egyptians ' visual representations of their gods are therefore not literal . They symbolize specific aspects of each deity 's character , functioning much like the ideograms in hieroglyphic writing . For this reason , the funerary god Anubis is commonly shown in Egyptian art as a dog or jackal , a creature whose scavenging habits threaten the preservation of buried mummies , in an effort to counter this threat and employ it for protection . His black coloring alludes to the color of mummified flesh and to the fertile black soil that Egyptians saw as a symbol of resurrection .
Most gods were depicted in several ways . Hathor could be a cow , cobra , lioness , or a woman with bovine horns or ears . By depicting a given god in different ways , the Egyptians expressed different aspects of its essential nature . The gods are depicted in a finite number of these symbolic forms , so that deities can often be distinguished from one another by their iconographies . These forms include men and women ( anthropomorphism ) , animals ( zoomorphism ) , and , more rarely , inanimate objects . Combinations of forms , such as gods with human bodies and animal heads , are common . New forms and increasingly complex combinations arose in the course of history . Some gods can only be distinguished from others if they are labeled in writing , as with Isis and Hathor . Because of the close connection between these goddesses , they could both wear the cow @-@ horn headdress that was originally Hathor 's alone .
Certain features of divine images are more useful than others in determining a god 's identity . The head of a given divine image is particularly significant . In a hybrid image , the head represents the original form of the being depicted , so that , as the Egyptologist Henry Fischer put it , " a lion @-@ headed goddess is a lion @-@ goddess in human form , while a royal sphinx , conversely , is a man who has assumed the form of a lion . " Divine headdresses , which range from the same types of crowns used by human kings to large hieroglyphs worn on gods ' heads , are another important indicator . In contrast , the objects held in gods ' hands tend to be generic . Male deities hold was staffs , goddesses hold stalks of papyrus , and both sexes carry ankh signs , representing the Egyptian word for " life " , to symbolize their life @-@ giving power .
The forms in which the gods are shown , although diverse , are limited in many ways . Many creatures that are widespread in Egypt were never used in divine iconography , whereas a few , such as falcons , cobras , and cattle , can each represent many deities . Animals that were absent from Egypt in the early stages of its history were not used as divine images . For instance , the horse , which was only introduced in the Second Intermediate Period ( c . 1650 – 1550 BC ) , never represented a god . Similarly , the clothes worn by anthropomorphic deities in all periods changed little from the styles used in the Old Kingdom : a kilt , false beard , and often a shirt for male gods and a long , tight @-@ fitting dress for goddesses .
The basic anthropomorphic form varies . Child gods are depicted nude , as are some adult gods when their procreative powers are emphasized . Certain male deities are given heavy bellies and breasts , signifying either androgyny or prosperity and abundance . Whereas most male gods have red skin and most goddesses are yellow — the same colors used to depict Egyptian men and women — some are given unusual , symbolic skin colors . Thus the blue skin and paunchy figure of the god Hapi alludes to the Nile flood he represents and the nourishing fertility it brought . A few deities , such as Osiris , Ptah , and Min , have a " mummiform " appearance , with their limbs tightly swathed in cloth . Although these gods resemble mummies , the earliest examples predate the cloth @-@ wrapped style of mummification , and this form may instead hark back to the earliest , limbless depictions of deities .
= = Interactions with humans = =
= = = Relationship with the pharaoh = = =
In official writings , pharaohs are said to be divine , and they are constantly depicted in the company of the deities of the pantheon . Each pharaoh and his predecessors were considered the successors of the gods who had ruled Egypt in mythic prehistory . Living kings were equated with Horus and called the " son " of many deities , particularly Osiris and Ra ; deceased kings were equated with these elder gods . Pharaohs had their own mortuary temples where rituals were performed for them during their lives and after their deaths . But few pharaohs were worshipped as gods long after their lifetimes , and non @-@ official texts portray kings in a human light . For these reasons , scholars disagree about how genuinely most Egyptians believed the king to be a god . He may only have been considered divine when he was performing ceremonies .
However much it was believed , the king 's divine status was the rationale for his role as Egypt 's representative to the gods , as he formed a link between the divine and human realms . The Egyptians believed the gods needed temples to dwell in , as well as the periodic performance of rituals and presentation of offerings to nourish them . These things were provided by the cults that the king oversaw , with their priests and laborers . Yet , according to royal ideology , temple @-@ building was exclusively the pharaoh 's work , as were the rituals that priests usually performed in his stead . These acts were a part of the king 's fundamental role : maintaining maat . The king and the nation he represented provided the gods with maat so they could continue to perform their functions , which maintained maat in the cosmos so humans could continue to live .
= = = Presence in the human world = = =
Although the Egyptians believed their gods to be present in the world around them , contact between the human and divine realms was mostly limited to specific circumstances . In literature , gods may appear to humans in a physical form , but in real life the Egyptians were limited to more indirect means of communication .
The ba of a god was said to periodically leave the divine realm to dwell in the images of that god . By inhabiting these images , the gods left their concealed state and took on a physical form . To the Egyptians , a place or object that was ḏsr — " sacred " — was isolated and ritually pure , and thus fit for a god to inhabit . Temple statues and reliefs , as well as particular sacred animals , like the Apis bull , served as divine intermediaries in this way . Dreams and trances provided a very different venue for interaction . In these states , it was believed , people could come close to the gods and sometimes receive messages from them . Finally , according to Egyptian afterlife beliefs , human souls pass into the divine realm after death . The Egyptians therefore believed that in death they would exist on the same level as the gods and fully understand their mysterious nature .
Temples , where the state rituals were carried out , were filled with images of the gods . The most important temple image was the cult statue in the inner sanctuary . These statues were usually less than life @-@ size , and made of the same precious materials that were said to form the gods ' bodies . Many temples had several sanctuaries , each with a cult statue representing one of the gods in a group such as a family triad . The city 's primary god was envisioned as its lord , employing many of the residents as servants in the divine household that the temple represented . The gods residing in the temples of Egypt collectively represented the entire pantheon . But many deities — including some important gods as well as those that were minor or hostile — were never given temples of their own , although some were represented in the temples of other gods .
To insulate the sacred power in the sanctuary from the impurities of the outside world , the Egyptians enclosed temple sanctuaries and greatly restricted access to them . People other than kings and high priests were thus denied contact with cult statues . The only exception was during festival processions , when the statue was carried out of the temple but still enclosed in a portable shrine . People did have less direct means of interaction . The more public parts of temples often incorporated small places for prayer , from doorways to freestanding chapels near the back of the temple building . Communities also built and managed small chapels for their own use , and some families had shrines inside their homes . Despite the gulf that separated humanity from the divine , the Egyptians were surrounded by opportunities to approach their gods .
= = = Intervention in human lives = = =
Egyptian gods were involved in human lives as well as in the overarching order of nature . This divine influence applied mainly to Egypt , as foreign peoples were traditionally believed to be outside the divine order . But in the New Kingdom , when other nations were under Egyptian control , foreigners were said to be under the sun god 's benign rule in the same way that Egyptians were .
Thoth , as the overseer of time , was said to allot fixed lifespans to both humans and gods . Other gods were also said to govern the length of human lives , including Meskhenet , who presided over birth , and Shai , the personification of fate . Thus the time and manner of death was the main meaning of the Egyptian concept of fate , although to some extent these deities governed other events in life as well . Several texts refer to gods influencing or inspiring human decisions , working through a person 's " heart " — the seat of emotion and intellect in Egyptian belief . Deities were also believed to give commands , instructing the king in the governance of his realm and regulating the management of their temples . Egyptian texts rarely mention direct commands given to private persons , and these commands never evolved into a set of divinely enforced moral codes . Morality in ancient Egypt was based on the concept of maat , which , when applied to human society , meant that everyone should live in an orderly way that did not interfere with the well @-@ being of other people . Because deities were the upholders of maat , morality was connected with them . For example , the gods judged humans ' moral righteousness after death , and by the New Kingdom , a verdict of innocence in this judgment was believed to be necessary for admittance into the afterlife . But in general , morality was based on practical ways to uphold maat in daily life , rather than on strict rules that the gods laid out .
Humans had free will to ignore divine guidance and the behavior required by maat , but by doing so they could bring divine punishment upon themselves . A deity carried out this punishment using its ba , the force that manifested the god 's power in the human world . Natural disasters and human ailments were seen as the work of angry divine bas . Conversely , the gods could cure righteous people of illness or even extend their lifespans . Both these types of intervention were eventually represented by deities : Shed , who emerged in the New Kingdom to represent divine rescue from harm , and Petbe , an apotropaic god from the late eras of Egyptian history who was believed to avenge wrongdoing .
Egyptian texts take different views on whether the gods are responsible when humans suffer unjustly . Misfortune was often seen as a product of isfet , the cosmic disorder that was the opposite of maat , and therefore the gods were not guilty of causing evil events . Some deities who were closely connected with isfet , such as Set , could be blamed for disorder within the world without placing guilt on the other gods . But some writings do accuse the deities of causing human misery , while others give theodicies in the gods ' defense . Beginning in the Middle Kingdom , several texts connected the issue of evil in the world with a myth in which the creator god fights a human rebellion against his rule and then withdraws from the earth . Because of this human misbehavior , the creator is distant from his creation , allowing suffering to exist . New Kingdom writings do not question the just nature of the gods as strongly as those of the Middle Kingdom . They emphasize humans ' direct , personal relationships with deities and the gods ' power to intervene in human events . People in this era put faith in specific gods who they hoped would help and protect them through their lives . As a result , upholding the ideals of maat grew less important than gaining the gods ' favor as a way to guarantee a good life . Even the pharaohs were regarded as dependent on divine aid , and after the New Kingdom came to an end , government was increasingly influenced by oracles communicating the gods ' will .
= = = Worship = = =
Official religious practices , which maintained maat for the benefit of all Egypt , were related to , but distinct from , the religious practices of ordinary people , who sought the gods ' help for their personal problems .
Official religion involved a variety of rituals , based in temples . Some rites were performed every day , whereas others were festivals , taking place at longer intervals and often limited to a particular temple or deity . The gods received their offerings in daily ceremonies , in which their statues were clothed , anointed , and presented with food as hymns were recited in their honor . These offerings , in addition to maintaining maat for the gods , celebrated deities ' life @-@ giving generosity and encouraged them to remain benevolent rather than vengeful .
Festivals often involved a ceremonial procession in which a cult image was carried out of the temple in a barque @-@ shaped shrine . These processions served various purposes . In Roman times , when local deities of all kinds were believed to have power over the Nile inundation , processions in many communities carried temple images to the riverbanks so the gods could invoke a large and fruitful flood . Processions also traveled between temples , as when the image of Hathor from Dendera Temple visited her consort Horus at the Temple of Edfu . Rituals for a god were often based in that deity 's mythology . Such rituals were meant to be repetitions of the events of the mythic past , renewing the beneficial effects of the original events . In the Khoiak festival in honor of Osiris , his death and resurrection were ritually reenacted at a time when crops were beginning to sprout . The returning greenery symbolized the renewal of the god 's own life .
Personal interaction with the gods took many forms . People who wanted information or advice consulted oracles , run by temples , that were supposed to convey gods ' answers to questions . Amulets and other images of protective deities were used to ward off the demons that might threaten human well @-@ being or to impart the god 's positive characteristics to the wearer . Private rituals invoked the gods ' power to accomplish personal goals , from healing sickness to cursing enemies . These practices used heka , the same force of magic that the gods used , which the creator was said to have given to humans so they could fend off misfortune . The performer of a private rite often took on the role of a god in a myth , or even threatened a deity , to involve the gods in accomplishing the goal . Such rituals coexisted with private offerings and prayers , and all three were accepted means of obtaining divine help .
Prayer and private offerings are generally called " personal piety " : acts that reflect a close relationship between an individual and a god . Evidence of personal piety is scant before the New Kingdom . Votive offerings and personal names , many of which are theophoric , suggest that commoners felt some connection between themselves and their gods . But firm evidence of devotion to deities became visible only in the New Kingdom , reaching a peak late in that era . Scholars disagree about the meaning of this change — whether direct interaction with the gods was a new development or an outgrowth of older traditions . Egyptians now expressed their devotion through a new variety of activities in and around temples . They recorded their prayers and their thanks for divine help on stelae . They gave offerings of figurines that represented the gods they were praying to , or that symbolized the result they desired ; thus a relief image of Hathor and a statuette of a woman could both represent a prayer for fertility . Occasionally , a person took a particular god as a patron , dedicating his or her property or labor to the god 's cult . These practices continued into the latest periods of Egyptian history . These later eras saw more religious innovations , including the practice of giving animal mummies as offerings to deities depicted in animal form , such as the cat mummies given to the feline goddess Bastet . Some of the major deities from myth and official religion were rarely invoked in popular worship , but many of the great state gods were important in popular tradition .
The worship of some Egyptian gods spread to neighboring lands , especially to Canaan and Nubia during the New Kingdom , when those regions were under pharaonic control . In Canaan , the exported deities , including Hathor , Amun , and Set , were often syncretized with native gods , who in turn spread to Egypt . The Egyptian deities may not have had permanent temples in Canaan , and their importance there waned after Egypt lost control of the region . In contrast , many temples to the major Egyptian gods and deified pharaohs were built in Nubia . After the end of Egyptian rule there , the imported gods , particularly Amun and Isis , were syncretized with local deities and remained part of the religion of Nubia 's independent Kingdom of Kush . These gods were incorporated into the Nubian ideology of kingship much as they were in Egypt , so that Amun was considered the divine father of the king and Isis and other goddesses were linked with the Nubian queen , the kandake . Some deities reached farther . Taweret became a goddess in Minoan Crete , and Amun 's oracle at Siwa Oasis was known to and consulted by people across the Mediterranean region .
Under the Greek Ptolemaic Dynasty and then Roman rule , Greeks and Romans introduced their own deities to Egypt . These newcomers equated the Egyptian gods with their own , as part of the Greco @-@ Roman tradition of interpretatio graeca . But the worship of the native gods was not swallowed up by that of foreign ones . Instead , Greek and Roman gods were adopted as manifestations of Egyptian ones . Egyptian cults sometimes incorporated Greek language , philosophy , iconography , and even temple architecture . Meanwhile , the cults of several Egyptian deities — particularly Isis , Osiris , Anubis , the form of Horus named Harpocrates , and the fused Greco @-@ Egyptian god Serapis — were adopted into Roman religion and spread across the Roman Empire . Roman emperors , like Ptolemaic kings before them , invoked Isis and Serapis to endorse their authority , inside and outside Egypt . In the empire 's complex mix of religious traditions , Thoth was transmuted into the legendary esoteric teacher Hermes Trismegistus , and Isis , who was venerated from Britain to Mesopotamia , became the focus of a Greek @-@ style mystery cult . Isis and Hermes Trismegistus were both prominent in the Western esoteric tradition that grew from the Roman religious world .
Temples and cults in Egypt itself declined as the Roman economy deteriorated in the third century AD , and beginning in the fourth century , Christians suppressed the veneration of Egyptian deities . The last formal cults , at Philae , died out in the fifth or sixth century . Most beliefs surrounding the gods themselves disappeared within a few hundred years , remaining in magical texts into the seventh and eighth centuries . But many of the practices involved in their worship , such as processions and oracles , were adapted to fit Christian ideology and persisted as part of the Coptic Church . Given the great changes and diverse influences in Egyptian culture since that time , scholars disagree about whether any modern Coptic practices are descended from those of pharaonic religion . But many festivals and other traditions of modern Egyptians , both Christian and Muslim , resemble the worship of their ancestors ' gods .
= South of Heaven =
South of Heaven is the fourth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . Released on July 5 , 1988 , the album was the band 's second collaboration with record producer Rick Rubin , whose production skills on Slayer 's previous album Reign in Blood had helped the band 's sound evolve .
South of Heaven was Slayer 's second album to enter the Billboard 200 , and its last to be released by Def Jam Recordings , although the album became an American Recordings album after Rick Rubin ended his partnership with Russell Simmons . It was one of only two Def Jam titles to be distributed by Geffen Records through Warner Bros. Records because of original distributor Columbia Records ' refusal to release work by the band . The release peaked at number 57 and in 1992 was awarded a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America .
In order to offset the pace of the group 's previous album , Slayer deliberately slowed down the album 's tempo . In contrast to their previous albums , the band utilized undistorted guitars and toned @-@ down vocals . While some critics praised this musical change , others — more accustomed to the style of earlier releases — were disappointed . The songs " Mandatory Suicide " and the title track , however , have become permanent features of the band 's live setlist .
= = Background = =
South of Heaven was recorded in Los Angeles , California with Reign in Blood producer Rick Rubin . PopMatters reviewer Adrien Begrand observed that Rubin 's production " shoves [ Dave ] Lombardo 's drumming right up front in the mix . " Guitarist Jeff Hanneman has since said that South of Heaven was the only album the band members discussed before writing the music . Aware that they " couldn 't top Reign in Blood " , and that whatever they recorded would be " compared to that album " , he believed they " had to slow down " , something Slayer had never done on albums before , or since . Guitarist Kerry King cited the need to " keep people guessing " as another reason for the musical shift . " In order to contrast the aggressive assault put forth on Reign in Blood , Slayer consciously slowed down the tempo of the album as a whole " , according to Slayer 's official biography . " They also added elements like undistorted guitars and toned @-@ down vocal styles not heard on previous albums . "
King has since been critical of his performance , which he describes as his " most lackluster . " King attributes this to the fact he had recently married , and moved to Phoenix , Arizona . Describing himself as " probably the odd man out at that point " , he admitted he " didn ’ t participate as much because of that . " Hanneman said : " We go through dry spells sometimes , but the good thing about having two guitar players that can write music is that you are never gonna go without . I guess at that time , Kerry was hitting a dry spell . " King has also been critical of the album in general , describing it as one of his least favorite Slayer albums . He feels vocalist Tom Araya moved too far away from his regular vocal style , and " added too much singing . " Drummer Dave Lombardo has since observed : " There was fire on all the records , but it started dimming when South of Heaven came into the picture . And that 's me personally . Again , I was probably wanting something else . "
Judas Priest 's " Dissident Aggressor " is the only cover version to appear on a Slayer studio album . The song was chosen due to its war @-@ themed lyrics . Hanneman described the track as " more just like one of those odd songs that a lot of people didn 't know , but it was a favorite of Kerry and I , so we just picked that one . " Meanwhile , " Cleanse the Soul " has been heavily criticized by King who said that he hates the track : " That 's one of the black marks in our history , in my book . I just fucking think it 's horrible . [ Laughs ] I hate the opening riff . It 's what we call a ' happy riff . ' It 's just like ' la @-@ lala @-@ la @-@ la @-@ la . ' I can 't see myself playing it , but after that , where it gets heavier , I like that section . If we ever did a medley , I 'd put part of that in there . " The Slayer boxset Soundtrack to the Apocalypse featured , along with four songs of the album , an early version of the title track , recorded at Hanneman 's home .
= = Photography and illustration = =
Artist Larry Carroll and Illustrator Howard Schwartzberg designed the cover artwork for South of Heaven , having designed the artwork for Slayer 's previous album Reign in Blood . Photographer Glen E. Friedman took the promotional shot which surfaced as the back cover of South of Heaven around the time of 1986 's Reign in Blood . Lombardo felt it made Slayer seem as though they " had matured a little bit " , while Friedman himself deemed it " a really cool back cover " and " one of the most classic shots of them [ Slayer ] ever . "
= = Critical reception = =
South of Heaven was released on July 5 , 1988 , and was the final Slayer album distributed via Def Jam Records . When label co @-@ founders Russell Simmons and Rubin parted ways , Slayer signed to Rubin 's newly founded Def American Recordings label . The album peaked at number 57 on the Billboard 200 album chart , and on November 20 , 1992 , became Slayer 's second album to be certified gold in the United States . South of Heaven was awarded silver certification in the United Kingdom on January 1 , 1993 , Slayer 's first record to do so in that country . Slayer 's official biography states that " some critics praised the album as demonstrating Slayer 's desire to grow musically and avoid repeating themselves . " Alex Henderson of AllMusic described the record as " disturbing and powerful , " while Joe Matera of Ultimate Guitar deemed the album a slight departure ; he wrote that while the pace was slowed down , it " didn 't sacrifice any of the heaviness inherent in Slayer 's music . "
Reviewing the 2003 Slayer box set Soundtrack to the Apocalypse , Adrien Begrand of PopMatters described the album as " their most underrated , and on this set , its five selections show how highly the band thinks of the record . " KNAC.com 's Peter Atkinson was also positive , saying the album has a " grandiosity and imposing presence " which makes the record " so magnificent . " Grave 's Ola Lindgren and Bolt Thrower 's Karl Willetts both rate South of Heaven as amongst the top five albums of all time , while Max Kolesne of Brazilian death metal group Krisiun remembers hearing the song " Silent Scream " for the first time : " It just blew me away . It was like fast double @-@ bass , fast kicks during the whole song . That was very inspiring for me . " When discussing Slayer in an October 2007 interview , Evile frontman Matt Drake stated that while Reign in Blood " was just speed " , South of Heaven proved that the group could write " slow material as well . " Metal Forces reviewer gives " the band credit for at least making an effort to try something new and not being afraid to experiment at such a crucial stage of their career " , creating " one of the more original sounding thrash / speed metal albums he heard in a long while " . He remarks , however , that " if you ’ re expecting to hear Reign in Blood Part Two , you ’ ll be in for a major disappointment " .
Kim Neely of Rolling Stone dismissed the album as " genuinely offensive satanic drivel . " Slayer 's official biography states : " The new sounds disappointed some of the band 's fans who were more accustomed to the style of earlier releases . " Michael Roberts of Westworld Online said this was due to some of the numbers moving " at the sludgier speed of Black Sabbath . " Araya commented that the " album was a late bloomer — it wasn 't really received well , but it kind of grew on everybody later . "
= = Cover versions = =
The title track and the song " Mandatory Suicide " have received various cover interpretations , particularly on Slayer tribute albums . Toni Ferguson recorded string quartet adaptations of both tracks on the album The String Quartet Tribute to Slayer : The Evil You Dread , with the former cover being described as having " menacing chord shifts " by AllMusic 's Johnny Loftus .
1995 Slayer tribute album Slatanic Slaughter featured three tracks which originally appeared on South of Heaven , with the title track , " Mandatory Suicide " and " Spill the Blood " interpreted by Cemetary , Crown of Thorns and Grope respectively . Its 1998 follow up Slatanic Slaughter , Vol . 2 only featured two tracks originally from the album ; namely " Silent Scream " arranged by Vader and " Read Between the Lies " interpreted by Anathema . 1999 's Straight to Hell : A Tribute to Slayer collected four Slayer renditions which originated on the album , with versions of South of Heaven performed by Abaddon ( Venom ) and Electric Hellfire Club , " Mandatory Suicide " cut by Chapter 7 and " Behind the Crooked Cross " adapted by Gigantor . 2006 Argentine tribute album Al Sur Del Abismo ( Tributo Argentino A Slayer ) saw Nafak and Climatic Terra also respectively cover " South of Heaven " and " Mandatory Suicide " . Hatebreed covered the song " Ghosts of War " for their 2009 cover album For the Lions . They released a music video for it also . Korn has covered the title track at least twice live , once with Kid Rock on vocals and another using the intro to follow into one of their songs live .
The title track itself has also been covered by Integrity 2000 , Modest Mouse and Califone , Pro @-@ Pain , and Universe Eye . Polish death metal band Decapitated covered the song " Mandatory Suicide " on their first full @-@ length album Winds of Creation . In 2003 , " Silent Scream " was covered by Children of Bodom for their album Hate Crew Deathroll in his UK version . Hardcore Punk band , The Mongoloids opened their set with the beginning of " South of Heaven " at Heartfest 7 on May 4 , 2013
= = Live performances = =
Two songs taken from the album ( " Mandatory Suicide " and " South of Heaven " ) have become near constant fixtures in the band 's live setlist , notching up appearances on the following : the live DVDs Live Intrusion , War at the Warfield , Still Reigning , Soundtrack to the Apocalypse 's deluxe edition 's bonus live disc , and the live double album Decade of Aggression . Lombardo guested with Finnish cellist group Apocalyptica on a live medley of the two tracks at 1998 's Headbanger 's Heaven festival in the Netherlands . Adrien Begrand of PopMatters described " South of Heaven " as " an unorthodox set opener in theory " , noting " the song went over like a megaton bomb detonating the place : dozens of inverted crosses projected behind the high drum riser , the sinewy opening notes kicked in , followed by an overture of bass , cymbal crashes , and tom fills , leading up to the slowly building crescendo " in a concert review . Lombardo remembers listening to a live rendition of " South of Heaven " and thinking " ‘ Man ! There 's just so much groove in that song . ’ To my kids I was saying , ‘ Listen to that ! Listen to how groovy that is ! ’ And it 's heavy . " A rare live version of the track featured on the JÄGERMUSIC Rarities 2004 promotional CD , given away to attendees at the Spring 2004 Jägermeister Music Tour . A live rendition of " South of Heaven " was also included on a bonus DVD which came with the group 's 2007 re @-@ release of ninth studio album Christ Illusion , shot in Vancouver , British Columbia during 2006 's Unholy Alliance tour .
" Behind the Crooked Cross " is rarely played live as Hanneman hates the track , though King has always wanted to play it " because it 's got a cool intro " despite it not being his favorite song . King said " that 's fine " when speaking of the situation , noting " there are songs that he wants to play that I always shoot down . " " Ghosts of War " isn 't King 's favorite song either , which he attests " everybody always wants to hear " performed live . He confessed ; " I like the ending , you know , I like the big heavy part and I always say , ‘ Let 's put the heavy ending at the end of " Chemical Warfare " and just do the last half . ’ But I could never make that fly . "
Slayer has toyed with the idea of creating a live set mixed with selections from the album and 1990 's Seasons in the Abyss , though Hanneman said it 's something which hasn 't been " seriously considered . " Metal Maniacs asked Slayer in a 2006 interview whether they would consider playing South of Heaven in the footsteps of the Still Reigning tour , to which Araya replied , " It 's becoming a trendy thing now . I don 't know . We have some really cool albums , but I don 't think we 'll ever do that again . " King was equally unsure , commenting , " Probably not . And I just don 't like enough songs off South of Heaven . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = = Slayer = = =
Tom Araya – bass , lead vocals
Jeff Hanneman – lead and rhythm guitar
Kerry King – lead and rhythm guitar , backing vocals
Dave Lombardo – drums
= = Charts and certifications = =
= General aviation in the United Kingdom =
General aviation in the United Kingdom has been defined as a civil aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport flight operating to a schedule or military aviation . Although the International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) excludes any form of remunerated aviation from its definition , some commercial operations are often included within the scope of general aviation ( GA ) in the UK . The sector operates business jets , rotorcraft , piston and jet @-@ engined fixed @-@ wing aircraft , gliders of all descriptions , and lighter than air craft . Public transport operations include business ( or corporate ) aviation and air taxi services , and account for nearly half of the economic contribution made by the sector . Other commercial GA activities are aerial work , such as surveying and air ambulances , and flight training , which plays an important role in the supply of pilots to the commercial air transport ( CAT ) industry . Private flying is conducted for personal transport and recreation . It includes a strong vintage aircraft movement , and encompasses a range of air sports , such as racing , aerobatics , and parachuting , at which British teams and individuals have succeeded in international competition .
Of the 21 @,@ 000 civil aircraft registered in the UK , 96 per cent are engaged in GA operations , and annually the GA fleet accounts for between 1 @.@ 25 and 1 @.@ 35 million hours flown . The single most common class of aircraft is the fixed @-@ wing light aircraft associated with traditional GA , but the main area of growth over the last 20 years has been in the use of more affordable aircraft , such as microlights , amateur built aeroplanes , and smaller helicopters . There are 28 @,@ 000 Private Pilot Licence holders , and 10 @,@ 000 certified glider pilots . Some of the 19 @,@ 000 pilots who hold professional licences are also engaged in GA activities . Although GA operates from more than 1 @,@ 800 aerodromes and landing sites , ranging in size from large regional airports to farm strips , over 80 per cent of GA activity is conducted at 134 of the larger aerodromes . The GA industry , which is around 7 per cent the size of its CAT cousin , employs 12 @,@ 000 people , and contributes £ 1 @.@ 4 billion to the UK economy .
GA is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority ( CAA ) , although regulatory powers are being increasingly transferred to the European Aviation Safety Agency ( EASA ) . The main focus is on standards of airworthiness and pilot licensing , and the objective is to promote high standards of safety . At the lighter end of the GA spectrum some regulatory authority is devolved to representative bodies , and gliding is in transition from a self @-@ regulatory model to more formal governance by EASA . Airspace regulation necessary to protect an increasing number of CAT operations has reduced the area in which GA flights can be freely conducted . The growth in CAT is also making access to larger airports more difficult for the GA sector , and smaller aerodromes are vulnerable to closure and re @-@ development for more profitable uses . The UK planning system has no remit to consider the national significance of GA public transport operations , and generally does not favour the development of smaller aerodromes catering to the GA market . The planning process has become a mechanism for addressing local aerodrome @-@ related environmental issues which , particularly regarding noise , are the main subjects of public criticism levelled at GA .
= = Definitions = =
The International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) defines general aviation ( GA ) as " an aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport operation or an aerial work operation . " It defines commercial air transport ( CAT ) as " an aircraft operation involving the transport of passengers , cargo or mail for remuneration or hire " , and aerial work as " an aircraft operation in which an aircraft is used for specialized services such as agriculture , construction , photography , surveying , observation and patrol , search and rescue , aerial advertisement , etc . "
Organisations in the United Kingdom ( UK ) describe GA in less restrictive terms that include elements of commercial aviation . The British Business and General Aviation Association interprets it to be " all aeroplane and helicopter flying except that performed by the major airlines and the Armed Services " . The General Aviation Awareness Council applies the description " all Civil Aviation operations other than scheduled air services and non @-@ scheduled air transport operations for remuneration or hire " . For the purposes of a strategic review of GA in the UK , the Civil Aviation Authority ( CAA ) defined the scope of GA as " a civil aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport flight operating to a schedule " , and considered it necessary to depart from the ICAO definition and include aerial work and minor CAT operations .
= = History = =
The first aerodrome in the UK was established by the Aero Club at Muswell Manor on the Isle of Sheppey , and in May 1909 it was the venue of the first flight conducted in the country by a British pilot , John Moore @-@ Brabazon . In 1910 the Aero Club was granted the Royal prefix , took responsibility for controlling all private flying in the UK , and started issuing the first British pilot licences . The introduction of the de Havilland DH.60 Moth in 1925 revolutionised light aviation , and the Royal Aero Club , recognising the " vital necessity of promoting civil flying " , formed the Light Aeroplane Club scheme . Between 1925 and 1939 around 60 flying clubs were started , and more than 5 @,@ 000 pilots were trained .
During World War II civil aerodromes were taken over for military use , existing military airfields were expanded , and new ones were built . This resulted in a significant inventory of facilities becoming available after the war . Pre @-@ war civil aerodromes , for example Sywell , were returned to civilian use . Surplus military airfields were closed , and in some cases , for example Beccles , subsequently re @-@ opened as civil aerodromes . The Ministry of Civil Aviation was created to regulate all civil aviation in the UK , and this task remained the responsibility of government departments until the establishment of the independent CAA in 1972 .
With an expanded infrastructure in place , GA became established after the war when manufacturers such as Cessna and Piper introduced light aircraft designed for the private market . The Cessna 172 , developed from the late 1940s Cessna 170 , was introduced in 1956 , and became the world 's best selling single @-@ engine aeroplane . Single piston @-@ engine aircraft are still the most common class of aircraft in the UK GA fleet . The development of the Rogallo wing in the 1950s fostered the development of hang @-@ gliding during the 1960s and 1970s . The 1960s also saw experiments with motorised hang gliders , but it was not until the 1970s that this blend of technologies started to mature , resulting in the birth of the microlight movement . Another milestone in the development of GA was the 1964 introduction of the Learjet 23 . Although it was not the first business jet , it popularised corporate aviation , and established the personal jet as a " whole new class of aircraft " .
= = Activities = =
The GA sector operates a range of aircraft , including balloons and airships , gliders , hang gliders , paragliders , microlights , gyrocopters , helicopters , amateur built and mass @-@ produced light aircraft , ex @-@ military aircraft , and business jets . Flights can be broadly categorised as public transport , aerial work , and private flying , the first two of which are commercial activities .
= = = Commercial operations = = =
Commercial operations are remunerated activities which fall within the ICAO definition of CAT . Some are , however , closely aligned to , and considered part of , the GA sector . Public transport operations are non @-@ scheduled , on @-@ demand services flying between points specified by the customer , providing a more flexible service than airline travel . Air taxi operations offer charter services for third parties , and business or corporate aviation uses company @-@ owned aircraft to transport employees and clients . Aircraft used in these operations include business jets , helicopters , and twin piston @-@ engine aeroplanes carrying between six and ten people . An example of this type of operation is the transport by helicopter of spectators to the British Formula One grand prix at Silverstone . This involves so many flights that , according to Cranfield Aviation Services , on race day the heliport is temporarily the world 's busiest airport . Aerial work is a small but important component of the commercial GA sector , characterised in its simplest form as remunerated non @-@ transport activities , such as surveying , crop spraying , and emergency services work ( air ambulance and police ) .
= = = Flying schools = = =
Flying schools are commercial businesses engaged in the training of pilots , both for recreational purposes and for those intending to fly professionally . They make widespread use of fixed @-@ wing light aircraft associated with traditional GA , not only for flying lessons but also as club aircraft rented out to qualified pilots for recreational flights . School @-@ owned aircraft account for a significant amount of GA activity , both in terms of hours flown and aircraft movements . The pilot training element is regarded by the GA community as a key benefit that is critical to the supply of pilots for the airline industry . It is claimed by the General Aviation Awareness Council that 60 – 70 per cent of professional pilots have self @-@ financed their flight training at GA schools , and one UK airline operator has stated that the industry must rely on 70 – 80 per cent of new pilots coming from the GA sector . The CAA estimates that between 1996 and 2006 the number of new professional pilots following the unsponsored training route rose from 48 per cent to 59 per cent . The counter argument to this claim is that pilots can be trained outside of the UK , and that the airline industry is not therefore dependent on a healthy GA sector in the UK for its supply of pilots . The CAA concludes that a severe reduction in GA would give " some merit to the argument that pilot recruitment would be threatened " , but that the data on flying hours " does not support such a gloomy outlook . " Of course , reliance on other countries for pilot training means that the UK foregoes the economic benefit of the training activity .
= = = Private flying = = =
Private flying can be for both recreational purposes and personal transport , using aircraft that are owned individually , collectively as part of a syndicate , or rented from a flying club . A survey of pilots conducted between 2001 and 2002 indicated that the most common purposes of recreational flights were local flights near the base aerodrome , visits to other aerodromes , and day trips away . Half of all flights landed at the same aerodrome they departed from , and only 9 per cent involved an overnight stay away from home .
Private flying is most associated with the traditional form of factory @-@ produced two and four @-@ seater , single piston @-@ engine training and touring aircraft . Examples of these are the Cessna 152 , Cessna 172 , and Piper PA28 Cherokee , all with their origins in the 1950s , and the more modern designs of Cirrus . The average cost per hour to fly such aircraft has been estimated to be £ 133 , compared to an estimated £ 77 per hour for gliders , and a reported £ 35 per hour for microlights . Recent trends have seen an increase in the use of microlights , and also in recreational helicopter flying following the introduction of smaller and cheaper machines such as the Robinson R22 and R44 . Another growth area in private flying in recent years has been in the use of amateur built aircraft , such as the Van 's Aircraft RV @-@ 4 and the Europa .
There is a strong vintage aircraft movement in the UK , with two @-@ thirds of the 500 registered historic aircraft active . These cover the whole spectrum of civil and military aviation , examples being the de Havilland Dragon Rapide airliner of the 1930s , and the World War II ( WWII ) Spitfire fighter . There are many post @-@ WWII aircraft which could also be considered historic under a looser definition , including for example 60 ex @-@ military jets such as the Hawker Hunter . Historic aircraft are regular exhibits at air displays , which are claimed to be the second most popular spectator activity after football in the UK .
= = = Sports = = =
Competitive gliding in the UK takes place between May and September . Regionals are local competitions , organised and run by one of the bigger gliding clubs in the region , and represent the entry level to glider racing . Races are handicapped according to glider performance , and normally take place over nine days . Success in the regionals allows pilots to progress to the nationals , where there are five classes of competition . These are based on glider performance , the lowest being club class , and then progressing through standard ( maximum 15 metres ( 49 ft ) wingspan , and flaps not permitted ) , 15 metres ( 49 ft ) ( as standard , but flaps are permitted ) , 18 metres ( 59 ft ) ( maximum 18 metres ( 59 ft ) wingspan ) , and finally open @-@ class ( no restrictions ) . Success at national level can lead to a place in the national team and competition at international level . In 2007 the British gliding team was ranked number one , and British pilots took two women 's world championships and the open class European championship .
Handicapped air racing is open to any propeller @-@ driven aircraft capable of maintaining a minimum speed of 100 miles ( 160 km ) per hour in level flight . Races are a case of " fly low , fly fast , turn left " , consisting of 4 – 5 laps round a 20 – 25 mile ( 32 – 40 km ) circuit . Faster aircraft are handicapped by starting after slower aircraft , the intention being that the race concludes with all aircraft diving for the finish line together . There are up to 16 races per year , conducted at airfields in the UK , France and the Channel Islands , for prizes that include the Schneider Trophy and King 's Cup , and the season culminates with the British Air Racing and European Air Racing Championships .
Aerobatic competitions take place for both powered aircraft and gliders , with up to 30 events each year in the UK and Ireland . Starting at the Beginner level , pilots can move up to Standard ( powered aircraft ) or Sports ( glider ) levels , and then on to Intermediate , Advanced , and finally Unlimited classes . Each step up requires a wider repertoire of aerobatic figures and progressively more performance from the aircraft . National championships are awarded annually at Standard / Sports , Intermediate , Advanced ( powered aircraft only ) , and Unlimited levels , and pilots who have reached Advanced and Unlimited levels are eligible for selection to represent the UK in international competition .
Parachute competitions are held at club , regional , national and international levels , and include the disciplines of accuracy landings , freefall gymnastics , formation skydiving , canopy formation , freestyle and freeflying , and skysurfing . British teams consistently win medals in canopy formation world championships , and a British team took the 2006 world championship in women 's 4 @-@ way formation skydiving .
= = Aerodromes = =
Aerodrome is a collective term for any location from which flying operations take place , although more specific terminology can be used to characterise its purpose . The CAA strategic review of GA applies the term airport to locations which predominantly support large scale commercial operations , and airfield to locations which predominantly support GA operations . The General Aviation Small Aerodrome Research Study ( GASAR ) analysed 687 aerodromes in England which come under the scope of GA , classifying 374 into six types . These range in size from regional airports to the smallest farm strip , although 84 per cent of GA flights operate from 134 of the larger aerodromes in the first four categories .
= = = GASAR aerodrome classification = = =
The factors used in determining how an individual aerodrome is categorised by the GASAR study are based broadly on size and facilities . The six types of aerodrome are described , in size order , as : regional airports ( e.g. East Midlands ) ; major GA airports ( e.g. Oxford ) ; developed GA airfields ( e.g. Andrewsfield ) ; basic GA airfields ( e.g. Rufforth ) ; developed airstrips ( e.g. Tilstock ) ; and basic airstrips ( e.g. Chilbolton in Hampshire ) . The actual criteria used to categorise aerodromes were complex , using 28 different parameters , backed up with a peer review by experienced GA pilots .
Airports generally have long , fully lit , hard @-@ surfaced runways , full air traffic control , and navigation and landing aids . They are usually located on urban fringes , support commercial and business operations , and often exclude certain types of light aircraft . At the more rurally located airfields , the lighter end of aviation , such as microlight and gliding activities , becomes increasingly prevalent , and there are few or no commercial operations other than flying schools . At this level runways are generally shorter , and grass surfaces are increasingly common . Navigation aids are increasingly scarce , being more basic where they are available , and informal ground to air radio communication replaces air traffic control . The smallest airfields are too small to feature on general purpose Ordnance Survey ( OS ) maps , and lack basic facilities such as fuel and maintenance . The majority of airstrips are basically single short grass runways with no supporting facilities , although the presence of a hangar is not uncommon at the larger examples . They do not feature on OS maps , and are owned by private clubs or , more commonly , individuals .
= = = Aerodrome licensing = = =
Most aerodromes used for public transport operations are required to be licensed by the CAA . To be granted a licence an aerodrome operator must satisfy the CAA that : the physical conditions at the aerodrome , and its environs , are acceptable ; the scale of equipment , and facilities provided , are adequate for the flying activities which are expected to take place ; an effective safety management system is in place ; and that staff are competent and , where necessary , suitably qualified . Aerodromes classified as developed GA airfields or larger by the GASAR study are , with few exceptions , licensed . Only two basic GA airfields , Silverstone and Duxford , are licensed , and all airstrips are unlicensed . The Light Aviation Airports Study Group , a joint CAA @-@ industry initiative , was established in 2005 to review the regulation of light aviation aerodromes . A particular focus of this group was a review of the restrictions placed on unlicensed aerodromes . The group concluded that the requirement for public transport operations to be conducted only from licensed aerodromes should be further reviewed in the context of corresponding international and European requirements . It also recommended that restrictions on flight training at unlicensed aerodromes should be lifted , and this was permitted from April 2010
= = Scale of the sector = =
There are an estimated 27 @,@ 000 civil aircraft registered in the UK , 96 per cent of which are engaged in GA activities . In 2005 the GA fleet comprised 9 @,@ 000 fixed @-@ wing aircraft , 4 @,@ 100 microlights , 1 @,@ 300 helicopters , 1 @,@ 800 airships / balloons , 2 @,@ 500 gliders and some 7 @,@ 000 hang gliders . Estimates put the number of foreign @-@ registered GA aircraft based in the UK at 900 .
The number of pilots licensed by the CAA to fly powered aircraft in 2005 was 47 @,@ 000 , of whom 28 @,@ 000 held a Private Pilot Licence . The remainder held professional pilot licences , either a Commercial Pilot Licence or an Airline Transport Pilot Licence , although not all of these would be engaged in GA activities . In addition , there are 10 @,@ 000 active glider pilots , and estimates put the membership of aviation @-@ related sport and recreational associations at 36 @,@ 000 .
The number of aerodromes that support GA in the UK is difficult to establish with certainty . Pooleys 2008 United Kingdom Flight Guide lists 355 , and the Airplan Flight Equipment UK VFR Flight Guide 2008 lists nearly 500 . Lockyears Farm ' Strips ' and Private Airfields Flight Guide lists more than 300 landing sites . The GASAR study estimates 1 @,@ 100 formal flying sites in England alone , a figure which includes 400 sites known to planning authorities but not included in flight guides . It estimates another 759 informal sites known only to land owners , customs , and members of the enthusiast group Air @-@ Britain .
The sector was estimated to employ nearly 12 @,@ 000 people and directly contribute £ 1 @.@ 4 billion to the UK economy in 2005 , making it roughly seven per cent of the size of the CAT industry . Nearly half of the economic contribution was generated by business aviation .
= = Trends = =
Most sectors of GA for which data are available have experienced growth in aircraft numbers and hours flown over the last two decades . The lighter end of the GA spectrum : microlights , amateur built , and airships and balloons , have in particular shown strong growth , although the last of these activities was severely curtailed during the foot @-@ and @-@ mouth outbreak in 2001 , when access to farmland was denied . After strong growth in the late 1980s , traditional flying has shown a slight decline recently , reflecting a move amongst recreational flyers towards microlight aircraft , and increased numbers of foreign @-@ registered aircraft . Recreational helicopter usage has grown primarily due to the introduction of smaller and cheaper aircraft . Glider activity has remained relatively static , although there has been a gradual increase in the number of self @-@ launching motor gliders .
Business aviation has shown strong growth , although the numbers of aircraft on the UK register have declined . This reflects a shift away from turboprop aircraft towards foreign @-@ registered business jets based in the UK , which are estimated to be growing in numbers . However , twin piston @-@ engined aircraft numbers have declined significantly , reflecting pressures on the light air @-@ taxi segment from increasingly flexible and cheaper scheduled services , and a more sophisticated corporate charter business . The amount of flight training conducted by UK schools has declined , largely at the hands of competition from foreign schools , which benefit from lower costs and better weather .
Since 1990 the total number of hours flown annually by the GA sector has remained in the range 1 @.@ 25 – 1 @.@ 35 million , the dominant sector being traditional GA flying , which accounts for 0 @.@ 6 million per year . An overall increase in aircraft numbers combined with nil growth in hours flown has brought the annual average utilisation per aircraft down from 157 hours in 1984 to 103 hours in 2002 . The decline in asset utilisation has led to speculation that the economic health of the GA industry is weakening , though the lack of data on profitability makes this difficult to confirm .
= = Regulation = =
The objective of regulation is to " promote high standards of safety in all aspects of aviation " , and this is the main area of interaction between the CAA and the GA sector . Efforts focus on assuring appropriate standards of airworthiness , pilot qualification , the rules for the movement of aircraft , and equipment to be carried . The CAA was established as the primary regulatory body for all aviation in the UK in 1972 . In 1991 it started working within the Joint Aviation Authorities ( JAA ) framework to implement agreed common standards , known as the Joint Aviation Requirements ( JAR ) , throughout the European Union ( EU ) . In 2003 this was taken a step further when the European Aviation Safety Agency ( EASA ) was established as the central EU regulator , taking over responsibility for legislating airworthiness and environmental regulation from the national authorities . The CAA acts as an agency of EASA on these issues , retaining its original regulatory powers in areas not yet transferred to EASA . Proposed developments seek to establish EASA as the single authority throughout the EU , taking over from individual member states the power to regulate all aviation other than that specifically excluded from the scope of EASA .
= = = Devolved and self @-@ regulation = = =
Within this framework certain sectors of GA are governed on a devolved basis . In all cases the CAA / EASA retains responsibility for safety regulation , but representative bodies , particularly of sectors that are not included in the scope of EASA , are granted greater oversight of their activities . The majority of microlight aircraft are regulated by the British Microlight Aircraft Association ( BMAA ) , although a significant number are regulated by the Light Aircraft Association ( LAA ) , formerly known as the Popular Flying Association . The LAA is the primary regulator for amateur built aircraft , as well as vintage and classic aircraft . Parachuting is governed by the British Parachute Association , although the aircraft used in this activity are generally CAA @-@ regulated . Balloon and airship flying is overseen by the British Balloon and Airship Club . The UK @-@ specific National Private Pilot Licence ( NPPL ) is administered by the National Pilots Licensing Group Ltd . , supported by the LAA , the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association UK , the British Gliding Association , and the British Microlight Aircraft Association . Separate from these devolved groups , gliding in the UK is self @-@ regulated . The British Gliding Association was until recently responsible for glider airworthiness , now formally regulated as a result of EASA legislation , and still retains control of pilot certification . Hang gliding and paragliding activities ( i.e. foot @-@ launched gliders ) are governed by the British Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association .
= = = Airworthiness = = =
Under CAA and EASA rules , all aircraft are required to meet certain standards of airworthiness to fly safely and legally . Aircraft that meet these standards are issued with a Certificate of Airworthiness . However , British @-@ registered aircraft which are excluded from the scope of EASA , and which cannot satisfy the requirements for the issue of a Certificate of Airworthiness , may be issued with a Permit to Fly . This allows them to fly in UK airspace subject to certain limitations , for example being restricted to day @-@ time flights under visual flight rules only . A number of organisations ( e.g. the British Microlight Aircraft Association and the Light Aircraft Association ) have obtained a standing over @-@ flight permission for Permit to Fly aircraft within their area of interest with some European countries , notably France . Permits are typically issued to vintage and historic aircraft , amateur built aircraft , and microlights .
= = = Pilot licensing = = =
The pilot qualification most relevant to GA is the Private Pilot Licence ( PPL ) , which permits the holder to fly for recreational purposes without remuneration . In addition to the European @-@ wide Joint Aviation Regulations Flight Crew Licensing ( JAR @-@ FCL ) standard , the CAA also issues UK @-@ specific national licences . In the absence of European standards for gyroplane , balloon , and airship pilots , the CAA licenses these according to the original UK PPL standard . As a response to the perception that JAR pilot licensing standards are excessively bureaucratic and expensive for the purposes of recreational pilots , the National Private Pilot Licence ( NPPL ) was introduced in 2002 . The NPPL is easier to obtain than the JAR @-@ FCL licence , has less stringent medical requirements , is more restrictive in the privileges it grants , and is valid only for flights in British @-@ registered aircraft flying in UK and French airspace . Although there are plans to bring glider pilot licensing within the regulatory framework of EASA , the gliding sector is currently self @-@ regulating in this respect . The British Gliding Association is responsible for defining the standards of initial training , and certifying , via a badge system , pilots who meet those standards . Pilots working in sectors of GA that are commercial operations , such as aerial work and business aviation , are required to hold a professional pilot licence which , at a minimum , is the Commercial Pilot Licence .
= = Safety = =
Between 1995 and 2004 there were 2 @,@ 630 accidents involving GA aircraft , of which 139 were fatal , resulting in the loss of 317 lives . The majority of accidents involved small fixed @-@ wing aircraft engaged in private flights , and analysis attributes the most common causes of these to : flight handling skills ; poor judgement or airmanship ; lack of training or experience ; and omission of , or inappropriate , action .
There were 27 fatal accidents involving GA aircraft in 2007 , resulting in the loss of 48 lives . These compare with 16 accidents claiming a total of 19 lives the previous year , and although the 2007 statistics are higher than average , they are not exceptional .
= = Issues = =
The growth in Commercial Air Transport ( CAT ) has eroded the operational freedom of GA , both in the air and on the ground at larger airports . Difficulty with access to larger airports is compounded by a decline in the number of aerodromes generally , and existing sites are often threatened with closure and re @-@ development for more profitable uses . The UK planning system is designed to focus on local issues , and consideration of the national impact of GA operations is not within its remit . This makes aerodrome development difficult , often subjecting those that successfully negotiate the process to restrictions in use .
= = = Airspace access = = =
Airspace is shared by CAT , military and GA users . It is divided into controlled airspace , in which aircraft must always be under the control of an air traffic controller , and uncontrolled airspace , in which aircraft can operate autonomously . Although GA flights can under certain conditions enter controlled airspace , they operate mainly outside of it .
Controlled airspace is essential for the provision of a known air traffic environment necessary for the safe operation of CAT . A CAA review found that " mixing [ commercial ] operations with other users is considered undesirable , even untenable " by commercial operators . However this position has resulted in extensive Class A controlled airspace with complex boundaries , including some running down to the ground , prohibiting VFR access to airspace , resulting in high numbers of GA flights operating close to the borders of controlled airspace who could not get formal receipt of an air traffic service . Coupled with pilot navigation errors , hundreds of airspace infringements have been recorded every year .
Increases in the number of CAT operations , and in the number of airports they operate from , has resulted in a corresponding increase in Class A controlled airspace . Between 1997 and 2006 this area grew in size from 13 per cent of all airspace to 22 per cent nationally , and from 24 per cent to 43 per cent in airspace above England and Wales , leading to a perception within the GA community of being squeezed out . There are particular problems for GA around large airports , where Class
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quick @-@ firing guns . Furthermore , the ship 's boats were equipped with two 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) landing guns for operations shore . Three 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes were also carried , one on each broadside and one in the stern .
= = Service history = =
The ship was assigned to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Fleet 's 1st Battle Squadron after her 1911 commissioning . In 1912 , Zrínyi and her two sister ships conducted two training cruises into the eastern Mediterranean Sea . On the second cruise into the Aegean Sea , conducted from November to December , Zrínyi and her sister ships were accompanied by the cruiser SMS Admiral Spaun and a pair of destroyers . After returning to Pola , the entire fleet mobilized for possible hostilities , as tensions flared in the Balkans .
In 1913 , Zrínyi participated in an international naval demonstration in the Ionian Sea to protest the Balkan Wars . Ships from other navies included in the demonstration were the British pre @-@ dreadnought HMS King Edward VII , the Italian pre @-@ dreadnought Ammiraglio di Saint Bon , the French armored cruiser Edgar Quinet , and the German light cruiser SMS Breslau . The most important action of the combined flotilla , which was under the command of British Admiral Cecil Burney , was to blockade the Montenegrin coast . The goal of the blockade was to prevent Serbian reinforcements from supporting the siege at Scutari , where Montenegro had besieged a combined force of Albanians and Ottomans . Pressured by the international blockade , Serbia withdrew its army from Scutari , which was subsequently occupied by a joint Allied ground force .
During that year , the first of four new dreadnoughts , SMS Viribus Unitis , that made up the Tegetthoff class — the only dreadnoughts built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy — came into active service . With the commissioning of these dreadnoughts , Zrínyi and her sisters were moved from the 1st Division to the 2nd Division of the 1st Battle Squadron .
= = = World War I = = =
At that time of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914 , the battleships in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy consisted of the Radetzky class , the Tegetthoff class ( which still had one ship , SMS Szent István , under construction ) , the Erzherzog Karl class and finally , the older Habsburg class . Along with the remainder of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , Zrínyi was mobilized in late July 1914 to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The two German ships broke out of Messina , which was surrounded by the British navy and reached Turkey . The flotilla had advanced as far south as Brindisi in southeastern Italy when news of the successful breakout reached Vienna . The Austro @-@ Hungarian ships were then recalled before seeing action .
On 23 May 1915 , between two and four hours after news of the Italian declaration of war reached the main Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola , Zrínyi and the rest of the fleet departed to bombard the Italian and Montenegrin coast . Their focus was on the important naval base at Ancona , and later the coast of Montenegro . The bombardment of Montenegro was part of the larger Austro @-@ Hungarian campaign against the Kingdoms of Montenegro and Serbia , who were members of the Entente , during the first half of 1915 . The attack on Ancona was an immense success , and the ships were unopposed during the operation . The bombardment of the province and the surrounding area resulted in the destruction of an Italian steamer in the port of Ancona itself , and an Italian destroyer , Turbine , was severely damaged further south . On the shore , the infrastructure of the port of Ancona , as well as the surrounding towns , were severely damaged . The railroad yard in Ancona , as well as the port facilities in the town , were damaged or destroyed . The local shore batteries were also suppressed . During the bombardment , Zrínyi also helped to destroy a train , a railway station , and a bridge at Senigallia . Additional targets that were damaged or destroyed included wharves , warehouses , oil tanks , radio stations , and the local barracks . Sixty @-@ three Italians , both civilians and military personnel , were killed in the bombardment . By the time Italian ships from Taranto and Brindisi arrived on the scene , the Austro @-@ Hungarians were safely back in Pola .
The objective of the bombardment of Ancona was to delay the Italian Army from deploying its forces along the border with Austria @-@ Hungary by destroying critical transportation systems . The surprise attack on Ancona succeeded in delaying the Italian deployment to the Alps for two weeks . This delay gave Austria @-@ Hungary valuable time to strengthen its Italian border and re @-@ deploy some of its troops from the Eastern and Balkan fronts .
Aside from the attack on Ancona , the Austro @-@ Hungarian battleships were largely confined to Pola for the duration of the war . Their operations were limited by Admiral Anton Haus , the commander of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , who believed that he would need to husband his ships to counter any Italian attempt to seize the Dalmatian coast . Since coal was diverted to the newer Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships , the remainder of the war saw Zrínyi and the rest of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy acting as a fleet in being . This resulted in the Allied blockade of the Otranto Strait . With his fleet blockaded in the Adriatic Sea , and with a shortage of coal , Haus followed a strategy based on mines and submarines designed to reduce the numerical superiority of the Allied navies .
= = = Post @-@ war fate = = =
After the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire collapsed in 1918 , the Austrians wanted to turn the fleet over to the newly created State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs ( later to become a part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) in order to prevent the Italians from claiming the ships as spoils of war . However , the victorious Allies refused to acknowledge the conversations between the Austrians and the south Slavs and , in due course , reallocated the ships . The ship had been boarded by a scratch Yugoslav crew on 10 November 1918 , one day before the Armistice , and had left Pola with her sister ship , Radetzky . They were soon spotted by heavy Italian ships , so the two battleships hoisted American flags and sailed south along the Adriatic coast to Castelli Bay near Spalato ( also known as Split ) . They appealed for American naval forces to meet them and accept their surrender , which a squadron of United States Navy ( USN ) submarine chasers in the area did . She had apparently been turned over to the fledgling south Slav state , as it was a Croat naval officer , Korvettenkapitän Marijan Polić , who presented the ship as a prize of war to representatives of the United States Navy on the afternoon of 22 November 1919 at Spalato ( Split ) in Dalmatia . Simultaneously she was commissioned as USS Zrínyi and Lieutenant E.E. Hazlett , USN , assumed command . The initial American complement consisted of four officers and 174 enlisted men — the latter entirely composed of United States Navy Reserve Force personnel . The ship remained at anchor at Spalato for nearly a year while the negotiations that would determine her ultimate fate dragged on . Only once did she apparently turn her engines over , and that occurred during a severe gale that struck Spalato on 9 February 1920 .
On the morning of 7 November 1920 , Zrínyi was decommissioned . USS Chattanooga took her in tow and , assisted by Brooks and Hovey , towed the battleship to Italy . Under the terms of the treaties of Versailles and St. Germain , Zrínyi was ultimately turned over to the Italian government at Venice . She was broken up for scrap later that year and into 1921 .
= Geopyxis carbonaria =
Geopyxis carbonaria is a species of fungus in the genus Geopyxis , family Pyronemataceae . First described to science in 1805 , and given its current name in 1889 , the species is commonly known as the charcoal loving elf @-@ cup , dwarf acorn cup , stalked bonfire cup , or pixie cup . The small , goblet @-@ shaped fruitbodies of the fungus are reddish @-@ brown with a whitish fringe and measure up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) across . They have a short , tapered stalk . Fruitbodies are commonly found on soil where brush has recently been burned , sometimes in great numbers . The fungus is distributed throughout many temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere . It is found in Europe , Turkey , and North America . Although it is primarily a saprotrophic species , feeding on the decomposing organic matter remaining after a fire , it also forms biotrophic associations with the roots of Norway spruce .
= = Taxonomy = =
The fungus was first described scientifically in 1805 by Johannes Baptista von Albertini and Lewis David de Schweinitz as Peziza carbonaria . Mordecai Cubitt Cooke illustrated the fruitbodies , spores , and asci in his 1879 work Mycographia , seu Icones fungorum . Figures of fungi from all parts of the world . In 1889 , Pier Andrea Saccardo transferred the fungus to the genus Geopyxis , giving the species its current name . Pustularia carbonaria , published by Heinrich Rehm in 1884 , is a synonym of G. carbonaria . Louis @-@ Joseph Grélet proposed the variety Geopyxis carbonaria var. sessilis in 1937 , referring to forms producing fruitbodies without a stalk , but the taxon is not considered to have independent taxonomic significance . In 1860 Miles Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis described the species Peziza lepida from collections made in Japan as part of the North Pacific Exploring and Surveying Expedition ( 1853 – 1856 ) . This taxon was synonymized with G. carbonaria by Mien Rifai in 1968 , a taxonomic opinion corroborated by Donald Pfister about a decade later .
The specific epithet carbonaria derives from the Latin word for " charcoal " . Common names given to the fungus include " charcoal loving elf @-@ cup " , " dwarf acorn cup " , " pixie cup " , and the British Mycological Society approved " stalked bonfire cup " .
= = Description = =
The fruitbodies ( ascocarps ) of Geopyxis carbonaris are cup shaped , 1 – 2 cm wide , and have fringed whitish margins . The inner spore @-@ bearing surface of the cup , the hymenium , is brick red and smooth , while the exterior surface is a dull yellow , and may be either smooth or have blister @-@ like spots ( pustules ) . The stipe is small ( 1 – 1 @.@ 5 mm long and 1 – 2 mm wide ) , whitish in color , and expands abruptly into the cup . The brownish flesh of the fungus is thin and brittle . It does not have any distinctive taste , but has an unpleasant smell when crushed in water . The edibility of the fungus is not known , but the fruitbodies are insubstantial and unlikely to be harvested for eating .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
In mass , the spores are whitish . The spores are elliptical , smooth , hyaline , devoid of oil droplets ( eguttulate ) , and have dimensions of 13 – 18 by 7 – 9 µm . They are thin walled and germinate and grow rapidly in vitro in the absence of external stimuli . The asci are 190 – 225 by 9 – 10 µm . The paraphyses are slightly club @-@ shaped , unbranched , and have irregular orange @-@ brown granules , with tips up to 5 µm wide , and are not forked or lobed . The hypothecium , the layer of cells below the hymenium , is made of densely packed , small irregular cells .
= = = Similar species = = =
The closely related vulcan elf cup ( Geopyxis vulcanalis ) has a pale orange to yellowish fruitbody that is deeply cup shaped before flattening in maturity , and its crushed flesh often has an odor of sulfur . It may be distinguished microscopically by its paraphyses , which lack the orange @-@ brown granules characteristic of G. carbonaria . It also has larger spores , measuring 14 – 22 by 8 – 11 µm . Unlike G. carbonaria , it grows on substrates other than burned wood , including mosses , and needle duff . Tarzetta cupularis , which grows habitats similar to G. carbonaria , is distinguished microscopically by its spores that contain two oil droplets . Other genera with similar species with which G. carbonaria may be confused in the field include Aleuria , Caloscypha , Melastiza , and Sowerbyella .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Geopyxis carbonaria is widespread on burned soil or charcoal in the spring and throughout the growing season . It is one of the most common pioneer species found on burned ground . The charred litter on the forest floor increases the underlying soil pH as well as the availability of minerals . Fruitbodies are produced from 16 to 139 weeks after a forest fire in areas with coniferous trees . Most fruitbodies are produced in the first year after a burn . The fungus prefers fruiting in microhabitats with thin postfire duff near standing burned tree trunks . Geopyxis carbonaria fruitbodies are often found in the same post @-@ fire stands as morels , although the former is usually more abundant . Because the pixie cup fruits earlier than morels , it may serve as an indicator of imminent morel fruiting . Other cup fungi often found fruiting in the same area as G. carbonaria include those from the genera Aleuria , Anthracobia , Peziza , and Tarzetta .
The fungus is found in Europe ( from where it was originally described ) , and is widespread throughout North America . The North American distribution extends north to Alaska . In 2010 , it was reported for the first time from Turkey .
= = Ecology = =
Although primarily a saprotrophic fungus involved in the post @-@ fire breakdown of duff and coniferous roots , Geopyxis carbonaria has been shown to be capable of forming ectomycorrhizae with Norway spruce ( Picea abies ) . It had been demonstrated earlier in laboratory experiments that the fungus has a biotrophic interaction with lodgepole pine ( Pinus contorta ) . The hyphae of G. carbonaria were able to infect the cortex of the tree seedling , but did not penetrate the endodermis . These traits suggest that the fungus is a moderate pathogen , with limited ability to cause reductions in seed germination . Additionally , the fungus produces the enzyme polyphenol oxidase , and can break down the complex organic polymer lignin — features characteristic of saprotrophic fungi . The formation of a rudimentary Hartig net , a characteristic of mycorrhizal fungi , indicated that G. carbonaria might be capable of forming mutualistic relationships under the right conditions . Vrålstad and colleagues suggest that its below @-@ ground association with spruce roots protects it from physical damage in the event of a fire , and the extensive fruitbody production after a fire may reflect " a successful fungal escape from a dying host where the fungus no longer can maintain its biotrophic association " .
Large fruitings of the fungus are often associated with damage to the host tree , such as that which occurs with burning . A field study conducted in Norway demonstrated that fruit bodies were more likely to be found in areas that were heavily burned , compared to locations with light to moderate burning where the trees remained viable , or in clearcut areas . Fruiting was much denser in spruce forests — with up to 700 – 1000 fruitbodies per square meter — than in pine forests , where fruitbodies were sporadic . Fruitbodies grew by the millions in the year following the Yellowstone fires of 1988 .
= Gold dollar =
The gold dollar or gold one @-@ dollar piece was a coin struck as a regular issue by the United States Bureau of the Mint from 1849 to 1889 . The coin had three types over its lifetime , all designed by Mint Chief Engraver James B. Longacre . The Type 1 issue had the smallest diameter of any United States coin ever minted .
A gold dollar had been proposed several times in the 1830s and 1840s , but was not initially adopted . Congress was finally galvanized into action by the increased supply of bullion caused by the California gold rush , and in 1849 authorized a gold dollar . In its early years , silver coins were being hoarded or exported , and the gold dollar found a ready place in commerce . Silver again circulated after Congress in 1853 required that new coins of that metal be made lighter , and the gold dollar became a rarity in commerce even before federal coins vanished from circulation because of the economic disruption caused by the American Civil War .
Gold did not again circulate in most of the nation until 1879 ; once it did , the gold dollar did not regain its place . In its final years , it was struck in small numbers , causing speculation by hoarders . It was also in demand to be mounted in jewelry . The regular issue gold dollar was last struck in 1889 ; the following year , Congress ended the series .
= = Background = =
In proposing his plan for a mint and a coinage system , Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton in 1791 proposed that the one @-@ dollar denomination be struck both as a gold coin , and as one of silver , representative of the two metals which he proposed be made legal tender . Congress followed Hamilton 's recommendation only in part , authorizing a silver dollar , but no coin of that denomination in gold .
In 1831 , the first gold dollar was minted , at the private mint of Christopher Bechtler in North Carolina . Much of the gold then being produced in the United States came from the mountains of North Carolina and Georgia , and the dollars and other small gold coins issued by Bechtler circulated through that region , and were now and then seen further away . Additional one @-@ dollar pieces were struck by August Bechtler , Christopher 's son .
Soon after the Bechtlers began to strike their private issues , Secretary of the Treasury Levi Woodbury became an advocate of having the Mint of the United States ( " Mint " , when described as an institution ) strike the one @-@ dollar denomination in gold . He was opposed by the Mint Director , Robert M. Patterson . Woodbury persuaded President Andrew Jackson to have pattern coins struck . In response , Patterson had Mint Second Engraver Christian Gobrecht break off work on the new design for the silver one @-@ dollar coin and work on a pattern for the gold dollar . Gobrecht 's design featured a Liberty cap surrounded by rays on one side , and a palm branch arranged in a circle with the denomination , date , and name of the country on the other .
Consideration was given to including the gold dollar as an authorized denomination in the revisionary legislation that became the Mint Act of 1837 . The Philadelphia newspaper Public Ledger , in December 1836 , supported a gold dollar , stating that " the dollar is the smallest gold coin that would be convenient , and as it would be eminently so , neither silver nor paper should be allowed to take its place . " Nevertheless , after Mint Director Patterson appeared before a congressional committee , the provision authorizing the gold dollar was deleted from the bill .
= = Inception = =
In January 1844 , North Carolina Representative James Iver McKay , the chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means , solicited the views of Director Patterson on the gold dollar . Patterson had more of Gobrecht 's pattern dollar struck to show to committee members , again advising against a coin that if issued would be only about a half inch ( 13 mm ) in diameter . He told Treasury Secretary John C. Spencer that the only gold coins of that size in commerce , the Spanish and Colombian half @-@ escudos , were unpopular and had not been struck for more than twenty years . This seemed to satisfy the committee as nothing more was done for the time , and when a gold dollar was proposed again in 1846 , McKay 's committee recommended against it .
Even before 1848 , record amounts of gold were flowing to American mints to be struck into coin , but the California Gold Rush vastly increased these quantities . This renewed calls for a gold dollar , as well as for a higher denomination than the eagle ( $ 10 piece ) , then the largest gold coin . In January 1849 , McKay introduced a bill for a gold dollar , which was referred to his committee . There was much discussion in the press about the proposed coin ; one newspaper published a proposal for an annular gold dollar , that is , with a hole in the middle to increase its small diameter . McKay amended his legislation to provide for a double eagle ( $ 20 gold coin ) and wrote to Patterson , who replied stating that the annular gold dollar would not work , and neither would another proposal to have dollar piece consisting of a gold plug in a silver coin . Nevertheless , Gobrecht 's successor as chief engraver , James B. Longacre , prepared patterns , including some with a square hole in the middle .
McKay got his fellow Democrat , New Hampshire Senator Charles Atherton , to introduce the bill to authorize the gold dollar and the double eagle in the Senate on February 1 , 1849 — Atherton was chairman of the Senate Finance Committee . McKay introduced a version into the House on February 20 ; debate began the same day . The dollar was attacked by congressmen from the Whig Party , then in the minority , on the grounds that it would be too small , would be counterfeited and in bad light might be mistakenly spent as a half dime , the coins being similar in size . McKay did not respond substantively , but stated that if no one wanted these denominations , they would not be called for at the Mint , and would not be coined . Pennsylvania Representative Joseph Ingersoll , a Whig , spoke against the bill , noting that Patterson opposed the new denominations , and that the idea had been repeatedly turned down , whenever considered . Another Whig , Massachusetts 's Charles Hudson , related that Patterson had sent a real and a counterfeit gold dollar to his committee and the majority of members had been unable to tell the difference . McKay made no answer to these claims , but others did , including New York Congressman Henry Nicoll , who assured the House that the counterfeiting allegations were greatly exaggerated . The point was , he indicated , that the double eagle and gold dollar were wanted by the public , and , in the case of the gold dollar could help money circulate in small communities where banknotes were not accepted . Connecticut Representative John A. Rockwell , a Whig , tried to table the bill , but his motion was defeated . The bill passed easily , and met only minimal opposition in the Senate , becoming law on March 3 , 1849 .
= = Preparation = =
The officers at the Philadelphia Mint , including Chief Coiner Franklin Peale , were mostly the friends and relations of Director Patterson . The outsider in their midst was Chief Engraver James B. Longacre , successor to Gobrecht ( who had died in 1844 ) . A former copper @-@ plate engraver , Longacre had been appointed through the political influence of South Carolina Senator John C. Calhoun .
When Longacre began work on the two new coins in early 1849 , he had no one to assist him . Longacre wrote the following year that he had been warned by a Mint employee that one of the officers ( undoubtedly Peale ) planned to undermine the chief engraver 's position by having the work of preparing designs and dies done outside Mint premises . Accordingly , when the gold coin bill became law , Longacre apprised Patterson that he was ready to begin work on the gold dollar . The Mint Director agreed , and after viewing a model of the head on the obverse , authorized Longacre to proceed with preparation of dies . According to Longacre ,
The engraving was unusually minute and required very close and incessant labor for several weeks . I made the original dies and hubs for making the working dies twice over , to secure their perfect adaptation to the coining machinery . I had a wish to execute this work single handed , that I might thus silently reply to those who had questioned my ability for the work . The result , I believe , was satisfactory .
= = Original design = =
The Type 1 gold dollar depicts a head of Liberty , facing left , with a coronet or tiara on her head bearing her name . Her hair is gathered in a bun ; she is surrounded by 13 stars representing the original states . The reverse features the date and denomination within a wreath , with the name of the nation near the rim .
Contemporary reviews of the Type 1 design were generally favorable . The New York Weekly Tribune on May 19 , 1849 described the new dollar as " undoubtedly the neatest , tiniest , lightest , coin in this country ... it is too delicate and beautiful to pay out for potatoes , and sauerkraut , and salt pork . Oberon might have paid Puck with it for bringing the blossom which bewitched Titania . " Willis ' Bank Note List stated that " there is no probability of them ever getting into general circulation ; they are altogether too small . " The North Carolina Standard hoped that they would be struck at the Charlotte Mint and circulated locally to eliminate the problem of small @-@ denomination bank notes from out of state . Coin dealer and numismatic author Q. David Bowers notes that the head of Liberty on the Type 1 dollar is a scaled @-@ down version of that on the double eagle , and " a nicely preserved gold dollar is beautiful to behold " .
= = Modifications = =
Mint records indicate the first gold dollars were produced on May 7 , 1849 ; Longacre 's diary notes state instead that the first were struck on May 8 . A few coins in proof condition were struck on the first day , along with about 1 @,@ 000 for circulation . There are five major varieties of the 1849 gold dollar from Philadelphia , made as Longacre continued to fine @-@ tune the design . Mintmarked dies were sent by Longacre 's Engraving Department at the Philadelphia Mint to the branch mints at Charlotte , Dahlonega ( in Georgia ) , and New Orleans ; coins struck at the branches resemble some of the types issued from Philadelphia , depending on when the dies were produced . Of the coins struck at the branch mints in 1849 , only pieces struck at Charlotte ( 1849 @-@ C ) exist in multiple varieties ; most are of what is dubbed the " Closed Wreath " variety . Approximately five of the 1849 @-@ C Open Wreath are known ; one , believed the finest surviving specimen , sold at auction for $ 690 @,@ 000 in 2004 , remaining a record for the gold dollar series as of 2013 . One of the changes made during production was the inclusion of Longacre 's initial " L " on the truncation of Liberty 's neck , the first time a U.S. coin intended for full @-@ scale production had borne the initial of its designer . All issues beginning in 1850 bear the Closed Wreath . Beginning in 1854 , the gold dollar was also struck at the new San Francisco Mint .
The continued flow of gold from California made silver expensive in terms of gold , and U.S. silver coins began to flow out of the country for melting in 1849 , a flow that accelerated over the next several years as the price of the metal continued to rise . By 1853 , a thousand dollars in silver coin contained $ 1 @,@ 042 worth of bullion . As silver coins vanished , the gold dollar became the only federal coin in circulation between the cent and the quarter eagle ( $ 2 @.@ 50 piece ) . As such , it was struck in large numbers and widely circulated . According to Bowers in his book on the denomination , " the years 1850 to 1853 were the high @-@ water mark of the gold dollar , the glory years of the denomination when the little gold coins took the place of half dollars and silver dollars in everyday transactions . " This time came to an end in 1853 when Congress passed an act reducing the weight of most silver coins , allowing new issues of them to circulate .
As early as 1851 , New York Congressman William Duer alleged that that Patterson had made the gold dollar too small in diameter on purpose to provoke criticism . Patterson retired that year after 16 years in his position , and under his successor , George N. Eckert , annular gold dollar and half dollar patterns were struck . Public Ledger reported that although gold dollars would not be struck in annular form , gold half dollars would be , to help fill the need for change . With the new Pierce administration , Thomas M. Pettit took office as Mint Director on March 31 , 1853 . In April , Treasury Secretary James Guthrie wrote to Pettit that there were complaints that the gold dollar was too small , often lost or mistaken for a small silver coin , and enquiring about reports the Mint had experimented with annular dollars . Pettit replied , stating that none had been preserved , but enclosed a silver piece of equivalent size . He noted that while there would be technical difficulties in the production of the annular dollar , these could be overcome . In a letter dated May 10 , Pettit proposed an oval @-@ shaped holed piece , or an angular @-@ shaped coin , which would lessen the production problems . Pettit died suddenly on May 31 ; Guthrie did not let the issue fall , but queried Pettit 's replacement , James Ross Snowden , concerning the issue on June 7 . As U.S. coins were required to bear some device emblematic of liberty , the secretary hoped that artists could be found who could find some such design for an annular coin .
The Act of February 21 , 1853 , that had lightened the silver coins also authorized a gold three @-@ dollar piece , which began to be produced in 1854 . To ensure that the three @-@ dollar piece was not mistaken for other gold coins , it had been made thinner and wider than it would normally be , and Longacre put a distinctive design with an Indian princess on it . Longacre adapted both the technique and the design for the gold dollar , which was made thinner , and thus wider . An adaptation of Longacre 's princess for the larger gold coin was placed on the dollar , and a similar agricultural wreath on the reverse . The idea of making the gold dollar larger in this way had been suggested in Congress as early as 1852 , and had been advocated by Pettit , but Guthrie 's desire for an annular coin stalled the matter . In May 1854 , Snowden sent Guthrie a letter stating that the difficulties with an annular coin , especially in getting the coins to eject properly from the press , were more than trivial .
Nevertheless , the Type 2 gold dollar ( as it came to be known ) proved unsatisfactory as the mints had difficulty in striking the new coin so that all details were brought out . This was due to the high relief of the design — the three Southern branch mints especially had trouble with the piece . Many of the Type 2 pieces quickly became illegible , and were sent back to Philadelphia for melting and recoinage . On most surviving specimens , the " 85 " in the date is not fully detailed . The Type 2 gold dollar was struck only at Philadelphia in 1854 and 1855 , at the three Southern branch mints in the latter year , and at San Francisco in 1856 , after the design was designated for replacement . To correct the problems , Longacre enlarged the head of Liberty , making it a scaled @-@ down version of the three @-@ dollar piece , and moved the lettering on the obverse closer to the rim . This improved the metal flow and design sharpness so much that early numismatic scholars assumed the reverse was also altered , though in fact no change was made and the Type 2 and Type 3 reverses are identical .
= = = Design of Type 2 and 3 dollars = = =
The Type 2 and 3 gold dollars depict Liberty as a Native American princess , with a fanciful feathered headdress not resembling any worn by any Indian tribe . This image is an inexact copy of the design Longacre had made for the three @-@ dollar piece , and is one of a number of versions of Liberty Longacre created based on the Venus Accroupie or Crouching Venus , a sculpture then on display in a Philadelphia museum . For the reverse , Longacre adapted the " agricultural wreath " he had created for the reverse of the three @-@ dollar piece , composed of cotton , corn , tobacco , and wheat , blending the produce of North and South . This wreath would appear , later in the 1850s , on the Flying Eagle cent .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule deprecated the Indian princess design used by Longacre for the obverses of the Types 2 and 3 gold dollar , and for the three @-@ dollar piece , " the ' princess ' of the gold coins is a banknote engraver 's elegant version of folk art of the 1850s . The plumes or feathers are more like the crest of the Prince of Wales than anything that saw the Western frontiers , save perhaps on a music hall beauty . "
= = War years = =
The gold dollar continued to be produced in the late 1850s , though mintages declined from the figures of two million or more each year between 1850 and 1854 . Only about 51 @,@ 000 gold dollars were produced in 1860 , with over two @-@ thirds of that figure at Philadelphia , just under a third at San Francisco , and 1 @,@ 566 at Dahlonega . Roughly a hundred are known of the last , creating one of the great rarities from Dahlonega in the series .
The other candidate for the rarest from that mint is the 1861 @-@ D , with an estimated mintage of 1 @,@ 000 and perhaps 45 to 60 known . Two pairs of dies were shipped from Philadelphia to Dahlonega on December 10 , 1860 ; they arrived on January 7 , 1861 , two weeks before Georgia voted to secede from the Union , as the American Civil War began . Under orders from Governor Joseph E. Brown , state militia secured the mint , and at some point , small quantities of dollars and half eagles were produced . Records of how many coins were struck and when have not survived . Since dies crack in time , and all the mints were supplied with them from Philadelphia , coining could not last , and in May 1861 , coins and supplies remaining at Dahlonega were turned over to the treasury of the Confederate States of America , which Georgia had by then joined . Gold coins with a face value of $ 6 were put aside for assay . Normally , they would have been sent to Philadelphia to await the following year 's meeting of the United States Assay Commission , when they would be available for testing . Instead , these were sent to the initial Confederate capital of Montgomery , Alabama , though what was done with them there , and their ultimate fate , are unknown . The rarity of the 1861 @-@ D dollar , and the association with the Confederacy , make it especially prized .
Dahlonega , like the other two branch mints in the South , closed its doors after the 1861 strikings . It and the Charlotte facility never reopened ; the New Orleans Mint again struck coins from 1879 to 1909 , but did not strike gold dollars again . After 1861 , the only issuance of gold dollars outside Philadelphia was at San Francisco , in 1870 .
The outbreak of the Civil War shook public confidence in the Union , and citizens began hoarding specie , gold and silver coins . In late December 1861 , banks and then the federal Treasury stopped paying out gold at face value . By mid @-@ 1862 , all federal coins , even the base metal cent , had vanished from commerce in much of the country . The exception was the Far West , where for the most part , only gold and silver were acceptable currencies , and paper money traded at a discount . In the rest of the nation , gold and silver coins could be purchased from banks , exchange agents , and from the Treasury for a premium in the new greenbacks the government began to issue to fill the gap in commerce and finance the war .
= = Final years , abolition , and collecting = =
Since gold did not circulate in the United States ( except on the West Coast ) in the postwar period , much of the production of coins of that metal in the United States was double eagles for export . Accordingly , although 1 @,@ 361 @,@ 355 gold dollars were struck in 1862 — the last time production would exceed a million — the mintage fell to 6 @,@ 200 in 1863 and remained low for the rest of the coin 's existence , excepting 1873 and 1874 . The Mint felt it improper to suspend coinage of a coin authorized by Congress , and issued proof coins ( generally a few dozen to the tiny numismatic community ) from specially @-@ polished dies , also producing enough circulation strikes so that the proof coins would not be unduly rare . In 1873 and 1874 , old and worn gold dollars held by the government were melted and recoined , generating large mintages of that denomination . This was done in anticipation of the resumption of specie payments , which did not occur until the end of 1878 . Once specie again circulated at face value , the gold dollar found no place in commerce amid large quantities of silver coinage , either released from hoarding or newly struck by the Mint . The government expected that the resumption of specie payments would cause the dollar and other small gold coins to circulate again , but the public , allowed to redeem paper currency , continued to use it as more convenient than coins .
In the 1870s and 1880s , public interest grew in the low @-@ mintage gold dollar . Collecting coins was becoming more popular , and a number of numismatists put aside some gold dollars and hoped for increases in value . The Mint most likely channeled its production through some favored Philadelphia dealers , though proof coins could be purchased for $ 1 @.@ 25 at the cashier 's window at the Philadelphia facility . Banks charged a premium for circulation strikes . They were popular in the jewelry trade , mounted into various items . The coins were often exported to China or Japan , where such jewelry was made . The dollars were often damaged in the process ; the Mint refused to sell into this trade and did its best to hinder it . Nevertheless , Mint officials concluded that jewelers were successful at getting the majority of each issue . Proof mintages exceeded 1 @,@ 000 by 1884 , and remained above that mark for the remainder of the series , numbers likely inflated by agents of jewelers , willing to pay the Mint 's premium of $ .25 per coin . Another use for the gold dollar was as a holiday gift ; after its abolition the quarter eagle became a popular present .
James Pollock , in his final report as Mint Director in 1873 , advocated limiting striking of gold dollars to depositors who specifically requested it . " The gold dollar is not a convenient coin , on account of its small size , and it suffers more proportionately from abrasion than larger coins . " His successors called for its abolition , with James P. Kimball , before he left office in 1889 , writing to Congress that except as jewelry , " little practical use has been found for this coin " . Later that year , the new director , Edward O. Leech , issued a report stating that the gold dollar " is too small for circulation , and ... [ is ] used almost exclusively for the purposes of ornament . The last year in which the gold dollar was struck was 1889 . Congress abolished the gold dollar , along with the three @-@ cent nickel and three @-@ dollar piece , by the Act of September 26 , 1890 .
A total of 19 @,@ 499 @,@ 337 gold dollars were coined , of which 18 @,@ 223 @,@ 438 were struck at Philadelphia , 1 @,@ 004 @,@ 000 at New Orleans , 109 @,@ 138 at Charlotte , 90 @,@ 232 at San Francisco and 72 @,@ 529 at Dahlonega . According to an advertisement in the February 1899 issue of The Numismatist , gold dollars brought $ 1 @.@ 80 each , still in demand as a birthday present and for jewelry . That journal in 1905 carried news of a customer depositing 100 gold dollars into a bank ; the teller , aware of the value , credited the account with $ 1 @.@ 60 per coin . In 1908 , a dealer offered $ 2 each for any quantity . As coin collecting became a widespread pastime in the early 20th century , gold dollars became a popular specialty , a status they retain . The 2014 edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins rates the least expensive gold dollar in very fine condition ( VF @-@ 20 ) at $ 300 , a value given for each of the Type 1 Philadelphia issues from 1849 to 1853 . Those seeking one of each type will find the most expensive to be a specimen of the Type 2 , with the 1854 and 1855 estimated at $ 350 in that condition ; the other two types have dates valued at $ 300 in that grade .
= = Commemorative gold dollars = =
The gold dollar had a brief resurrection during the period of Early United States commemorative coins . Between 1903 and 1922 nine different issues were produced , with a total mintage of 99 @,@ 799 . These were minted for various public events , did not circulate , and none used Longacre 's design .
= Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction =
The Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction ( sometimes referred to as the Corey – Chaykovsky reaction or CCR ) is a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry for the synthesis of epoxides , aziridines , and cyclopropanes . It was discovered in 1961 by A. William Johnson and developed significantly by E. J. Corey and Michael Chaykovsky . The reaction involves addition of a sulfur ylide to a ketone , aldehyde , imine , or enone to produce the corresponding 3 @-@ membered ring . The reaction is diastereoselective favoring trans substitution in the product regardless of the initial stereochemistry . The synthesis of epoxides via this method serves as an important retrosynthetic alternative to the traditional epoxidation reactions of olefins .
The reaction is most often employed for epoxidation via methylene transfer , and to this end has been used in several notable total syntheses ( See Synthesis of epoxides below ) . Additionally detailed below are the history , mechanism , scope , and enantioselective variants of the reaction . Several reviews have been published .
= = History = =
The original publication by Johnson concerned the reaction of 9 @-@ dimethylsulfonium fluorenylide with substituted benzaldehyde derivatives . The attempted Wittig @-@ like reaction failed and a benzalfluorene oxide was obtained instead , noting that " Reaction between the sulfur ylid and benzaldehydes did not afford benzalfluorenes as had the phosphorus and arsenic ylids . "
The subsequent development of ( dimethyloxosulfaniumyl ) methanide , ( CH3 ) 2SOCH2 and ( dimethylsulfaniumyl ) methanide , ( CH3 ) 2SCH2 ( known as Corey – Chaykovsky reagents ) by Corey and Chaykovsky as efficient methylene @-@ transfer reagents established the reaction as a part of the organic canon .
= = Mechanism = =
The reaction mechanism for the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction consists of nucleophilic addition of the ylide to the carbonyl or imine group . A negative charge is transferred to the heteroatom and because the sulfonium cation is a good leaving group it gets expelled forming the ring . In the related Wittig reaction , the formation of the much stronger phosphorus @-@ oxygen double bond prevents oxirane formation and instead , olefination takes place through a 4 @-@ membered cyclic intermediate .
The trans diastereoselectivity observed results from the reversibility of the initial addition , allowing equilibration to the favored anti betaine over the syn betaine . Initial addition of the ylide results in a betaine with adjacent charges ; density functional theory calculations have shown that the rate @-@ limiting step is rotation of the central bond into the conformer necessary for backside attack on the sulfonium .
The degree of reversibility in the initial step ( and therefore the diastereoselectivity ) depends on four factors , with greater reversibility corresponding to higher selectivity :
Stability of the substrate with higher stability leading to greater reversibility by favoring the starting material over the betaine .
Stability of the ylide with higher stability similarly leading to greater reversibility .
Steric hindrance in the betaine with greater hindrance leading to greater reversibility by disfavoring formation of the intermediate and slowing the rate @-@ limiting rotation of the central bond .
Solvation of charges in the betaine by counterions such as lithium with greater solvation allowing more facile rotation in the betaine intermediate , lowering the amount of reversibility .
= = Scope = =
The application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction in organic synthesis is diverse . The reaction has come to encompass reactions of many types of sulfur ylides with electrophiles well beyond the original publications . It has seen use in a number of high @-@ profile total syntheses , as detailed below , and is generally recognized as a powerful transformative tool in the organic repertoire .
= = = Types of ylides = = =
Many types of ylides can be prepared with various functional groups both on the anionic carbon center and on the sulfur . The substitution pattern can influence the ease of preparation for the reagents ( typically from the sulfonium halide , e.g. trimethylsulfonium iodide ) and overall reaction rate in various ways . The general format for the reagent is shown on the right .
Use of a sulfoxonium allows more facile preparation of the reagent using weaker bases as compared to sulfonium ylides . ( The difference being that a sulfoxonium contains a doubly bonded oxygen whereas the sulfonium does not . ) The former react slower due to their increased stability . In addition , the dialkylsulfoxide by @-@ products of sulfoxonium reagents are greatly preferred to the significantly more toxic , volatile , and odorous dialkylsulfide by @-@ products from sulfonium reagents .
The vast majority of reagents are monosubstituted at the ylide carbon ( either R1 or R2 as hydrogen ) . Disubstituted reagents are much rarer but have been described :
If the ylide carbon is substituted with an electron @-@ withdrawing group ( EWG ) , the reagent is referred to as a stabilized ylide . These , similarly to sulfoxonium reagents , react much slower and are typically easier to prepare . These are limited in their usefulness as the reaction can become prohibitively sluggish : examples involving amides are widespread , with many fewer involving esters and virtually no examples involving other EWG 's . For these , the related Darzens reaction is typically more appropriate .
If the ylide carbon is substituted with an aryl or allyl group , the reagent is referred to as a semi @-@ stabilized ylide . These have been developed extensively , second only to the classical methylene reagents ( R1 = R2 = H ) . The substitution pattern on aryl reagents can heavily influence the selectivity of the reaction as per the criteria above .
If the ylide carbon is substituted with an alkyl group the reagent is referred to as an unstabilized ylide . The size of the alkyl groups are the major factors in selectivity with these reagents .
The R @-@ groups on the sulfur , though typically methyls , have been used to synthesize reagents that can perform enantioselective variants of the reaction ( See Variations below ) . The size of the groups can also influence diastereoselectivity in alicyclic substrates .
= = = Synthesis of epoxides = = =
Reactions of sulfur ylides with ketones and aldehydes to form epoxides are by far the most common application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction . Examples involving complex substrates and ' exotic ' ylides have been reported , as shown below .
The reaction has been used in a number of notable total syntheses including the Danishefsky Taxol total synthesis , which produces the chemotherapeutic drug taxol , and the Kuehne Strychnine total synthesis which produces the pesticide strychnine .
= = = Synthesis of aziridines = = =
The synthesis of aziridines from imines is another important application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction and provides an alternative to amine transfer from oxaziridines . Though less widely applied , the reaction has a similar substrate scope and functional group tolerance to the carbonyl equivalent . The examples shown below are representative ; in the latter , an aziridine forms in situ and is opened via nucleophilic attack to form the corresponding amine .
= = = Synthesis of cyclopropanes = = =
For addition of sulfur ylides to enones , higher 1 @,@ 4 @-@ selectivity is typically obtained with sulfoxonium reagents than with sulfonium reagents . Many electron @-@ withdrawing groups have been shown compatible with the reaction including ketones , esters , and amides ( the example below involves a Weinreb amide ) . With further conjugated systems 1 @,@ 6 @-@ addition tends to predominate over 1 @,@ 4 @-@ addition .
= = = Other reactions = = =
In addition to the reactions originally reported by Johnson , Corey , and Chaykovsky , sulfur ylides have been used for a number of related homologation reactions that tend to be grouped under the same name .
With epoxides and aziridines the reaction serves as a ring @-@ expansion to produce the corresponding oxetane or azetidine . The long reaction times required for these reactions prevent them from occurring as significant side reactions when synthesizing epoxides and aziridines .
Several cycloadditions wherein the ylide serves as a " nucleophilic carbenoid equivalent " have been reported .
Living polymerizations using trialkylboranes as the catalyst and ( dimethyloxosulfaniumyl ) methanide as the monomer have been reported for the synthesis of various complex polymers .
= = Enantioselective variations = =
The development of an enantioselective ( i.e. yielding an enantiomeric excess , which is labelled as " ee " ) variant of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction remains an active area of academic research . The use of chiral sulfides in a stoichiometric fashion has proved more successful than the corresponding catalytic variants , but the substrate scope is still limited in all cases . The catalytic variants have been developed almost exclusively for enantioselective purposes ; typical organosulfide reagents are not prohibitively expensive and the racemic reactions can be carried out with equimolar amounts of ylide without raising costs significantly . Chiral sulfides , on the other hand , are more costly to prepare , spurring the advancement of catalytic enantioselective methods .
= = = Stoichiometric reagents = = =
The most successful reagents employed in a stoichiometric fashion are shown below . The first is a bicyclic oxathiane that has been employed in the synthesis of the β @-@ adrenergic compound dichloroisoproterenol ( DCI ) but is limited by the availability of only one enantiomer of the reagent . The synthesis of the axial diastereomer is rationalized via the 1 @,@ 3 @-@ anomeric effect which reduces the nucleophilicity of the equatorial lone pair . The conformation of the ylide is limited by transannular strain and approach of the aldehyde is limited to one face of the ylide by steric interactions with the methyl substituents .
The other major reagent is a camphor @-@ derived reagent developed by Varinder Aggarwal of the University of Bristol . Both enantiomers are easily synthesized , although the yields are lower than for the oxathiane reagent . The ylide conformation is determined by interaction with the bridgehead hydrogens and approach of the aldehyde is blocked by the camphor moiety . The reaction employs a phosphazene base to promote formation of the ylide .
= = = Catalytic reagents = = =
Catalytic reagents have been less successful , with most variations suffering from poor yield , poor enantioselectivity , or both . There are also issues with substrate scope , most having limitations with methylene transfer and aliphatic aldehydes . The trouble stems from the need for a nucleophilic sulfide that efficiently generates the ylide which can also act as a good leaving group to form the epoxide . Since the factors underlying these desiderata are at odds , tuning of the catalyst properties has proven difficult . Shown below are several of the most successful catalysts along with the yields and enantiomeric excess for their use in synthesis of ( E ) -stilbene oxide .
Aggarwal has developed an alternative method employing the same sulfide as above and a novel alkylation involving a rhodium carbenoid formed in situ . The method too has limited substrate scope , failing for any electrophiles possessing basic substituents due to competitive consumption of the carbenoid .
= Treaty of Ciudad Juárez =
The Treaty of Ciudad Juárez was a peace treaty signed between the then President of Mexico , Porfirio Díaz , and the revolutionary Francisco Madero on May 21 , 1911 . The treaty put an end to the fighting between forces supporting Madero and those of Díaz and thus concluded the initial phase of the Mexican Revolution .
The treaty stipulated that Díaz , as well as his vice president Ramón Corral , were to step down by the end of May , and that he was to be replaced by Francisco León de la Barra as interim president and hold presidential elections . Those who had suffered losses due to the revolution would be the indemnified , and there would be a general amnesty . Díaz resigned on May 25 , and interim president Francisco León de la Barra was the new incumbent . Díaz and his family , his vice president Corral , plus José Yves Limantour and Rosendo Pineda left Mexico for exile .
Significantly , the treaty did not mention or institute any social reforms that Madero had vaguely promised on previous occasions . It also left the Porfirian state essentially intact . Additionally , Madero supported the unpopular idea that all land disputes were to be settled through the courts , staffed by the old judges , a decision that led to outbreaks of sporadic violence , particularly in rural areas .
On June 7 , 1911 , Madero entered Mexico City . In October 1911 he was elected president , under the banner of the Partido Constitucional Progresista , along with José María Pino Suárez , his new running mate as vice @-@ president . Madero pushed aside Francisco Vázquez Gómez , the vice presidential candidate for the Anti @-@ Reelectionist Party in 1910 , as being too moderate .
= = Military developments leading up to the treaty = =
The rebellion against the government of Porfirio Díaz broke out in late 1910 , after Díaz had his rival Francisco Madero imprisoned and had announced his own victory in a falsified election . Madero 's earlier vague promises of agrarian reforms had attracted many supporters . He himself escaped from prison and fled to Texas , from where he issued his famous Plan of San Luis Potosí . This manifesto called for an armed uprising against the Porfiriato and establishment of free and democratic elections . As a response to Madero 's proclamation , violent clashes began throughout Mexico in November 1910 .
In the Guerrero district of Chihuahua , Pascual Orozco attacked Federal troops and sent dead soldiers ' clothing back to Díaz with the message , " Ahí te van las hojas , mándame más tamales " ( " Here are the wrappers , send me more tamales . " ) He then began operations which threatened Ciudad Juárez . Additionally , political support for Madero 's rebellion came from Abraham González , who accepted the Plan of San Luis Potosí .
At roughly the same time , agrarian unrest in the state of Morelos turned into a full blown rebellion under the leadership of the Zapata brothers , Emiliano and Eufemio .
= = = Orozco and Villa take Ciudad Juárez = = =
Encouraged by the news of the uprisings , Madero crossed the border back into Mexico in February 1911 . He was joined by Pancho Villa and Orozco and in April the army began approaching Ciudad Juárez . Orozco and Villa led the way with 500 men each , while Madero followed up with 1 @,@ 500 riders . The city was besieged by the end of the month , after Madero 's army encountered some resistance in the Chihuahuan countryside . Madero asked the commander of the city 's garrison to surrender but the latter refused , hoping that the fortifications he had constructed would allow him to defend the city until reinforcements arrived . Concerned also with the possibility that a direct attack on the town would cause artillery shells to cross the border into the United States which could provoke an outside intervention , and faced with a series of peace proposals from Díaz , Madero hesitated in attacking the city . He in fact ordered his commanders to lift the siege . Orozco , however disregarded the order and , joined by Villa , attacked . After two days of fighting the city fell to the insurrectionists . Madero intervened personally to spare the life of the city 's commander , Gen. Navarro , whom both Orozco and Villa wanted executed for his previous killing of rebel POWs . This , coupled with the fact that both leaders were ignored by Madero in his political appointments , outraged and estranged them from him .
= = = Zapata in south and central Mexico = = =
At about the same time that Villa and Orozco were marching on Ciudad Juárez , the Zapatista revolt gathered strength and spread to the states of Puebla , Tlaxcala , Mexico , Michoacán and Guerrero . On April 14 , Madero had Emiliano Zapata officially designated as his representative in the region . However , Zapata was worried that if he did not fully control all the major towns in Morelos by the time that Madero concluded negotiations with Díaz , the demands of his agrarian movement and the issue of the autonomy of Morelos would be ignored or sidelined . Zapata 's first military action was to take the town of Chinameca where he obtained essential supplies . Subsequently Zapata , for political and strategic reasons , decided to attack the city of Cuautla . In order to mislead his opponents however , he initially attacked and captured the towns of Izúcar de Matamoros ( which was subsequently retaken by federal forces ) and Chietla . From there he made a wide circle around Cuautla and captured Yautepec and Jonacatepec where he gathered more supplies , munitions and soldiers . By May , out of all the major urban centers in the region , only Cuautla and the capital of Morelos , Cuernavaca , remained outside of his control .
Zapata began the attack on Cuautla on May 13 with 4000 troops against 400 elite soldiers of the so @-@ called " Golden Fifth " ; the Fifth Cavalry Regiment of the Federal Army . The battle took almost a week and has been described as " six of the most terrible days of battle in the whole Revolution " . It consisted of house to house fighting , hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , and no quarter given by either side . General Victoriano Huerta arrived in nearby Cuernavaca with 600 reinforcements , but decided not to come to the relief of Cuautla as he was afraid that the capital would revolt in his absence . On May 19 , the remains of the " Golden Fifth " pulled out of the town which was then occupied by Zapata 's soldiers .
The successful capture of Cuautla made Zapata a hero to ordinary people throughout Mexico and new corridos were written about him . After Zapata 's taking of Cuautla , the federal government controlled only five states and some urban areas . Porfirio Díaz himself later stated that , while he felt that he could defend against Villa and Orozco in Chihuahua , the fall of Cuautla was the event which persuaded him to agree to peace with Madero .
= = The compromise = =
As early as March 1911 , Madero 's representatives met in New York with Díaz 's finance minister , José Yves Limantour , and the Mexican ambassador to the US in order to discuss the possibility of peace between the two sides . Limantour proposed an end to the hostilities and offered an amnesty for all revolutionaries , the resignation of the then vice president Ramón Corral , the replacement of four Díaz cabinet ministers and ten state governors by ones chosen by Madero , and the establishment of the principle of " no @-@ reelection " which would prevent Díaz from seeking yet another term as president ( which would have been his ninth ) . Madero responded positively although he also stated that any kind of peace deal had to include an immediate resignation by Díaz .
Faced with the siege of Ciudad Juárez and the outbreak of rebellion in Morelos , Díaz and members of his cabinet became more willing to negotiate and launched a " skillful peace offensive " aimed at Madero . This was largely a result of panic among the large landowners associated with the Díaz regime ( the hacendados ) and the financial elite , which represented a " moderate " wing within the government . Some among the Porfiristas in fact , expected that Zapata would soon march on Mexico City itself , unless peace was concluded with Madero .
The moderate view within the Díaz government was represented by Jorge Vera Estañol who in a memo to the minister of foreign affairs wrote that there were two revolutions taking place in Mexico : a political revolution , based mostly in the north , whose aim was mostly to establish free elections and remove Díaz himself from power , and a social revolution whose aim was " anarchy " which was spreading throughout the Mexican countryside . Estañol recommended coming to terms with the first group of revolutionaries , by agreeing to the principle of no re @-@ election and a general amnesty , in order to prevent the second group from succeeding . In addition to his fear of " anarchy " , Estañol was also worried that the social revolution would lead to a military intervention by the United States .
Estañol 's views represented those of the portion of the upper class which was willing to come to terms with at least a portion of the middle class in order to crush the peasant uprisings , as
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not plan on carrying out any kind of agrarian reform , or the breakup of large hacendias . Additionally , the press in Mexico City , controlled by the landowners began referring to Zapata as a bandit and federal generals , such as Huerta , continued attacking his troops under the pretext that Zapata failed to demobilize in violation of the treaty . Sporadic fighting in southern Mexico continued . In November 1911 , shortly after Madero 's inauguration , Zapata issued the famous Plan of Ayala , in which the Zapatistas denounced Madero and instead recognized Pascual Orozco as the rightful president and leader of the revolution .
Madero also earned the great displeasure of other revolutionaries , including , Pascual Orozco . Madero 's first act after the treaty was signed was a gesture of reconciliation with the Díaz regime . As a result of the treaty he was given the right to appoint members of the la Barra cabinet . He chose mostly upper class Maderistas , including his wife for the post in the treasury . He also maintained the existing federal system , by keeping the sitting judges of the Supreme Court , the legislators in federal and state assemblies and the bureaucrats of the various federal agencies . Venustiano Carranza , who was going to become a major revolutionary in his own right and a future president of Mexico , stated that , after the treaty , Madero had " deliver ( ed ) to the reactionaries a dead revolution which will have to be fought over again " . Díaz , after leaving for exile in France , observed that " Madero has unleashed a tiger , let us see if he can control him " .
Orozco , who saw himself as being instrumental in Madero 's victory over Díaz , was merely appointed as a commander of the rurales in Chihuahua , which increased his resentment . When he tried to run for governor of the state , Madero supported his opponent , Abraham González and eventually pressured Orozco to drop out of the race . When , in the aftermath of the Plan of Ayala , Madero ordered Orozco to lead federal troops to suppress Zapata , Orozco refused . In March 1912 , Orozco issued his Plan of Empacadora and formally declared himself in rebellion against Madero .
= The Feast of the Goat =
The Feast of the Goat ( Spanish : La fiesta del chivo , 2000 ) is a novel by the Peruvian Nobel Prize in Literature laureate Mario Vargas Llosa . The book is set in the Dominican Republic and portrays the assassination of Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo , and its aftermath , from two distinct standpoints a generation apart : during and immediately after the assassination itself , in May 1961 ; and thirty five years later , in 1996 . Throughout , there is also extensive reflection on the heyday of the dictatorship , in the 1950s , and its significance for the island and its inhabitants .
The novel follows three interwoven storylines . The first concerns a woman , Urania Cabral , who is back in the Dominican Republic , after a long absence , to visit her ailing father ; she ends up recalling incidents from her youth and recounting a long @-@ held secret to her aunt and cousins . The second story line focuses on the last day in Trujillo 's life from the moment he wakes up onwards , and shows us the regime 's inner circle , to which Urania 's father once belonged . The third strand depicts Trujillo 's assassins , many of whom had previously been government loyalists , as they wait for his car late that night ; after the assassination , this story line shows us the assassins ' persecution . Each aspect of the book 's plot reveals a different viewpoint on the Dominican Republic 's political and social environment , past and present .
Readers are shown the regime 's downward spiral , Trujillo 's assassination , and its aftermath through the eyes of insiders , conspirators , and a middle @-@ aged woman looking back . The novel is therefore a kaleidoscopic portrait of dictatorial power , including its psychological effects , and its long @-@ term impact . The novel 's themes include the nature of power and corruption , and their relationship to machismo and sexual perversion in a rigidly hierarchical society with strongly gendered roles . Memory , and the process of remembering , is also an important theme , especially in Urania 's narrative as she recalls her youth in the Dominican Republic . Her story ( and the book as a whole ) ends when she recounts the terrible events that led to her leaving the country at the age of 14 . The book itself serves as a reminder of the atrocities of dictatorship , to ensure that the dangers of absolute power will be remembered by a new generation .
Vargas Llosa interlaces fictional elements and historical events : the book is not a documentary , and the Cabral family , for instance , is completely fictional . On the other hand , the characters of Trujillo and Trujillo 's assassins are drawn from the historical record ; Vargas Llosa weaves real historical incidents of brutality and oppression into these people 's stories , to further illuminate the nature of the regime and the responses it provoked . In Vargas Llosa 's words , " It 's a novel , not a history book , so I took many , many liberties . [ . . . ] I have respected the basic facts , but I have changed and deformed many things in order to make the story more persuasive — and I have not exaggerated . "
The Feast of the Goat received largely positive reviews , with several reviewers commenting on the book 's depiction of the relationship between sexuality and power , and on the graphic descriptions of violent events .
A film version of the novel was released in 2005 , starring Isabella Rossellini , Paul Freeman , and Tomas Milian . Jorge Alí Triana and his daughter Veronica Triana wrote a theatrical adaptation in 2003 .
= = Background = =
The Feast of the Goat is only the second of Vargas Llosa 's novels to be set outside Peru ( the first being The War of the End of the World ) . It is also unusual because it is the first to have a female protagonist : as critic Lynn Walford writes of the leading character in The Feast of the Goat , and also Vargas Llosa 's subsequent book The Way to Paradise , " both are utterly unlike any of the other female characters in his previous novels " .
The novel examines the dictatorial regime of Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Molina in the Dominican Republic . Trujillo was , in historian Eric Roorda 's words , " a towering influence in Dominican and Caribbean history " who presided over " one of the most durable regimes of the twentieth century " during the thirty @-@ one years between his seizure of power in 1930 and his assassination in 1961 . Trujillo had trained with the United States Marine Corps during the United States occupation of the island , and graduated from the Haina Military Academy in 1921 . After the U.S. departed in 1924 , he became head of the Dominican National Police which , under his command , was transformed into the Dominican National Army and Trujillo 's personal " virtually autonomous power base " .
Trujillo was officially dictator only from 1930 to 1938 , and from 1942 to 1952 , but remained in effective power throughout the entire period . Though his regime was broadly nationalist , Daniel Chirot comments that he had " no particular ideology " and that his economic and social policies were basically progressive .
The novel 's title is taken from the popular Dominican merengue Mataron al chivo ( " They Killed the Goat " ) , which refers to Trujillo 's assassination on May 30 , 1961 . Merengue is a style of music created by Ñico Lora in the 1920s and actively promoted by Trujillo himself ; it is now considered the country 's national music . Cultural critics Julie Sellers and Stephen Ropp comment about this particular merengue that , by envisaging the dictator as an animal who could be turned into a stew ( as frequently happened with goats struck down on the Dominican Republic 's highways ) , the song " gave those performing , listening to and dancing to this merengue a sense of control over him and over themselves that they had not experienced for over three decades . " Vargas Llosa quotes the lyrics to Mataron al chivo at the beginning of the novel .
= = Plot summary = =
The novel 's narrative is divided into three distinct strands . One is centred on Urania Cabral , a fictional Dominican character ; another deals with the conspirators involved in Trujillo 's assassination ; and the third focuses on Trujillo himself . The novel alternates between these storylines , and also jumps back and forth from 1961 to 1996 , with frequent flashbacks to periods earlier in Trujillo 's regime .
The Feast of the Goat begins with the return of Urania to her hometown of Santo Domingo , a city which had been renamed Ciudad Trujillo during Trujillo 's time in power . This storyline is largely introspective and deals with Urania 's memories and her inner turmoil over the events preceding her departure from the Dominican Republic thirty @-@ five years earlier . Urania escaped the crumbling Trujillo regime in 1961 by claiming she planned to study under the tutelage of nuns in Michigan . In the following decades , she becomes a prominent and successful New York lawyer . She finally returns to the Dominican Republic in 1996 , on a whim , and finds herself compelled to confront her father and elements of her past she has long ignored . As Urania speaks to her ailing father , Agustin Cabral , she recalls more and more of the anger and disgust that led to her thirty @-@ five years of silence . Urania retells her father 's descent into political disgrace , and the betrayal that forms the crux of both Urania 's storyline and that of Trujillo himself .
The second and third storylines are set in 1961 , in the weeks prior to and following Trujillo 's assassination on 30 May . Each assassin has his own background story , explaining his motivation for his involvement in the assassination plot . Each has been wronged by Trujillo and his regime , by torture and brutality , or through assaults on their pride , their religious faith , their morality , or their loved ones . Vargas Llosa weaves the tale of the men as memories recalled on the night of Trujillo 's death , as the conspirators lie in wait for " The Goat " . Interconnected with these stories are the actions of other famous Trujillistas of the time : Joaquín Balaguer , the puppet president ; Johnny Abbes García , the merciless head of the Military Intelligence Service ( SIM ) ; and various others — some real , some composites of historical figures , and some purely fictional .
The third storyline is concerned with the thoughts and motives of Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Molina himself . The chapters concerning The Goat recall the major events of his time , including the slaughter of thousands of Dominican Haitians in 1937 . They also deal with the Dominican Republic 's tense international relationships during the Cold War , especially with the United States under the presidency of John F. Kennedy , and Cuba under Castro . Vargas Llosa also speculates upon Trujillo 's innermost thoughts and paints a picture of a man whose physical body is failing him . Trujillo is tormented by incontinence and impotence ; and this storyline intersects with Urania 's narrative when it is revealed that Urania was sexually assaulted by Trujillo . He is unable to achieve an erection with Urania , and in frustration and anger he rapes her with his hands . This event is the core of Urania 's shame , and her hatred towards her father . In addition , it is the cause of Trujillo 's repeated anger over the " anemic little bitch " that witnessed his impotence and emotion , and the reason he is en route to sleep with another girl on the night of his assassination .
In the novel 's final chapters , the three storylines intersect with increasing frequency . The tone of these chapters is especially dark as they deal primarily with the horrific torture and death of the assassins at the hands of the SIM , the failure of the coup , the rape of Urania , and the concessions made to Trujillo 's most vicious supporters allowing them to enact their horrific revenge on the conspirators and then escape the country . The book ends as Urania prepares to return home , determined this time to keep in touch with her family back on the island .
= = Characters = =
= = = Modern day = = =
Urania Cabral and her father Agustín Cabral appear in both the modern day and historical portions of the novel . In the year 1996 , Urania returns to the Dominican Republic for the first time since her departure at the age of 14 . She is a successful New York lawyer who has spent most of the past 35 years trying to overcome the traumas of her childhood , a goal she pursues through an academic fascination with Trujillo and Dominican history . Urania is deeply troubled by the events of her past , and is compelled to confront her father Agustín about his role in those events . Urania visits her father , finding him weakened by age and a severe stroke , so much so that he is barely able to respond physically to her presence , let alone speak . Agustín listens helplessly as Urania recounts his past as " Egghead Cabral " , a high @-@ ranking member of Trujillo 's inner circle , and his drastic fall from grace . Urania details Agustín 's role in the events that led to her rape by the Dominican leader , and to her subsequent lifetime of celibacy and emotional trauma . Agustín 's character in the modern day portion of the novel serves primarily as a sounding board for Urania 's recollections of the Trujillo era and the events that surrounded both Agustín Cabral 's disgrace and Urania 's escape from the country . His responses are minimal and non @-@ vocal , despite the ardency of Urania 's accusations and the enormity of his own actions during Trujillo 's reign .
= = = The Trujillo regime = = =
Rafael Trujillo , known also as The Goat , The Chief , and The Benefactor , is a fictionalized character based on the real dictator of the Dominican Republic from 1930 to 1961 and the official President of the Republic from 1930 to 1938 and 1943 to 1952 . In The Feast of the Goat , Vargas Llosa imagines the innermost thoughts of the dictator , and retells The Goat 's last hours from his own perspective . Trujillo 's character struggles with aging and the physical problems of incontinence and impotence . Through fictional events and first person narrative , the reader is given insight into the man who , during his " thirty @-@ one years of horrendous political crimes " , modernized the country 's infrastructure and military , but whose regime 's attacks against its enemies overseas ( particularly the attempted assassination of Rómulo Betancourt , president of Venezuela ) led to the imposition of economic sanctions on the Dominican Republic by the Organization of American States in the 1950s . The resultant economic downturn , in conjunction with other factors , leads to the CIA supported assassination plot that ends Trujillo 's life on May 30 , 1961 .
Trujillo 's regime is supported by Johnny Abbes García , the head of the Military Intelligence Service ( SIM ) , a brutal man to whom many " disappearances , ... executions , ... sudden falls into disgrace " are attributed . Abbes and his intelligence officers are notorious for their cruelty , particularly their habit of killing dissidents by throwing them into shark @-@ infested waters . Colonel Abbes " may be the devil , but he 's useful to the Chief ; everything bad is attributed to him and only the good to Trujillo " . Trujillo 's son , Ramfis Trujillo , is a loyal supporter of the Chief . After unsuccessful attempts at schooling in the United States , Ramfis returns to the Dominican Republic to serve in his father 's military . He is a well @-@ known womanizer . Upon Trujillo 's death , Ramfis seeks revenge , even going so far as to torture and kill his uncle by marriage , General Jose Roman , for his part in the assassination conspiracy .
Joaquín Balaguer , Trujillo 's puppet president is also a supporter , and initially his seemingly innocuous character holds no real power . Following Trujillo 's death , the calm and serenity of Balaguer bring about real change in his character , and General Román comments that " this insignificant man whom everyone had always considered a mere clerk , a purely decorative figure in the regime , began to acquire surprising authority " . It is Balaguer who guides much of the action in the last sections of the book .
= = = Conspirators = = =
The storyline concerning the assassination primarily follows the four conspirators who directly participate in Trujillo 's death . Antonio Imbert Barrera is one of the few conspirators who survives the violent reprisals that follow Trujillo 's assassination . Imbert is a politician who becomes disillusioned with the deception and cruelty of the Trujillo regime . His first plan to kill Trujillo was foiled by the unsuccessful attempted overthrow of the regime by Cuban paramilitary forces . Now convinced of the difficulty of his task , Imbert joins the other conspirators in plotting Trujillo 's death . Among the others is Antonio de la Maza , one of Trujillo 's personal guards . Antonio 's brother is killed as part of a government cover @-@ up and Antonio swears revenge upon Trujillo . Salvador Estrella Sadhalá , known as " Turk " , is a devout Catholic who , in indignation at the regime 's many crimes against God , swears an oath against Trujillo . Turk eventually turns himself in for fear that the regime was torturing his family . Both Turk and his innocent brother are then tortured for months . His father remains loyal to Trujillo and disowns Turk to his face . Despite all of this , Turk refuses to commit suicide and does not lose faith in God . He is later executed by Ramfis and other high level government men . Turk 's close friend , Amado García Guerrero , known as Amadito , is a Lieutenant in the army who gave up his beloved as proof of his loyalty to Trujillo , and then later was forced to kill her brother to prove himself to Trujillo . Amadito 's disgust with himself and disillusionment with the regime lead to his decision to help to kill Trujillo . Following the assassination he hides out with de la Maza and dies fighting . In the aftermath of the assassination , Amadito and Antonio de la Maza choose to fight the members of SIM who come to arrest them , opting to die in battle rather than be captured and tortured .
= = Major themes = =
The Feast of the Goat 's major themes include political corruption , machismo , memory , and writing and power . Olga Lorenzo , reviewer for The Melbourne Age , suggests that overall Vargas Llosa 's aim is to reveal the irrational forces of Latin tradition that give rise to despotism .
= = = Political corruption = = =
The structure of Dominican society was hierarchical , with strongly gendered roles . Rafael Trujillo , the ruler , was a cruel dictator who haunts the people of Santo Domingo even 35 years after his death . He is a true caudillo , ruling with brutality and corruption . He creates a personality cult in his capitalist society and encourages decadence within his regime . Prior to promotion to a position of responsibility , an officer is required to pass a " test of loyalty " . His people are to remain loyal to him all cost , and are periodically tested by public humiliation and censure even though acts of disloyalty were rare . Trujillo violates women and children as an expression of political and sexual power , and in some cases takes the wife or child of his lieutenants , many of whom still remain blindly loyal . Even the church and military institutions are employed to give women to the tyrant for pleasure .
Many of the assassins had belonged to the Trujillo regime or had at one point been its staunch supporters , only to find their support for him eroded by the state 's crimes against its people . Imbert , one of the assassins , sums up this realization in a comment prompted by the murder of the Mirabal sisters : " They kill our fathers , our brothers , our friends . And now they 're killing our women . And here we sit , resigned , waiting our turn . " In an interview , Vargas Llosa describes the corruption and brutality of Trujillo 's regime : " He had more or less all the common traits of a Latin American dictator , but pushed to the extreme . In cruelty , I think he went far far away from the rest — and in corruption , too . "
= = = Machismo = = =
According to literary scholar Peter Anthony Niessa , the two important components of machismo are aggressive behaviour and hyper @-@ sexuality . Aggressive behaviour is exhibited by displays of power and strength , while hyper @-@ sexuality is revealed through sexual activity with as many partners as possible . These two components shape the portrayal of Trujillo and his regime in The Feast of the Goat . As Lorenzo observes , Vargas Llosa " reveals traditions of machismo , of abusive fathers , and of child @-@ rearing practices that repeat the shaming of children , so that each generation bequeaths a withering of the soul to the subsequent one . "
In a display of both aspects of machismo , Trujillo demanded of his aides and cabinet that they provide him with sexual access to their wives and daughters . Mario Vargas Llosa wrote of Trujillo 's machismo and treatment of women , " [ h ] e went to bed with his ministers ' wives , not only because he liked these ladies but because it was a way to test his ministers . He wanted to know if they were ready to accept this extreme humiliation . Mainly the ministers were prepared to play this grotesque role — and they remained loyal to Trujillo even after his death . " Trujillo 's sexual conquests and public humiliations of his enemies also serve to affirm his political power and machismo . In Niessa 's words , " The implication is that maximum virility equals political dominance . "
Trujillo 's attempted sexual conquest of Urania is an example of both political manipulation of Agustín Cabral and sexual power over young women . However , as Trujillo 's penis remains flaccid throughout the encounter and he is humiliated in front of the young girl , the encounter fails to satisfy his requirements for machismo .
= = = Memory = = =
All of the novel 's storylines concern memory in some sense or another . The most apparent confrontation of memory is on the part of Urania Cabral , who has returned to the Dominican Republic for the first time in 30 years , and is forced to confront her father and the traumas that led her to leave the country at 14 . She was the victim of sexual abuse at the hands of the dictator himself , a sacrifice her father made to try to gain favor with the dictator again , a fact to which she alludes throughout the book , but which is only revealed at the very end : the book concludes with her recounting the memory of that night to her aunt and cousins , who never knew the true reason she left the country . When her aunt is surprised that she remembers all these details , she responds that while she forgets many things , " I remember everything about that night . " For Urania , forgetting the atrocities committed by the regime is unacceptable . Her father , on the other hand , is not capable of joining her in this process of remembering , since he has suffered a stroke and is not capable of speaking ; however , Urania is angry that he chose to forget these things while he was still capable of acknowledging them .
Memory is also important in the sections of the novel that deal with the assassins . Each recalls the events that led him to take part in the assassination of Trujillo . These incidents included the 1956 Galindez kidnapping and murder , the 1960 murder of the Mirabal sisters , and the 1961 split with the Catholic Church . These historical events are used by Vargas Llosa to connect the assassins with specific moments that demonstrate the violence of Trujillo 's regime . Trujillo , too , is shown reflecting on the past , not least his own formation and training at the hands of the US Marines .
But above all Mario Vargas Llosa uses the fictional Urania to facilitate the novel 's attempt at remembering the regime . The novel opens and closes with Urania 's story , effectively framing the narrative in the terms of remembering the past and understanding its legacy in the present . In addition , because of her academic study of the history of the Trujillo regime , Urania is also confronting the memory of the regime for the country as a whole . This is in keeping with one purpose of the book , which is to ensure that the atrocities of the dictatorship and the dangers of absolute power will be remembered by a new generation .
= = = Writing and power = = =
In her treatment of the novel , María Regina Ruiz claims that power gives its wielder the ability to make prohibitions ; prohibitions that are reflected in history , the study of which reveals what is and what is not told . The government 's actions in The Feast of the Goat demonstrate the discourse of prohibition : foreign newspapers and magazines were prohibited from entering Trujillo 's country as they were seen as a threat to the government 's ideas . Mario Vargas Llosa takes part in this discourse by recounting what was prohibited .
Ruiz notes that writing also has the power to transform reality . It brings the reader back to the past , allowing the reader to comprehend myths or distorted stories told by historians . Ruiz contends that knowing the past is crucial to one 's understanding of the present that takes us to postmodernism , and argues that The Feast of the Goat can thus be seen as a postmodern discourse that gives power to history recreation .
The construction of fictions surrounding the events of Trujillo 's regime allow a degree of freedom from the horrors that took places . Author Julia Alvarez contends that these events can " only finally be understood by fiction , only finally be redeemed by the imagination " , while Richard Patterson claims that Vargas Llosa " reconfigures , and to a large degree demythologizes " Trujillo and his brutal reign through use of narrative structure . Vargas Llosa 's writing acts as a cathartic force for this period in history .
= = Fact and fiction = =
The novel is a combination of fact and fiction . Blending together these two elements is important in any historical novel , but especially in The Feast of the Goat because Vargas Llosa chose to narrate an actual event through the minds of both real and fictional characters . Some characters are fictional , and those that are non @-@ fictional still have fictionalized aspects in the book . The general details of the assassination are true , and the assassins are all real people . While they lie in wait for the Dictator to arrive , they recount actual crimes of the regime , such as the murder of the Mirabal sisters . However , other details are invented by Vargas Llosa , such as Amadito 's murder of the brother of the woman he loved .
Those within the regime are also a mix of fictional characters and real people . President Balaguer is real , but the entire Cabral family is completely fictional . According to Wolff , Vargas Llosa " uses history as a starting point in constructing a fictionalized account of Trujillo 's " spiritual colonization " of the Dominican Republic as experienced by one Dominican family . The fictional Cabral family allows Vargas Llosa to show two sides of the Trujillo regime : through Agustin , the reader sees ultimate dedication and sacrifice to the leader of the nation ; through Urania , the violence of the regime and the legacy of pain it left behind . Vargas Llosa also fictionalized the internal thoughts of the characters who were non @-@ fictional , especially those of the Goat himself . According to literary scholar Richard Patterson , " Vargas Llosa 's expands all the way into the very " dark area " of Trujillo 's consciousness ( as the storyteller dares to conceive it ) . "
Vargas Llosa also built an image of the regime with the troubled historical events . With regard to the historical accuracy of the book , Vargas Llosa has said " It 's a novel , not a history book , so I took many , many liberties . The only limitation I imposed on myself was that I was not going to invent anything that couldn 't have happened within the framework of life in the Dominican Republic . I have respected the basic facts , but I have changed and deformed many things in order to make the story more persuasive — and I have not exaggerated . "
= = Critical reception = =
The realist style of The Feast of the Goat is recognized by some reviewers as being a break from a more allegorical approach to the dictator novel . The novel received largely positive reviews , most of which were willing to accept sacrifices of historical accuracy in favour of good storytelling .
A common comment on the novel is the graphic nature of the many acts of torture and murder which are depicted in the novel . Vargas lets the reader see the realities of an oppressive regime with a degree of detail not often used by his compatriots in Latin American literature , as Michael Wood suggests in the London Review of Books : " Vargas Llosa ... tells us far more about the details of day @-@ to @-@ day intrigue , and the sordid , sadistic minutiae of torture and murder . " Walter Kirn of the New York Times suggests that the " grisly scenes of dungeon interrogations and torture sessions " cast other aspects of the novel in a pale light , draining them of their significance and impact . Similarly , Kirn implies that the " narrative machinery " mentioned by Wood as being somewhat unwieldy also produces a largely superfluous storyline . The plot line centered on Urania Cabral is described by Sturrock as being an emotional centre that focuses the novel , and Wood agrees that her confrontations with past demons hold the readers attention . In contrast , Kirn 's review states that Urania 's segments are " talky and atmospheric ... [ and ] seem to be on loan from another sort of book . "
Most reviews of The Feast of the Goat make either indirect of direct reference to the relationship between sexuality and power . Salon reviewer Laura Miller , writer for The Observer Jonathan Heawood , Walter Kirn , and Michael Wood each detail the connection between Trujillo 's gradual loss of ultimate control , both over his body and his followers . The means by which Trujillo reinforces political power through sexual acts and begins to lose personal conviction as his body fails him are topics of frequent discussion among reviewers .
In 2011 Bernard Diederich , author of the 1978 non @-@ fiction book Trujillo . The Death of the Goat , accused Vargas @-@ Llosa of plagiarism .
= = Adaptations = =
An English @-@ language film adaptation of the novel was made in 2005 , directed by Luis Llosa , Mario Vargas Llosa 's cousin . It stars Isabella Rossellini as Urania Cabral , Paul Freeman as her father Agustin , Stephanie Leonidas as Uranita and Tomas Milian as Rafael Leonidas Trujillo . It was filmed in both the Dominican Republic and in Spain . Reviewing the film for the trade paper Variety , critic Jonathan Holland called it " less a feast than a somewhat rushed , but thoroughly enjoyable , three @-@ course meal " , commenting that the main difference from the source novel was the sacrifice of psychological nuance .
The novel has also been adapted for the stage , by Jorge Alí Triana and his daughter Veronica Triana , directed by Jorge Triana : the play was put on ( in Spanish , but with simultaneous translation to English ) at Repertorio Español ( www.repertorio.org / chivo ) in New York in 2003 ; and the production moved to Lima in 2007 . A feature of the novel 's stage version is that the same actor plays both Agustin Cabral and Rafael Trujillo . For reviewer Bruce Weber , this makes the point " that Trujillo 's control of the nation depended on gutless collaborators " .
= Charles Eaton ( RAAF officer ) =
Charles Eaton , OBE , AFC ( 21 December 1895 – 12 November 1979 ) was a senior officer and aviator in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , who later served as a diplomat . Born in London , he joined the British Army upon the outbreak of World War I and saw action on the Western Front before transferring to the Royal Flying Corps in 1917 . Posted as a bomber pilot to No. 206 Squadron , he was twice captured by German forces , and twice escaped . Eaton left the military in 1920 and worked in India until moving to Australia in 1923 . Two years later he joined the RAAF , serving initially as an instructor at No. 1 Flying Training School . Between 1929 and 1931 , he was chosen to lead three expeditions to search for lost aircraft in Central Australia , gaining national attention and earning the Air Force Cross for his " zeal and devotion to duty " .
In 1939 , on the eve of World War II , Eaton became the inaugural commanding officer of No. 12 ( General Purpose ) Squadron at the newly established RAAF Station Darwin in Northern Australia . Promoted group captain the following year , he was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1942 . He took command of No. 79 Wing at Batchelor , Northern Territory , in 1943 , and was mentioned in despatches during operations in the South West Pacific . Retiring from the RAAF in December 1945 , Eaton took up diplomatic posts in the Dutch East Indies , heading a United Nations commission as Consul @-@ General during the Indonesian National Revolution . He returned to Australia in 1950 , and served in Canberra for a further two years . Popularly known as " Moth " Eaton , he was a farmer in later life , and died in 1979 at the age of 83 . He is commemorated by several memorials in the Northern Territory .
= = Early life and World War I = =
Charles Eaton was born on 21 December 1895 in Lambeth , London , the son of William Walpole Eaton , a butcher , and his wife Grace . Schooled in Wandsworth , Charles worked in Battersea Town Council from the age of fourteen , before joining the London Regiment upon the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 . Attached to a bicycle company in the 24th Battalion of the 47th Division , he arrived at the Western Front in March 1915 . He took part in trench bombing missions and attacks on enemy lines of communication , seeing action in the Battles of Aubers Ridge , Festubert , Loos , and the Somme .
On 14 May 1915 , Eaton transferred to the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) , undergoing initial pilot training at Oxford . While he was landing his Maurice Farman Shorthorn at the end of his first solo flight , another student collided with him and was killed , but Eaton emerged uninjured . He was commissioned in August and was awarded his wings in October . Ranked lieutenant , he served with No. 110 Squadron , which operated Martinsyde G.100 " Elephant " fighters out of Sedgeford , defending London against Zeppelin airships . Transferred to the newly formed Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in April 1918 , he was posted the following month to France flying Airco DH.9 single @-@ engined bombers with No. 206 Squadron . On 29 June , he was shot down behind enemy lines and captured in the vicinity of Nieppe . Incarcerated in Holzminden prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp , Germany , Eaton escaped but was recaptured and court @-@ martialled , after which he was kept in solitary confinement . He later effected another escape and succeeded in rejoining his squadron in the final days of the war .
= = Between the wars = =
Eaton remained in the RAF following the cessation of hostilities . He married Beatrice Godfrey in St. Thomas 's church at Shepherd 's Bush , London , on 11 January 1919 . Posted to No. 1 Squadron , he was a pilot on the first regular passenger service between London and Paris , ferrying delegates to and from the Peace Conference at Versailles . Eaton was sent to India in December to undertake aerial survey work , including the first such survey of the Himalayas . He resigned from the RAF in July 1920 , remaining in India to take up employment with the Imperial Forest Service . After successfully applying for a position with the Queensland Forestry Service , he and his family migrated to Australia in 1923 . Moving to South Yarra , Victoria , he enlisted as a flying officer in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) at Laverton on 14 August 1925 . He was posted to No. 1 Flying Training School at RAAF Point Cook , as a flight instructor , where he became known as a strict disciplinarian who " trained his pilots well " . Here Eaton acquired his nickname of " Moth " , the Air Force 's basic trainer at this time being the De Havilland DH.60 Moth . Promoted flight lieutenant in February 1928 , he flew a Moth in the 1929 East @-@ West Air Race from Sydney to Perth , as part of the celebrations for the Western Australia Centenary ; he was the sixth competitor across the line , after fellow RFC veteran Jerry Pentland .
Regarded as one of the RAAF 's most skilful cross @-@ country pilots and navigators , Eaton came to public attention as leader of three military expeditions to find lost aircraft in Central Australia between 1929 and 1931 . In April 1929 , he coordinated the Air Force 's part in the search for aviators Keith Anderson and Bob Hitchcock , missing in their aircraft the Kookaburra while themselves looking for Charles Kingsford Smith and Charles Ulm , who had force landed the Southern Cross in north Western Australia during a flight from Sydney . Three of the RAAF 's five " ancient " DH.9 biplanes went down in the search — though all crews escaped injury — including Eaton 's , which experienced what he labelled " a good crash " on 21 April near Tennant Creek after the engine 's pistons melted . The same day , Captain Lester Brain , flying a Qantas aircraft , located the wreck of the Kookaburra in the Tanami Desert
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of the network . In October 2006 , the pilot aired on NBC as 30 Rock . Although the episode received generally favorable reviews , it finished third in its timeslot .
The network renewed the series for a second season , which began in October 2007 . The show 's third season premiered on October 30 , 2008 . The premiere episode drew 8 @.@ 5 million viewers , the highest ratings of the series .
In 2007 , Fey received an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series . The show itself won the 2007 Emmy for Outstanding Comedy Series ( and did so again for two subsequent years ) . In 2008 , she won the Golden Globe , Screen Actors Guild , and Emmy awards all in the category for Best Actress in a Comedy Series . The following year , Fey again won the Golden Globe and Screen Actors Guild Award in the same categories , and was nominated for an Emmy Award . In early 2010 , Fey received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress , and won the Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Lead Actress . 30 Rock was renewed for the 2010 – 2011 season in March 2010 . The series returned for the 2011 – 2012 season , though due to Fey 's pregnancy with her second child , the season premiere was delayed until midseason . Fey 's performance on the show was inspired by Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus , and later used Louis @-@ Dreyfus to play the stand @-@ in for the character of Liz Lemon in flashback scenes during the live episode of the fifth season . On May 11 , 2012 , it was announced that the show had been renewed for a seventh and final season , to premiere October 4 , 2012 , with 13 episodes . After receiving 13 Emmy Award nominations and two wins for this final season , 30 Rock ended its critically acclaimed run with 112 Emmy award nominations . It has been cited as one of the greatest TV series of all time and it is considered to have one of the greatest finales in television history .
= = = Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt = = =
In 2015 , Fey created and produced the television comedy Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt with fellow 30 Rock @-@ alumnus Robert Carlock . The series stars Ellie Kemper as the titular character who escapes from a doomsday cult and moves to New York . It also stars Fey 's former co @-@ star Jane Krakowski , as well as Tituss Burgess ( who had previously appeared in four 30 Rock episodes ) and Carol Kane . Although it was originally produced for NBC , it was eventually sold to Netflix and immediately renewed for a second season . The show premiered on March 6 , 2015 to critical acclaim .
On July 16 , 2015 , the series was nominated for seven Primetime Emmy Awards , including Outstanding Comedy Series . Fey herself was nominated both as the creator / executive producer of the series and for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for her guest performance as Marcia , a bumbling prosecutor in reference to Marcia Clark .
= = = Feature films = = =
In 2002 , Fey appeared in the surreal comedy Martin & Orloff . She made her debut as writer and co @-@ star of the 2004 teen comedy Mean Girls . Characters and behaviors in the movie are based on Fey 's high school life at Upper Darby High School and on the non @-@ fiction book Queen Bees and Wannabes by Rosalind Wiseman . The cast includes other past cast members of SNL including Tim Meadows , Ana Gasteyer , and Amy Poehler . The film received favorable reviews , and was a box office success , grossing US $ 129 million worldwide .
In a 2004 interview , Fey expressed that she would like to write and direct movies . In 2006 , Fey worked on a movie script for Paramount Pictures , which was to feature Sacha Baron Cohen , by the name of Curly Oxide and Vic Thrill , based loosely on the true story of a Hasidic rock musician . In 2007 , she was cast in the animated comedy film Aqua Teen Hunger Force Colon Movie Film for Theaters as the Aqua Teens ' mother , a giant burrito .
She received her SAG card after appearing in Artie Lange 's Beer League released in 2006 , in which she was compelled to join for " ... a thousand dollars " .
Fey and former SNL castmate Amy Poehler starred in the 2008 comedy Baby Mama . The movie was written and directed by Michael McCullers . The plot concerns Kate ( Fey ) , a business woman , who wants a child but , discovering she has only a million @-@ to @-@ one chance of getting pregnant , decides to find a surrogate : Angie ( Poehler ) , a white @-@ trash schemer . Baby Mama received mixed reviews , but critics enjoyed Fey 's performance . Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote : " Fey is a delight to watch throughout . Able to convey Kate 's intentions and feelings through the simple looks and inflections , she never melodramatizes her situation ; nor does her efficient , perfectionist side become overbearing . " The movie grossed over US $ 64 million at the box office .
Fey 's projects after 2008 include a voice role in the English @-@ language version of the Japanese animated film Ponyo . In 2009 , she appeared in The Invention of Lying , alongside Ricky Gervais , Jennifer Garner , Rob Lowe , and Christopher Guest . Her next film role was in Shawn Levy 's 2010 comedy Date Night , a feature that focuses on a married couple , played by Fey and Steve Carell , who go on a date ; however , the night goes awry for the two . Also in the same year , she voiced Roxanne Ritchie , a television reporter , in the DreamWorks animated film Megamind ( 2010 ) . With a total worldwide gross of US $ 321 million , Megamind is Fey 's most commercially successful picture to date . It earned US $ 173 million outside the U.S. and US $ 148 million domestically .
In 2013 , Fey starred alongside Paul Rudd in the romantic comedy @-@ drama film Admission , based on the Jean Hanff Korelitz novel by the same name . The film was directed by Paul Weitz . Fey later starred in the 2014 comedy @-@ drama This Is Where I Leave You , helmed by Date Night director Shawn Levy . As was the case with Baby Mama , although both of these films received generally mixed reviews , Fey 's performances were well received by film critics .
In 2015 , it was announced Fey would be the narrator for the Disney Nature film Monkey Kingdom , which was released in theaters on April 17 , 2015 . She then re @-@ teamed with Poehler , starring in the 2015 comedy film Sisters as the title characters , and received positive reviews for her role . In 2016 , Fey starred in the biographical war comedy @-@ drama Whiskey Tango Foxtrot , based on the memoir The Taliban Shuffle : Strange Days in Afghanistan and Pakistan , to positive reviews .
= = = Subsequent SNL appearances = = =
On February 23 , 2008 , Fey hosted the first episode of SNL after the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . For this appearance , she was nominated for an Emmy in the category of Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program . Fey hosted SNL for a second time on April 10 , 2010 , and for her appearance she received an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series .
From September to November 2008 , Fey made multiple guest appearances on SNL to perform a series of parodies of Republican vice @-@ presidential candidate Sarah Palin . On the 34th season premiere episode , aired September 13 , 2008 , Fey imitated Palin in a sketch , alongside Amy Poehler as Hillary Clinton . Their repartee included Clinton needling Palin about her " Tina Fey glasses " . The sketch quickly became NBC 's most @-@ watched viral video ever , with 5 @.@ 7 million views by the following Wednesday . Fey reprised this role on the October 4 show , on the October 18 show where she was joined by the real Sarah Palin , and on the November 1 show , where she was joined by John McCain and his wife Cindy . The October 18 show had the best ratings of any SNL show since 1994 . The following year Fey won an Emmy in the category of Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for her impersonation of Palin . Fey returned to SNL in April 2010 , and reprised her impression of Palin in one sketch titled the " Sarah Palin Network " . Fey once again did her impression of Palin when she hosted Saturday Night Live on May 8 , 2011 .
In December 2009 , Entertainment Weekly put her Palin impersonation on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade " best @-@ of " list , writing , " Fey 's freakishly spot @-@ on SNL impersonation of the wannabe VP ( and her ability to strike a balance between comedy and cruelty ) made for truly transcendent television . " Rolling Stone called her Palin impression " [ arguably ] the most brilliant move SNL ever made " .
= = = Other work = = =
In 1997 , Fey and other members of The Second City provided voices for the pinball game Medieval Madness .
In 2000 , Fey partnered with fellow SNL cast member Rachel Dratch in the Off Broadway two @-@ woman show Dratch & Fey at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theater in New York City . The production was well received by critics . Tim Townsend of The Wall Street Journal wrote that the fun part of watching Fey and Dratch perform was " seeing how comfortable they are with each other " . He concluded that the production " isn 't about two women being funny ... Dratch and Fey are just funny . Period . " One of the SNL sketches , " Sully and Denise " , originated at The Second City .
On August 13 , 2007 , Fey made a guest appearance in the Sesame Street episode " The Bookaneers " . She appeared as a guest judge on the November 25 , 2007 episode of the Food Network program Iron Chef America .
Fey has appeared as Tinker Bell in Disney 's campaign " Year of a Million Dreams " . She has also done commercials for American Express and Garnier Nutrisse .
On April 5 , 2011 , Fey 's autobiography , Bossypants , was released to a positive review from The New York Times .
In 2011 , Fey narrated The Secret Life of Girls , a two @-@ hour @-@ long radio documentary produced by The Kitchen Sisters . She introduced stories of women and girls from around the world , and also shared memories of her own girlhood and mother .
In 2012 , Fey made her rapping debut on the Childish Gambino ( Donald Glover ) mixtape Royalty . Glover is a former writer on 30 Rock , on which he worked with Fey . Fey was also featured as herself in the iCarly episode " iShock America " .
= = Comedic and acting style = =
Fey is known for her deadpan humor and delivery ; her " sardonic wit " has become a trademark of hers , upon which several critics have commented in their reviews of Fey 's work . According to Los Angeles Times critic Mary McNamara , Fey " project [ s ] both oblivious security and hyper @-@ alert insecurity with the same expression " in her performances , while The Chronicle 's Dillon Fernando wrote that the actress specializes in " delectable , situational and ironic comedy " . On Fey 's comedic prowess , Saturday Night Live creator Lorne Michaels enthused that his former employee " has a very clear take on things ... It always comes from a place of intelligence and there is just an edge to it . " Michaels concluded , " It 's not fearful . It 's strong and confident and you recognise the voice and most of the time you agree with it . " Writing for The Guardian , Christopher Goodwin believes that Fey " fashioned her comic persona around her glasses " , which she has worn since 1995 ; Fey joked that " Glasses make anyone look smarter " .
Seldom hesitating to use herself as the butt of her own jokes , Fey is also well known for practicing self @-@ deprecating humor , as demonstrated throughout her performance as Liz Lemon in 30 Rock . In an article ranking Fey 's six greatest jokes , David Renshaw of The Guardian wrote that the performer 's work continues to feature her " trademark mix of snark , self @-@ deprecation and pop @-@ culture smarts . " Fey 's self @-@ deprecating comedic style inspired Ashley Fetters of The Atlantic to recognize her as comedian Phyllis Diller 's successor because of their similar humor . Critics have been divided in their opinions and discussions of Fey 's use of self @-@ deprecating humor , and its effect on women as a female comic ; while blogger Kate Harding disapproved of Fey 's performance in 30 Rock because " I 'm torn between being sad that she apparently doesn 't see [ beauty ] in herself and being pissed off that she 's reinforcing the idea that having brown hair , glasses , and a figure that 's maybe a size 2 instead of a 0 actually equals ugly " , Jessica G. of Jezebel defended the actress , writing that Fey 's performance is " supposed to be parodying precisely the kinds of media that reinforce ideas that unconventional women are unworthy . " Writing that Harding misunderstood Fey 's intentions , the author concluded that her self @-@ deprecation " is precisely what makes her relatable " , elaborating that " [ women ] have many moments of self @-@ doubt , and seeing someone as successful as Tina Fey be self @-@ deprecating gives us all permission to be imperfect . " Sophie Caldecott of Verily defended Fey 's modesty and tendency to downplay her own physical appearance : " She mocks her own appearance , sure , but she does so in a way that consistently shows up our culture for placing so much importance on how women look , as if that ’ s the most interesting thing about us ... Her comic persona on 30 Rock , Liz Lemon , can be laughed at for many things , but her career managerial style and ability is not one of them . " Caldecott concluded , " In reality , self @-@ deprecation is an art that comedians everywhere dabble in ... In fact , I defy you to find a good male comedian who isn ’ t a master of self @-@ deprecation . Comedians make fun of themselves for many reasons , mostly because it is the most readily accessible source of inspiration but also because it is the most generous one . " Observing that Fey 's material lacks " whining " , Gina Barreca of the Hartford Courant wrote that Fey 's comedy " is not simply an iteration of self @-@ deprecating femininity passing itself off as humor . In itself , this demarcates the current generation of female humorists from earlier generations of performers who were told , more or less , to use themselves not as a sounding board for ideas but as a punching bag for insults . "
As an actress , Fey has developed a reputation for portraying " the hilarious , self @-@ deprecating unmarried career woman " in most of her films to @-@ date . The Boston Globe 's Janice Paige defended her limited filmography by writing that , unlike most film actors , Fey remains " realistic about her range as a leading lady and says she ’ s been deliberate about only taking on parts for which she actually seems suited . " Fey explained that she approaches each role asking herself , " Would I be plausible in this role , in this job ? " However , her role as Kate Ellis in 2015 's Sisters provided Fey with an opportunity to stray from playing the type @-@ A female characters for which she has become known . The New York Times film critic A. O. Scott wrote , " We ’ re used to seeing Ms. Fey ... as an anxious overthinker using her caustic sarcasm as a weapon against both her own insecurities and the flakes and train wrecks who surround her . This time , she gets to be the train wreck . " In 30 Rock , Fey 's comedic acting was heavily influenced by both physical and improvisational comedy while , as a writer , her " carefully written scripts " were often quirky and character @-@ driven .
= = In the media = =
In 2002 , Fey was ranked in the Hot 100 List at number 80 on Maxim magazine , which used photos taken earlier by Rolling Stone calling her " the thinking man 's sex symbol " . She was named one of People magazine 's 50 Most Beautiful People in 2003 , and one of People magazine 's 100 Most Beautiful People in 2007 , 2008 , and 2009 . In 2007 , Fey placed seventh on the Hot 100 List on AfterEllen.com. She repeated the appearance the following year , being voted as number one on the list .
In 2001 , Entertainment Weekly named Fey as one of their Entertainers of the Year for her work on Weekend Update . In 2007 , she was named one of the magazine 's Entertainers of the Year , and placed number two in 2008 . In 2009 , Fey was named as Entertainment Weekly 's fifth individual in their 15 Entertainers of the 2000s list . In 2013 , Entertainment Weekly crowned Fey as " The Once and Future Queen " ( an allusion to The Once and Future King ) in their feature on " Women Who Run TV , " calling her " the funniest woman in the free world . " EW quoted Mindy Kaling as saying , " I always feel unoriginal bringing up Tina as my inspiration , but she 's everyone 's inspiration for a reason . " The column also quoted praise by Zooey Deschanel and Lena Dunham .
The newspaper editors and broadcast producers of the Associated Press voted Fey the AP Entertainer of the Year as the performer who had the greatest impact on culture and entertainment in 2008 , citing her impression of Sarah Palin on SNL . She has appeared on Forbes ' annual Celebrity 100 list of the 100 most powerful celebrities in 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , and 2012 at No. 99 , No. 86 , No. 90 , No. 92 , and No. 79 respectively .
In 2007 , the New York Post included Fey in New York 's 50 Most Powerful Women , ranking her at number 33 . Fey was among the Time 100 , a list of the 100 most influential people in the world , in 2007 and 2009 , as selected annually by Time magazine . Fey 's featured article for the 2009 list was written by 30 Rock co @-@ star , Alec Baldwin . She was selected by Barbara Walters as one of America 's 10 Most Fascinating People of 2008 .
In September 2011 , Fey was ranked at the top of Forbes magazine 's list of the highest @-@ paid TV actresses .
In June 2010 , it was announced Fey would receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2011 .
In 2014 , Fey was recognized by Elle Magazine during The Women in Hollywood Awards , honoring women for their outstanding achievements in film , spanning all aspects of the motion picture industry , including acting , directing , and producing .
= = Charity work = =
Fey 's charity work includes support of Autism Speaks , an organization that sponsors autism research . In April 2008 , she participated in Night of Too Many Stars , a comedy benefit show for autism education .
Fey is also a supporter of Mercy Corps , a global relief and development organization , in their campaign to end world hunger . Fey narrated a video for Mercy Corps 's Action Center in New York City , describing hunger as a symptom of many wider world problems . She also supports the Love Our Children USA organization , which fights violence against children , who named her among their Mothers Who Make a Difference , in 2009 . She was the 2009 national spokesperson for the Light the Night Walk , which benefits the Leukemia & Lymphoma Society .
= = Personal life = =
In 1994 , two years after Fey joined Chicago 's Second City improvisational theatre troupe , she began dating Jeff Richmond , a piano player who later became Second City 's musical director and then a composer on 30 Rock . They married in a Greek Orthodox ceremony on June 3 , 2001 . They have two daughters : Alice Zenobia Richmond ( born September 10 , 2005 ) and Penelope Athena Richmond ( born August 10 , 2011 ) . In April 2009 , Fey and Richmond purchased a US $ 3 @.@ 4 million apartment on the Upper West Side in New York City .
Fey has a scar a few inches long on the left side of her chin and cheek , the cause of which remained unexplained to the public until a 2008 Vanity Fair profile by Maureen Dowd , and subsequently in her autobiographical book , where she revealed that " during the spring semester of kindergarten , I was slashed in the face by a stranger in the alley behind my house " .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Video games = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= WASP @-@ 44 =
WASP @-@ 44 is a G @-@ type star in constellation Cetus that has the Jupiter @-@ size planet WASP @-@ 44b in orbit . The star is slightly less massive and slightly smaller than the Sun ; it is also slightly cooler , but is more metal @-@ rich . The star was observed by SuperWASP , an organization in search of planets , starting in 2009 ; manual follow @-@ up observations used WASP @-@ 44 's spectrum and measurements of its radial velocity led to the discovery of the transiting planet WASP @-@ 44b . The planet and its star were presented along with WASP @-@ 45b and WASP @-@ 46b on May 17 , 2011 by a team of scientists testing the idea that Hot Jupiters tend to have circular orbits , an assumption that is made when the orbital eccentricity of such planets are not well @-@ constrained .
= = Observational history = =
WASP @-@ 44 was observed between July and November 2009 by the WASP @-@ South , a station of the SuperWASP planet @-@ searching program based at the South African Astronomical Observatory . Observations of the star revealed a periodic decrease in its brightness . WASP @-@ South , along with the SuperWASP @-@ North station at the Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on the Canary Islands , collected 15 @,@ 755 photometric observations , allowing scientists to produce a more accurate light curve . Another set of observations yielded a 6 @,@ 000 point photometric data set , but the light curve was prepared late and was not considered in the discovery paper .
In 2010 , a European science team investigated the star using the CORALIE spectrograph and collected seventeen spectra of WASP @-@ 44 . From the spectra , radial velocity measurements were extrapolated . Analysis of collected CORALIE data ruled out the possibility that the detected radial velocity was caused by the blended spectrum of a spectroscopic binary star , supporting the possibility that the body orbiting WASP @-@ 44 was indeed a planet , designated WASP @-@ 44b .
The Leonhard Euler Telescope at La Silla Observatory in Chile was used to follow up on the discovery circling WASP @-@ 44 , searching for a point at which the planet transited , or crossed in front of , its host star . One transit was detected .
WASP @-@ 44 , its recently discovered planet , the planets orbiting WASP @-@ 45 and WASP @-@ 46 , and a discussion exploring the validity of the common assumption amongst scientists that closely orbiting Hot Jupiter planets have highly circular orbits unless proven otherwise , were reported in a single discovery paper that was published on May 17 , 2011 by the Royal Astronomical Society . The paper was submitted to the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society on May 16 , 2011 .
= = Characteristics = =
WASP @-@ 44 is a G @-@ type star ( the same class of star as the Sun ) that is located in the Cetus constellation . WASP @-@ 44 has a mass that is 0 @.@ 951 times that of the Sun . In terms of size , WASP @-@ 44 has a radius that is 0 @.@ 927 times that of the Sun . WASP @-@ 44 has an effective temperature of 5410 K , cooler than the Sun . However , the star is metal @-@ rich with relation to the Sun . Its measured metallicity is [ Fe / H ] = 0 @.@ 06 , or 1 @.@ 148 times that the amount of iron found in the Sun . WASP @-@ 44 's chromosphere ( outermost layer ) is not active . The star also does not rotate at a high velocity .
The star has an apparent magnitude of 12 @.@ 9 . It cannot be seen from Earth with the naked eye .
= = Planetary system = =
There is one known planet in the orbit of WASP @-@ 44 : WASP @-@ 44b . The planet is a Hot Jupiter with a mass of 0 @.@ 889 Jupiters . Its radius is 1 @.@ 14 times that of Jupiter . WASP @-@ 44b orbits its host star every 2 @.@ 4238039 days at a distance 0 @.@ 03473 AU , approximately 3 @.@ 47 % the mean distance between the Earth and Sun . With an orbital inclination of 86.02º , WASP @-@ 44b has an orbit that exists almost edge @-@ on to its host star with respect to Earth . WASPA @-@ 44b 's orbital eccentricity is fit to 0 @.@ 036 , indicating a mostly circular orbit .
= Elephanta Caves =
Elephanta caves are a network of sculpted caves located on Elephanta Island , or Gharapuri ( literally " the city of caves " ) in Mumbai Harbour , 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to the east of the city of Mumbai in the Indian state of Maharashtra . The island , located on an arm of the Arabian Sea , consists of two groups of caves — the first is a large group of five Hindu caves , the second , a smaller group of two Buddhist caves . The Hindu caves contain rock cut stone sculptures , representing the Shaiva Hindu sect , dedicated to the Lord Shiva .
The rock cut architecture of the caves has been dated to between the 5th and 8th centuries , although the identity of the original builders is still a subject of debate . The caves are hewn from solid basalt rock . All the caves were also originally painted in the past , but now only traces remain .
The main cave ( Cave 1 , or the Great Cave ) was a Hindu place of worship until Portuguese rule began in 1534 , after which the caves suffered severe damage . This cave was renovated in the 1970s after years of neglect , and was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 to preserve the artwork . It is currently maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) .
= = Geography = =
Elephanta Island , or Gharapuri , is about 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) east of the Apollo Bunder ( Bunder in Marathi means a " pier for embarkation and disembarkation of passengers and goods " ) on the Mumbai Harbour and 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) south of Pir Pal in Trombay . The island covers about 10 km2 ( 3 @.@ 9 sq mi ) at high tide and about 16 km2 ( 6 @.@ 2 sq mi ) at low tide . Gharapuri is small village on the south side of the island . The Elephanta Caves can be reached by a ferry from the Gateway of India , Mumbai , which has the nearest airport and train station . The cave is closed on Monday .
The island is 2 @.@ 4 km ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) in length with two hills that rise to a height of about 150 m ( 490 ft ) . A deep ravine cuts through the heart of the island from north to south . On the west , the hill rises gently from the sea and stretches east across the ravine and rises gradually to the extreme east to a height of 173 m ( 568 ft ) . This hill is known as the Stupa hill . Forest growth with clusters of mango , tamarind , and karanj trees cover the hills with scattered palm trees . Rice fields are seen in the valley . The fore shore is made up of sand and mud with mangrove bushes on the fringe . Landing quays sit near three small hamlets known as Set Bunder in the north @-@ west , Mora Bunder in the northeast , and Gharapuri or Raj Bunder in the south .
The two hills of the island , the western and the eastern , have five rock @-@ cut caves in the western part and a brick stupa on the eastern hill on its top composed of two caves with a few rock @-@ cut cisterns . One of the caves on the eastern hill is unfinished . It is a protected island with a buffer zone according to a Notification issued in 1985 , which also includes " a prohibited area " that stretches 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) from the shoreline .
= = History = =
Since no inscriptions on any of the island have been discovered , the ancient history of the island is conjectural , at best . Pandavas , the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahabharata , and Banasura , the demon devotee of Shiva , are both credited with building temples or cut caves to live . Local tradition holds that the caves are not man @-@ made .
The Elephanta caves are " of unknown date and attribution " . Art historians have dated the caves in the range of late 5th to late 8th century AD . Archaeological excavations have unearthed a few Kshatrapa coins dated to 4th century AD . The known history is traced only to the defeat of Mauryan rulers of Konkan by the Badami Chalukyas emperor Pulakesi II ( 609 – 642 ) in a naval battle , in 635 AD . Elephanta was then called Puri or Purika , and served as the capital of the Konkan Mauryas . Some historians attribute the caves to the Konkan Mauryas , dating them to the mid @-@ 6th century , though others refute this claim saying a relatively small kingdom like the Konkan Mauryas could not undertake " an almost superhuman excavation effort , " which was needed to carve the rock temples from solid rock and could not have the skilled labor to produce such " high quality " sculpture .
Some other historians attribute the construction to the Kalachuris ( late 5th to 6th century ) , who may have had a feudal relationship with the Konkan Mauryas . In an era where polytheism was prevalent , the Elephanta main cave dedicates the monotheism of the Pashupata Shaivism sect , a sect to which Kalachuris as well as Konkan Mauryas belonged .
The Chalukyas , who defeated the Kalachuris as well as the Konkan Mauryas , are also believed by some to be creators of the main cave , in the mid @-@ 7th century . The Rashtrakutas are the last claimants to the creation of the main cave , approximated to the early 7th to late 8th century . The Elephanta Shiva cave resembles in some aspects the 8th @-@ century Rashtrakuta rock @-@ temple Kailash at Ellora . The Trimurti of Elephanta showing the three faces of Shiva is akin to the Trimurti of Brahma , Vishnu and Mahesh ( Shiva ) , which was the royal insignia of the Rashtrakutas . The Nataraja and Ardhanarishvara sculptures are also attributed to the Rashtrakutas .
Later , Elephanta was ruled by another Chalukyan dynasty , and then by Gujarat Sultanate , who surrendered it to the Portuguese in 1534 . By then , Elephanta was called Gharapuri , which denotes a hill settlement . The name is still used in the local Marathi language . The Portuguese named the island " Elephanta Island " in honour of a huge rock @-@ cut black stone statue of an elephant that was then installed on a mound , a short distance east of Gharapuri village . The elephant now sits in the Jijamata Udyaan zoo in Mumbai .
Portuguese rule saw a decline in the Hindu population on the island and the abandonment of the Shiva cave ( main cave ) as a regular Hindu place of worship , though worship on Mahashivratri , the festival of Shiva , continued and still does . The Portuguese did considerable damage to the sanctuaries . Portuguese soldiers used the reliefs of Shiva in the main cave for target practice , sparing only the Trimurti sculpture . They also removed an inscription related to the creation of the caves . While some historians solely blame the Portuguese for the destruction of the caves , others also cite water @-@ logging and dripping rainwater as additional damaging factors . The Portuguese left in 1661 as per the marriage treaty of Charles II of England and Catherine of Braganza , daughter of King John IV of Portugal . This marriage shifted possession of the islands to the British Empire , as part of Catherine 's dowry to Charles .
Though the main cave was restored in the 1970s , other caves , including three consisting of important sculptures , are still badly damaged . The caves were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 as per the cultural criteria of UNESCO : the caves " represent a masterpiece of human creative genius " and " bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilisation which is living or which has disappeared " .
= = Overview = =
The island has two groups of caves in the rock @-@ cut architectural style . The caves are hewn from solid basalt rock . All caves were painted in the past , but only traces remain . The larger group of caves , which consists of five caves on the western hill of the island , is well known for its Hindu sculptures . The primary cave , numbered as Cave 1 , is about 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) up a hillside , facing the ocean . It is a rock @-@ cut temple complex that covers an area of 5 @,@ 600 m2 ( 60 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , and consists of a main chamber , two lateral chambers , courtyards , and subsidiary shrines . It is 39 metres ( 128 ft ) deep from the front entrance to the back . The temple complex is the abode of Shiva , depicted in widely celebrated carvings which reveal his several forms and acts .
On the eastern part of the island , on the Stupa Hill , there is a small group of caves that house Buddhist monuments . This hill is named after the religious Stupa monument that they display . One of the two caves is incomplete , while the other contains a Stupa made in brick .
= = Main cave = =
The main cave , also called the Shiva cave , Cave 1 , or the Great Cave , is 27 metres ( 89 ft ) square in plan with a hall ( mandapa ) . At the entrance are four doors , with three open porticoes and an aisle at the back . Pillars , six in each row , divide the hall into a series of smaller chambers . The roof of the hall has concealed beams supported by stone columns joined together by capitals . The cave entrance is aligned with the north – south axis , unusual for a Shiva shrine ( normally east – west ) . The northern entrance to the cave , which has 1 @,@ 000 steep steps , is flanked by two panels of Shiva dated to the Gupta period . The left panel depicts Yogishvara ( The Lord of Yoga ) and the right shows Nataraja ( Shiva as the Lord of Dance ) . The central Shiva shrine ( see 16 in plan below ) is a free @-@ standing square cell with four entrances , located in the right section of the main hall . Smaller shrines are located at the east and west ends of the caves . The eastern sanctuary serves as a ceremonial entrance .
Each wall has large carvings of Shiva , each more than 5 metres ( 16 ft ) in height . The central Shiva relief Trimurti is located on the south wall and is flanked by Ardhanarisvara ( a half @-@ man , half @-@ woman representation of Shiva ) on its left and Gangadhara to its right , which denotes the River Ganges ' descent from Shiva 's matted locks . Other carvings related to the legend of Shiva are also seen in the main hall at strategic locations in exclusive cubicles ; these include Kalyanasundaramurti , depicting Shiva 's marriage to the goddess Parvati , Andhakasuravadamurti or Andhakasuramardana , the slaying of the demon Andhaka by Shiva , Shiva @-@ Parvati on Mount Kailash ( the abode of Shiva ) , and Ravananugraha , depicting the demon @-@ king Ravana shaking Kailash .
The main cave blends Chalukyan architectural features such as massive figures of the divinities , guardians , and square pillars with custom capitals with Gupta artistic characteristics , like the depiction of mountains and clouds and female hairstyles .
Layout :
= = = Shiva @-@ Parvati on Kailash and Ravana lifting Kailash = = =
The carving on the south wall to the east of the portico depicts Shiva and Parvati seated on their abode Mount Kailash . The four @-@ armed Shiva is seen with a crown and a disc behind it ( all damaged ) , the sacred thread across his chest , and a dressing gown covering up to the knee . Parvati , dressed in her finery with her hair falling to the front , looks away . Behind her at the right is a woman attendant holding the child , identified with her son Kartikeya , the war @-@ god . Many male and female attendants are seen behind the main figures . Shiva 's attendant , the skeleton @-@ like Bhringi , is seated at his feet . Other figures , not distinct , depict , among others , a royal @-@ looking tall person , ascetics , a fat figure , a dwarf , a bull ( the mount of Shiva ) , features of a Garuda , and two monkeys . The scenic beauty of the mountain is sculpted with the sky background amidst heavenly beings showering flowers on Shiva @-@ Parvati . This scene is interpreted as a gambling scene , where Parvati is angry as Shiva cheats in a game of dice .
The carved panel facing this one is a two @-@ level depiction of Ravana lifting Kailash . The upper scene is Mount Kailash , where Shiva and Parvati are seated . The eight @-@ armed , three @-@ eyed Shiva wears headgear with a crescent and disc behind it . Most of his arms are broken , two of them resting on attendants ' heads . The Parvati figure , seated facing Shiva , remains only as a trunk . The panel is flanked by door keepers . Attendants of Shiva are also seen in the relief but mostly in a damaged state . Bhringi is seated near Shiva 's feet and to his left is the elephant @-@ headed son of Shiva , Ganesha . In this ensemble , the ten @-@ headed demon @-@ king Ravana is seen , with only one head left unscathed , and out of his twenty arms , only a few are discernible . Around Ravana are several demons . Numerous figures are seen above Shiva : the god Vishnu , riding his mount Garuda , to his left ; a skeleton @-@ figure ; and in a recess , Parvati 's mount , a tiger is depicted .
A legend relates to both these panels . Once , Parvati was annoyed with Shiva . At this moment , Ravana , who was passing by Mount Kailash , found it as an obstruction to his movement . Upset , Ravana shook it vigorously and as a result , Parvati got scared and hugged Shiva . Enraged by Ravana 's arrogance , Shiva stamped down on Ravana , who sang praises of Shiva to free him of his misery and turned into an ardent devotee of Shiva . Another version states that Shiva was pleased with Ravana for restoring Parvati 's composure and blessed him .
= = = Trimurti , Gangadhara and Ardhanarishvara = = =
Described as a " masterpiece of Gupta @-@ Chalukyan art " , the most important sculpture in the caves is the Trimurti , carved in relief at the back of the cave facing the entrance , on the north @-@ south axis . It is also known as Trimurti Sadashiva and Maheshmurti . The image , 6 m ( 20 ft ) in height , depicts a three @-@ headed Shiva , representing Panchamukha Shiva . The three heads are said to represent three essential aspects of Shiva : creation , protection , and destruction . The right half @-@ face ( west face ) shows him as a young person with sensuous lips , embodying life and its vitality . In his hand he holds an object resembling a rosebud , depicting the promise of life and creativity . This face is closest to that of Brahma , the creator or Uma or Vamadeva , the feminine side of Shiva and creator of joy and beauty . The left half @-@ face ( east face ) is that of a moustached young man , displaying anger . This is Shiva as the terrifying Aghora or Bhairava , the one whose anger can engulf the entire world in flames , leaving only ashes behind . This is also known as Rudra @-@ Shiva , the Destroyer . The central face , benign and meditative , resembles the preserver Vishnu . This is Tatpurusha , " master of positive and negative principles of existence and preserver of their harmony " or Shiva as the yogi Yogeshwar in deep meditation praying for the preservation of humanity . The aspects Sadyojata and Ishana ( not carved ) faces are considered to be at the back and top of the sculpture . The Trimurti sculpture , with the Gateway of India in the background , has been adopted as the logo of the Maharashtra Tourism Department ( MTDC ) .
The Gangadhara image to the right of the Trimurti is an ensemble of divinities assembled around the central figures of Shiva and Parvati , the former bearing the River Ganges as she descends from heaven . The carving is 4 m ( 13 ft ) wide and 5 @.@ 207 m ( 17 @.@ 08 ft ) high . The image is highly damaged , particularly the lower half of Shiva seen seated with Parvati , who is shown with four arms , two of which are broken . From the crown , a cup with a triple @-@ headed female figure ( with broken arms ) , representing the three sacred rivers Ganges , Yamuna , and Sarasvati , is depicted . Shiva is sculpted and bedecked with ornaments . The arms hold a coiling serpent whose hood is seen above his left shoulder . Another hand ( partly broken ) gives the semblance of Shiva hugging Parvati , with a head of matted hair . There is a small snake on the right hand and a tortoise close to the neck , with a bundle tied to the back . An ornamented drapery covers his lower torso , below the waist . Parvati is carved to the left of Shiva with a coiffured hair dress , fully bedecked with ornaments and jewellery , also fully draped , with her right hand touching the head of a female attendant who carries Parvati 's dress case . The gods Brahma and Indra , with their mystic regalia and mounts , are shown to the right of Shiva ; Vishnu , riding his mount Garuda , is shown to the left of Parvati . Many other details are defaced but a kneeling figure in the front is inferred to be the king who ordered the image to be carved . There are many divinities and attendant females at the back . The whole setting is under the sky and cloud scenes , with men and women , all dressed , shown showering flowers on the deities .
In the chamber to the east of the Trimurti is the four @-@ armed Ardhanarishvara carving . This image , which is 5 @.@ 11 m ( 16 @.@ 8 ft ) in height , has a headdress ( double @-@ folded ) with two pleats draped towards the female head ( Parvati ) and the right side ( Shiva ) depicting curled hair and a crescent . The female figure has all the ornamentation ( broad armlets and long bracelets , a large ring in the ear , jewelled rings on the fingers ) but the right male figure has drooping hair , armlets and wristlets . One of his hands rests on Nandi ’ s left horn , Shiva 's mount , which is fairly well preserved . The pair of hands at the back is also bejewelled ; the right hand of the male holds a serpent , while the left hand of the female holds a mirror . The front left hand is broken but conjectured as holding the robe of the goddess . The central figure is surrounded by divinities .
= = = Shiva slaying Andhaka and Wedding of Shiva = = =
The engraved panel in the north end of the aisle is considered to be a unique sculpture , and shows Bhairava , or Virabhadra , a frightful form of Shiva . In the carved panel Shiva 's consort is seen sitting next to him , looking terrified . A female attendant is next to her . The central figure , which is much ruined below the waist , is 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) high and posed as if running . His headgear has a ruff on the back , a skull and cobra over the forehead , and the crescent high on the right . His facial expression is of intense anger discerned from his furrowed brow , swollen eyes , and tusks . The legs and five of the eight arms are broken , attributed to Portuguese vandalism . The smaller broken image Andhaka is seen below Bhairava 's image . It is interpreted that Shiva is spearing him with the front right hand , as conjectured by the spear seen hanging without any hold . Also seen is the back hand lifted up and holding an elephant 's skin as a cover ; the elephant 's head , carved tusk , and trunk are seen hanging from the left hand . The second left hand depicts a snake coiled round it . The hand holds a bowl to collect the blood dripping from the slain Andhaka . Furthermore , pieces of a male and two female forms , figures of two ascetics , a small figure in front , a female figure , and two dwarfs are also seen in the carved panel . An unusual sculpture seen above the head of the main figure of Shiva is of a " very wide bottle with a curved groove in the middle of it " , which can interpreted variously as : the aum or the linga or a Shiva shrine .
The niche image carved on the south wall is an ensemble of divinities assembled around the central figures of Shiva and Parvati shown getting married ( Kalyanasundara icon ) . Parvati is seen standing to Shiva 's right , the ordained place for a Hindu bride at the wedding . The carvings are substantially damaged ; only one of Shiva 's four hands is fully seen and the right leg is missing . Shiva has a headdress with a shining disc attached to it . His garments are well @-@ draped , and well @-@ tied at the waist . The sacred thread is seen across his chest . Parvati is carved as a perfect figure with coiffured hair dress , well adorned with jewellery and is draped tightly to display depressions below the waist only . She is seen with a coy expression and is led by her father who has his right hand on her shoulder . Even though both her hands are damaged , it is inferred that her left hand clasped Shiva 's right hand as a mark of holy alliance . Brahma is sitting as the officiating priest for the marriage . Vishnu is witness to the marriage . Mena , the mother of Parvati , is seen standing next to Vishnu . The moon @-@ god Chandra , seen with a wig and a crescent , is standing behind Parvati holding a circular pot with nectar for the marriage ceremony . Just above the main images , a galaxy of divinities , bearded sages , apsaras ( nymphs ) , Vidyadharas , Yakshis , Gandharvas , Bhringi , and other male and female attendants are seen as witness to the marriage ceremony showering flowers on the divine couple .
= = = Yogishvara and Nataraja = = =
The panel to the east of the north portico is Shiva in a Yogic position called Yogisvara , Mahayogi , Dharmaraja and Lakulish . Resembling a Buddha , Shiva is in a dilapidated condition with only two broken arms . Shiva is seated in padmasana yogic posture ( cross legged ) on a lotus carried by two Nāgas . His crown is carved with details adorned by a crescent , a round frill at the back , and hair curls dropping on either side of the shoulders . His face is calm in mediation , his eyes half @-@ closed . This represents Shiva in penance sitting amidst the Himalayan mountains after the death of his first wife Sati , who was later reborn as Parvati . He is surrounded by divinities in the sky and attendants below . Also seen is a plantain with three leaves already open and one opening , as well as a sunflower blossom . These are flanked by two attendants . Other figures discerned from a study of the broken images are : Vishnu riding Garuda on a plantain leaf ; the Sun @-@ god Surya riding a fully saddled horse ( head missing ) ; a saint with a rosary ; two female figures in the sky draped up to their thighs ; a faceless figure of the moon with a water container ; three identical figures of a male flanked by two females ; the skeleton of a sage ; Brahma ( without one arm ) riding a swan ; and Indra without his mount ( elephant missing ) .
The panel carving in the west niche opposite Yogishvara depicts Shiva as Nataraja performing the Tandava ( cosmic dance ) . The niche is 4 m ( 13 ft ) wide and 3 @.@ 4 m ( 11 ft ) high and set low on the wall . He wears well @-@ decorated headgear . The Shiva image displays a dance pose and had ten arms , but the first right and third left hands are missing . The remaining first right arm is held across the breast and touches the left side , the second right hand that is seen damaged with an out @-@ flaying pose is broken at the elbow . The third arm is damaged at the elbow , and the fourth is also broken but inferred to have held a Khatvanga ( skull @-@ club ) . The left arms , seen hanging , are damaged near the wrists . The third hand is bent ( but broken ) towards Parvati standing on the side and the fourth hand is raised up . The right thigh ( broken ) is lifted up , and the left leg is not seen at all , the elaborate armlets are well @-@ preserved and a skirt round the waist is tied by a ribbon . A tall figurine of Parvati stands to the left of Shiva , which is also seen partly broken but well bejewelled . An airborne female figure is seen behind Parvati . Other figures seen in the relief are : Vishnu riding a Garuda ; Indra riding his elephant ; the elephant @-@ headed Ganesha ; Kartikeya ; Bhrngi ; sages and attendants .
= = = Main cave shrine = = =
The central shrine is a free @-@ standing square cell , with entrances on each of its sides . Each door is flanked by two dvarapalas ( gate keepers ) . The Linga , the symbol of Shiva in union with the Yoni , and the symbol of Parvati together symbolise the supreme unity that is deified by the shrine . The Linga is set on a raised platform above the floor of the shrine by 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 ft 11 in ) . Six steps lead to this level from the floor level . The height of the eight dvarapalas varies from 4 @.@ 521 – 4 @.@ 623 m ( 14 @.@ 83 – 15 @.@ 17 ft ) . All are in a damaged condition except those at the southern door to the shrine . The southern gate statue has many unusual features – unusual headgear ; a large skull above the forehead ; lips parted with protruding teeth ; statues adorned with a single bead necklace , earrings , plain twisted armlets and thick wristlets ; a stooped right shoulder ; a globe held at navel level ; the robe is held at the right thigh by the left hand , and the legs are shapeless .
= = = East wing = = =
Several courtyards to the east and west of the main cave are blocked , though there is a 17 m ( 56 ft ) -wide courtyard that is accessible by entering the eastern part and climbing nine steps . A temple on the southern wall of the court depicts a well @-@ preserved fresco . The circular pedestal seen in the courtyard in front of the Shiva 's shrine near the east end , in the open area , is said to be the seat of Nandi , Shiva 's mount .
On each side of the steps leading to the temple @-@ cave portico is a winged lion , or leogriff , each seated with a raised forepaw . The portico has chambers at each end and a Linga @-@ shrine at the back . Five low steps and a threshold lead into the central Linga @-@ shrine which is 4 @.@ 2 m ( 14 ft ) wide and 5 m ( 16 ft ) deep and has a circumambulatory path ( Pradakshina @-@ path ) around it . At the back of the portico , near the east end , is a gigantic statue of a four @-@ armed doorkeeper with two attendant demons . At the north end is a standing figure holding a trident . His left hand rests on a defaced demon @-@ figure . The west wall depicts the Ashta @-@ Matrikas ( eight mother goddesses ) , flanked by Kartikeya and Ganesha , the sons of Shiva . Some of Matrikas are depicted with children , but all of them are shown by their respective mounts ( bull , swan , peacock , a Garuda , etc . ) which identify them . At the east end of the portico is another chapel with a plain interior and sunken floor . Water drips in this chapel .
= = = West wing = = =
The west wing , entered through the main cave , is in a semi @-@ ruined state . It has a small chapel and a cistern enclosed within the pillared cave , which is believed to be Buddhist . Another shrine to the west of the courtyard , with a portico , has carvings of Shiva in a yogic pose seated on a lotus carried by “ two fat , heavy , wigged figures ” . This carving also depicts a three @-@ faced bearded Bramha and several other figurines . Entering through the back door of the portico is a cave enshrined with a multifaceted Shiva Linga erected over roughly hewn salunkhs . At the door entrance on both flanks , statues of gatekeepers standing over demons and two fat , poised figures are seen . On the southern side of the door is an ensemble of a number of statues . Prominent among these is the Shiva carving , which is depicted with six arms and the third eye in the forehead . Though in a partly ruined state , the carving shows Shiva with an ornamented crown fixed with a crescent , seen carrying a cobra in the left hand , a club in another hand , and discerned to be in a dancing pose . Next to this image are a figure under a plantain tree and a Shiva image ( Yogishvara ) seated on a lotus . Also seen in the panel are a male figure riding a bull with a bell fastened to its neck , a female figure and another carving to left of Shiva , a female figure with a jewel on her forehead with neatly looped headdress , Indra riding an elephant , Vishnu with four arms , holding a discus in one of his left hands and riding on Garuda flanked by a small flying figure , and a male figure with crescent in his hair .
= = Other notable caves = =
To the south @-@ east of the Great Cave is the second excavation , which faces east @-@ northeast . It includes a chapel at the north end . The front of this cave is completely destroyed ; only fragments of some semi @-@ columns remain . The interior has suffered water damage . The portico is 26 m ( 85 ft ) long and 11 m ( 36 ft ) deep . The chapel is supported by eight eight @-@ cornered columns and two demi @-@ columns and is irregular in shape . At the back of the portico are three chambers ; the central one has an altar and a water channel ( pranalika ) , though the Linga is lost . The shrine door has some traces of sculpture ( a boy , a fat figure , alligators on the frieze , and broken animal figures at the head of a doorjamb ) . The door @-@ keepers of the shrine are now in fragments .
A little to the south of the last cave is another cave in worse condition , with water damage . It is a portico in which each end probably had a chapel or room with pillars in front . Two of them have cells at the back . The central door at the back of the portico leads to a damaged shrine . The shrine door has door @-@ keepers at each side , leaning on dwarfs with flying figures over the head , with door @-@ keepers and demons on the jamb and architrave . The shrine is a plain room 6 m ( 20 ft ) deep by 5 @.@ 7 m ( 19 ft ) wide with a low altar , holding a Linga . South of this cave is a cavern that may be used as a cistern .
Above these caves is a tiger sculpture , which was worshipped as the tiger goddess Vaghesheri . This sculpture may be a guardian of the north entrance of Cave 1 . A Linga is also found near a small pond at top of the hill . Sculptures depicting a stone with a sun and a moon and a mother suckling a child ( now moved ) were also found nearby .
Across the top of the ravine from Cave 1 is large hall known as Sitabai 's Temple ( cave ) . The portico has four pillars and two pilasters . The hall has 3 chambers at the back , the central one a shrine and the rest for priests ( both are plain rooms ) . The door of the central shrine has pilasters and a frieze , with the threshold having lion figures at the end . The shrine has an altar , a water channel , and hole in the centre , in which a statue of Parvati may have been worshipped . A 17th @-@ century record states that " this cave [ has ] a beautiful gate with a porch of exquisitely wrought marble " and two idols , one of goddess Vetal Candi and a head being in a large square seat .
Passing along the face of the eastern hill to the north of Sitabai 's cave is a small Hindu excavation with a veranda , which was probably to be three cells , but was abandoned following the discovery of a flaw in the rock . Towards the east of hill is a dry pond , with large artificial boulders and Buddhist cisterns along its banks . At the end of the north spur of the main hill is a mound that resembles a Buddhist stupa .
= = Preservation = =
The threats to Elephanta Caves have been identified as the following : developmental pressures ( mainly due to its location within the Mumbai harbour ) , anthropogenic pressure due to growth of population of the communities residing on the island , industrial growth of the port facilities close to the island , no risk preparedness plan to address natural calamities such as earthquake , cyclones and terrorist attacks , unsustainable tourism and tourist facilities on the island , and poor management of the heritage monument .
Preservation of Elephanta Island as a whole with its monuments has been ensured both through legislation and by physical restoration of the caves and its sculptures . The basic legislations enacted are : The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act of 1958 and Rules ( 1959 ) ; The Elephanta Island ( Protected Monument ) Rules of 1957 , which prohibits mining , quarrying , blasting , excavation and other operations near the monument ; the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act promulgated in 1972 with its Rules promulgated in 1973 ; a Notification issued in 1985 declaring the entire island and a 1 @-@ kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) area from the shore as " a prohibited area " ; a series of Maharashtra State Government environmental acts protecting the site ; the 1966 Regional and Town Planning Act ; and the 1995 Heritage Regulations for Greater Bombay .
The Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) , Aurangabad Circle , on the basis of the above legislation and rules , maintain and manage the monuments . The physical measures undertaken for conservation cover include stabilisation of the rock face , construction of supports to the cave structures where pillars have collapsed , and consolidation of cave floors and construction of a parapet wall surrounding the site . In addition , visitor facilities at the site have been upgraded ( such as toilet facilities , railing construction , pathways , and a flight of steps from the jetty to the caves ) . An on @-@ site museum has been established and a conservation plan has been put in place . Overall , conservation of the property is stated to be good . The site receives approximately 25 @,@ 000 visitors per month . Public information brochures are also available at the venue of the monuments . During the World Heritage Day on 18 April and World Heritage Week between 19 and 25 November there are special events held at the caves . Another popular event organised is an annual traditional dance festival that attracts many visitors .
After declaring the caves a World Heritage Site , UNESCO granted $ 100 @,@ 000 to document the site 's history and draw up a site plan . A part of the grant was used for conservation of the caves . Based on assessments by UNESCO , management plans include : better communication and collaboration between the ASI , on @-@ site staff , and other responsible government departments ; improved public information and awareness programs ; monitoring environmental impact of tourists on the cave and island environment ; greater attention to the maintenance of the rocks to address water leakages into the caves ; and daily monitoring of both structural and chemical conservation measures .
The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage ( INTACH ) is also involved with the Archaeological Survey of India in improving the local conditions at the cave site . A book has been published jointly by UNESCO , INTACH and the Government of India which presents a comprehensive site plan for restoration and a brief history of each sculpture constructed inside the caves .
= Devin Townsend =
Devin Garret Townsend ( born May 5 , 1972 ) is a Canadian musician , songwriter and record producer . He was the founder , songwriter , vocalist , and guitarist in extreme metal band Strapping Young Lad from 1994 to 2007 and has an extensive career as a solo artist .
After performing in a number of heavy metal bands in high school , Townsend was discovered by a record label in 1993 and was asked to perform lead vocals on Steve Vai 's album Sex & Religion . After recording and touring with Vai , Townsend was discouraged by what he found in the music industry , and vented his anger on the solo album Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing released under the pseudonym Strapping Young Lad . He soon assembled a band under the name , and released the critically acclaimed City in 1997 . Since then , he has released three more studio albums with Strapping Young Lad , along with solo material released under his own independent record label , HevyDevy Records .
Townsend 's solo albums , a diverse mix of hard rock , progressive metal , ambient , and new @-@ age , have featured a varying lineup of supporting musicians . In 2002 he formed the Devin Townsend Band , a dedicated lineup which recorded and toured for two of his solo releases . In 2007 , he disbanded both Strapping Young Lad and the Devin Townsend Band , taking a break from touring to spend more time with his family . After a two @-@ year hiatus , he began recording again , and soon announced the formation of the Devin Townsend Project . The project began with a series of four albums , released from 2009 to 2011 , each written in a different style , and Townsend continues to record and tour under the new moniker .
Across all his bands and projects , Townsend has released twenty @-@ three studio albums and three live albums . Townsend 's trademark production style , featuring a heavily multitracked wall of sound , has been compared to the styles of Phil Spector and Frank Zappa . His versatile vocal delivery ranges from screaming to an opera @-@ esque singing , and his songwriting is similarly diverse . Townsend 's musical style is rooted in metal , and his albums are written to express different aspects of his personality .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early musical career ( 1972 – 1994 ) = = =
Devin Townsend was born in New Westminster , British Columbia , on May 5 , 1972 . Townsend picked up the banjo when he was five , and began playing guitar when he was 12 . As an early teenager he befriended Brian " Beav " Waddell , who would later play guitars as part of the Devin Townsend Band and bass on the Devin Townsend Project . He participated in several metal bands while he was in high school , and founded Grey Skies at the age of 19 . Around the same time he joined a popular local group called Caustic Thought , replacing Jed Simon on guitar and playing alongside bassist Byron Stroud , both of whom would later become members of Townsend 's flagship band , Strapping Young Lad . In 1993 , Townsend began writing material under the name Noisescapes , a project he later described as " just as violent as Strapping Young Lad " .
Townsend recorded a Noisescapes demo and sent copies to various record labels . Relativity Records responded to Townsend with a record deal and Townsend began work on what was to be the first Noisescapes album , Promise . Shortly afterward , the label introduced him to musician Steve Vai . Impressed with Townsend 's vocal work , Vai offered him the role of the lead vocalist on his new album Sex and Religion . After recording Sex and Religion , Townsend accompanied Vai on a world tour in support of the album . Townsend soon landed a second touring gig , this time with the opening band of Vai 's tour , the Wildhearts . He played live with the band throughout half of 1994 in Europe , and appeared as a guest musician on their single Urge . Ginger , the band 's frontman , remained close friends with Townsend , later co @-@ writing several songs on Infinity and the Christeen + 4 Demos EP
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While on tour with the Wildhearts , Townsend formed a short @-@ lived thrash metal project with Metallica 's then @-@ bassist Jason Newsted . The band , known as IR8 , featured Newsted on vocals and bass , Townsend on guitar , and Tom Hunting of Exodus on drums . The group recorded a few songs together , although Townsend says that they never intended to go further than that . " People heard about it and thought we wanted to put out a CD , which is absolutely not true , " he explains . " People took this project way too seriously . " A demo tape was put together , but the material was not released until 2002 , when Newsted published the IR8 vs. Sexoturica compilation .
Though Townsend was proud of what he had accomplished so early in his career , he was discouraged by his experience with the music industry . " I was becoming a product of somebody else 's imagination , and it was mixing with my own personality , " he later reflected . " This combination was appalling . " He pushed to get his own projects off the ground . Despite getting notable touring gigs with other musicians , however , Townsend continued to face rejection of his own music . Relativity Records dropped Noisescapes from their label shortly after Townsend accepted Vai 's offer , seeing no commercial appeal in Townsend 's music . " I have a hunch they only offered me a deal to get me to sing with Steve , " he mused . While touring with the Wildhearts , Townsend received a phone call from an A & R representative for Roadrunner Records , expressing an interest in his demos and an intention to sign him . The offer was ultimately rescinded by the head of Roadrunner , who regarded Townsend 's recordings as " just noise " .
= = = Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing through Infinity ( 1994 – 1998 ) = = =
In 1994 , Century Media Records offered Townsend a contract to make " some extreme albums " . He agreed to a five @-@ album deal with the record label , and also provided much of the guitar work on the 1994 album Millennium and the 1995 album Hard Wired by Vancouver industrial band Front Line Assembly . Townsend began to record material under the pseudonym Strapping Young Lad . He avoided using his real name at this point in career , looking for a fresh start after his high @-@ profile Vai gig . " At the beginning , I wanted to avoid at all cost to use my name because I was known as the singer for Steve Vai and it wasn 't the best publicity to have , " he later explained . " I was playing somebody else 's music and I was judged in respect to that music . " Townsend produced and performed nearly all the instruments on the debut studio album , Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing , which was released in April 1995 .
Following the release of the record , Townsend and several other musician friends he knew in Vancouver recorded his first solo album in 1996 entitled Punky Brüster – Cooked on Phonics . Written and recorded in under a month , the album was produced as a parody of punk rock bands and documents the act of selling out for mainstream success . Townsend founded his own independent record label , HevyDevy Records , to release the album . Townsend assembled a permanent lineup of Strapping Young Lad to record City , including prolific metal drummer Gene Hoglan , along with Townsend 's former bandmates Jed Simon on guitar and Byron Stroud on bass . The industrial @-@ influenced album was released in 1997 . To this day , the album is widely considered Strapping Young Lad 's best work , with Metal Maniacs calling it " groundbreaking " and Revolver naming it " one of the greatest metal albums of all time " . Townsend himself considers it the band 's " ultimate " album . Later that year , Townsend released his second solo album , Ocean Machine : Biomech . The album featured a mix of hard rock , ambient , and progressive rock .
After the completion of City and Ocean Machine : Biomech , Townsend began to approach a mental breakdown . " I started to see human beings as little lonesome , water based , pink meat , " he explained , " life forms pushing air through themselves and making noises that the other little pieces of meat seemed to understand . " In 1997 , he checked himself into a mental @-@ health hospital , where he was diagnosed with bipolar disorder . The diagnosis helped him understand where the two sides of his music were coming from ; he felt his disorder " gave birth to the two extremes that are Strapping 's City record and Ocean Machine : Biomech . " After being discharged from the hospital , Townsend found that " everything just clicked " and he was able to write his third solo album , Infinity , which he described as " the parent project " of City and Ocean Machine : Biomech , with music influenced by Broadway . Townsend returned to the studio , accompanied by Hoglan , to work on the album , on which Townsend played most of the instruments . Infinity was released in October 1998 . Later in his career , Townsend has cited Infinity as his favorite solo record .
With Infinity , Townsend began to label all albums outside of Strapping Young Lad under his own name , dropping the Ocean Machine moniker , to reduce confusion . He wanted to show that despite the highly varied nature of his projects , they are all simply aspects of his identity . The album Biomech was relabeled and redistributed as Ocean Machine : Biomech , under Townsend 's name , to reflect the new arrangement . Townsend 's bandmates began to play two sets at their shows , one as Strapping Young Lad , and one as the Devin Townsend Band , playing songs from Townsend 's solo albums .
= = = Physicist and Terria ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =
Townsend 's next project took several years to come to fruition . After the creation of the IR8 demo tape , Townsend and Jason Newsted had begun work on a new project called Fizzicist , which they described as " heavier than Strapping Young Lad " . When the IR8 tape was leaked , Newsted 's Metallica bandmates James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich learned of the project . Hetfield was " fucking pissed " that Newsted was playing outside the band , and Newsted was prevented by his bandmates from working on any more side projects . With the project stalled , Townsend instead wrote the album himself , entitling it Physicist . Townsend assembled his Strapping Young Lad bandmates to record it , the only time this lineup was featured on a Devin Townsend album . The thrash @-@ influenced Physicist was released in June 2000 , and is generally considered a low point in Townsend 's career . Hoglan and the rest of the band were dissatisfied with the way the sound was mixed , and Townsend considers it his worst album to date .
Feeling he had " ostracized a bunch of fans " with Physicist , Townsend felt he had the chance to make a more personal and honest record . Townsend was inspired one morning while driving across Canada with his band , and looked to write an " introspective " album dedicated to his homeland . He produced and recorded Terria , a " highly illustrated stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness " album , with Gene Hoglan on drums , Craig McFarland on bass and Jamie Meyer on keyboards . Townsend cited Ween 's White Pepper as an inspiration for the album . Terria was released in November 2001 .
= = = Strapping Young Lad through Synchestra ( 2003 – 2006 ) = = =
Townsend 's solo run lasted until 2002 . After a five @-@ year break from recording , Strapping Young Lad reunited to record a new album . Townsend credits the album , Strapping Young Lad , as an emotional response to the attacks of September 11 , 2001 , in the United States . " If the world 's about to blow up , " said Townsend , " let 's write the soundtrack for it . " The album 's lyrics were based more around fear and insecurity than the " hostile " lyrics of City . Musically , Strapping Young Lad was less industrial than City , and more reminiscent of death metal , with a " larger @-@ than @-@ life " rock production style . Townsend cited Front Line Assembly , Grotus , and Samael 's Passage as influences . The self @-@ titled album was released in February 2003 . It received lukewarm reviews , with critics finding it inferior to City , but it was the band 's first charting album , entering at 97th place on Billboard 's Top Heatseekers chart .
While Strapping Young Lad was being reunited , Townsend formed a new , permanent band " on par with Strapping " to record and tour for his solo releases . The Devin Townsend Band consisted of Brian " Beav " Waddell on guitar , Mike Young on bass , Ryan Van Poederooyen on drums , and Dave Young on keyboards . Townsend performed guitar , vocals , and production , as he did in Strapping Young Lad . Townsend worked on the band 's first album , Accelerated Evolution , at the same time he was working on Strapping Young Lad , spending half the week on one and half on the other . Accelerated Evolution , named for the pace of putting a new band together in under a year , was released a month after Strapping Young Lad . Mike G. of Metal Maniacs called it " the album of the year " , praising it for " the hard @-@ to @-@ accomplish trick of being extreme yet accessible , simultaneously heavy ' n ' rockin ' yet majestic and beautiful . " Prior to the formation of the Devin Townsend Band , Townsend had represented his solo releases live with the Strapping Young Lad lineup ; the band would play one set of Strapping Young Lad songs and one set of Devin Townsend songs . After the release of Accelerated Evolution , Townsend 's two bands toured separately for their separate albums .
Strapping Young Lad began working on their next album , Alien , in March 2004 . Feeling that the band 's previous album did not live up to expectations , Townsend decided to take his music to a new extreme . To prepare for the new album , Townsend stopped taking the medication prescribed to treat his bipolar disorder . " I think that as an artist , in order for me to get to the next plateau , I kind of feel the need to explore things and sometimes that exploration leads you to places that are a little crazy , " he explains . " And Alien was no exception with that . " Although Townsend considered the album an " impenetrable mass of technicality " , it was well received on its release , selling 3 @,@ 697 copies in its first week and appearing on several Billboard charts . Around this time , Townsend also contributed to the soundtrack of the video game Fallout : Brotherhood of Steel .
Shortly thereafter Townsend began putting together the next Devin Townsend Band record , with the working title Human . Townsend intended the album as the more " pleasant " counterpart to Alien . " It 's basically a record about coming back down to earth after being in space with Alien for a while . " The album ended up being renamed Synchestra and was released in January 2006 . Townsend showcased a wide variety of musical styles in Synchestra , blending his trademark " pop metal " with influences from folk , polka , and Middle Eastern music . The final Strapping Young Lad album , The New Black , was released later in 2006 .
= = = Ziltoid the Omniscient and hiatus ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = =
Townsend withdrew from touring to spend time with his family . From home , Townsend completed his second solo ambient album , The Hummer , releasing it exclusively on his website in November 2006 .
In May 2007 , Townsend released Ziltoid the Omniscient , a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek rock opera about the eponymous fictional alien . This was truly a solo album ; he programmed the drums using Drumkit from Hell , a software drum machine that uses samples recorded by Tomas Haake of Meshuggah and played all other instruments himself . Shortly after the album 's release , Townsend announced that he no longer planned to tour or make albums with Strapping Young Lad or the Devin Townsend Band . He explained that he was " burnt out on travelling , touring , and self promotion " and wished to do production work , write albums , and spend time with his family without the stress of interviews or touring .
In 2008 , Townsend lent his voice to characters in several episodes of the Adult Swim cartoon Metalocalypse ( see Musician cameos in Metalocalypse for more ) . The original character design for Pickles the Drummer , one of the series ' main characters , bore a striking resemblance to Townsend . The series ' co @-@ creator Brendon Small acknowledged the similarity , and altered the design before the series began . " We made sure he didn 't look like Devin Townsend . We gave him the goatee and the dreadover so he wouldn 't look like that . "
= = = Devin Townsend Project ( 2008 – 2012 ) = = =
After removing himself from the music industry , Townsend cut his trademark hair off and gave up drinking and smoking . Townsend found it " disconcerting " that he had difficulty writing music without drugs , and that he had trouble identifying his purpose as a musician . He spent a year producing albums in absence of writing , but found it unrewarding and decided to " pick up the guitar and just write " . This began a period of " self discovery " where he learned " how to create without drugs " .
Over two years , Townsend wrote over 60 songs , and found that they fit into " four distinct styles " . In March 2009 , Townsend announced his plans for a four @-@ album series called Devin Townsend Project , with the goal of clarifying his musical identity and being " accountable " for the persona he projects to the public . The project 's concept includes a different " theme " and a different group of musicians on each album .
Ki , the first album of the Devin Townsend Project tetralogy was written to " set the stage " for the subsequent albums . Townsend channelled his new @-@ found control and sobriety into Ki , a " tense , quiet " album , which contrasts with much of the music he had been known for . Additional female vocals were provided by Ché Aimee Dorval ( Casualties of Cool ) . Ki was released in May 2009 .
The second entry , a " commercial , yet heavy " album called Addicted , was released in November 2009 and features lead vocals from Townsend and Dutch singer Anneke van Giersbergen . Brian " Beav " Waddell was recruited from the Devin Townsend Band to play bass .
Townsend returned to the stage in January 2010 , touring North America with headliner Between the Buried and Me as well as Cynic and Scale the Summit . This was followed by a headlining tour in Australia and a series of high @-@ profile shows in Europe ( for example co @-@ headlining the Brutal Assault festival in Czech Republic ) . He headlined a North American tour with UK label mates TesseracT supporting , which began in October 2010 , and toured in Europe with support from Aeon Zen and Anneke van Giersbergen .
The third and fourth albums in the Devin Townsend Project series , Deconstruction and Ghost , were released simultaneously on June 21 , 2011 . In December 2011 all four Devin Townsend Project albums with additional material were released as the Contain Us box set . Townsend performed all four of Devin Townsend Project albums in London and recorded them for a DVD box set called By a Thread : Live in London 2011 that was released on June 18 , 2012 . The first three shows were held at the University of London Union , November 10 – 12 , 2011 . Ki , Addicted , and Deconstruction were each performed on one night , respectively . The show for Ghost was held at the Union Chapel , Islington on November 13 , 2011 . These four shows were each entitled " An Evening with the Devin Townsend Project " .
Despite the Devin Townsend Project being originally a four @-@ album series , Townsend decided to continue working under the moniker and released the fifth album , Epicloud on September 18 , 2012 . Again featuring Anneke van Giersbergen on vocals , Epicloud appeared on several European charts , peaking at number 8 in Finland . On October 27 , 2012 , Devin Townsend performed a one @-@ off show covering his musical career called The Retinal Circus at Roundhouse in London . The 3 @-@ hour performance was recorded in high definition and released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on September 30 , 2013 . Also in 2012 , Townsend played bass on the debut Bent Sea album Noistalgia . He also produced the record .
Another project Townsend has mentioned several times between 2009 and 2012 is Obviouser , an album featuring " creepy , bass driven apocalyptic music " created with an " Ampeg rig " and an " Icelandic choir " . Working with many projects simultaneously at that time , Townsend stated in 2012 the Obviouser project is vying for pole position until " he wakes up and says ' he wants to do it ' " .
= = = Casualties of Cool and Z2 ( 2012 – present ) = = =
After Deconstruction and Ghost , Townsend announced a new album , Casualties of Cool , with which he started to work after the release of Epicloud . The album features Ché Aimee Dorval ( from Ki ) on vocals and Morgan Ågren on drums . Townsend described the album sounds like " haunted Johnny Cash songs " and " late night music " , highlighting it will be different than anything he has done before . Townsend referred the music of the album to be " closest to his heart " at this point of his life , and that it is an important and satisfying project he doesn 't want to rush .
The album was completed on November 2013 , and a bonus disc was also made for the album , containing the leftover material from the main album as well as songs from Ghost 2 , the unreleased compilation of leftover tracks from Ghost . Originally in 2012 , Townsend stated that this album will be the sixth and the last album in the Devin Townsend Project series , but he ultimately confirmed that Casualties of Cool is its own project . Townsend also started a crowdfunding campaign through PledgeMusic to support the release of the album . The funding quickly reached its goal , and all additional funds were put directly to Townsend 's upcoming projects . Casualties of Cool was released on May 14 , 2014 . The album was re @-@ issued worldwide on January 15 , 2016 containing an additional DVD with live footage from the 2014 concert at the Union Chapel in London .
From 2009 , Townsend worked on a long @-@ running album project called Z ² , a sequel to the album Ziltoid the Omniscient ( 2007 ) . Originally in 2012 , he teased he " may have just written the heaviest thing he 's ever done " for the album , and told there might a surprising lack of Ziltoid himself appearing on the album . However , in August 2013 , a London @-@ based radio station TeamRock Radio aired the first episode of Ziltoid Radio , a satirical radio show hosted solely by Ziltoid , this being one element of the Z ² project . Townsend also discussed a " ZTV " or " Ziltoid TV " is preceding the album . Later Townsend stated he has found the project hard to schedule and work with amidst touring and writing , stating " it takes a lot of effort " to keep the content with tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humour entertaining .
After writing ideas for over 70 songs , Townsend stated he is finally going to finish the whole project , followed by the announcement the album will be released on October 27 , 2014 . The recording process started in May 2014 , and the final project includes the album , a Ziltoid TV program and a live show , with a " big graphic novel comic " and a documentary . The album itself is a double album , with disc one being the main album and disc two featuring Devin Townsend Project material ; according to Townsend , the album 's theme is " Ziltoid against the world " . The Devin Townsend Project disc is called Sky Blue and the Ziltoid disc is called Dark Matters .
After finishing the album , Townsend stated the project was " punishing " and an " absolute nightmare to complete " due to amount of material against tight schedules . He also described the hardship of the project by telling " if he was ever going to start drinking [ again ] , the last months would have been it " , but now " he 's starting to get excited again " . Later , " after the chaos of finishing it had subsided " , Townsend stated he is really satisfied with the result .
Townsend recently discussed at least a year @-@ long hiatus , beginning after the Z ² show taking place at the Royal Albert Hall on April 13 , 2015 . During the indefinitely long break Townsend intends to " recharge his batteries " , " get some inspiration and experiences " and to " see what the next chapter holds " for him .
In 2014 , Devin recorded a ' poppy sounding ' song in Los Angeles with producer Brian Howes , but has decided against releasing . Devin mentioned he is against the project being contrived due to the current hard rock undertones in popular music . He described it as a " lukewarm heavy metal Devin song " . On December 11 , 2015 Townsend announced via Twitter that he was recording vocals for a song by Steve Vai .
As of April 2016 , Devin is in the middle of recording the seventh DTP album , entitled Transcendence at Armoury Studios in Vancouver .
= = Personal life = =
Townsend has been married to Tracy Turner , his girlfriend since he was 19 . She gave birth to their first son , Reyner Liam Johnstan Townsend , on October 4 , 2006 . He is a vegetarian .
= = Musical style = =
= = = Projects = = =
Townsend designed his two main projects , the aggressive Strapping Young Lad and his more melodic solo material , as counterparts . Strapping Young Lad 's music was a diverse mix of extreme metal genres : death metal , thrash metal , black metal and industrial metal . Townsend 's solo material blends many genres and influences , with elements of atmospheric ambient music , hard rock and progressive rock , along with pop metal and arena rock . He described it as " a highly orchestrated type of expansive music based in hard rock and heavy metal . Dense and produced with a large amount of ambient elements . " Despite Strapping Young Lad 's greater mainstream acceptance , Townsend identifies more with his solo material , and has never intended Strapping Young Lad to be the focus of his music .
= = = Production style = = =
As a self @-@ proclaimed " fan of multitracking " , Townsend has developed a trademark production style featuring an atmospheric , layered " wall of sound " . Townsend has drawn critical praise for his productions , which " are always marked by a sense of adventure , intrigue , chaotic atmospherics and overall aural pyrotechnics " , according to Mike G. of Metal Maniacs . Townsend mainly uses Pro Tools to produce his music , alongside other software suites such as Steinberg Cubase , Ableton Live , and Logic Pro . Townsend 's musical ideas and production style have drawn comparisons to Phil Spector and Frank Zappa . Townsend has carried out the mixing and mastering for most of his solo work himself . He has also mixed and remixed work for other artists such as Rammstein , August Burns Red and Misery Signals .
= = = Playing style = = =
Townsend mainly uses Open C tuning for both six and seven string guitar . He now also uses Open B tuning and Open B flat tuning ( Open C tuning tuned a half and a whole step down respectively ) on his six string guitars . Townsend 's technique varies from fingerpicking , power chords and polychords to sweep @-@ picked arpeggios and tapping techniques . He is also known for his heavy use of reverb and delay effects . He has expressed that he has no taste for shred guitar , saying that " Musically it doesn 't do anything for me " and that he only solos when he thinks that he can within the context of the song .
= = = Vocals = = =
Townsend 's employs a variety of vocal techniques in his work , including screaming , growling or even falsetto . His vocal range has been noted to be over 5 octaves ( C2 to F7 ) .
= = = Influences = = =
Townsend draws influence from a wide range of music genres , most prominently heavy metal . Townsend has cited , among others , Judas Priest , W.A.S.P. , Frank Zappa , Broadway musicals , ABBA , new @-@ age music , Zoviet France , King 's X , Morbid Angel , Barkmarket , Grotus , Jane 's Addiction , Metallica , Cop Shoot Cop and Fear Factory as his influences , and has also expressed his admiration for Meshuggah on several occasions , calling them " the best metal band on the planet " . Townsend lists Paul Horn and Ravi Shankar as the " two most important musicians in his life " . The two songs that Townsend credits with changing the way he thought about music are " The Burning Down " by King 's X , and " Up the Beach " by Jane 's Addiction . City was influenced by bands such as Foetus and Cop Shoot Cop , and The New Black 's influences were Meshuggah , and " more traditional metal " like Metallica . He is also influenced by orchestral and classical composers such as John Williams , Trevor Jones and Igor Stravinsky .
= = Discography = =
= Zagreb Synagogue =
The Zagreb Synagogue ( Croatian : Zagrebačka sinagoga ) was the main place of worship for the Jewish community of Zagreb in modern @-@ day Croatia . It was constructed in 1867 in the Kingdom of Croatia @-@ Slavonia within the Austrian Empire , and was used until it was demolished by the fascist authorities in 1941 in the Axis @-@ aligned Independent State of Croatia .
The Moorish Revival synagogue , designed after the Leopoldstädter Tempel in Vienna , was located on modern @-@ day Praška Street . It has been the only purpose @-@ built Jewish house of worship in the history of the city . It was one of the city 's most prominent public buildings , as well as one of the most esteemed examples of synagogue architecture in the region .
Since the 1980s , plans have been made to rebuild the synagogue in its original location . Due to various political circumstances , very limited progress has been made . Major disagreements exist between the government and Jewish organizations as to how much the latter should be involved in decisions about the reconstruction project , including proposed design and character of the new building .
= = History = =
Encouraged by the 1782 Edict of Tolerance of Emperor Joseph II , Jews first permanently settled in Zagreb in the late eighteenth century , and founded the Jewish community in 1806 . In 1809 the Jewish community had a rabbi , and by 1811 it had its own cemetery . As early as 1833 , the community was permitted to buy land for construction of a synagogue , but did not have sufficient money to finance one at the time .
By 1855 , the community had grown to 700 members and , on October 30 of that year , the decision was made to build a new Jewish synagogue . The construction committee , appointed in 1861 , selected and purchased a parcel of land at the corner of Maria Valeria Street ( now Praška Street ) and Ban Jelačić Square , the central town square . However , a new urban planning scheme of 1864 reduced the area available for construction , and the community decided to buy another parcel of 1 @,@ 540 square metres ( 16 @,@ 600 sq ft ) in Maria Valeria Street , approximately 80 metres ( 260 ft ) south of the original location .
= = = Design and construction = = =
Franjo Klein , a Vienna @-@ born Zagreb architect , was commissioned to build the synagogue . Klein , a representative of romantic historicism , modeled the building on the Viennese Leopoldstädter Tempel ( 1858 ) , a Moorish Revival temple designed by Ludwig Förster . It became a prototype for synagogue design in Central Europe . Zagreb Synagogue used the already developed round arch style ( Rundbogenstil ) , but did not adopt Förster 's early oriental motifs .
The composition of the main facade , with its dominant drawn @-@ out and elevated projection and the two symmetrical lower lateral parts , reflects the internal division into three naves . At ground @-@ floor level , the front was distinguished by the three @-@ arch entrance and bifora , whereas the first @-@ floor level had a high triforium with an elevated arch and the quadrifoliate rosettes on the staircases .
The synagogue occupied the greater part of the plot , facing west . It receded from the street regulation @-@ line in accordance with the rule then still enforced in Austria – Hungary , prohibiting non @-@ Catholic places of worship from having a public entrance from the street . The synagogue had a wider and slightly higher central nave and two narrower naves ; unlike Förster 's synagogue in Vienna , it did not have a basilical plan .
Construction began in 1866 and was completed the following year . The synagogue was officially consecrated on September 27 , 1867 , a ceremony attended by representatives of city and regional authorities , Zagreb public figures , and many citizens . It was the first prominent public building in Zagreb 's lower town , and its architecture and scale aroused general admiration and praise .
= = = 19th and early 20th century = = =
With the new synagogue , an organ was introduced into religious service . The small minority of Orthodox Jews found this change to be intolerable , and they began to hold their services separately , in rented rooms .
In the 1880 earthquake , the synagogue suffered minor damage and was repaired the following year .
Largely due to immigration from Hungary , Bohemia and Moravia , the Jewish population of Zagreb quickly grew in size : from 1 @,@ 285 members in 1887 to 3 @,@ 237 members in 1900 , and then to 5 @,@ 970 members in 1921 . The synagogue became too small to accommodate the needs of the ever @-@ growing community . In 1921 a renovation was undertaken to increase the number of available seats . A 1931 plan to increase the capacity to 944 seats was ultimately abandoned . A central heating system was installed in 1933 .
= = = Demolition during World War II = = =
During the 1941 collapse of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia under the Axis invasion in the April War , the Independent State of Croatia was created . It was ruled by the extreme nationalist Ustaša regime . The Ustaša quickly started with the systematic persecution of the Jews , modeled after the Nazi Germany approach , and at times even more brutal . Racial laws were introduced , Jewish property was confiscated , and the Jews were subjected to mass arrests and deportations to death camps in Croatia and abroad .
In October 1941 , the newly installed mayor of Zagreb , Ivan Werner , issued a decree ordering the demolition of the Praška Street synagogue , ostensibly because it did not fit into the city 's master plan . The demolition began on October 10 , 1941 , proceeding slowly so as not to damage the adjacent buildings ; it was finished by April 1942 . The whole process was photographed for propaganda purposes , and the photographs were shown to the public at an antisemitic exhibition first held in Zagreb . It was also shown in Dubrovnik , Karlovac , Sarajevo , Vukovar and Zemun , as an illustration of the " solution of the Jewish question in Croatia " .
A fragment of the film footage of the demolition was discovered five decades later by the film director Lordan Zafranović during research for his 1993 documentary feature , Decline of the Century : Testimony of L. Z. ; 41 seconds of the film survives . This footage was also shown in Mira Wolf 's documentary , The Zagreb Synagogue 1867 @-@ 1942 ( 1996 ) , produced by Croatian Radiotelevision .
The synagogue 's eight valuable Torah scrolls were saved due to an intervention by Leonardo Grivičić , an entrepreneur and industrialist who lived next door from Mile Budak , a minister in the Ustaša government . He was also close to Poglavnik Ante Pavelić and the Third Reich 's ambassador to Croatia , Edmund Glaise @-@ Horstenau . Although Grivičić did not have a significant political role in the Independent State of Croatia , he was considered trustworthy . On October 9 , 1941 , he learned about the regime 's plan to start the demolition of the synagogue on the following morning . By that evening , Grivičić secretly relayed the information to the synagogue 's chief cantor , Grüner , and during the night , the Torah scrolls were moved to safety .
Shortly after the destruction of the synagogue , the Catholic archbishop of Zagreb Aloysius Stepinac delivered a homily in which he said : " A house of God of any faith is a holy thing , and whoever harms it will pay with their lives . In this world and the next they will be punished . " .
The only surviving fragments of the building — the wash @-@ basin and two memorial tables from the forecourt , as well as some parts of a column — were saved by Ivo Kraus . He pulled them from the rubble shortly after the end of World War II . The wash @-@ basin and the memorial tables are now in the Zagreb City Museum . The column fragments are kept by the Jewish Community of Zagreb .
= = Reconstruction efforts = =
= = = 1945 – 1990 = = =
Only one in five Croatian Jews survived the Holocaust of World War II . Between 1948 and 1952 , nearly one half of the surviving members of Jewish Community of Zagreb opted for emigration to Israel , and the community dropped to one @-@ tenth of its pre @-@ war membership . The Yugoslav communist regime nationalized virtually all real estate owned by the Jewish Community of Zagreb , including the plot in Praška Street . All this , combined with the new regime 's general hostility toward religion , made reconstruction of the synagogue nearly impossible .
After World War II , the vacant site of the former synagogue was used as a makeshift volleyball court . The volleyball court made way for a prefabricated department store building , constructed in 1959 . The department store was completely destroyed in a fire on December 31 , 1980 , and was subsequently dismantled . Despite some earlier ideas about a permanent department store building on the same spot , and a 1977 architecture competition for its design , no construction took place . Instead , the parcel was turned into a parking lot , which it remains to this day .
After 1986 , the Jewish Community of Zagreb began to consider a Jewish cultural center and a memorial synagogue . Two architects , Branko Silađin and Boris Morsan , both of whom participated in the failed 1977 department store competition , came forward on their own accord and contributed their ideas for a new Jewish center in Praška Street . Silađin 's vision was ultimately not accepted by the Jewish community ; instead , plans were being made for the construction of the cultural center and a synagogue , following an international architecture competition . However , despite support for the project both within Yugoslavia and abroad , the issuance of necessary permits was either stalled or denied by the municipal government . The project was not developed .
= = = 1990 – present = = =
By the autumn of 1990 , after the first democratic elections in Croatia , the municipal government finally approved the project . An architectural competition was planned for January 1991 . Political turmoil in the country , followed by the breakup of Yugoslavia and the Croatian War of Independence ( 1991 – 1995 ) , caused the project to be put on hold again . In 1994 President of Croatia Franjo Tuđman said to Jakov Bienenfeld , Council member of the Zagreb Jewish community , that they should build the new synagogue at the site of the former synagogue , which will be funded by the Croatian government . Bienenfeld declined the offer believing to be inappropriate when 1800 Catholic churches are left destroyed at the time , during Croatian War of Independence .
In the meantime , the Jewish Community of Zagreb sought to legally reacquire its property . The Croatian denationalization law was enacted in 1996 , and the Praška Street parcel was finally returned to the community on December 31 , 1999 . By 2000 , reconstruction activities were invigorated again . An investment study was submitted to the Government of Croatia and the City of Zagreb in July 2004 and revised in October 2004 . The architecture competition was planned for 2005 . However , a 2005 rift in the Jewish Community of Zagreb resulted in formation of a splinter Jewish community , Bet Israel , led by Ivo and Slavko Goldstein .
In September 2006 , the Government of Croatia formed a construction workgroup . It was decided that the project , estimated at the time at HRK 173 million ( US $ 30 million ) , would be partially financed by the Government of Croatia and the City of Zagreb , and that both Jewish organizations should be represented in the workgroup . However , the involvement of Bet Israel was deemed unacceptable by the Jewish Community of Zagreb , which is the sole owner of the Praška Street property , and which also sees itself as the sole legal representative of the Zagreb Jewish community . As a consequence , the community and its president , Ognjen Kraus , refused further participation in the project under the set conditions .
Further disagreements existed about the design and character of the new building . Facsimile reconstruction , while feasible , was not seriously contemplated . There was a general agreement that the new building should also have a cultural as well as commercial purpose . While the Jewish Community of Zagreb envisioned a modern design reminiscent of the original synagogue , the Bet Israel advocated building a replica of the original synagogue 's facade , perceiving it as having a powerful symbolism . Opinions of architects , urban planners , and art historians were also divided along similar lines .
In 2014 and 2015 , the Jewish Community of Zagreb presented new plans for a 10 @,@ 600 m2 ( 114 @,@ 000 sq ft ) multi @-@ purpose Jewish center and synagogue in Praška Street .
= 1806 Great Coastal hurricane =
The 1806 Great Coastal hurricane was a severe and damaging storm along the East Coast of the United States which produced upwards of 36 in ( 91 cm ) of rainfall in parts of Massachusetts . First observed east of the Lesser Antilles on 17 August , the hurricane arrived at the Bahamas by 19 August . The disturbance continued to drift northward and made landfall at the mouth of the Cape Fear River in North Carolina on 22 August . The storm soon moved out to sea as a Category 2 @-@ equivalent hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale , persisting off of New England before dissipating south of Nova Scotia on 25 August as a markedly weaker storm . Several French and British military ships were damaged out at sea . In the Carolinas , salt , sugar , rice , and lumber industries suffered considerably , and several individuals were killed . Wharves and vessels endured moderate damage , with many ships wrecked on North Carolinan barrier islands . A majority of the deaths caused by the hurricane occurred aboard the Rose @-@ in @-@ Bloom offshore of Barnegat Inlet , New Jersey , with 21 of the ship 's 48 passengers killed and $ 171 @,@ 000 ( 1806 USD ) in damage to its cargo . Upon arriving in New England , reports indicated extreme rainfall , though no deaths were reported ; in all , the hurricane killed more than 24 individuals along the entirety of its track .
= = Meteorological history = =
The Great Coastal hurricane of 1806 was first noted far east of the Lesser Antilles on 17 August . Weather historian David M. Ludlum followed the disturbance 's track to the Bahamas by 19 August ; intense winds persisted until 21 August , however , approximately 150 mi ( 240 km ) east of the Bahamian island of Eleuthera . Steering currents brought the storm northward , and it approached Charleston , South Carolina on 22 August , where a generally easterly flow preceded the storm indicated its passage far east of the city . The hurricane made landfall at the mouth of the Cape Fear River in North Carolina later that day , though the earliest impacts from the storm started several days earlier , with gusts initially toward the northeast but later curving southwestward . Reports of similar wind shifts throughout the region suggested that the gale persisted , stationary , for several hours . It eventually moved back out to sea while south of Norfolk , Virginia , departing the region on 24 August . The hurricane maintained 1 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) while offshore , equivalent to a Category 2 system on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . While offshore New England , the gale featured a swath of winds 90 mi ( 150 km ) wide , and was last observed just south of Nova Scotia on 25 August slightly weaker , with sustained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) .
= = Impact = =
The hurricane damaged several vessels while still drifting at sea , dispersing and damaging Jérôme Bonaparte 's fleet and dismasting the 74 @-@ gun French ship of the line Impétueux , which later landed near Cape Henry .
In Charleston , South Carolina , the hurricane washed aground several ships and uprooted numerous trees , though damage to the city harbor was minimal . The lighthouse on North Island flanking Winyah Bay collapsed under high winds , and in Georgetown proper , the hurricane was considered to be the worst since the 1804 Antigua – Charleston hurricane , despite its storm surge being of a lesser size . A cotton field covering 94 acres was ruined nearby . At Smithville , North Carolina , numerous ships experienced damage , while considerable destruction to structures was observed , with many wharves wrecked . Meanwhile , at Wilmington , the hurricane inflicted widespread damage , with many wharves severely damaged , and significant losses sustained by salt , sugar , rice , and lumber industries . The gable sections of three masonry houses were destroyed by wind or water , and wooden houses suffered especially badly , with many obliterated and those under construction flattened . One individual died after a wall collapsed and several slaves were killed , one by drowning , at local plantations . At Bald Head Island , the United States Revenue Cutter Service vessel Governor Williams was stripped of its foremast and subsequently ran ashore before being repaired and continuing on its journey . A second boat owned by the agency , the Diligence , was tethered at port in Wilmington and endured no damage ; similarly , little impact occurred at New Bern . Throughout the storm , several vessels and supplies of stranded sailors were driven aground along the North Carolinan coast . On the Bogue Banks , the remains of the Adolphus and Atlantic were discovered , and at the Core Banks , a dead body was washed ashore , partially eaten by fish .
Moderate damage occurred upon the hurricane 's arrival in Norfolk , Virginia . Winds toppled a number of newly built structures and chimneys , uprooted trees and fences , and washed two watercraft aground . After the storm , alterations to the shoreline around the Chesapeake Bay permitted the full establishment of a town at Willoughby Spit . The Rose @-@ in @-@ Bloom was caught in the hurricane while offshore of Barnegat Inlet , New Jersey , en route to New York City from Charleston , but was struck by a large wave which overturned the ship , resulting in the deaths of 21 of its 48 passengers and the loss of $ 171 @,@ 000 of its $ 180 @,@ 000 ( 1806 USD ) cargo . The vessel only barely stayed afloat , with 30 bales of cotton preventing it from sinking entirely ; survivors were ferried to New York by the British brig Swift , which had then been traveling toward St. John 's , Newfoundland . The hurricane produced strong gusts within the vicinity of New York City , and at Belleville , New Jersey , several peach trees were defoliated and uprooted . Cape Cod , Massachusetts was struck by heavy rain and observed minor damage to its port . At Edgartown , meanwhile , an individual witnessed torrential rainfall , recording that a barrel was filled with 30 in ( 76 cm ) of water , and estimating total rainfall reached 36 in ( 91 cm ) there , where the storm devastated local crops and beached five cargo ships . At Brewster , meanwhile , severe damage to crops and salterns was noted , and 18 in ( 46 cm ) of rainfall was recorded . Reports in Boston , however , indicate more modest rainfall amounts , with a precipitation rate of 0 @.@ 40 in ( 1 @.@ 0 cm ) per hour noted .
= Forward Intelligence Team =
Forward Intelligence Teams ( FITs ) are two or more police officers who are deployed by UK police forces to gather intelligence on the ground and in some circumstances , to disrupt activists and deter anti @-@ social behaviour . They use cameras , camcorders and audio recorders to conduct overt surveillance of the public . An unsuccessful legal challenge has been made against their use of overt surveillance , but in 2009 the Court of Appeal ruled that they must justify retention of photographs on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis . Any retained information is recorded on the Crimint database .
Political activists have criticised FITs and said that they feel the aim of FIT deployment during protests is to prevent legal protests . Journalists have also complained that FITs attempt to stop them photographing protests and that they conduct surveillance of journalists . A campaign group , Fitwatch , formed in 2007 that aim to obstruct FITs and conduct sousveillance on the officers . Two members of the group were arrested at the 2008 Climate Camp on obstruction charges . A similar police surveillance unit , the Video Intelligence Unit is operated by Greater Manchester Police . In June 2010 , the Home Office announced it would review the use of FITs during public order policing .
= = History and Purpose = =
FITs were first formed in the early 1990s , as part of the Public Order Intelligence Unit ( CO11 ) , a section of the Public Order Branch of the Metropolitan Police . They initially targeted football fans , hunt saboteurs and political protesters ( since at least 1996 ) , using cameras , camcorders and audio recorders to conduct overt surveillance of the public . The police officers wear full uniform , and are intended to be a highly visible presence . Their uniform is sometimes different from normal police officers in that the upper half of their yellow fluorescent jackets is blue . Civilian photographers are also employed by the police to work alongside FITs . According to Scotland Yard , the aim of FIT teams at protests is to record evidence of protesters in case disorder occurs later on at a protest .
More recently the teams ' purpose has been extended to routine police work on low @-@ level crime and anti @-@ social behaviour and police forces throughout the UK now have their own FITs . Despite the implication in their name that their function is to merely gather intelligence , they are also intended to have a deterrent effect . This approach has been reported to work in reducing reports of anti @-@ social behaviour at times when FITs are deployed in specific neighbourhoods . Jacqui Smith , then Home Secretary praised Operation Leopard that used FITs to target youths , in Laindon , Essex stating :
" Operation Leopard is exactly the sort of intensive policing that can bring persistent offenders to their senses ... Relentless filming of them and their associates throughout the day and night "
Linda Catt , an activist , has suggested that their tactics are " designed to intimidate people and prevent lawful dissent " . This view is echoed by a police debriefing of their operations at the 2008 Camp for Climate Action which praised FITs at the event for disrupting activists .
In June 2010 , the Home Office announced it would review the use of FITs during public order policing . The move was influenced by the discovery that information collected by FITs , included that which was unrelated to suspected crimes , for example recording who made speeches at demonstrations .
In October 2010 , FIT officers in plain clothes were spotted by a press photographer at a protest against companies avoiding tax , despite Commander Bob Broadhurst telling a parliamentary committee in May 2009 , that only uniformed officers distinguishable by their blue and yellow jackets were involved in gathering intelligence at protests . The Metropolitan Police told The Guardian that it was necessary to deploy plain @-@ clothed officers to " gather information to provide us with a relevant and up @-@ to @-@ date intelligence picture of what to expect " . It was the first time that FITs are known to have been deployed in plain clothes .
= = Legal issues = =
Liberty brought a judicial review of the overt surveillance practices in May 2008 , which was decided in favour of the police , however the police were asked to clarify their evidence to the Court of Appeal , following an investigation by The Guardian newspaper .
In May 2009 , the Court of Appeal ruled that photographs collected by FITs of people who have not committed a criminal offence can no longer be kept . The ruling was made after Andrew Wood , an arms trade activist , was photographed after challenging the management of Reed Elsevier at their AGM over them organising arms trade exhibitions . Wood argued that police had harassed him and infringed his right to privacy by photographing him . Lord Collins of Mapesbury said that the police presence had a " chilling effect " on people who were protesting lawfully . FITs have not been banned but they must now justify the retention of photographs on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis . As a result of the ruling the Metropolitan Police 's public order unit , CO11 was forced to delete 40 % of the photos of protesters that it held .
In a report about the policing of the 2009 G @-@ 20 London summit protests , Denis O 'Connor , the chief inspector of constabulary , stated that the routine use of FITs at protests " raises fundamental privacy issues and should be reviewed " . He also said that there was " confusion " over the role of FITs and advised that the Home Office should issue guidance over the legality of the surveillance of protesters and the retention of images .
= = Information processing = =
The information that FITs collect is stored on the Crimint database , which is used daily by police officers to catalogue criminal intelligence . People are listed by name allowing police to determine which events individuals have attended . Photographs obtained by FITs are used to produce " spotter cards " consisting of people 's photographs which allows officers to identify people at future events that they attend . For £ 10 , people are able to obtain a list of protests that they have attended from the data held on Crimint under laws in the Data Protection Act 1998 .
= = Academic response = =
A 2006 report , The Economics of Mass Surveillance calculated that the use of FITs at mass gatherings involves gathering intelligence on roughly 1 @,@ 200 people to record the actions of one person . The report also noted that most of the people on " spotter cards " , used by the police photographers , were those involved in the organisation of protests and that FITs also attend meetings where demonstrations are organised .
= = Criticism = =
Fitwatch ( formed in early 2007 ) campaign against FITs by actively obstructing their operations , and by passively opposing their operations by photographing units ( a form of sousveillance ) .
In June 2009 , The Guardian released video evidence recorded by a FIT at the 2008 Climate Camp of alleged police brutality against two female members of Fitwatch . The women had asked police officers to reveal their shoulder numbers , as at least four officers had not displayed them . The women attempted to photograph the police officers for evidence , but were forced to the ground , restrained with handcuffs , and had their legs bound with straps . They were then placed in restraint positions , arrested , charged and held in custody for four days , including three days in HMP Bronzefield , before they were released on bail . The police later retracted all the charges against the women . The women lodged a complaint with the IPCC over the incident . The journalist George Monbiot commented on this case , saying that " the police are turning activism into a crime " and that " the FITs ' methods appear to have been lifted from a Stasi training manual " . He claimed that " anybody who is politically active is filmed , identified , monitored , logged , and cross @-@ checked " . A police debrief into the operation at Kingsnorth praised the deployment of FITs saying that they were " highly effective and gained good intelligence and disruption " .
Three members of Fitwatch were convicted for obstructing FIT officers in June 2008 as they attempted to photograph those attending a No Borders meeting in London . In July 2010 the Inner London Crown Court overturned the men 's convictions , with the judge stating that the protesters ' human rights may have been violated by the FIT officers .
On 15 November 2010 , the hosts of the Fitwatch blog were asked by the Police National E @-@ Crime Unit to take down the website due to it " being used to undertake criminal activities " . The request came after a post on the blog after the 2010 student protest in London , which advised students of actions they should take if they were concerned that they were photographed at the demonstration , such as cutting their hair and disposing of clothing they were wearing . Emily Apple , one of the founders of the site told The Guardian , " Nothing in that post [ giving guidance to student protesters ] has not been said before on our blog or on other sites " . On 17 November 2010 , the Fitwatch website returned , hosted on a web server outside of the UK .
The National Union of Journalists ( NUJ ) has criticised FITs for their surveillance and sometimes violent harassment of working journalists . Marc Vallee , who was hospitalised by police after documenting a protest , has said that the teams limit freedom of the press and called on the Home Office to confirm that the police had no right to restrict the work of photojournalists . Bob Broadhurst , who is in charge of public order policing at the Metropolitan Police , said in a statement to the NUJ in 2008 that journalists , " on the production of a valid form of accreditation will be able to continue with their work " . The NUJ are to make a formal complaint to the Information Commissioner due to the Metropolitan Police failing to provide details on the surveillance of journalists under the Freedom of Information Act . Bob Broadhurst told photographers at an NUJ conference that he had no faith in the National Press Card ( a form of press pass ) despite journalists needing to prove that they are bona @-@ fide newsgatherers to an independent authority before they are issued .
The BBC TV series Panorama produced an episode entitled What ever happened to people power ? in July 2009 which discussed the use of FITs in targeting activists and journalists .
= = Similar police units = =
Greater Manchester Police operate a Video Intelligence Unit , whose plainclothes officers confront and video certain freed prisoners as they leave prison after serving their sentences . They also record footage of people involved in anti @-@ social behaviour on the streets . The aim is to give other police officers up to date information on the appearance of people who have broken the law . Video footage thus collected is constantly replayed on TV screens in rooms where officers complete their paperwork . Footage that they have recorded has also been uploaded onto YouTube in an attempt to catch people they believe have reoffended . This has resulted in several offenders being sent back to prison after breaching licence conditions . Since the unit was launched in 2006 more than 900 people have been filmed by the unit . Not all of these people are suspects in crime however , people can be filmed if they are thought to associate with prolific offenders or if they have been stopped in an area of high crime under suspicious circumstances . Kieran Walsh , a civil liberties lawyer , said the unit 's work " could have implications " for the force under Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights - the right to privacy . He believes that filming must be a " proportionate and reasonable " response to a crime and that this does not appear to be the case as people are being targeted over what they might do in the future . It is uncertain as to how long data collected by the unit is to be kept but GMP currently anticipate it will be stored for 5 years .
= Trinsey v. Pennsylvania =
Trinsey v. Pennsylvania 941 F.2d 224 was a case decided by the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit that confirmed the validity of special elections held without a primary under the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments to the United States Constitution . The case came about due to the death of H. John Heinz III , one of the US Senators from Pennsylvania , in a plane crash on April 4 , 1991 . Under the Seventeenth Amendment , state legislatures may give the Governor the power to appoint officials to fill temporarily vacant Senate seats until a special election can be held , and Pennsylvanian law contained a statute executing this and requiring no primaries for the special election . Instead , both the Democrats and Republicans would each internally select their candidates . John S. Trinsey Jr . , a voter and potential candidate , asked the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania to declare the statute unconstitutional as a violation on the Fourteenth and Seventeenth amendments , because the lack of a primary removed his right to properly vote for candidates and delegated that power to political parties .
After deciding that the statute 's subject matter necessitated the strict scrutiny approach , the District Court decided on June 10 , 1991 that it was an unconstitutional violation of the right to vote for and select Senate candidates . This decision was appealed to the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit , who decided against the use of the strict scrutiny approach and , in its absence , ruled that the statute was not a violation of the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments . Academics have been critical of both the decision reached and the approach used , with one suggesting that the " substantial state interests " test used in Valenti v. Rockefeller would be more appropriate .
= = Background = =
On April 4 , 1991 H. John Heinz III , one of the US Senators from Pennsylvania , was killed when his chartered plane collided with a helicopter inspecting its landing gear . Under the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , the legislature of each state has the power to permit the governor to fill the vacant seat until a special election can be held . In Pennsylvania , this power had been delegated , and Governor Robert P. Casey signed a writ on May 13 , 1991 , declaring November 5 the date for a special election and temporarily appointing Harris Wofford to fill Heinz 's now @-@ vacant seat . Under Pennsylvanian law , there was no need for a primary in such a situation ; instead , both the Democrats and Republicans would each internally select their candidate , who would run in the special election . John S. Trinsey Jr . , a member of the Pennsylvanian electorate and potential candidate , challenged the constitutionality of this law , claiming that it violated his rights under the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments .
Trinsey argued that , by failing to allow for primaries , the state legislation prevented him from getting to select a candidate of his choice , and that this violated the Fourteenth Amendment ; the terms of the statute ( and absence of a requirement for primaries ) also allegedly infringed the rights of the electorate under the Seventeenth Amendment , which required the selection of Senators by popular vote ; Trinsey 's complaint was that the legislation had effectively delegated the power to choose candidates to political parties rather than the electorate . Accordingly , Trinsey filed a motion for a declaratory judgment to state that the statute was unconstitutional , and also requested that Wofford be removed from his seat . Counsel for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania , joined by the office of the Governor , argued that the constitution did not require the holding of primary elections to fill vacancies , and that the statute " protected valid and compelling state interests in protecting the validity of the electoral process and limiting the term of a [ governor- ] appointed Senator " .
= = Judgment = =
The case was first heard in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania , where , following oral arguments , the judge dismissed both Trinsey 's motion to remove Wofford and the Commonwealth 's motion to dismiss . On June 10 , 1991 , however , the District Court declared the statute unconstitutional , stating that it violated both the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments due to the failure to ensure " popular participation " through the use of primary elections . This decision was reached following an analysis of the legislative history of the Seventeenth Amendment and electoral processes ; based on this analysis , the court concluded that the Pennsylvanian use of a nomination process before a special election implied a right to vote , which was violated by the lack of a primary and necessitated a strict scrutinising of the legislation . After considering the evidence , the court concluded that " the interests the Commonwealth put forth in support of the statute could not outweigh the infringement of the right to vote " , leading to the conclusion that the statute governing special elections was unconstitutional .
With this " the public , press and political parties quickly turned their attention to the case " , with the Republican State Committee of Pennsylvania ( supported by their Democratic counterparts ) and several prominent politicians intervening . They moved to expedite an appeal to the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit . In a unanimous opinion , the Court of Appeals ( consisting of Sloviter , Greenberg and Seitz ) confirmed that there was no restriction
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of the universe . " Soap opera reporting website Holy Soap described Nicole as " a label @-@ loving pampered princess , armed with a sharp wardrobe and an even sharper tongue " . They also added she was a " sultry " type character .
Whilst interviewed by The Daily Telegraph , James stated : " I think she 's the best character , I get to have so much fun being a princess and a prima donna . She doesn 't mind pushing the boundaries . She 's very high maintenance , which is fun to play . " She also stated she enjoys Nicole 's " promiscuous side " because she seems to have another boyfriend every week . James also enjoys the role because of this and the fact she gets so many " pash " scenes with other cast members .
Series producer Cameron Welsh branded Nicole as an " interesting character " , adding his opinion on her development stating : " She came in with really strong opinions and a kind of morality that was different to the rest of the group " . Welsh also believes that Nicole is destined to come " full circle " . Of her 2010 storylines he comments that Nicole poor judgements make her realise and re @-@ evaluate her life .
= = = Relationship with Geoff Campbell = = =
Nicole embarks on a relationship with Geoff Campbell , not before they are embroiled in a " sordid love triangle " along with Melody . In one storyline Nicole and Geoff became stranded on a " deserted island " and nearly die . The episodes were filmed on Box Beach located at Shoal Bay , New South Wales as part of a two @-@ day location shoot . Nicole nearly drowns in scenes which aired for the serial 's " cliff @-@ hanger " in 2008 . James and Lewis took scuba diving lessons in preparation for the storyline . Filming the storyline was compromised by logistical challenges . The crew had to move camera equipment between boats and the crew walked around the perimeters of the beach in order to avoid leaving footprints . This was to keep the authenticity of a deserted location . The storyline was also given a " big budget " , featured helicopters and a number of promotional adverts were aired on Seven .
The storyline began on @-@ screen when Nicole started dating Elliot Gillen ( Paul Pantano ) . He had a vendetta against Roman and kidnapped Nicole and Geoff and left them stranded out at sea . They washed up on a deserted island and were forced to survive without food and clothing . Describing the effect it had on Nicole and Geoff , James stated : " They have no food , shelter or clothing . [ ... ] They find moments to make each other laugh , though , and realise how much they mean to one another . " Geoff had strong religious views and did not believe in premarital sex . However , the environment they were in caused him to let his guard down and they slept together . Lewis told TV Week that all the pair could think of whilst trapped was being rescued and their feelings for one an other . He added that " the fact they were both pretty much naked didn 't help " . He concluded the fact they were both kids , trying to keep warm - that then " stuff happens " . Geoff was left " guilt @-@ ridden " because he gave into temptation . He did not regret it , but acknowledged that he wanted to save his virginity until marriage . Therefore , Geoff saw no other option but to propose to Nicole . Lewis stated , " He 's not 100 % sure about that either , but he feels that if they 're going to have sex , a wedding is the only solution . " Describing Nicole 's reaction he said that she was " dumbfounded " by his offer , as she had believed he was acting strange because he wanted to dump her . Nicole refused when she realised his reasons for proposing . According to James , the moment managed to ruin their passion , she also commented that : " Nicole has liked Geoff for ages and was so happy to have got together with him - but now he 's spoiled it . " James also admitted she was trilled to learn Nicole would turn down his proposal . James later opined that Nicole was " the one " for Geoff , but did not believe that Geoff was " the one " for Nicole .
Nicole and Geoff 's relationship became strained . Nicole decided to plan a return trip to the island , believing it would solve their problems and bring them closer together . James said that Geoff loved the surprise , but found Nicole " very sexy and tempting " . She added that everything about Nicole forced Geoff to question his religious beliefs and he felt he " needed to back away " . Their trip soon turned disastrous when a man named Derrick Quaid ( John Atkinson ) stole their food and intimidated the couple . He admitted he were a murderer and tried to attack Geoff with a knife . James said he " put himself in harms way " to save Nicole .
In 2009 , James told Inside Soap that Nicole and Geoff had a strong friendship underneath their romance . She also described their compatibility stating : " They 're complete opposites , which works well for them . It 's a bit of a fiery relationship , and they 've been through a lot together . " Whilst Lewis added : " They 're also very similar in some of their strongest traits . Geoff and Nicole are both stubborn and opinionated , and in some ways they 're naive . In a weird way they show a side to each other nobody else gets to see . " James opined Nicole 's wild behaviour was often to much for Geoff to cope with . In public , Lewis initially had negative feedback from older viewers because they felt Geoff was better suited to Melody . He revealed they felt like she was a bad influence for Geoff because she often played games . However towards the end of their relationship he felt perception had changed due to viewers having a better understanding of Nicole 's persona .
= = = Other relationships = = =
In 2009 , the serial embarked on two lesbian storylines , one of which involved Nicole . It featured Freya Duric ( Sophie Hensser ) kissing Nicole , which sparked complaints . However , for Nicole it wasn 't about sexuality , rather finding herself the center of attention . James described their dynamic , stating : " Freya 's exactly what Nicole was like when she first arrived in the bay , that is why they click . Nicole relates to the wild side of Freya , but has no idea how far Freya is going to take it . " Through her relationship with Geoff she had mellowed , however her vanity was still present . James said Nicole was " angry " because she was on Freya 's " not hot list " . Freya kissed her to prove she thinks she is hot , James opined that Nicole did not enjoy the kiss , but was just " happy to be center of attention " and happy that people were talking about her again . The incident eventually brought her to the realisation that she had become boring . Nicole denied it was to do with her involvement with Geoff , however James said Geoff was the reason she became bored .
Later that year the serial included a storyline which was branded " bizarre " after it mirrored a real life scandal that had occurred weeks earlier . Lewis who plays love interest Geoff had been caught up in a sex tape scandal which leaked onto the internet , the serial decided to include Nicole making a sex tape with Trey Palmer ( Luke Bracey ) and having it leaked . Trey filmed without Nicole 's consent , when she found out the truth she ended their relationship . Trey thought she and Geoff were getting back together so aired the tape at a local film festival to gain revenge . James described Nicole 's state of mind adding , " She 's quite vulnerable at the moment , with her dad , Roman , in prison . She 's relying on Trey , so this is the last thing she needs . "
Nicole 's best friend during her initial storylines was Aden Jefferies ( Todd Lasance ) . After Brendan Austin ( Kain O 'Keeffe ) caused Roman to go blind , he took his anger out on Nicole and Aden . Subsequently they became " each other 's support network " and Lasance said it was not long afterward that they " slipped between the sheets " . One of the conditions of Aden 's tenancy was to never sleep with Nicole , this made the pair feel guilty that they had deceived Roman . Lasance felt the storyline was controversial as he had a strong fan base for his relationship with Belle Taylor ( Jessica Tovey ) - which meant he knew it would " cause a stir " and divide the audience . In January 2010 , Nicole and Aden " get up close and personal " and they decided to spend Aden 's remaining time in the Bay together . They shared a kiss and James told TV Week that there are " a lot of complications " for them . She said that no one knew what was going to happen with Liam Murphy ( Axle Whitehead ) and that Nicole felt guilty for betraying Belle because she was her friend . James explained that Nicole 's pairing with Aden was " a bit more serious and in @-@ depth than her usual relationships . " James opined that Aden was the " nicer guy " for Nicole , but Liam may have had " the edge she 's after . " Nicole and Aden then embarked on a relationship . James thought that Nicole and Aden 's relationship was great and said " They started out having a kind of brother @-@ sister relationship , and that developed into something more . " Nicole declared her love for Aden , however he did not reciprocate . Lasance described the moment whilst interviewed by TV Week stating : " They 've always had an awesome connection and Nicole gets into a bit of a comfortable state and blurts out that she loves Aden . " Aden appreciated her love for him , however cannot say it back until he felt the same way . It is this that made their relationship " awkward " , Nicole tried to withdraw her declaration and hide her hurt feelings .
= = = Downward spiral = = =
In mid @-@ 2009 , producers decided to take Nicole 's storyline into a " u @-@ turn " , when she reverted to her " wild ways " . At the time Nicole had endured repetitive personal trauma including failed relationships , Roman being sent to prison and her best friend Belle was dying of cancer . James explained : " It 's all too much for her and she can 't handle it , so she reverts to her wild ways . " Geoff notices Nicole 's erratic behaviour and attempts to help her . She tried to " lure him into bed " after he comforted her , however he turned her down . James said she no longer had romantic feelings for Geoff , but was actually in a " vulnerable state " . She then started relying on alcohol more , and partied with fellow " wild child " Indigo Walker ( Samara Weaving ) at a " rowdy " venue . James explained that Nicole saw alcohol as an answer to her problems . The fact that " she 's trying to deal with too many things " saw Nicole transform into a messed up and depressed person .
Nicole became more irresponsible with the more she drank and was in the company of many men . Geoff arrived and saved her from danger , Lewis said there was a part of Geoff that still loved Nicole . However they did not start anything again , James said she understood why because of their complicated backstory . However Geoff continued to support Nicole as he realised that " a lot of people she was closest to have deserted her " . Nicole 's unpredictable behaviour continued thereafter . All that Geoff could offer was to be there for her because ultimately " Nicole is the only one that can save her from herself . "
= = = Pregnancy = = =
Nicole had a brief relationship with Penn Graham ( Christian Clark ) and after he was murdered , she discovered that she was pregnant with his child . James told Sunrise that viewers could expect a " realistic portrayal of teen pregnancy " and she explained that it was important to respect the issue . She added " We took it very seriously with the writers , and you do a lot of research and things like that . You can only do your best , I guess ! " Nicole later told Marilyn Chambers ( Emily Symons ) about the baby and she offered to adopt it . James later revealed that when she joined Home and Away she told the writers that they can do anything with her character , except make her pregnant . Of the moment she was told that Nicole was going to have a baby , James said " I went in to see our producer later and he said , ' Okay , I 'm going to apologise in advance - we 're making Nicole pregnant ! ' " She initially did not want to portray a " typical soap teenage pregnancy " as she thought Nicole should be different . However the situation was explained to her and she became excited at the challenging storyline ahead .
Nicole later decided to let Marilyn and Sid Walker ( Robert Mammone ) adopt the baby upon its birth . Marilyn was desperate to mother a child and her obsession with that and her controlling behaviour became too much for Nicole . Of the situation , Symons said " Marilyn is in Nicole 's face every minute . She 's doing it out of love , but she doesn 't realise she 's becoming obsessed with the baby . " Nicole was still questioning whether she is making the right decision about her unborn baby 's future and she argued with Marilyn . Nicole began dating a student from university , Angus McCathie ( Tim Pocock ) , they got along well on their first dates . Marilyn was left worried about their agreement and she felt " distanced . " Symons explained , " Marilyn is scared of being replaced . She 's scared of losing the baby , which could happen because there isn 't a legal agreement . " Roo Stewart ( Georgie Parker ) helped Nicole by convincing Marilyn to re @-@ evaluate the situation . Symons added that there is " still a long way to go " with the arrangement , but thereafter she was supportive and offered constructive help to Nicole .
During the final few weeks of her pregnancy Nicole began to receive increasing support from Angelo Rosetta ( Luke Jacobz ) . James said it was clear to see that " the lines of friendship could be blurring into something more " for the pair . Whilst Jacobz opined " They 've been spending time together and have realised how comfortable they are together . "
Angelo was forced to help Nicole give birth to a baby boy , George , and she handed him over to Marilyn immediately as agreed . She then tried to stay away , however it became obvious he needed her when he struggled without her . Marilyn then became obsessed with Nicole having the power to take her new son back . It was then revealed that Nicole would struggle to switch off her mothering instinct after giving George away . Nicole came to visit the baby and Marilyn caught her breastfeeding George , while she was alone with him . Symons called the scenes " volatile . " Nicole was unaware that Marilyn has reservations about her spending time with the baby . Of the breastfeeding scene , Symons stated : " Marilyn is shocked and offended , and this cuts to the very core of her worries - that she doesn 't have the same natural mothering instincts as George 's birth mother . Without a doubt , Marilyn thinks Nicole is overstepping the mark . She feels that a boundary has been overstepped and it could put a big strain on their relationship . " After the incident , Nicole is asked by Marylin , to stay away from the baby . James defended Nicole stating : " I think it 's hard to not bond , but this is Marilyn 's baby , and Nicole is so young and wants very much to give Marilyn and Sid this gift . "
= = Storylines = =
Nicole 's biological parents were the teenage Roman Harris ( Conrad Coleby ) and Natalie Franklin ( Adrienne Pickering ) , but she was raised by her maternal grandparents and considered her mother , Natalie , as an older sister . She did not meet her father until her early teenage years . Nicole arrives in Summer Bay in a flashy car . She initially makes herself unpopular with her bitchy care @-@ free nature . She tries to sleep with Aden but he rebuffs her . She makes a bet with Aden that she can sleep with Geoff Campbell ( Lincoln Lewis ) within two weeks , but Geoff and Belle publicly humiliate her when they find out . Nicole starts dating Roman 's old SAS friend Mark 's brother Elliot Gillen , despite Roman 's disapproval . After breaking up with Elliot , he takes her diving where he tries to kill her , Geoff and later Roman . Geoff tries to save Nicole , but Elliot leaves the pair stranded at sea . They wash up on a remote island and Geoff and Nicole grow close to each other . Geoff , who has strong religious views , sleeps with Nicole as they cannot fight temptation . When rescued Geoff proposes to Nicole out of guilt , she turns him down . She later has a pregnancy scare but is happy to discover it was a false alarm . Nicole later decides she and Geoff should return to the island to repair their relationship . They chased through woodland by a murderer , Derrick who tries to kill them both . However they manage to escape . Nicole decides to try her best to make their relationship work . However , after Freya kisses her they enter a few rocky periods and later break up .
She starts a relationship with troublesome Trey . He films them having sex , which is later leaked at the town 's movie festival . She has a brief relationship with Liam . After the death of good friend Belle , Nicole goes on a downward spiral . She starts partying and binge drinking along with Indigo . Geoff notices her behaviour and attempts to help her . After pushing him away she sleeps with drug addict Liam . She then pursues older man Sid . She kisses him and Indigo sees them , which ruins their friendship . She later moves in with Miles Copeland ( Josh Quong Tart ) who agrees to look after her .
Nicole starts dating Penn who manipulates her . He makes her believe she has accidentally stepped on a needle and she has tests for HIV . She later finds out she has the all clear . Nicole reveals to Marilyn that she is pregnant with Penn 's child . She initially chooses to have an abortion , but changes her mind and decides to give the baby to Marilyn . Nicole goes on a date with Angelo and she takes him to her antenatal class . When he learns that Nicole is giving her baby away , Angelo ends their relationship . Nicole become friends with Roo and asks her to be at the birth , but Roo turns her down . Marilyn apologises to Nicole when she starts to take over and begins leaving her out of her plans for the baby . Nicole becomes fed up when the baby is late and Angelo tries to help her start labour . They go for a walk on the beach and Nicole 's water breaks . Angelo is then forced to deliver the baby . Nicole later decides that she wants her baby back and tells Marilyn , who is devastated . Marilyn takes the baby , but later returns him . Nicole then leaves Summer bay with Angelo and George . She later contacts Marilyn and they meet in the city . Nicole and Marilyn talk things through and Angelo shows up with George .
= = Reception = =
Holy Soap said that Nicole 's most memorable moment was when she " returned to the desert island with Geoff to rekindle their love " and she was held hostage by Derek the murderer , before her father came to the rescue . When Nicole began dating Liam , Caroline Fitton writing for the Daily Mail said " I think this reforming wild child – a kind of less moody Peaches Geldof – has struck lucky " . Inside Soap opined that Nicole was a " flighty minx from the city who prays at the altar of Paris Hilton " . The Sunday Mail said it seemed like no one could stop her downward spiral . The Daily Record said that Nicole and Geoff 's relationship ending was good for her character . They later branded her a " fiery favourite " and when she started dating Penn , they said " Impressionable Nicole looks set to fall for the wrong man all over again " . When Nicole had her HIV scare Holy Soap said " As if defending her man against the Bay 's critics wasn 't enough for one girl to take , poor Nic " . Inside Soap said " Nicole Franklin isn 't exactly backward in coming forward " . Jaci Stephen of the Daily Mail opined that Nicole seemed incapable of decision making when it came to deciding on a birthing partner . TV Week chose James as one of the serial 's most promising actresses opining she was ready for roles in Hollywood .
TV Week often commented on her pregnancy storyline . After the plot was half way through Erin Miller of TV Week said that Nicole had changed her mind about adopting her baby " more times that Julia Gillard has uttered the phrase ' moving forward ' " . Upon watching Nicole 's beach birth scenes , the magazine website editor quipped " Who knew sand had birthing properties ? ! Well , maybe not ... but you could forgive pregnant teen Nicole for thinking that after a casual stroll along the Bay 's beach ends with Angelo delivering her newborn son ! " Commenting on the realism of the storyline they added : " Only in the Bay would a baby be born on the beach ! " Miller thought it was odd she had then " miraculously lost any signs that she even had a baby . " She quipped " already the teen is back to wearing skin @-@ tight dresses ! " . They later described Nicole and Marilyn 's argument over George as " the mother of all rifts " and said " It 's exhausting just thinking about it ! " Miller later criticised Nicole 's career in fashion , after John told her he hated her designs for the Surf Club . She said " I had to agree with him - putting lifesavers in pink polo @-@ neck swimmers is a terrible idea . "
= Livin ' the Dream =
" Livin ' the Dream " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the 197th episode overall . It originally aired on NBC on May 2 , 2013 . The episode guest stars Michael Imperioli as Sensei Billy , and was initially scheduled to air in its half @-@ hour timeslot , before being expanded to a full hour .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) decides to pursue a career as a professional actor , and quits his job at Dunder Mifflin . Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) finally receives his black belt in karate from his new sensei ( Imperioli ) and , on the recommendation of Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) , is promoted to Regional Manager of the Scranton branch . Jim reconnects with Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) , and makes it clear that he will choose her over Philadelphia .
The episode was viewed by an estimated and received a 1 @.@ 8 / 5 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking third in its first half @-@ hour timeslot and fourth in its second , marking a slight increase in the ratings from the previous episode . " Livin ' the Dream " received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Critical praise mainly went towards the dynamic between Jim , Pam and Dwight , particularly for the former two 's reconciliation and the latter 's promotion . Andy 's subplot , meanwhile , received more mixed reviews .
= = Plot = =
CEO David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) plans on firing Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) due to his missing work for acting gigs . However , Andy tells David he is resigning to pursue his dreams of stardom full time , and David is relieved to not have to fire him . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) receives his black belt in karate from his new sensei ( Michael Imperioli ) . Seeing Dwight 's tenacity and devotion , David is inspired to make Dwight Andy 's replacement .
Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) has returned to Scranton full time , saying he has realized that he can 't devote himself to both his family and his new job , and has decided to go " all in " on his family since that is what makes him most happy . David asks Jim his opinion on promoting Dwight , and Jim says that Dwight deserves the job and will be a great manager . Dwight then appoints Jim the new assistant to the regional manager . Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) informs Jim that Athlead has found a buyer and wants them to do a promotional tour around the country for three months . With undisguised regret , Jim says he will not do the tour because he cannot put his wife Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) through that , unaware that Pam is listening in .
Everyone in the office tells Andy that quitting is a foolish move and that he has no chance of achieving stardom . Andy eventually goes back on his decision , and David allows him to stay on in a sales position . However , mere hours later Andy feels that he is only sticking with his Dundler @-@ Mifflin job because it is safe and that he has to take a shot at achieving fame . Fearing his conviction will falter a second time , he decides he cannot simply quit , but get fired . This proves difficult as he is unable to make himself go through with any offense more serious than defecating on David 's car . Andy bids farewell to his coworkers with an unexpectedly moving rendition of " I Will Remember You " , prompting them to comment to the documentary crew that he may have star potential after all .
Meanwhile , Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) is evicted from her studio apartment after her cats were taken away by Animal Control . She considers living in a tent in the woods , prompting Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) to offer her to stay with him until she gets back on her feet . She finally accepts with gratitude . As they set off to take Angela 's things to Oscar 's place , Oscar mentions her marriage to Robert Lipton and she breaks down into tears , saying " I love him . " However , she denies she still has feelings for Robert and claims she was talking about Dwight .
= = Production = =
" Livin ' the Dream " was written by story editor Niki Schwartz @-@ Wright , marking her second writing credit for the series , after the earlier season episode " Lice " . It was directed by regular Office director Jeffrey Blitz , who last directed season eight 's " Gettysburg " . The episode was originally scheduled to air in its regular half @-@ hour time slot , but NBC later announced it would be expanded to fill an hour time slot beginning a half hour early , although it still counts as one official episode , similar to the earlier season episode " Moving On " . Rogers noted that " we knew the last two episodes would be hour @-@ longs , and The Finale might even end up running longer , but we still had a lot of great storytelling to do leading up to them , and ' Livin ' the Dream ' was one that ultimately deserved to be an hour long episode as well ! "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Livin ' the Dream " originally aired on May 2 , 2013 on NBC . In its original American broadcast , " Livin ' the Dream " was viewed by an estimated 3 @.@ 51 million viewers and received a 1 @.@ 8 rating / 5 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a slight increase in the ratings from the previous episode , " Paper Airplane " . The episode ranked third in its first half @-@ hour timeslot , being beaten by an episode of the CBS comedy series Two and a Half Men which received a 3 @.@ 2 / 10 rating and an entry of the Fox reality series American Idol which scored a 2 @.@ 6 / 9 rating . The second half @-@ hour ranked fourth in its timeslot , being beaten by an episode of the ABC series Grey 's Anatomy which scored a 3 @.@ 0 / 9 rating , an entry of the CBS series Person of Interest which garnered a 2 @.@ 4 / 7 rating , and installment of the Fox series Glee which received a 1 @.@ 9 / 5 rating .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Livin ' the Dream " received positive reviews from television critics . Roth Cornet of IGN wrote that " it pleases me greatly that at the conclusion of this super @-@ sized episode I was left , once again , truly looking forward to seeing what these next few weeks , and that final hour of The Office , will bring . " Cornet praised the full @-@ use of the ensemble , particularly the " Phyllis and Stanley Lil ' Romeo mini @-@ debate " and Creed 's confused mimicking of Dwight 's declaration . Cornet also called the Dwight storyline " perfectly executed " , as well as the Jim @-@ Pam @-@ Dwight dynamic featured throughout the episode , calling their companionship to be " entirely earned " . She also praised Kinsey 's performance during her character 's storyline , and said her final scenes with Oscar " [ tugged ] at my heart @-@ string " . She gave the episode an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , calling it " Great " . M. Giant of Television Without Pity awarded the episode an " A – " and wrote that " almost everybody is having their best day in a long time , in the best episode of The Office in an even longer time " .
Nick Campbell of TV.com complimented the sentimental storylines in the episode , specifically between Jim , Pam and Dwight . He was positive towards Jim and Pam 's reconciliation , but felt " something hollow about their reunion " . He also noted that the Jim @-@ Pam storyline caused the Dwight @-@ Angela relationship to go " darker " . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix gave the episode a slightly more mixed review writing that " the non @-@ Andy parts of " Livin ' the Dream " were fairly interesting " . He appreciated the drama coming from Angela 's desperation , despite disagreeing with the logic in the situation . Sepinwall praised the Jim @-@ Dwight dynamic in the episode , considering it an enjoyable payoff , and also praised Jim and Pam 's reconciliation , particularly them annoying their co @-@ workers with their flirting . Joshua Alton of The A.V. Club was more negative towards the episode , saying it felt " padded @-@ out " to fill the full hour timeslot , and that " this episode might be the nadir for the show ’ s hour @-@ long installments " . He was complimentary towards the Jim @-@ Pam storyline , but felt " there wasn ’ t much happening " beyond Pam overhearing Jim 's talk with Darryl . Alton praised the Dwight storyline and his dynamic with Jim and Pam , calling it " the true fan service " . Alton gave the episode a " C – " .
= Toniná =
Tonina ( or Toniná in Spanish orthography ) is a pre @-@ Columbian archaeological site and ruined city of the Maya civilization located in what is now the Mexican state of Chiapas , some 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) east of the town of Ocosingo .
The site is medium to large , with groups of temple @-@ pyramids set on terraces rising some 71 metres ( 233 ft ) above a plaza , a large court for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame , and over 100 carved monuments , most dating from the 6th century through the 9th centuries AD , during the Classic period . Toniná is distinguished by its well preserved stucco sculptures and particularly by its in @-@ the @-@ round carved monuments , produced to an extent not seen in Mesoamerica since the end of the much earlier Olmec civilization .
Toniná was an aggressive state in the Late Classic , using warfare to develop a powerful kingdom . For much of its history , Toniná was engaged in sporadic warfare with Palenque , its greatest rival and one of the most important polities in the west of the Maya region , although Toniná eventually became the dominant city in the west .
The city is notable for having the last known Long Count date on any Maya monument , marking the end of the Classic Maya period in AD 909 .
= = Etymology = =
Toniná means house of stone in the Tzeltal language of the local Maya inhabitants , an alternate interpretation is the place where stone sculptures are raised to honour time . However , this is a modern name and the original name was either Po or Popo , appearing in Classic Maya texts in the title used for the kings of Toniná , k 'uhul po ' ajaw ( Divine Lord of Po ) . A Maya rebellion in Colonial times , in 1558 , featured a group called the po ' winikob ' ( People of Po ) . Early versions of the Toniná emblem glyph bore a doubled po glyph and the term Popo is also found in Colonial records . Since double sounds were often abbreviated in hieroglyphic texts , Popo may represent the original name of the city .
= = Location = =
Toniná is located at an altitude of 800 to 900 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 to 3 @,@ 000 ft ) above mean sea level in the Chiapas highlands of southern Mexico , some 40 miles ( 64 km ) south of the contemporary Maya city of Palenque , Toniná 's greatest rival throughout its recorded history . Toniná is separated from Palenque by mountainous terrain and the site core is located along an easily defended ascending limestone ridge immediately to the west of a seasonal tributary of the Río Jataté , one of the two rivers forming the Ocosingo Valley .
= = Rulers = =
Rulers of Toniná recorded in the Maya script on Toniná monuments include :
The last known recorded date at the site is featured on Monument 101 as 15 January 909 CE .
= = History = =
= = = Early Classic = = =
Toniná had a particularly active Early Classic presence , although the Early Classic remains lie entirely buried under later construction . Due to this , early texts are scarce and only offer a glimpse of the early history of the site . An 8th @-@ century text refers to a king ruling in AD 217 , although it only mentions his title , not his name .
Ruler 1 is depicted on a couple of Early Classic monuments , the better preserved of which is an altar that dates to 514 . A ruler known as Jaguar Bird Peccary is represented on a 6th @-@ century stela , which describes him acceding to the throne in 568 .
The first mention of Toniná in a record from a foreign state is from the site of Chinikiha , located 72 kilometres ( 45 mi ) to the northeast on the Usumacinta River , the text is from a throne and describes the capture of a person from Toniná in 573 .
= = = Late Classic = = =
= = = = K 'inich Hix Chapat = = = =
Toniná 's history comes into focus in the Late Classic , when its historical record is more fully represented by hieroglyphic texts . In 633 K 'inich Hix Chapat is recorded as installing two subordinate lords but little else is known of his reign , although he was probably enthroned in 595 . The last mention of K 'inich Hix Chapat is in a monument dated to 665 that appears to be a memorial stone .
= = = = Ruler 2 = = = =
Ruler 2 acceded to the throne of Toniná in 668 . His rule is marked by warfare and the frequent depiction of bound captives on his monuments . Ruler 2 established the use of in @-@ the @-@ round sculptural style that came to typify the stelae of Toniná . A monument dated to 682 depicts three naked prisoners with their arms bound , one of them is identified as a lord from Annak ' , an as yet unidentified site . His reign may have ended with his defeat and capture by K 'inich Kan Balam II of Palenque in September 687 , as described in a glyphic text from Temple 17 in the rival city , an event that probably culminated in his sacrifice .
= = = = K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak = = = =
K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak was enthroned in 688 , twenty years after Ruler 2 , and reigned for twenty @-@ seven years . During his reign he restored Toniná 's power with a number of military victories over Palenque , and his reign was dominated by the struggle against the rival city for regional power . Ballcourt 1 , the larger of Toniná 's two ballcourts , was dedicated in 699 to celebrate three victories over the city 's arch @-@ rival . The ballcourt originally had six sculptures of bound captives , all vassals of the enemy Palenque king from the Usumacinta region . The date of the king 's death is unknown .
= = = = Ruler 4 = = = =
Ruler 4 came to power in 708 at a very young age . Three years later , in 711 , while Ruler 4 was still a child , Toniná gained an important victory over Palenque . The battle resulted in the capture of Kan Joy Chitam II of Palenque and made Toniná the dominant centre in the lower Usumacinta region . The victory was so complete that it resulted in a ten @-@ year gap in the dynastic history of the defeated city , during which the captured ruler may have been held hostage . Ruler 4 continued in power to celebrate the period endings of 716 and 721 . A captive depicted on one of his monuments is identified as being from the distant city of Calakmul , one of the two Maya " superpowers " .
= = = = K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat = = = =
Ruler 4 was succeeded by K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat in 723 . Around 725 Toniná fought a war against Piedras Negras , a city on the north bank of the Usumacinta River , now in Guatemala . A series of events during his reign were marked on monuments between 726 and 729 and in 730 he rededicated the tomb of his predecessor K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak . The mother of K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat is named as Lady Winik Timan K 'awiil and his father may well have been K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak himself . The reign of K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat is notable for the absence of the usual sculptures depicting bound war captives , although the reason for this is unknown .
= = = = Later rulers = = = =
Little is known of the next two rulers , Ruler 6 is named as K 'inich Tuun Chapat , he celebrated the period ending of 736 and may have died 762 . A damaged text accompanying the image of a bound captive indicates renewed warfare with Palenque during his reign , however the name of the prisoner is lost and it is unclear if it is the actual king of Palenque or merely one of his vassals . He was succeeded by Ruler 7 , about whom even less is known . Around 764 Toniná defeated Palenque in battle .
In 775 a text recorded the death of Lord Wak Chan K 'ak ' , a prince who appears to have been the heir to the throne and who died before he could take power .
Ruler 8 was the last of the successful warrior kings of Toniná . He celebrated a series of events between
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apers to a narrow apex with a small opening at the tip . The upper half of the stalk is bright red to reddish orange , and the color gradually loses intensity transforming into pinkish white below . The stalk may be straight , or slightly curved . A gelatinous greenish @-@ brown gleba covers the upper third of the stalk in newly emerged specimens . The remains of the " egg " forms a volva around the base of the stalk . The odor of the gleba is foul ; one author describes it as " sickly sweet or metallic " . The spores are a greenish @-@ brown color . Fruit bodies are attached to the substrate by whitish rhizomorphs that resemble plant roots . American mycologist Smith noted that the eggs are often slow to open , sometimes taking up to two weeks before the stalk expands .
The spores are 4 – 7 by 2 – 3 µm , oblong @-@ elliptical , smooth , and embedded in the gleba . A 1982 study revealed that spores of species in the Phallaceae family , including Mutinus elegans , have a hilar scar ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 3 µm diameter ) that is observable with scanning electron microscopy . The hilar scar is a circular indentation at one end of the spore , and it most likely results during the separation of the attachment of the spore to the sterigma of the basidium .
= = = Edibility = = =
The immature egg @-@ forms of Mutinus elegans are edible , but " not recommended " . One field guides notes that the eggs of the stinkhorn fungi " taste like the seasonings that are added to them . " The fetid odor of mature specimens would probably be repellent to most , although they are not considered poisonous .
= = = Similar species = = =
The " dog stinkhorn " ( Mutinus caninus ) is smaller , has a distinct oval or spindle @-@ shaped tip on a slender stem and lacks the bright coloring of M. elegans ; it has less of the stalk covered by gleba . The portion of the stalk below the spore mass is pitted in M. caninus , compared to " pebbly " in M. elegans . M. caninus is also less common than M. elegans . Mutinus bambusinus is similar in size and shape , except it does not have a distinct color demarcation between the upper and lower parts of the stalk ; instead , the entire stem shows red pigments . The stalk of M. ravenelii is less tapered than M. elegans , and it has a clearly differentiated swollen head .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Mutinus elegans is saprobic — deriving nutrients by breaking down dead or dying organic matter . It is commonly found in gardens and farm areas enriched with manure , near well @-@ decayed stumps and logs , and in wood chips . A Japanese publication mentioned its occurrence in Takatsuki and Osaka @-@ fu , where it fruited in November and December on the ground along paths or in open spaces , under or near bamboo ( Phyllostachys bambusoides ) and hardwoods such as the Sawtooth Oak , the Japanese Zelkova , and the Camphor tree .
This common species has been collected in eastern North America , in the area extending from Quebec to Florida and west to the Great Lakes , Iowa , and Texas . In Europe , it has been reported from Netherlands and in Asia , it has been collected in Japan .
= = Antibiotic activity = =
A study of 32 basidiomycete mushrooms showed that Mutinus elegans was the only species to show antibiotic ( both antibacterial and antifungal ) activity against all six microorganisms tested , namely , the human pathogenic bacteris Bacillus cereus , Bacillus subtilis , Staphylococcus aureus , Escherichia coli , Salmonella typhimurium and the yeast Candida albicans .
= The Boat Race 1900 =
The 57th Boat Race took place on 31 March 1900 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Cambridge won by twenty lengths in a record @-@ equalling time of 18 minutes 45 seconds , taking the overall record in the event to 32 – 24 in Oxford 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1899 race by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths , while Oxford led overall with 32 victories to Cambridge 's 23 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . Leading up to the race , Oxford suffered a variety of misfortune : M. C. McThornhill was ordered by his doctor not to row , H. J. Hale was injured and president Felix Warre contracted scarlet fever .
Cambridge were coached by James Brookes Close , who had rowed for the Light Blues three times between 1872 and 1874 , and Stanley Muttlebury , five @-@ time Blue for Cambridge between 1886 and 1890 . Oxford 's coaches were Harcourt Gilbey Gold ( Dark Blue president the previous year and four @-@ time Blue ) and Douglas McLean ( an Oxford Blue five times between 1883 and 1887 ) . The umpire for the race for the eleventh year in a row was Frank Willan who had won the event four consecutive times , rowing for Oxford in the 1866 , 1867 , 1868 and 1869 races .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 4 @.@ 625 lb ( 78 @.@ 1 kg ) , 0 @.@ 25 pounds ( 0 @.@ 1 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained three members with Boat Race experience : C. E. Johnston , C. W. Tomlkinson and cox G. S. Maclagan . Cambridge saw six of their 1899 crew return , including William Dudley Ward and Raymond Broadly Etherington @-@ Smith , both of whom were rowing in their third race . Eight of the nine Light Blues were students at Trinity College . Oxford 's stroke H. H. Dutton , a native of South Australia , was the only non @-@ British participant registered in the race . Author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater suggested that this year 's Cambridge crew , along with the Oxford crew which rowed in the 1897 race , " stand in a class by themselves among University crews . " He also described the Oxford crew as " one of the poorest that ever came from the Isis " .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . In good conditions , umpire Willan got the race under way at 2 : 00 p.m. whereupon Cambridge took the lead immediately . By Craven Steps they were three lengths ahead and continued to draw away from the Dark Blues , to win by 20 lengths in a time of 18 minutes 45 seconds . It was the fastest winning time in the history of the event , equalling that set by Oxford in the 1893 race . Although it was the Light Blues ' second consecutive victory , it followed a run of nine consecutive wins for Oxford – overall the Dark Blues led 32 – 24 .
= Ten Commandments in Catholic theology =
The Ten Commandments are a series of religious and moral imperatives that are recognized as a moral foundation in several of the Abrahamic religions , including Catholicism . As described in the Old Testament books Exodus and Deuteronomy , the Commandments form part of a covenant offered by God to the Israelites to free them from the spiritual slavery of sin . According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church — the official exposition of the Catholic Church 's Christian beliefs — the Commandments are considered essential for spiritual good health and growth , and serve as the basis for Catholic social justice . A review of the Commandments is one of the most common types of examination of conscience used by Catholics before receiving the sacrament of Penance .
The Commandments appear in the earliest Church writings ; the Catechism states that they have " occupied a predominant place " in teaching the faith since the time of Augustine of Hippo ( AD 354 – 430 ) . The Church had no official standards for religious instruction until the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 ; evidence suggests the Commandments were used in Christian education in the early Church and throughout the Middle Ages , but with inconsistent emphasis . The lack of instruction in them by some dioceses formed the basis of one of the criticisms launched against the Church by Protestant reformers . Afterward , the first Church @-@ wide catechism in 1566 provided " thorough discussions of each commandment " , but gave greater emphasis to the seven sacraments . The most recent Catechism devotes a large section to interpret each of the commandments .
Church teaching of the Commandments is largely based on the Old and New Testaments and the writings of the early Church Fathers . In the New Testament , Jesus acknowledged their validity and instructed his disciples to go further , demanding a righteousness exceeding that of the scribes and Pharisees . Summarized by Jesus into two " Great Commandments " that teach love of God and love of neighbor , they instruct individuals on their relationships with both . The first three commandments demand respect for God 's name , observation of the Lord 's Day and prohibit the worship of other gods . The others deal with the relationships between individuals , such as that between parent and child ; they include prohibitions against lying , stealing , murdering , adultery and covetousness .
= = Numbering = =
The Old Testament refers to ten individual commandments , even though there are more than ten imperative sentences in the two relevant texts : Exodus 20 : 1 – 17 and Deuteronomy 5 : 6 – 21 . The Old Testament does not make clear how the texts should be divided to arrive at ten commandments . The division traditionally used by the Catholic and Lutheran churches was first derived by the Latin Church Father Augustine of Hippo ( 354 – 430 ) in his book Questions on Exodus . Other Christian churches , such as the Eastern Orthodox and some Protestant churches , use a form established by the Greek Fathers . The two forms have slightly different numbering , but maintain exactly the same substance despite Protestant accusations to the contrary . Jewish numbering differs from Christian denominations in that it considers what many Christians call a prologue to be the entire first commandment .
= = History = =
The Ten Commandments are recognized as a moral foundation by Judaism , Christianity , and Islam . They first appear in the Book of Exodus , according to which Moses , acting under the orders of God , freed the Israelites from physical slavery in Egypt . According to Church teaching , God offered a covenant — which included the Ten Commandments — to also free them from the " spiritual slavery " of sin . Some historians have described this as " the central event in the history of ancient Israel " .
The coming of Jesus is seen by the Catholic Church as the fulfillment of the destiny of the Jews , who were chosen , according to Peter Kreeft , to " show the true God to the world " . Jesus acknowledged the Commandments and instructed his followers to go further , requiring , in Kreeft 's words , " more , not less : a ' righteousness ( which ) exceeds that of the scribes and Pharisees ' " . Explaining Church teaching , Kreeft states , " The Commandments are to the moral order what the creation story in Genesis 1 is to the natural order . They are God 's order conquering chaos . They are not man 's ideas about God , but God 's ideas about man . " The Church teaches that Jesus freed people from keeping " the burdensome Jewish law ( Torah or Mosaic Law ) with its 613 distinct regulations [ but ] not from the obligation to keep the Ten Commandments " , because the Ten " were written ' with the finger of God ' , unlike [ those ] written by Moses " . This teaching was reaffirmed at the Council of Trent ( 1545 – 1563 ) and at the Second Vatican Council ( 1962 – 1965 ) .
Although it is uncertain what role the Ten Commandments played in early Christian worship , evidence suggests they were recited during some services and used in Christian education . For example , the Commandments are included in one of the earliest Christian writings , known as the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles or the Didache . Scholars contend that the Commandments were highly regarded by the early Church as a summary of God 's law . The Protestant scholar Klaus Bockmuehl believes that the Church replaced the Commandments with lists of virtues and vices , such as the seven deadly sins , from 400 – 1200 . Other scholars contend that throughout Church history the Commandments have been used as an examination of conscience and that many theologians have written about them . While evidence exists that the Commandments were part of catechesis in monasteries and other venues , there was no official Church position to promote specific methods of religious instruction during the Middle Ages . The Fourth Lateran Council ( 1215 ) was the first attempt to remedy this problem . Surviving evidence reveals that some bishops ' efforts to implement the Council 's resolutions included special emphasis on teaching the Commandments in their respective dioceses . Centuries later , the lack of instruction in them by some dioceses formed the basis of one of the criticisms launched against the Church by Protestant reformers .
Catechisms produced in specific dioceses from the mid @-@ fourteenth century emphasized the Commandments and laid the foundation for the first official Church @-@ wide catechism , the 1566 Roman Catechism . Commissioned by the Council of Trent , it provided " thorough discussions of each commandment " but gave greater emphasis to the seven sacraments to emphasize the Catholic belief that Christian life was dependent upon the grace solely obtained through the sacramental life provided by the Catholic Church . This emphasis conflicted with Protestant beliefs , which held the Commandments as the source of divine grace . While more recent papal encyclicals offer interpretations of Church teaching on individual commandments , throughout history official Church teachings on the Commandments are based on their mentions in the Old and New Testaments and the writings of the early Church Fathers Origen , Irenaeus and Augustine . Later , theologians Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventure offered notable commentaries on the Commandments . Aquinas , a Doctor of the Church , considered them to be the " primary precepts of justice and all law , and natural reason gives immediate assent to them as being plainly evident principles . "
The most recent Catechism of the Catholic Church — the official summary of Church beliefs — devotes a large section to the Commandments , which serve as the basis for Catholic social teaching . According to the Catechism , the Church has given them a predominant place in teaching the faith since the fifth century . Kreeft explains that the Church regards them as " a path of life " , and a " path to freedom " just as a schoolyard fence protects children from " life @-@ threatening dangers " .
= = First commandment = =
The first commandment , according to Church teaching , " means that [ followers ] must worship and adore God alone because God is alone . " The Catechism explains that this prohibits idolatry , providing examples of forbidden practices such as the worship of any creature , and of " ' demons ... power , pleasure , race , ancestors , the state [ and ] money ' " . Augustine interpreted this commandment as " Love God and then do what you will " . Explaining this sentiment , Kreeft states that all sin " serves some other god , obeys another commander : the world or the flesh or the devil " , if God truly be loved then one will do what God wills .
The Catechism associates this commandment with the three theological virtues . The first virtue , faith , instructs Catholics to believe in God and avoid heresy , apostasy , and schism . The second virtue , hope , cautions Catholics against despair and presumption . According to the Catechism , the last virtue , charity , can be met only if Catholics refrain from indifference or ingratitude toward God , and avoid spiritual laziness and a hatred of God stemming from pride . The Catechism enumerates specific violations of this commandment , including superstition , polytheism , sacrilege , atheism , and all practices of magic and sorcery . It further prohibits astrology , palm reading , and consulting horoscopes or mediums . The Catechism attributes the latter actions to a " desire for power over time , history , and in the last analysis , other human beings as well as a wish to conciliate hidden powers " .
= = = Graven images = = =
While Catholics are sometimes accused of worshiping images , in violation of the first commandment , the Church says this is a misunderstanding . In the Church 's opinion , " the honor paid to sacred images is a ' respectful veneration ' , not the adoration due to God alone " . In the 8th century , heated arguments arose over whether religious icons ( in this context paintings ) were prohibited by the first commandment . The dispute was almost entirely restricted to the Eastern church ; the iconoclasts wished to prohibit icons , while the iconodules supported their veneration , a position consistently backed by the Western Church . At the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 , the ecumenical council determined that the veneration of icons and statues was not in violation of the commandment and stated " whoever venerates an image venerates the person portrayed in it . " At around the time of the controversy over Iconoclasm , the Western church began to use monumental sculpture , which by the Romanesque period became a major feature of Western Christian art , that has remained part of the Catholic tradition , in contrast to Eastern Christianity , which avoids large religious sculpture . The Catechism , using very traditional arguments , posits that God gave permission for images that symbolize Christian salvation by leaving symbols such as the bronze serpent , and the cherubim on the Ark of the Covenant . It states that " by becoming incarnate , the Son of God introduced a new economy of images " .
The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops ( USCCB ) explain the Catechism in their book entitled United States Catechism for Adults , published in 2006 . Regarding graven images , they expound that this command addresses idolatry that in ancient times expressed itself in the worship of such things as the " sun , moon , stars , trees , bulls , eagles , and serpents " as well as " emperors and kings " . They explain that today , idolatry expresses itself in the worship of other things , and list some as " power , money , materialism and sports . "
= = Second commandment = =
The second commandment prohibits the use of God 's name in vain . Many ancient cultures believed that names were sacred ; some had prohibitions on when a person 's name could be spoken . The Gospel of John relates an incident where a group of Jews attempted to stone Jesus after he used a sacred name of God to refer to himself . They interpreted his statement as a claim of divinity . Since they did not believe that he was God , they considered this blasphemy , which under Mosaic law carries a death penalty . Kreeft writes that all of the names by which God is known are holy , and thus all of those names are protected by the second commandment . The Catechism states , " Respect for his name is an expression of the respect owed to the mystery of God himself and to the whole sacred reality it evokes . " The Catechism also requires respect for the names of people out of respect for the dignity of that person .
The sentiment behind this commandment is further codified in the Lord 's Prayer , which begins , " Our Father who art in heaven , hallowed be thy name " . According to Pope Benedict XVI , when God revealed his name to Moses he established a relationship with mankind ; Benedict states that the Incarnation was the culmination of a process that " had begun with the giving of the divine name . " Benedict elaborates that this means the divine name could be misused and that Jesus ' inclusion of " hallowed be thy name " is a plea for the sanctification of God 's name , to " protect the wonderful mystery of his accessibility to us , and constantly assert his true identity as opposed to our distortion of it " .
According to Catholic teaching , this commandment does not preclude the use of God 's name in taking solemn oaths administered by legitimate authority . However , lying under oath , invoking God 's name for magical purposes , or voicing words of hatred or defiance against God are considered sins of blasphemy .
= = Third commandment = =
Quoting the Jewish rabbi and scholar Jacob Neusner , Pope Benedict XVI explains that to Israel , keeping this commandment was more than ritual ; it was a way to imitate God , who rested on the seventh day after the creation . It also constituted the core of the social order .
Although a few Christian denominations follow the Judaic practice of observing the Sabbath on Saturday , Catholics , along with most Christians , observe Sunday as a special day , which they call the " Lord 's Day " . This practice dates to the first century , arising from their belief that Jesus rose from the dead on the first day of the week . The Didache calls on Christians to come together on the Lord 's Day to break bread and give thanks . Tertullian is the first to mention Sunday rest : " We , however ( just as tradition has taught us ) , on the day of the Lord 's Resurrection ought to guard not only against kneeling , but every posture and office of solicitude , deferring even our businesses lest we give any place to the devil " ( " De orat . " , xxiii ; cf . " Ad nation . " , I , xiii ; " Apolog . " , xvi ) .
In the sixth century , Caesarius of Arles taught that the whole glory of the Jewish Sabbath had been transferred to Sunday and that Christians must keep Sunday in the same way as the Jews were commanded to keep the Sabbath . The Council of Orléans in 538 reprobated this tendency , to apply the law of the Jewish Sabbath to the observance of the Christian Sunday , as Jewish and non @-@ Christian .
The Church leaders of later centuries inscribed Sunday rest into official Church teaching , and Christian governments have attempted to enforce the Sunday rest throughout history . For Catholics , Jesus ' teaching that " the sabbath was made for man , not man for the sabbath " means that good works " when the needs of others demand it " can be part of the day of rest . The Catechism offers guidelines on how to observe the Lord 's Day , which include attending Mass on Sundays and holy days of obligation . On these days , Catholics may not work or do activities that " hinder the worship due to God " , but " performance of the works of mercy , and appropriate relaxation in a spirit of joy " are permitted .
According to the USCCB , this commandment " has been concretized for Catholics " as one of the Church precepts . The organization cites the papal encyclical Dies Domini :
Because the faithful are obliged to attend Mass unless there is a grave impediment , pastors have the corresponding duty to offer everyone the real possibility of fulfilling the precept . ... Yet more than a precept , the observance should be seen as a need rising from the depths of Christian life . It is crucially important that all the faithful should be convinced that they cannot live their faith or share fully in the life of the Christian community unless they take part regularly in the Sunday Eucharistic assembly .
= = Fourth commandment = =
Pope Benedict XVI states that Rabbi Neusner " rightly sees this commandment as anchoring the heart of the social order " . It strengthens generational relationships , makes explicit the connection between family order and societal stability , and reveals that the family is " both willed and protected by God . " Because parents ' unconditional love for their children mirrors God 's love , and because they have a duty to pass the faith on to their children , the Catechism calls the family " a domestic church " , " a privileged community " and the " original cell of social life " .
The Catechism says this commandment requires duties of children to parents that include :
Respect toward parents that also flows to brothers and sisters .
Gratitude , as expressed in a quote from Sirach : " Remember that through your parents you were born ; what can you give back to them that equals their gift to you ? "
Obedience to parents for as long as the child lives at home " when it is for his good or the good of the family " , except when obedience would require the child to do something morally wrong .
Support that requires grown children to offer material and moral support for their aging parents , particularly at times of " illness , loneliness , or distress " .
Keeping this commandment , according to the Catechism , also requires duties of parents to children which include :
" Moral education , spiritual formation and evangelization " of their children .
Respect for their children as children of God and human persons .
Proper discipline for children while being careful not to provoke them .
" Avoiding pressure to choose a certain profession or spouse " , which does not preclude parents from giving " judicious advice " .
" Being a good example " to their children .
" Acknowledging their own failings " to their children to guide and correct them .
= = = Jesus ' expansion = = =
The Gospel of Matthew relates that when told his mother and brothers were waiting to see him , Jesus replied , " Who is my mother and who are my brothers ? " Stretching his hand over his disciples he said , " Here are my mother and my brothers ! For whoever does the will of my Father in heaven is my brother , and my sister , and mother . " Pope Benedict XVI stated that this dictum of Jesus brought the fourth commandment to a new and higher level . By doing God 's will , any person can become part of the universal family of Jesus . Thus , the fourth commandment 's responsibilities extend to the greater society and requires respect for " legitimate social authorities " . The Catechism specifies " duties of citizens and nations " , which Kreeft summarizes as :
" Obedience and honor " to " all who for our good have received authority in society from God " .
" Payment of taxes , exercising the right to vote and defending one 's country " .
" An obligation to be vigilant and critical " , which requires citizens to criticize that which harms human dignity and the community .
" A duty to disobey " civil authorities and directives that are contrary to the moral order .
" To practice charity " , which is a " necessity for any working family or society " ; it is the " greatest social commandment " and requires people to love God and neighbor .
" To welcome the foreigner " who is in need of security and livelihood that cannot be found in his own country .
" An obligation for rich nations to help poor nations " , especially in times of " immediate need " .
" An expectation for families to help other families " .
= = Fifth commandment = =
This commandment demands respect for human life and is more accurately translated as " thou shalt not murder . " Indeed , killing may , under limited circumstances , be justified within Catholicism . Jesus expanded it to prohibit unjust anger , hatred and vengeance , and to require Christians to love their enemies . The basis of all Catholic teaching about the fifth commandment is the sanctity of life ethic , which Kreeft argues is philosophically opposed to the quality of life ethic , a philosophy which he characterizes as introduced by a book entitled Die Freigabe der Vernichtung des Lebensunwerten Lebens ( The Permission to Destroy Life Unworthy of Life ) ( see Life unworthy of life ) and which he asserts was the " first to win public acceptance ... by German doctors before World War II — the basis and beginning of Nazi medical practices . " This interpretation is supported by modern medical journals that discuss the dilemma posed by these opposing philosophies to physicians who must make life or death decisions . Some bioethicists characterize the use of the " Nazi analogy " as inappropriate when applied to quality of life decisions ; Arthur Caplan called this rhetoric " odiously wrong " . The Church is actively involved in the public debates over abortion , capital punishment and euthanasia , and encourages believers to support legislation and politicians it describes as pro @-@ life .
= = = Abortion = = =
The Catechism states : " Human life is sacred because from its beginning it involves the creative action of God and it remains forever in a special relationship with the Creator , who is its sole end . ... no one can under any circumstance claim for himself the right directly to destroy an innocent human being . " Direct and intentional killing of an innocent human is considered a mortal sin . Considered by the Church to be of an even greater gravity is the murder of family members , including " infanticide , fratricide , parricide , the murder of a spouse and procured abortion . "
The Catechism states that the embryo " must be treated from conception as a person " . The Latin original of as is tamquam , meaning " like " or " just as " . " Although the Church has not determined officially when human life actually begins , it has taken the course of maintaining that human life is present from the moment of conception or fertilization " ; respect for life at all stages , even potential life , is generally the context of church documents .
Abortion has been specifically and persistently condemned by the Church since the first century . " Formal cooperation " in abortion incurs the penalty of excommunication " by the very commission of the offense " ( Lat. latae sententiae , " sentence [ already , i.e. automatically ] passed " ) . The Catechism emphasizes that this penalty is not meant to restrict mercy , but that it makes clear the gravity of the crime and the irreparable harm done to the child , its parents and society . " Formal cooperation " in abortion extends not just to the mother who freely submits , but also to the doctor , nurses and anyone who directly aids in the act . The Church has ministries of reconciliation , such as Project Rachel , for those who sincerely repent of their sin of formal cooperation in abortion .
Official Church teaching allows for medical procedures and treatments intended to protect or restore the mother 's health if she would be in mortal danger without them , even when such procedures carry some risk of death to the fetus . Examples include the removal of a fallopian tube in the case of an ectopic pregnancy , removal of a pregnant cancerous uterus , or an appendectomy .
= = = = Use of embryos for research or fertilization = = = =
The United States Catechism for Adults devotes a section to in vitro fertilization , stem @-@ cell research and cloning in its explanation of the fifth commandment , because these often involve the destruction of human embryos , considered to be a gravely sinful form of murder . Embryonic stem cell research is called " an immoral means to a good end " and " morally unacceptable . " Citing the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith 's Instruction on Respect for Human Life in its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation , the US Bishops quote : " No objective , even though noble in itself , such as a foreseeable advantage to science , to other human beings , or to society , can in any way justify experimentation on living human embryos or fetuses , whether viable or not , either inside or outside the mother 's body . " The Bishops note that adult stem cell research , using cells obtained with informed consent , is a promising field of research that is morally acceptable .
= = = Suicide , euthanasia = = =
The fifth commandment forbids suicide and the mercy killing of those who are dying , even to eliminate suffering . The ordinary care of those facing an imminent death may not morally be withheld , according to the Church . " Ordinary care " refers to food , water and pain relief , and does not include " extraordinary care " , which refers to the use of respirators or feeding tubes that are considered discretionary . Allowing a terminally ill person to die , using painkillers that may shorten their life , or refusing extraordinary treatment to the terminally ill such as chemotherapy or radiation , are considered morally acceptable and not a violation of the fifth commandment , in accordance with the principle of double effect .
= = = Capital punishment = = =
For the first two hundred years , Christians " refused to kill in the military , in self @-@ defense , or in the judicial system " , but there was no official Church position on the death penalty . When the Church was first officially recognized as a public institution in 313 , its attitude toward capital punishment became one of toleration but not outright acceptance . The death penalty had support from early Catholic theologians , though some of them such as Saint Ambrose encouraged members of the clergy not to pronounce or carry out capital punishment . Saint Augustine answered objections to capital punishment rooted in the first commandment in The City of God . Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus argued that civil authority to carry out capital punishment was supported by scripture . Pope Innocent III required Peter Waldo and the Waldensians to accept that " secular power can , without mortal sin , exercise judgement of blood , provided that it punishes with justice , not out of hatred , with prudence , not precipitation " as a prerequisite for reconciliation with the church . Paul Suris states that official Church teachings have neither absolutely condemned nor promoted capital punishment , but toleration of it has fluctuated throughout the ages . The Inquisitions provide the most memorable instance of Church support for capital punishment , although some historians considered these more lenient than the secular courts of the period .
The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that the death penalty is permissible in cases of extreme gravity . It is allowed if the " guilty party 's identity and responsibility have been fully determined " and if the death penalty is the only way to defend others against the guilty party . However , if there are other means available to defend people from the " unjust aggressor " , these are preferred because they are considered to be more respectful of the dignity of the person and in keeping with the common good . Because modern societies have effective means for preventing crime without execution , the Catechism declares , " the cases in which execution of the offender is an absolute necessity ' are very rare , if practically nonexistent . ' " Pope John Paul II discussed and affirmed this in Evangelium Vitae , published in 1995 .
= = = Personal health , dead bodies , burial = = =
According to Church teaching , respect for human life requires respect for one 's own body , precluding unhealthy behavior , the abuse of food , alcohol , medicines , illegal drugs , tattoos and piercings . The Church also warns against the opposite behavior of " excessive preoccupation with the health and welfare of the body that ' idolizes ' physical perfection , fitness , and success at sports . "
Kidnapping , terrorism , and torture are forbidden , as well as sterilizations , amputations , mutilations that are not for therapeutic medical reasons . According to the Catechism , societies have a moral obligation to strive to provide healthy living conditions for all people .
Church belief in the resurrection of the body led to a prohibition against cremation that was pastorally modified at the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s under limited circumstances , but those conditions have been largely ignored even by the clergy . According to the Catechism , burial of the dead is a corporal work of mercy that must treat the body with respect and love ( e.g. scattering of cremated remains , burial in an unmarked grave , etc. are forbidden in the Catholic Church ) . Organ donation after death and organ transplants under certain terms , also autopsies for legal and scientific reasons are permitted .
= = = War and self @-@ defense = = =
In the Sermon on the Mount , Jesus recalls the commandment , " You shall not kill " and then adds to it the proscriptions against anger , hatred and vengeance . Going further , Christ asks his disciples to love their enemies . The Catechism asserts that " it is legitimate to insist on respect for one 's own right to life . " Kreeft says , " self @-@ defense is legitimate for the same reason suicide is not : because one 's own life is a gift from God , a treasure we are responsible for preserving and defending . " The Catechism teaches that " someone who defends his life is not guilty of murder even if he is forced to deal his aggressor a lethal blow . " Legitimate defense can be not only a right but a grave duty for one who is responsible for the lives of others . The defense of the common good requires that an unjust aggressor be rendered unable to cause harm . For this reason , those who legitimately hold authority also have the right to use arms to repel aggressors against the civil community entrusted to their responsibility .
The Church requires all to pray and work to prevent unjust wars , but allows for just wars if certain conditions are met :
The reasons for going to war are defensive .
" The damage inflicted by the aggressor ... must be lasting , grave , and certain . "
It is a last resort taken only after all other means of putting an end to the " grave damage " have been ineffective .
The ultimate aim is peace and there is a serious chance of success .
No graver evils are produced that overshadow the evil to be eliminated . This forbids the use of arms to eliminate whole cities and areas with their inhabitants .
Respect and care is required for non @-@ combatants , wounded soldiers and prisoners . Soldiers are required to disobey commands to commit genocide and ones that violate universal principles .
= = = Scandal = = =
The Catechism classifies scandal under the fifth commandment and defines it as " an attitude or behavior which leads another to do evil " . In the Gospel of Matthew , Jesus stated , " Whoever causes one of these little ones who believe in me to sin , it would be better for him to have a great millstone fastened round his neck and to be drowned in the depth of the sea . " The Church considers it a serious crime to cause another 's faith , hope and love to be weakened , especially if it is done to young people and the perpetrator is a person of authority such as a parent , teacher or priest .
= = Sixth commandment = =
According to the Church , humans are sexual beings whose sexual identity should be accepted in the unity of body and soul . The sexes are meant by divine design to be different and complementary , each having equal dignity and made in the image of God . Sexual acts are sacred within the context of the marital relationship that reflects a " complete and lifelong mutual gift of a man and a woman . " Sexual sins thus violate not just the body but the person 's whole being . In his 1995 book Crossing the Threshold of Hope , John Paul II reflected on this concept :
After all , young people are always searching for the beauty in love . They want their love to be beautiful . If they give in to weakness , following the models of behavior that can rightly be considered a ' scandal in the contemporary world ' ( and these are , unfortunately , widely diffused models ) , in the depths of their hearts they still desire a beautiful and pure love . This is as true of boys as it is of girls . Ultimately , they know that only God can give them this love . As a result , they are willing to follow Christ , without caring about the sacrifices this may entail .
Like Orthodox Judaism and Islam , the Catholic Church considers all sexual acts outside of marriage to be grave sins . The gravity of the sin " ' excludes one from sacramental communion ' until repented of and forgiven in sacramental confession . "
= = = Vocation to chastity = = =
Church teaching on the sixth commandment includes a discussion on chastity . The Catechism describes chastity as a " moral virtue ... a gift from God , a grace , a fruit of spiritual effort . " The Church sees sex as more than a physical act ; it also affects body and soul , so the Church teaches that chastity is a virtue all people are called to acquire . It is defined as the inner unity of a person 's " bodily and spiritual being " that successfully integrates a person 's sexuality with his or her " entire human nature . " To acquire this virtue , followers are encouraged to enter into the " long and exacting work " of self @-@ mastery that is helped by friendships , God 's grace , maturity and education " that respects the moral and spiritual dimensions of human life . " The Catechism categorizes violations of the sixth commandment into two categories : " offenses against chastity " and " offenses against the dignity of marriage " .
= = = = Offenses against chastity = = = =
The Catechism lists the following " offenses against chastity " in increasing order of gravity :
Lust : the Church teaches that sexual pleasure is good and created by God , who meant for spouses to " experience pleasure and enjoyment of body and spirit " . Kreeft says , " Lust does not mean sexual pleasure as such , nor the delight in it , nor the desire for it in its right context . " Lust is the desire for sexual pleasure alone , outside its intended purpose of procreation and the uniting of man and woman , body and soul , in mutual self @-@ donation .
Masturbation is considered sinful for the same reasons as lust , but is a step above lust in that it involves a physical act instead of a mental one .
Fornication is the sexual union of an unmarried man and an unmarried woman . This is considered contrary to " the dignity of persons and of human sexuality " because it is not ordered to the " good of spouses " or the " generation and education of children . "
Pornography ranks higher because it is considered a perversion of the sexual act that is intended for distribution to third parties for viewing .
Prostitution is considered sinful for both the prostitute and the customer ; it reduces a person to an instrument of sexual pleasure , violating human dignity and harming society . The gravity of the sinfulness is less for prostitutes who are forced into the act by destitution , blackmail or social pressure .
Rape is an intrinsically evil act that can cause grave damage to the victim for life .
Incest , or " rape of children by parents or other adult relatives " or " those responsible for the education of the children entrusted to them " is considered the most heinous of sexual sins .
= = = = Homosexuality = = = =
The Catechism devotes a separate section to homosexuality within its explanation of the sixth commandment . Like heterosexual acts outside of marriage , homosexual acts are considered sins . The Church distinguishes between homosexual attractions , which are not considered sinful , and homosexual acts , which are . The Catechism states that they " violate natural law , cannot bring forth life , and do not proceed from a genuine affective and sexual complementarity . Under no circumstances can they be approved . " The Church teaches that a homosexual inclination is " objectively disordered " and can be a great trial for the person , who the Church teaches must be " accepted with respect , compassion and sensitivity ... unjust discrimination in their regard should be avoided . "
Homosexuals are , according to the Church , " called to chastity " . They are instructed to practice the virtues of " self @-@ mastery " that teaches " inner freedom " using the support of friends , prayer and grace found in the sacraments of the Church . These tools are meant to help homosexuals " gradually and resolutely approach Christian perfection " , which is a state to which all Christians are called .
( Two lay movements represent opposing philosophies regarding homosexuality : DignityUSA seeks to change the Church 's teachings to justify homosexual acts ; Courage International is an organization of homosexuals who " support each other in the sincere effort to live in chastity and in fidelity to Christ and his Church " . )
= = = Love of husband and wife = = =
According to Church teaching , spousal love is intended to form an unbroken , two @-@ fold end : the union of husband and wife and the transmission of life . The unitive aspect includes the transference of each partner 's being " so that they are no longer two but one flesh . " The sacrament of matrimony is viewed as God 's sealing the consent which binds the partners together . Church teaching on the marital state requires spousal acceptance of each other 's failures and faults , and the recognition that the " call to holiness in marriage " is one that requires a process of spiritual growth and conversion that can last throughout life .
= = = = Fecundity of marriage , sexual pleasure , birth control = = = =
The Church position on sexual activity can be summarized as : " sexual activity belongs only in marriage as an expression of total self @-@ giving and union , and always open to the possibility of new life . " Sexual acts in marriage are considered " noble and honorable " and are meant to be enjoyed with " joy and gratitude . " Sexuality is to be reserved to marriage : " by its very nature conjugal love requires the inviolable fidelity of the spouses . This is the consequence of the gift of themselves which they make to each other . Love seeks to be definitive ; it cannot be an arrangement ' until further notice . ' " The " intimate union of marriage , as a mutual giving of two persons , and the good of the children , demand total fidelity from the spouses and require an unbreakable union between them . " ( Gaudium et spes ) " .
Artificial birth control predates Christianity ; the Catholic Church has condemned these methods throughout its history . In response to the Church of England accepting the practice of artificial contraception in 1930 , the Catholic Church issued the papal encyclical Casti connubii on 31 December 1930 . The 1968 papal encyclical Humanae vitae is a reaffirmation of the Catholic Church 's traditional view of marriage and marital relations , and a continued condemnation of artificial birth control .
The Church seeing large families as a sign of God 's blessing . " By its very nature the institution of marriage and married love is ordered to the procreation and education of the offspring and it is in them that it finds its crowning glory . " ( Gaudium et spes ) Children are the supreme gift of marriage and contribute greatly to the good of the parents themselves . ( ... ) true married love and the whole structure of family life which results from it , without diminishment of the other ends of marriage , are directed to disposing the spouses to cooperate valiantly with the love of the Creator and Savior , who through them will increase and enrich his family from day to day . ( Gaudium et spes ) . " It recognizes that responsible parenthood sometimes calls for reasonable spacing or limiting of births and considers natural family planning as morally acceptable , but rejects all methods of artificial contraception . The Church rejects all forms of artificial insemination and fertilization because the techniques divorce the sexual act from the creation of a child . The Catechism states , " A child is not something owed to one , but is a gift ... ' the supreme gift of marriage . ' "
Many Western Catholics and non @-@ Catholics have voiced disagreement on the Church 's support for natural family planning , and contend it contributes to overpopulation and poverty . The Church 's rejection of condom use is widely criticized , in particular with regard to countries where the incidence of AIDS and HIV has reached epidemic proportions . In its defense , Catholics cite countries such as Kenya and Uganda , where behavioral changes are encouraged instead of condom use , and where greater progress in controlling the disease has been made than in countries that promote condom use alone .
= = = = Offenses against the dignity of marriage = = = =
According to the Church , adultery and divorce are considered offenses against the dignity of marriage and are defined as follows :
Adultery is the sexual union of a man and woman where at least one is married to someone else . It is for this reason that the Church considers it a greater sin than fornication . Kreeft states , " The adulterer sins against his spouse , his society , and his children as well as his own body and soul . "
Divorce : According to the Catholic New American Bible translation , Jesus taught , " whoever divorces his wife ( unless the marriage is unlawful ) causes her to commit adultery , and whoever marries a divorced woman commits adultery . " Explaining Church interpretation of this teaching , Kreeft says Jesus considered divorce to be an accommodation that had slipped into Jewish law . The Church teaches that marriage was created by God and was meant to be indissoluble : like the creation of a child that cannot be " un @-@ created " , neither can the " one flesh " of the marriage bond . The Catechism states , " Divorce is a grave offense against the natural law . It claims to break the contract , to which the spouses freely consented , to live with each other till death . " By marrying another , the divorced person adds to the gravity of the offense as the remarried spouse is considered to be in a state of " public and permanent adultery " .
The Compendium of the Catechism 502 lists other offenses against the dignity of marriage : " polygamy , incest , free unions ( cohabitation , concubinage ) , and sexual acts before or outside of marriage " .
= = = = Separation , civil divorce , annulments = = = =
According to the Church , there are situations that do not equate to divorce :
In extreme situations , such as domestic violence , separation is allowed . This is not considered a divorce and may be justified .
Civil divorce is not a divorce according to the Church . If it is deemed to be the only way of ensuring legal rights , care of children , or protection of inheritance , the Church considers it morally acceptable .
Annulment is not a divorce ; it is a ruling by the Church that the marriage was never valid . The marriage is deemed invalid if it lacks one of five integral elements : it should be " complete " , " lifelong " , " mutual " , a " free gift " and of " man and woman " . According to Pope John Paul II 's Address to the Roman Rota on 22 January 1996 , couples do not have a right to an annulment , but do have a right to make their case for nullity or validity before " the competent Church authority and to request a decision in the matter . " According to the Catholic Diocese of Arlington :
... signs that might indicate reasons to investigate for an annulment are : marriage that excluded at the time of the wedding the right to children , or to a permanent marriage , or to an exclusive commitment . In addition , there are youthful marriages ; marriages of very short duration ; marriages marked by serious emotional , physical , or substance abuse ; deviant sexual practices ; profound and consistent irresponsibility and lack of commitment ; conditional consent to a marriage ; fraud or deceit to elicit spousal consent ; serious mental illness ; or a previous bond of marriage . The determination of the ground should be made after extensive consultation with the parish priest or deacons , and based upon the proofs that are available .
= = Seventh commandment = =
The Catechism explains that this commandment regulates worldly goods , and forbids unjustly taking , using or damaging those that belong to someone else . It places requirements upon those who possess worldly goods to use them responsibly , taking into consideration the good of society . The Catechism addresses the concept of human stewardship of God 's creation in its explanation of the seventh commandment and forbids abuse of animals and the environment .
= = = Private property = = =
According to the Church , people have a right to private property . However , ownership makes that person " a steward " who is expected to make it " fruitful " or profitable in a way that benefits others after that person has first taken care of their family . Private property and the common good are seen as complementary elements that exist for the purpose of strengthening society . The taking of another 's private property " in obvious and urgent necessity " as " the only way to provide for immediate , essential needs ( food , shelter , clothing ) " is not considered by the Church to be stealing . The concept of slavery as private property is condemned by the Church , which classifies it as the stealing of a person 's human rights .
= = = Theft = = =
According to the Catechism , theft or stealing means " usurping another 's property against the reasonable will of the owner " though exclusion exists for someone in great need to survive . " Unjustly taking and keeping the property of others " considered as theft , even if the act is outside the scope of civil law . Cardinal Christoph Schönborn gave example from the story of Saint Augustine , written in his Confessions , who took pears from neighbor 's garden when he was young . Schönborn says that Augustine still has " pangs of conscience over a childish theft " even when he became grown person , indicating that human conscience is very aware of theft though the act perhaps not an offense against civil law .
Following acts are also considered as violation of the seventh commandment : price manipulation to get advantage on the harm of others , corruption , appropriation of the public goods for personal interests , work poorly carried out , tax avoidance , counterfeiting of checks or any means of payment , any forms of copyright infringement and piracy , and extravagance .
= = = Social justice = = =
The papal encyclical Rerum novarum discusses the relationships and mutual duties between labor and capital , as well as government and its citizens . Of primary concern was the need for some amelioration for " the misery and wretchedness pressing so unjustly on the majority of the working class " . The encyclical supported the right to form unions , rejected socialism , communism and unrestricted capitalism , and affirmed the right to private property .
Church interpretation of the seventh commandment teaches that business owners should balance a desire for profits that will ensure the future of the business with a responsibility toward the " good of persons " . Business owners are required to pay their workers a reasonable wage , honor contracts , and abstain from dishonest activity , including bribery of government officials . Workers are required to do their jobs conscientiously , as they have been hired to do them , and to avoid dishonesty in the workplace , such as using office goods for personal use without permission ( embezzlement ) .
The Church teaches that a balance should exist between government regulation and the laws of the marketplace . It deems that sole reliance on the marketplace ( pure capitalism ) insufficiently addresses many human needs , while sole reliance on government regulation ( pure socialism ) " perverts the basis of social bonds " . The Church warns about the danger of either capitalism or socialism , as these systems tend to use excessive extremes that result in injustice to persons .
Wealthier nations , like wealthier individuals , have a moral obligation to help poorer nations and individuals , and work to reform financial institutions and economic factors to benefit all .
= = Eighth commandment = =
The Catechism explains that bearing false witness or " speaking a falsehood with the intention of deceiving " encompasses all violations of truth . These violations have degrees of gravity depending on the " intentions of the one who lies and the harms suffered by its victims . " Listed as follows , these are :
False witness and perjury : statements made publicly in court which obstruct justice by condemning the innocent or exonerating the guilty , or which may increase the punishment of the accused .
Rash judgement : believing , without sufficient evidence , that a person has done moral faults .
Detraction : the disclosure of another 's faults without a valid reason .
Calumny : lying to harm a person 's reputation and providing opportunity to others to make false judgements concerning them .
Flattery : " speech to deceive others for our benefit . "
Bragging , boasting , or mocking : speech which either only honors oneself or dishonors others .
The Church requires those who have damaged the reputation of another to " make reparation for the untruth they have communicated . " However , it does not require a person to reveal a truth to someone who does not have a right to know , and teaches respect for a right to privacy . Priests are prohibited from violating the seal of confession no matter how grave the sin or its impact on society .
Included in the Church teachings of this commandment is the requirement for Christians to bear witness to their faith " without equivocation " in situations that require it . The use of modern media in spreading untruths , by individuals , businesses or governments , is condemned .
= = Ninth commandment = =
The ninth and tenth commandments deal with coveting , which is an interior disposition not a physical act . The Catechism distinguishes between covetousness of the flesh ( improper sexual desire ) and covetousness for another 's worldly goods . The ninth commandment deals with the former and the tenth the latter .
Jesus emphasized the need for pure thoughts as well as actions , and stated , " Everyone who looks at a woman lustfully has already committed adultery with her in his heart " ( Matthew 5 : 28 ) . The Catechism states that , with the help of God 's grace , men and women are required to overcome lust and bodily desires " for sinful relationships with another person 's spouse . " In Theology of the Body , a series of lectures given by Pope John Paul II , Jesus ' statement in Matthew 5 : 28 is interpreted that one can commit adultery in the heart not only with another 's spouse , but
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also with his / her own spouse if one looks at him / her lustfully or treats him / her " only as an object to satisfy instinct " .
Purity of heart is suggested as the necessary quality needed to accomplish this task ; common Catholic prayers and hymns include a request for this virtue . The Church identifies gifts of God that help a person maintain purity :
Chastity , which enables people to love others with upright and undivided hearts .
Purity of intention , which seeks to fulfill God 's will in everything , knowing that it alone will lead to the true end of man .
Purity of vision , " external and internal " , disciplining the thoughts and imagination to reject those that are impure .
Prayer that recognizes the power of God to grant a person the ability to overcome sexual desires .
Modesty , of the feelings as well as the body is discreet in choice of words and clothing .
Jesus stated , " Blessed are the clean of heart , for they shall see God . " This purity of heart , which the ninth commandment introduces , is the " precondition of the vision of God " and allows the person to see situations and people as God sees . The Catechism teaches that " there is a connection between purity of heart , of body and of faith . "
= = Tenth commandment = =
Detachment from riches is the goal of the tenth commandment and the first Beatitude ( " blessed are the poor in spirit " ) because , according to the Catechism , this precept is necessary for entrance into the Kingdom of heaven . Covetousness is prohibited by the tenth commandment because it is considered to be the first step toward commission of theft , robbery and fraud ; these lead to violence and injustice . The Church defines covetousness as a " disordered desire " that can take different forms :
Greed is the desire for too much of what one does not need .
Envy is the desire for what belongs to another . The US Bishops define it as " an attitude that fills us with sadness at the sight of another 's prosperity . "
Explaining Church teaching of this commandment , Kreeft cites Saint Thomas Aquinas , who wrote , " An evil desire can only be overcome by a stronger good desire . " The US Bishops suggest that this can be achieved through cultivation of goodwill , humility and gratitude for one 's own and others ' blessings , while trusting in God 's grace . Kreeft explains that Saint Paul the Apostle illustrated the concept in his letter to the Philippians when he listed his worldly credentials as a respected Jew and stated , " I count everything as loss because of the surpassing worth of knowing Christ Jesus my Lord . " As Jesus stated , " What shall it profit a man if he shall gain the whole world , and lose his own soul ? " Church teaching on the tenth commandment is directed toward this same attitude toward worldly goods , termed " poverty of spirit " .
= Yamaha NS @-@ 10 =
The Yamaha NS @-@ 10 is a loudspeaker that became a standard nearfield studio monitor in the music industry among rock and pop recording engineers . Launched in 1978 , the NS @-@ 10 started life as a bookshelf speaker destined for the domestic environment . It was poorly received but eventually became a valuable tool with which to mix rock recordings . The speaker has a characteristic white @-@ coloured mid – bass drive unit .
Technically , it is known as a speaker that easily reveals poor quality in recordings . Recording engineers sought to dull its treble response by hanging tissue paper in front of it , resulting in what became known as the " tissue paper effect " , a type of comb filtering . The NS @-@ 10 has been used to monitor a large number of successful recordings by numerous artists , leading Gizmodo to refer to it as " the most important loudspeaker you never heard of " . Yamaha discontinued the product in 2001 .
= = History = =
Originally conceived as a domestic hi @-@ fi speaker , the NS @-@ 10 was designed by Akira Nakamura and launched in 1978 . It was sold at the $ 400 price point . The speaker was poorly received and its commercial life was short . However , it took five years for its popularity to be established with professional users . As recording engineers came to rely on the NS @-@ 10 as a benchmark , it dominated the mixing of pop and rock music throughout the world for at least 20 years .
The NS @-@ 10 displaced the Auratone 5C Sound Cube as the nearfield monitor of choice in the 1980s and was recognised for its ability to reveal shortcomings in recordings . It probably first reached American shores through a recording engineer 's visit to Japan . The engineer , likely to have been Greg Ladanyi , monitored a recording session through the speaker in a Japanese studio and brought a pair back on his return to the US . Ladanyi then began using the speakers in a Los Angeles studio . Other engineers heard the NS @-@ 10 for the first time and were impressed by its sound . Its use spread to New York where the NS @-@ 10 was adopted at The Power Station and other studios .
Early use of the NS @-@ 10 among engineers include Bob Clearmountain , Rhett Davies , and Bill Scheniman in the US , and Nigel Jopson in the UK . Clearmountain , then a rising star in record production , is often credited for the popularity of the NS @-@ 10 ; Phil Ward , writing in Sound on Sound , suggested that Clearmountain was probably not the earliest , but was certainly the most influential early adopter . It became a legend that Clearmountain had chosen it because it was the worst speaker he could find . He was one of a new breed of creative freelance recording engineers and producers who would travel from studio to studio equipped with their own gear that included microphones , and a pair of Yamaha NS @-@ 10 , as a reference .
Recording studios around the world , particularly those specialising in rock and pop music , adopted the speaker as the standard . In excess of 200 @,@ 000 pairs were sold throughout the world . Gizmodo referred to it as " the most important loudspeaker you never heard of " .
Yamaha stopped manufacturing the speaker in 2001 , citing problems sourcing the wood pulp for the drivers . Even years after it was discontinued , the speaker continued to be found in studios everywhere . Mix reported in 2008 that variants of the NS @-@ 10 were still commercially available in the Japanese consumer market .
= = Design and construction = =
The NS @-@ 10 is an 8 @-@ ohm two @-@ way loudspeaker with a 10 @.@ 4 @-@ litre Sealed cabinet measuring 382 × 215 × 199 millimetres ( 15 @.@ 0 × 8 @.@ 5 × 7 @.@ 8 in ) and weighing 6 kilograms ( 13 @.@ 2 lb ) . Its 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) particle @-@ board cabinet has a wood veneer skin with seven black finishing layers . The domestic version of the speaker was vertically orientated , and came factory fitted with a grille .
Its two drivers are a 180 mm paper woofer and a 35 mm soft @-@ domed tweeter . The woofer 's diaphragm , weighing 3 @.@ 7 g , is manufactured from a flat sheet of pressed pulp paper . Unconventionally , it is formed into conical shape not through moulding or pressure , but by curling and then gluing the two ends together . Against the black finish of the cabinet , the white bass / mid driver cone is a distinctive and iconic feature of the product .
The network is second @-@ order passive , crossing over at 2 kHz . The frequency range is quoted from 60 Hz to 20 kHz , and rated power handling is 25 – 50 W. The early version of the speaker has press @-@ down type output terminals ; later models had screw terminals .
= = Signature sound = =
In simplistic terms , the NS @-@ 10 possesses sonic characteristics that allow record producers to assume that if a recording sounds good on these monitors , then it should sound good on most playback systems . Whilst it can reveal any shortcomings in the recording mix as well as the monitoring chain , it may lead to listener fatigue with prolonged use in the domestic setting .
The NS @-@ 10 does not have a perfectly flat frequency response . The sound of the NS @-@ 10 is slightly heavy in the midrange , and like other sealed @-@ box speakers of similar size its bass extension is limited . It has a + 5 dB boost in the midrange at around 2 kHz , and the bottom end starts rolling off at 200 Hz . The midrange response is so open that it exposes the frequencies that are the most problematic and worst @-@ sounding to the human ear .
On a practical level for the music professional , the speaker is analytic and clinical @-@ sounding . Gizmodo likened the NS @-@ 10 to music editors who reveal the weaknesses of recordings , so that engineers would be forced to either make necessary compensation in the mix or otherwise rework them .
A 2001 report by Newell et al. at Southampton University undertaken for Studio Sound in 2001 found that the NS @-@ 10 had excellent time @-@ domain response at low frequencies – its ability to start and stop in response to signal input was found to be superior to that of most other nearfield monitors . Part of this was related to its closed @-@ box design . The researchers held that the extremely fast decay time of the speaker in the low frequencies ensures that the bass instruments ( guitar and drums ) are correctly balanced in the mix .
= = Product revisions = =
There were many other versions of the NS @-@ 10 , the best known of which were the " NS @-@ 10M Studio " and the " NS @-@ 10M Pro " , both introduced in 1987 . Technically identical to the " Studio " , the " Pro " comes fitted with a speaker grille and is meant to be used in a vertical orientation .
The " professional " version launched some nine years after its first introduction on the back of the popularity of the NS @-@ 10 among engineers . The revised version , with everything including the logo and connection panel orientated horizontally , was badged " NS @-@ 10M Studio " . Improvements included a new tweeter and crossover to address the problem in the treble , better connection terminals , and a sturdier cabinet that no longer accommodates grilles . The Studio reincarnation also has improved power handling – 60 – 120 W. In excess of 200 @,@ 000 pairs of " Studio " alone were sold throughout the world .
Also in the product line @-@ up were NS @-@ 10T , NS @-@ 10M X , NS @-@ 10MC , NS @-@ 10MT . The NS @-@ 10M X is a " Studio " with magnetic shielding and a different tweeter . In the 1990s Yamaha introduced the NS @-@ 10MT , a bass @-@ reflex version of the 10M X with a different tweeter and grille . Designed for home cinema , it has bass response down to 43 Hz , nominal impedance of 6 ohm and maximum power handling rated at 180 W. A miniature version named Natural Sound Surround Speaker NS10MM was launched in 1997 or 1998 .
= = Reception = =
The sound quality of the NS @-@ 10 has polarised opinions , characterised as " love them or hate them " . Many professionals find it indispensable , even though they may not particularly enjoy listening to it ; others refuse to give it space in their studio but will happily admit that it is an effective professional tool . The reliance on the NS @-@ 10 by top independent producers became a viral phenomenon ; thousands of studios equipped themselves with NS @-@ 10s to attract big named producers , making the speakers an industry standard .
= = Tissue paper effect = =
Clearmountain was said to have been one of the first recording engineers to hang tissue paper over the tweeters of the NS @-@ 10 to tame the over @-@ bright treble . Covering the tweeters with tissue paper was said to produce treble @-@ deficient mixes when replayed on normal domestic hi @-@ fi . The phenomenon became the subject of hot debate . Recording engineer Bob Hodas investigated the alleged sonic effects of tissue paper . He found inconsistent results with different paper , but said that tissue paper generally demonstrated an undesirable effect known as comb filtering , where the high frequencies are reflected back into the tweeter instead of being absorbed . Hodas derided the tissue practice as " aberrant behaviour " , saying that engineers usually fear comb filtering and its associated cancellation effects . He also suggested that more controllable and less random electronic filtering would be preferable . Newell et al. noted that had the speakers ' grilles been used in studios , where they are routinely removed , they would have had the same effect on the treble output as the improvised tissue paper filter .
= = Influence = =
The speaker came to be relied on by independent engineers , who worked in different studios and needed equipment they were familiar with as a reference point . Throughout the 1980s , engineers and producers worked widely with the speaker to monitor " [ almost ] any album you love from the 80s or 90s " – from Born in the U.S.A. ( Bruce Springsteen ) , Avalon ( Roxy Music ) Let 's Dance ( David Bowie ) , to Big Bam Boom ( Hall and Oates ) .
The NS @-@ 10 , and the Auratone before it , are two of the most influential nearfield monitors used in the professional mixing of sound recordings . In 2008 , the NS @-@ 10 was inducted into the Mix magazine TECnology Hall of Fame . Also reflecting its influence , the speaker won a Technical Grammy for Yamaha in 2007 . In 2008 , the speaker was found " in almost every studio " .
= Utah State Route 61 =
State Route 61 ( SR @-@ 61 ) is a nearly 7 @.@ 3 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 11 @.@ 7 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Utah , connecting SR @-@ 23 in Cornish , Cache County to U.S. Route 91 ( US @-@ 91 ) near Richmond via Lewiston , in the extreme northern part of the state . The highway has existed since at least 1914 , as SR @-@ 61 since at least 1937 , and between 735 and 2 @,@ 180 vehicles travel along the highway on an average day in 2012 .
= = Route description = =
At the intersection of SR @-@ 23 ( 4800 West ) and 13400 North in the center of Cornish , SR @-@ 61 departs east on 13400 North due east , crossing over a single track belonging to the Union Pacific Railroad ( UP ) . Exiting Cornish , the highway crosses the Bear River and continues east through rural Cache County . Just shy of the western city limits of Lewiston , the highway intersects SR @-@ 200 ( 800 West ) , a connector road to Preston , Idaho . From the western terminus to SR @-@ 200 , the shoulder is up to four feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) wide , suitable for bicycling , however the remainder of the route has much narrower shoulders , between less than or equal to one and nine @-@ tenths feet ( 0 @.@ 58 m ) wide .
The highway 's name changes from 13400 South to Center Street through Lewiston . Passing the Lewiston Cemetery , SR @-@ 61 crosses over the Cub River and a second single track belonging to UP , and then a third UP single track just before the highway 's eastern terminus at US @-@ 91 north of Richmond . All of the rail lines that SR @-@ 61 crosses originally belonged to the Oregon Short Line Railway . Aside from the segment through Lewiston , the highway is surrounded by farmland for its entire journey across northern Utah .
Every year , UDOT conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2012 , UDOT calculated that as few as 735 vehicles used the highway on an average day at its western terminus in Cornish , and as many as 2 @,@ 180 vehicles used the highway at its junction with SR @-@ 200 . Thirty @-@ five percent of this was truck traffic .
= = History = =
A roadway linking Cornish to the east has existed since at least 1914 . The roadway that serves as the eastern terminus was numbered SR @-@ 1 by 1927 , and the highway officially was designated SR @-@ 61 since at least 1937 . The 53 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 16 @.@ 2 m ) bridge that carries SR @-@ 61 over the Cub River today was constructed in 1952 , while the 182 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 55 @.@ 5 m ) bridge over the Bear River was built in 1961 . The original river crossings were slightly further south than their current locations .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Cache County .
= Hemmema =
A hemmema ( from Finnish " Hämeenmaa " , Tavastia ) was a type of warship built for the Swedish archipelago fleet and the Russian Baltic navy in the late 18th and early 19th centuries . The hemmema was initially developed for use against the Russian Navy in the Archipelago Sea and along the coasts of Svealand and Finland . It was designed by the prolific and innovative Swedish naval architect Fredrik Henrik af Chapman ( 1721 – 1808 ) in collaboration with Augustin Ehrensvärd ( 1710 – 1772 ) , an artillery officer and later commander of the Swedish archipelago fleet . The hemmema was a specialized vessel for use in the shallow waters and narrow passages that surround the thousands of islands and islets extending from the Swedish capital of Stockholm into the Gulf of Finland .
The hemmema replaced the galleys that had made up the core of the Swedish archipelago fleets until the mid @-@ 18th century . Compared to galleys , the hemmema had a deeper draft and was slower under oars , but offered superior accommodation for the crew , carried more stores , was more seaworthy and had roughly ten times as many heavy guns . It could be propelled by either sails or oars but was still smaller and more maneuverable than most sailing warships , which made it suitable for operations in confined waters .
Between 1764 and 1809 , Sweden built six hemmemas . The hemmema became the largest and most heavily armed vessel in the archipelago fleet and served in the Russo @-@ Swedish War of 1788 – 90 . Oden , the first hemmema , was relatively small and very similar to a turuma , a different type of " archipelago frigate " . Russia built six hemmemas based on the Swedish design between 1808 and 1823 after capturing three of the Swedish vessels at the surrender of Sveaborg in 1808 . The later versions , both Swedish and Russian , were much larger and much more heavily armed than Oden .
= = Background = =
Russian Tsar Peter the Great had established a new capital and powerful naval base in Saint Petersburg in 1703 . Russian naval power in the Baltic grew to challenge the interests of Sweden , the other leading power in the Baltic . Swedish holdings at that time included territory in Northern Germany , all of modern Finland and most of the Baltic states , a dominion depending on , and connected by , the Baltic Sea trade routes . During the Great Northern War ( 1700 – 1721 ) , Sweden lost all its territories in the Baltic states and suffered Russian raids in Finland and along the chain of islands and archipelagos stretching from the Gulf of Finland to Stockholm . The Swedes began to deploy inshore flotillas of shallow @-@ draft vessels , beginning with smaller versions of the traditional Mediterranean galleys . Most of these new vessels were more akin to galiots and were complemented with gun prams . The disastrous war with Russia ( 1741 – 43 ) and the minor involvement against Prussia in the Seven Years ' War ( 1757 – 62 ) showed the need for further expansion and development of the inshore flotillas with more specialized vessels .
Galleys were effective as troop transports for amphibious operations , but were severely under @-@ gunned , especially in relation to their large crews ; a galley with a 250 @-@ man crew , most of whom were rowers , would typically carry only one 24 @-@ pounder cannon and two 6 @-@ pounders , all in the bow . The galleys also lacked decks and adequate shelter for the rower @-@ soldiers , many of whom succumbed to illness as a result of exposure during the war of 1741 – 43 .
= = = Archipelago fleet = = =
After the Russian victory against Sweden in 1743 , the Swedes established a commission to identify weaknesses in the eastern defenses . In 1747 , the commission concluded that the fortifications in southeastern Finland needed to be improved and expanded , and that Sweden needed to build a strong coastal navy . Augustin Ehrensvärd ( 1710 – 72 ) , an artillery officer , was the driving force behind these changes . The committee based many of its conclusions and decisions on his ideas . In 1756 , Sweden established the archipelago fleet with the official name arméns flotta ( " fleet of the army " ) under the command of the army department , Krigskollegium , with Ehrensvärd as supreme commander . For two decades , the struggle for power between the Hats and the Caps , the dominant political factions at the time , and rivalries between army and navy brought about changes to the archipelago fleet . The parliamentary victory of the Hats in the Riksdag in 1769 – 70 and the coup d 'ètat by King Gustav III in 1772 secured the archipelago fleet 's status as an independent branch of the army . Starting in 1770 , the archipelago fleet merged with the Finnish Squadron ( Finska eskadern ) based at Sveaborg . In 1777 , it incorporated the Swedish Squadron ( Svenska eskadern ) , the galley fleet based at Stockholm . The Swedish armed forces invested considerable resources in the new army branch and made it a professional , independent organization . The archipelago fleet attracted members of the social and cultural elite who enjoyed the protection and patronage of King Gustav III , who had established himself as an absolute monarch in the 1772 coup .
After the poor performance of galleys in Russo – Swedish war of 1741 – 43 and the Pomeranian War ( 1757 – 62 ) , development of replacements became prioritized . During the Pomeranian War , trials had been made with " gun prams " ( skottpråmar ) , heavily armed , oar @-@ driven , flat @-@ bottomed barges with a shallow draft that carried guns in broadside arrangements . The prams carried more guns than the galleys , but proved far too slow to be effective . Augustin Ehrensvärd argued for new archipelago vessels that combined firepower , maneuverability , seaworthiness , and decent crew accommodations . He began a successful collaboration with shipwright Fredrik Henrik Chapman ( ennobled " af Chapman " in 1772 ) , and together they developed five new vessels : a gunboat with a 12 @-@ pounder gun and a schooner rigging , as well as four types of " archipelago frigates " ( skärgårdsfregatter ) : the smaller udema and pojama , and the larger turuma and hemmema . All four types have been called skärgårdsfregatter ( archipelago frigates ) in Swedish and English historical literature , though some authors have called the udema and pojama " archipelago corvettes " . Chapman specifically designed the archipelago frigates for service off the south coast of Finland and named them after the Finnish provinces of Uusimaa , Pohjanmaa ( Österbotten ) , Turunmaa ( Åboland ) , and Hämeenmaa ( Tavastia ) .
= = Development = =
The concept of small sailing frigates with a complementary set of oars ( or " sweeps " ) was not new . The English Tudor navy had used small " galleasses " in the mid @-@ 16th century . In the 1660s its successor , the Royal Navy , equipped the equivalent of sixth @-@ rates with oar ports on or below the gundeck . During the 18th century the Russian Navy introduced " shebecks " , Baltic variants on the Mediterranean xebecs , for inshore duties . The xebecs were good sailers , could be rowed if necessary and had more guns and greater stores than galleys ; they were also less expensive to maintain . The Russian designs influenced Chapman and the Swedish naval commanders . Consequently , Chapman 's designs for new ships were elaborations on those principles , but with adaptations to archipelago warfare .
Chapman 's archipelago frigates provided better protection for their crew than the galleys they replaced , and up to three times the capacity for stores and provisions . They could operate in the narrow , shallow waters around skerries in all weathers and in open water in all but the worst storms . They had a deeper draft than galleys , but considerably shallower draft than traditional sailing warships . The new ship types also increased the archipelago fleet 's firepower , provided it with better defensive capabilities , and made possible more efficient fire support in amphibious operations .
= = Design and construction = =
Of the new designs , turumas and hemmemas best fit the description of " archipelago frigate " because of their similarities to small ocean @-@ going frigates . The first hemmema , the Oden , was completed in 1764 . It was c . 33 m ( 108 @.@ 2 ft ) long and 8 @.@ 2 m ( 26 @.@ 8 ft ) wide with a draft of 2 @.@ 8 m ( 9 @.@ 25 ft ) . It had a low hull with no forecastle , only a low quarterdeck , and no poop deck . It had three masts that were initially rigged with lateen sails , like a galley . The navy later replaced the lateen rigs with a more conventional square @-@ sail frigate rig . The early design provided for 14 pairs of oars with four men per oar . The rowers plied their oars from the gun deck through oar ports positioned between the gunports , close to the waterline , which gave the rowers better leverage . The oars were also placed on a rectangular outrigger , designed to further improve the leverage . Even so , hemmemas performed poorly when rowed and were difficult in contrary winds . They were slower than ordinary sailing ships , but sailed better than galleys .
During the Russian war of 1788 – 1790 , Sweden built three hemmemas of a new design . They were considerably larger , 44 @.@ 5 by 11 m ( 146 by 36 ft ) , and the number of oars were increased to 20 pairs . They also had some of the heaviest broadsides , even when compared with the much larger frigates of the high seas navy . The artillery officer Carl Fredrik Aschling had cooperated with Chapman to increase the main armament to twenty @-@ two 36 @-@ pounders and two 12 @-@ pounders , which increased the draft by about 30 cm ( 1 ft ) . The addition of diagonal bracers to reinforce the hull allowed the later hemmemas to carry guns more powerful even than those on the largest sailing frigates of the high seas navy . Due to their considerable firepower and relative size , naval historian Jan Glete has described the hemmemas as " super archipelago frigates " .
The hemmema 's design was very similar to that of the turuma . The primary difference was that the turuma 's oarsmen sat on the weather deck above the guns , whereas the hemmema 's oarsmen sat on the gundeck . The later hemmemas were considerably larger , more heavily armed , and of a more robust construction . Glete has described them as variations on the same type , especially when considering the pre @-@ war designs .
= = Service = =
Hemmemas served in the Finnish squadrons during the war of 1788 – 1790 . They supported amphibious operations and conducted raids on the Russian archipelago fleet , while at the same time acting as sea @-@ borne flank support for the Swedish army on the Finnish mainland . Hemmemas fought in the first and second battles of Svensksund . During the first battle in 1789 , one hemmema complemented the similar turumas , and in the second battle in July 1790 , two hemmemas made up the defensive center and provided a considerable percentage of the firepower .
The Swedes were building three additional hemmemas at the shipyards within the fortress of Sveaborg when it was surrendered to the Russians in 1808 , and all three were incorporated in the Russian Navy . Shortly afterward , the Russian Navy built its own 32 @-@ gun versions , with the final vessel launched as late as 1823 . Two more were built in Sweden in 1809 , Birger Jarl and Erik Segersäll . Birger Jarl sank in an accident in 1813 and Erik Segersäll was planned for conversion as a paddlewheel steam battery for coastal defense , though the idea was eventually abandoned and the ship scrapped in 1826 .
Like the other specialized archipelago vessels , the hemmema had specific strengths and weaknesses . Although it had superior firepower relative to galleys , its sailing qualities were somewhat mediocre and while highly manoeuvrable under oars , it was still difficult to propel while rowed . A hemmema had the potential to be an effective weapon against galleys , matching their forward firepower and severely outgunning them with its broadside armament . Inside an enemy galley formation , it could wreak considerable havoc , but such a maneuver was never achieved in an actual battle , leaving that tactical role untested .
= = Ships = =
A total of twelve hemmemas were built , six of them for the Swedish archipelago fleet and six for the Russian Navy . Details of individual vessels are listed below . The Swedish hemmemas were all built to the same specifications , except for the early design Oden , and Birger Jarl and Erik Segersäll carried heavier armament than the others . Tredrea and Sozaev list Oden as a turuma rebuilt as a hemmema in 1784 , though Oscar Nikula and Lars @-@ Otto Berg do not . The Russian vessels were built between 1808 and 1823 and have been described by Tredea and Sozaev as Bodryi @-@ class " rowing frigates " .
Under the Finnish form " Hämeenmaa " , the name of the ship type was later carried on to several vessels of the 20th century Finnish Navy .
= Edward Creutz =
Edward Creutz ( January 23 , 1913 – June 27 , 2009 ) was an American physicist who worked on the Manhattan Project at the Metallurgical Laboratory and the Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II . After the war he became a professor of physics at the Carnegie Institute of Technology . He was Vice President of Research at General Atomics from 1955 to 1970 . He published over 65 papers on botany , physics , mathematics , metallurgy and science policy , and held 18 patents relating to nuclear energy .
A graduate of the University of Wisconsin – Madison , Creutz helped Princeton University build its first cyclotron . During World War II he worked on nuclear reactor design under Eugene Wigner at the Metallurgical Laboratory , designing the cooling system for the first water @-@ cooled reactors . He led a group that studied the metallurgy of uranium and other elements used in reactor designs . In October 1944 , he moved to the Los Alamos Laboratory , where he became a group leader .
After the war ended , Creutz accepted an offer to come to the Carnegie Institute of Technology , where he became the head of its Physics Department and its Nuclear Research Center in 1948 . In 1955 he returned to Los Alamos to evaluate its thermonuclear fusion program for the Atomic Energy Commission . While there he accepted an offer to become Vice President for Research and Development and the Director of its John Jay Hopkins Laboratory for Pure and Applied Science at General Atomics . Under his leadership , General Atomics developed TRIGA , a nuclear reactor for universities and laboratories .
Creutz served as an assistant director of the National Science Foundation from 1970 to 1977 , and then as Director of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum in Honolulu , where he took particular interest in the museum 's preparation of a Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii ' .
= = Early life = =
Edward Chester Creutz was born on January 23 , 1913 , in Beaver Dam , Wisconsin , the son of Lester Creutz , a high school history teacher , and Grace Smith Creutz , a general science teacher . He had two older brothers , John and Jim , and a younger sister , Edith . The family moved to Eau Claire , Wisconsin , in 1916 , Monroe , Wisconsin , in 1920 , and to Janesville , Wisconsin , in 1927 . He played a number of musical instruments , including the mandolin , ukulele and trombone . He played in the school bands at Janesville High School and Monroe High School . At Janesville he played tenor banjo in a dance orchestra called Rosie 's Ragadors , and timpani with the school orchestra at Monroe . He also played left guard on the American football teams at Janesville and Monroe . He expressed an interest in chemistry , biology , geology and photography .
After graduating from Janesville High School in 1929 , he took a job as a bookkeeper at a local bank . In 1932 , his brother John , who had graduated from the University of Wisconsin – Madison with a degree in electrical engineering , persuaded him to go to college as well . John suggested that " if you aren ’ t sure what part of science you want , take physics , because that 's basic to all of them . " Creutz later recalled that this was the best advice he ever got . He entered the University of Wisconsin and studied mathematics and physics . Money was scarce during the Great Depression , especially after his father died in 1935 . To pay his bills , Creutz worked as a dishwasher and short order cook , and took a job taking care of the physics laboratory equipment . In 1936 , his senior year , he taught physics laboratory classes .
Creutz encountered several members of the faculty at the University of Wisconsin , including Julian Mack , Ragnar Rollefson , Raymond Herb , Eugene Wigner and Gregory Breit . Mack gave Creutz a research project to do in his junior year . Creutz remained at Wisconsin as a graduate student after receiving his Bachelor of Science ( B.S. ) degree in 1936 , working for Herb upgrading the departmental Van de Graaff generator from 300 to 600 keV . With this done , the question became what to do with it , and Breit suggested that it had previously been observed that high @-@ energy gamma rays were produced when lithium was bombarded with protons at 440 keV . Creutz therefore wrote his 1939 Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph.D. ) thesis on Resonance Scattering of Protons by Lithium , under Breit 's supervision . Creutz married Lela Rollefson , a mathematics student at Wisconsin , and the sister of Ragnar Rollefson , on September 13 , 1937 . The couple had three children , two sons , Michael and Carl , and a daughter , Ann Jo .
Wigner moved to Princeton University in 1938 , and soon after Creutz received an offer as well . Princeton had been given a 36 @-@ inch ( 910 mm ) magnet by the University of California , which had been used to build an 8 MeV cyclotron . They wanted Creutz to help get it operational . He later recalled :
On my third day in Princeton I was invited to give a short report on my thesis work . There were usually two or three speakers at these " Journal Club " meetings . This time the speakers were Niels Bohr , Albert Einstein , and Ed Creutz . To be on the same program with these two giants of scientific accomplishments was breathtaking . Just before the meeting began , my sponsor , Delsasso , asked me , " Say , Creutz , have you met Einstein yet ? " I had not . Delsasso took me over to where Einstein was sitting in sweatshirt and tennis shoes , and said , " Professor Einstein , this is Creutz who has come to work on our cyclotron . " The great man held out his hand , which seemed as big as a dinner plate , and said in an accented voice , " I ’ m glad to meet you , Dr. Creutz . " I managed to wheeze out , " I ’ m glad to meet you , too , Dr. Einstein . "
But it was Bohr who electrified the audience with his news from Europe of the discovery by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch of nuclear fission . Physicists rushed to confirm the results . Creutz built an ionization chamber and a linear amplifier out of radio vacuum tubes , coffee cans and motorcycle batteries , and with this apparatus the physicists at Princeton were able to confirm the results .
= = World War II = =
In the early years of World War II between 1939 and 1941 , Wigner led the Princeton group in a series of experiments involving uranium and two tons of graphite as a neutron moderator . In early 1942 , Arthur Compton concentrated the Manhattan Project 's various teams working on plutonium and nuclear reactor design , including Wigner 's team from Princeton , at the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago . The name was a codename ; Creutz was the first to conduct actual metallurgy research , and he hired its first metallurgist to work with him .
Wigner led the Theoretical Group that included Creutz , Leo Ohlinger , Alvin M. Weinberg , Katharine Way and Gale Young . The group 's task was to design the reactors that would convert uranium into plutonium . At the time , reactors existed only on paper , and no reactor had yet gone critical . In July 1942 , Wigner chose a conservative 100 MW design , with a graphite neutron moderator and water cooling . The choice of water as a coolant was controversial at the time because water was known to absorb neutrons , thereby reducing the efficiency of the reactor ; but Wigner was confident that his group 's calculations were correct and that water would work , while the technical difficulties involved in using helium or liquid metal as a coolant would delay the project . Working seven days a week , the group designed the reactors between September 1942 and January 1943 . Creutz studied the corrosion of metals in a water @-@ cooled system , and designed the cooling system . In 1959 a patent for the reactor design would be issued in the name of Creutz , Ohlinger , Weinberg , Wigner , and Young .
As a group leader at the Metallurgical Laboratory , Creutz conducted studies of uranium and how it could be extruded into rods . His group looked into the process of corrosion in metals in contact with fast @-@ flowing liquids , the processes for fabricating aluminium and jacketing uranium with it . It also investigated the forging of beryllium , and the preparation of thorium . Frederick Seitz and Alvin Weinberg later reckoned that the activities of Creutz and his group may have reduced the time taken to produce plutonium by up to two years .
The discovery of spontaneous fission in reactor @-@ bred plutonium due to contamination by plutonium @-@ 240 led Wigner to propose switching to breeding uranium @-@ 233 from thorium , but the challenge was met by the Los Alamos Laboratory developing an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon design . In October 1944 , Creutz moved to Los Alamos , where he became a group leader responsible for explosive lens design verification and preliminary testing . Difficulties encountered in testing the lenses led to the construction of a special test area in Pajarito Canyon , and Creutz became responsible for testing there . As part of the preparation for the Trinity nuclear test , Creutz conducted a test detonation at Pajarito Canyon without nuclear material . This test brought bad news ; it seemed to indicate that the Trinity test would fail . Hans Bethe worked through the night to assess the results , and was able to report that the results were consistent with a perfect explosion .
= = Later life = =
After the war ended in 1945 , Creutz accepted an offer from Seitz to come to the Carnegie Institute of Technology as an associate professor , and help create a nuclear physics group there . Creutz in turn recruited a number of young physicists who had worked with him at Princeton and on the Manhattan Project in Chicago and Los Alamos , including Martyn Foss , Jack Fox , Roger Sutton and Sergio DeBenedetti . Together , with funding from the Office of Naval Research they built a 450 MeV synchrotron at the Nuclear Research Center near Saxonburg , Pennsylvania . For a time , This put them at the forefront of research into nuclear physics , allowing physicists there to study the recently discovered pi meson and mu meson . A visiting scholar , Gilberto Bernardini , created the first photographic emulsion of a meson .
Creutz became a professor , the head of the Physics Department , and the head of Nuclear Research Center at the Carnegie Institute of Technology in 1948 . He was also a member of the Executive Board at the Argonne National Laboratory from 1946 to 1958 , and a consultant at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory from 1946 to 1958 . In addition to his work on nuclear physics , he cultivated flowers and orchids at his home . He published eight papers on floral species , and named three varieties of violets after his children . One 1966 paper , published in the New York Botanical Garden Journal was on Apetahia raiateensis , a rare flower found only on the island of Raiatea in French Polynesia . He travelled to Polynesia many times , and translated Grammar of the Tahitian language from French into English . His family served as hosts for a time to two young people from Tahiti and Samoa .
In 1955 and 1956 , Creutz spent a year at Los Alamos evaluating its thermonuclear fusion program for the Atomic Energy Commission . While there he was approached by Frederic de Hoffmann , who recruited him to join the General Atomics division of General Dynamics . He moved to La Jolla , California , as its Vice President for Research and Development , and was concurrently the Director of its John Jay Hopkins Laboratory for Pure and Applied Science from 1955 to 1967 . He was also a member of the Advisory Panel on General Science at the Department of Defense from 1959 to 1963 .
Under his leadership , General Atomics developed TRIGA , a small reactor for universities and laboratories . TRIGA used uranium zirconium hydride ( UZrH ) fuel , which has a large , prompt negative fuel temperature coefficient of reactivity . As the temperature of the core increases , the reactivity rapidly decreases . It is thus highly unlikely , though not completely impossible , for a nuclear meltdown to occur . Due to its safety and reliability , which allows it to be installed in densely populated areas , and its ability to still generate high energy for brief periods , which is particularly useful for research , it became the world 's most popular research reactor , and General Atomics sold 66 TRIGAs in 24 countries . The high @-@ temperature gas @-@ cooled reactor ( HTGR ) was less successful , and only two HTGR power reactors were built , both in the United States . A 40 MW demonstration unit at the Peach Bottom Nuclear Generating Station in Pennsylvania operated successfully , but a larger 300 MW unit at the Fort St. Vrain Generating Station in Colorado encountered technical problems . General Atomics also conducted research into thermonuclear energy , including means of magnetically confining plasma . Between 1962 and 1974 Creutz published six papers on the subject .
In 1970 President Richard Nixon appointed Creutz as Assistant Director for Research of the National Science Foundation . He became Assistant Director for Mathematical and Physicals Sciences in 1975 , and was acting Deputy Director from 1976 to 1977 . The 1970s energy crisis raised the national profile of energy issues , and Creutz served on a panel that produced a study called The Nation 's Energy Future . His wife Lela died of cancer in 1972 . In 1974 he married Elisabeth Cordle , who worked for the National Science Board . The two of them enjoyed locating and photographing rare orchids .
His appointment at the National Science Foundation ended in 1977 , and Creutz became director of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum in Honolulu . He took particular interest in the museum 's work preparing a two @-@ volume Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii , which was published in 1999 . He expanded programs for education and outreach , and secured funding for two new buildings . He retired in 1987 and returned to his home in Rancho Santa Fe , California , and died there on June 27 , 2009 .
= = Documentaries = =
To Mars by A @-@ Bomb : The Secret History of Project Orion
= Leanne Del Toso =
Leanne Del Toso ( born 12 August 1980 ) is a 3 @.@ 5 point wheelchair basketball player who represented Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , where she won a silver medal . Diagnosed with chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy at the age of nineteen , Del Toso started playing wheelchair basketball in 2006 . Playing in the local Victorian competition , she was named the league 's most valuable player in 2007 . That year started playing for the Knox Ford Raiders in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) . The following year , she was named the team 's Players ' Player and Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) .
Del Toso has played for the Dandenong Rangers in the WNWBL since 2008 . In the semifinal between her Dandenong Rangers and the Goudkamp Gladiators in 2009 , she scored 31 points while pulling down 19 rebounds that saw the Rangers win 81 – 42 . The Dandenong Rangers won back to back titles in 2011 and 2012 .
Del Toso made her debut with the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , at the 2009 Osaka Cup in Japan . Since winning a silver medal in London , she has participated in the 2013 Osaka Cup in Japan , where the Gliders successfully defended the title they had won in 2008 , 2009 , 2010 and 2012 .
= = Personal = =
Nicknamed Dori , Del Toso was born on 12 August 1980 . At the age of nineteen , she was diagnosed with chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy ( CIDP ) , a heredity condition that involves damage to the nerves . Del Toso has two siblings ; her younger brother Daniel also developed the disease . Prior to her diagnosis , she played regular basketball . Del Toso has worked as a receptionist , and as a participation assistant for Basketball Victoria . As of 2013 , she lives in Watsonia , Victoria .
= = Wheelchair basketball = =
Del Toso was a 4 point wheelchair basketball player . Due to the progress of her disease , she was reclassified as a 3 @.@ 5 point player in 2013 . As of 2012 , she has a scholarship with the Victorian Institute of Sport , and in financial year 2012 / 13 , she received a A $ 20 @,@ 000 grant from the Australian Sports Commission as part of its Direct Athlete Support ( DAS ) program . She received $ 17 @,@ 000 in 2011 / 12 and 2010 / 11 , $ 5 @,@ 571 @.@ 42 in 2009 / 10 and $ 5 @,@ 200 in 2008 / 09 . In 2012 , she trained in Dandenong , Kew , Box Hill and Knox .
= = = Club = = =
Del Toso started playing wheelchair basketball in 2006 . An Australian Paralympic Committee flyer on the wall at her local gym asking " Are you the next Paralympian ? " prompted Del Toso to respond . She was advised to take up wheelchair basketball . Playing in the local Victorian competition in 2007 , she was named the league 's most valuable player . That year , she made her debut in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) with the Knox Ford Raiders . At the end of the season , she was named the most improved player . She played for the Rangers ( now known as Victoria ) since 2008 . In the second round of the 2008 season , the Dandenong Rangers defeated the Western Stars 53 – 47 . She scored 20 points in her team 's victory . In the second round of the 2008 season , playing for the Dandenong Rangers in a 38 – 72 loss to the Hills Hornets , she scored 12 points . That season , she was named the team 's Players Player and Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) .
In 2009 , Del Toso played in the WNWBL finals . In the semifinal between the Dandenong Rangers and the Goudkamp Gladiators , she scored 31 points while pulling down 19 rebounds that saw the Rangers win 81 – 42 . In 2010 , she was named the Dandenong Rangers 's Most Valuable Player . The Rangers won the WNWBL title in 2011 . In a round four game in 2012 , against Sydney Uni Flames that the Rangers won 55 – 44 , she scored 14 rebounds . The Rangers won the league championship again that year .
= = = National = = =
In 2008 , Del Toso was named as a reserve for the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , for the 2008 Summer Paralympics . She made her national team debut at the 2009 Osaka Cup the following year , when her team finished first . That year , she also participated in the Four Nations in Canada and the Japan Friendly Series , one of six players who played for the Dandenong Rangers in the WNWBL . She was selected to participate in a national team training camp in 2010 . In July 2010 , she played in a three @-@ game test series against Germany . She was member of the Australian team at the 2010 World Championships that finished fourth . She also played in the 2010 Osaka Cup where her team finished first . She played in four games in the 2012 Gliders World Challenge .
Del Toso was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in wheelchair basketball . The London Games were her first . In the group stage , the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2012 Summer Paralympics posted wins against Brazil , Great Britain , and the Netherlands , but lost to Canada . This was enough to advance the Gliders to the quarter @-@ finals , where they beat Mexico . The Gliders then defeated the United States by a point to set up a final clash with Germany . The Gliders lost 44 – 58 , and earned a silver medal .
Since the games , Del Toso has participated in the 2013 Osaka Cup in Japan , where the Gliders successfully defended the title they had won in 2008 , 2009 , 2010 and 2012 .
= = Statistics = =
= No. 79 Wing RAAF =
No. 79 Wing was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) wing of World War II . It was formed in December 1943 at Batchelor , Northern Territory , as part of North @-@ Western Area Command . Led by Group Captain Charles Eaton , the wing comprised four squadrons on its establishment , flying Beaufort and B @-@ 25 Mitchell bombers and Beaufighter heavy fighters . No. 79 Wing took part in the New Guinea and North @-@ Western Area Campaigns during 1944 – 45 , eventually transferring to Balikpapan in the Dutch East Indies as the Allies advanced northward . By the end of the Pacific War , the wing was attached to the Australian First Tactical Air Force and was made up of Nos. 2 and 18 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadrons , both flying Mitchells . The latter transferred to the Netherlands Air Force in late 1945 , while the former returned to Australia where it disbanded the following year . No. 79 Headquarters itself disbanded in October 1945 , soon after the end of hostilities .
= = History = =
No. 79 Wing was established at Batchelor , Northern Territory , on 30 November 1943 . Its combat units consisted of Nos. 1 and 2 Squadrons ( flying Beaufort light reconnaissance bombers ) , No. 31 Squadron ( Beaufighter long @-@ range fighters ) , and No. 18 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadron ( B @-@ 25 Mitchell medium bombers ) . The wing was commanded by Group Captain Charles Eaton , whose Dutch personnel called him " Oom Charles " ( Uncle Charles ) . Operating under the auspices of North @-@ Western Area Command ( NWA ) , Darwin , No. 79 Wing participated in the New Guinea and North @-@ Western Area Campaigns during 1944 .
Through March – April 1944 , the Beaufighters attacked Japanese shipping , while the Mitchells and Beauforts bombed Timor on a daily basis as a prelude to Operations Reckless and Persecution , the invasions of Hollandia and Aitape . Eaton organised a large raid against Su , Dutch Timor , on 19 April . Consisting of thirty @-@ five Mitchells , Beauforts and Beaufighters , the force destroyed the town 's barracks and fuel dumps , a result that earned the personal congratulations of the Air Officer Commanding NWA , Air Vice Marshal " King " Cole . On the day of the Allied landings , 22 April , the Mitchells and Beaufighters made a daylight raid on Dili , Portuguese Timor . The ground assault on Hollandia – Aitape met little opposition , credited in part to the air bombardment leading up to it .
In May 1944 , Nos. 1 , 18 and 31 Squadrons attacked Japanese positions in Timor , while No. 2 Squadron was withdrawn from combat to re @-@ equip with Mitchells . No. 79 Wing 's light and medium bombers suffered from a lack of suitable targets as they had few airfields in forward areas from which to refuel . No. 2 Squadron returned to operations with Mitchells in June . That month , No. 18 Squadron flew 149 sorties , damaging Japanese airfields and shipping in the Timor area , but lost its commanding officer to anti @-@ aircraft fire during a raid .
In June – July 1944 , No. 79 Wing supported the Allied attack on Noemfoor . No. 18 Squadron was again the wing 's most active unit , flying 107 sorties . In September , the Beaufighters and Mitchells attacked Japanese shipping and infrastructure in Ceram and Celebes , but lost nine aircraft and twenty @-@ six crewmen killed , among them Squadron Leader Wilbur Wackett , son of Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation manager Lawrence Wackett . By the end of the month , Mitchell missions were put on hold while replacement crews were trained . In late 1944 , plans were made to transfer No. 79 Wing from North @-@ Western Area Command to Northern Command in Papua New Guinea , where it would undertake operations against the Japanese in New Britain . The wing 's composition for this move was to be Nos. 2 and 18 Squadrons , operating Mitchells , and 120 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadron , operating P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks . No. 31 Squadron was transferred from No. 79 Wing to the Australian First Tactical Air Force at Morotai in December . The same month , Group Captain Eaton posted out and was replaced by Group Captain John Ryland .
Weather hampered the wing 's activities in January 1945 . No. 1 Squadron was withdrawn to Queensland to re @-@ equip with Mosquitos , with No. 13 Squadron , flying Venturas , taking up the slack on anti @-@ shipping missions . The squadron accounted for around half of the thirty @-@ eight enemy vessels sunk by No. 79 Wing in February , and a similar ratio to the twenty sunk the following month . Wing operations were cut back in March , as preparations were made to transfer the Mitchells to Jacquinot Bay in New Britain . On 6 April , all twenty available aircraft of Nos. 2 and 18 Squadrons were ordered to join B @-@ 24 Liberators of No. 82 Wing in an assault on a Japanese convoy that included the cruiser Isuzu . The Liberators were late for their rendezvous with the Mitchells off Sumba so the latter , at the very limit of their range , attacked the convoy regardless . They claimed two direct hits without loss , despite anti @-@ aircraft fire from the cruiser and other ships , and frontal attacks by enemy fighters . Allied submarines sank the damaged Isuzu the next day .
The wing 's proposed move to New Britain was cancelled in May 1945 , after the Netherlands government requested that its squadrons operate over the Dutch East Indies . No. 120 Squadron was transferred to Biak , while No. 79 Wing and its two Mitchell squadrons were ordered to move to Borneo , under the command of First Tactical Air Force . By July , No. 79 Wing had relocated from Batchelor to Balikpapan , leaving No. 13 Squadron under the control of North @-@ Western Area Command . After the Pacific War ended in August 1945 , the Mitchells joined Liberators of No. 82 Wing repatriating RAAF personnel from Borneo to Australia . No. 79 Wing Headquarters was disbanded on 8 October . The following month , No. 18 Squadron was reassigned to the Netherlands Air Force . No. 2 Squadron returned to Australia in December , disbanding in mid @-@ 1946 . These were the only two squadrons in the RAAF to operate Mitchells during the war .
= Vitamin D ( Glee ) =
" Vitamin D " is the sixth episode of the American television series Glee . The episode premiered on the Fox network on October 7 , 2009 . It was written by series creator Ryan Murphy and directed by Elodie Keene . In the episode , glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) pits the male and female club members against each other for a mash @-@ up competition . Will 's wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) takes a job as the school nurse to stop him becoming closer to guidance counsellor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) , but is fired after giving the students performance @-@ enhancing pseudoephedrine tablets .
The episode features mash @-@ up covers of " It 's My Life " by Bon Jovi and " Confessions Part II " by Usher , and " Halo " by Beyoncé Knowles and " Walking on Sunshine " by Katrina and the Waves . Both tracks were released as singles , available for digital download . " Vitamin D " was watched by 7 @.@ 30 million US viewers , and received generally positive reviews from critics . Performances by Morrison , Mays and Jane Lynch as cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester attracted praise , as did the staging of the musical mash @-@ ups . However , Aly Semigran of MTV and Mandi Bierly of Entertainment Weekly both noted critically that dramatic storylines in the episode dominated over the musical performances .
= = Plot = =
Believing the glee club members are becoming complacent ahead of the forthcoming sectionals , director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) divides the club into boys against girls for a mash @-@ up competition . Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) observes that head cheerleader Quinn Fabray 's ( Dianna Agron ) performance standards are slipping . When Quinn blames her tiredness on her glee club participation , Sue renews her resolve to destroy the club , planning to sabotage Will 's personal life .
Sue tells Will 's wife Terri Schuester ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) that guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) has romantic feelings for Will . Determined to stay close to her husband , Terri takes a job as the school nurse , despite having no medical qualifications . She encourages Emma 's boyfriend , football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) to propose to her , which he does . After asking Will if there is any reason she should not marry Ken , and being warned off Will by Terri , Emma accepts his proposal . Terri is still hiding the fact she experienced a hysterical pregnancy from Will , and upon realizing how much her life is changing due to her pregnancy , Quinn agrees to let Terri secretly adopt her baby .
Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) is exhausted by his extra @-@ curricular activities , so Terri gives him pseudoephedrine tablets , which Finn shares with the rest of the males in the glee club . The effects of the tablets enhance their performance , and they give an energetic mash @-@ up of " It 's My Life and " Confessions Part II " . When Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) tells the girls the secret behind the boys ' performance , they , too , request the tablets from Terri , and give a high @-@ spirited mash @-@ up of " Halo " and " Walking On Sunshine " . Finn and Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) feel guilty for cheating , however , and agree to nullify the competition . When Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) learns what has happened , he fires Terri and , angry with Will , appoints Sue as co @-@ director of the glee club .
= = Production = =
Recurring characters who appear in " Vitamin D " are glee club members Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) , Brittany Pierce ( Heather Morris ) , Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) and Matt Rutherford ( Dijon Talton ) , former glee club director Sandy Ryerson ( Stephen Tobolowsky ) , Principal Figgins ( Theba ) , football coach Ken Tanaka ( Gallagher ) , Terri 's co @-@ worker Howard Bamboo ( Kent Avenido ) , and local news anchors Rod Remington ( Bill A. Jones ) and Andrea Carmichael ( Earlene Davis ) . Joe Hursley guest stars as Joe .
The episode features mash @-@ up covers of " It 's My Life " by Bon Jovi and " Confessions Part II " by Usher , and " Halo " by Beyoncé Knowles and " Walking on Sunshine " by Katrina and the Waves . Both tracks were released as singles , available for digital download . " It 's My Life / Confessions Part II " charted at number 7 in Ireland , 14 in the UK , 22 in Australia , 25 in Canada and 30 in America , while " Halo / Walking on Sunshine " charted at number 4 in Ireland , 9 in the UK , 10 in Australia , 28 in Canada and 40 in America . Michele has revealed that she practiced talking " manically " for several days in order to convey the effects of pseudoephedrine on Rachel . In order to portray the character in her altered state , she questioned : " How manic is the right amount of manic ? What would Rachel be like on uppers ? What would she sound like ? " She deemed performing the mash @-@ up piece in that state " so much fun " .
= = Reception = =
The episode was watched by 7 @.@ 30 million U.S. viewers and attained a 3 @.@ 2 / 8 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . Glee maintained its ratings from the previous week , despite all of the other new Wednesday night shows of the season declining by double @-@ digit percentages . It was the eighteenth most watched show in Canada for the week of broadcast , with 1 @.@ 61 million viewers . In the UK , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 008 million viewers ( 1 @.@ 608 million on E4 , and 400 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 ) , becoming the most @-@ watched show on E4 and E4 + 1 for the week , and the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week , as well as the most @-@ watched episode of the series at the time .
" Vitamin D " was nominated for the best " Comedy Series Episode " award at the 2010 PRISM Awards . It received generally positive reviews from critics . Shawna Malcom of the Los Angeles Times noted that she preferred the boys ' performance to the girls ' , commenting : " Their number had the same heart @-@ soaring power as " Don 't Stop Believin ' " [ performed in the pilot episode ] . " Malcom enjoyed Sue 's character development in the episode , claiming that , " In less skilled hands , there ’ s no doubt Sue would be an over @-@ the @-@ top disaster . But thanks to the incomparable Jane Lynch , I can ’ t wait to see what trouble the character stirs up next . " Aly Semigran of MTV also enjoyed the boys ' performance more than the girls ' , and gave the episode a mostly positive review , writing that it moved the series ' storylines to " a whole new level " . She felt , however , that the episode " didn 't have nearly enough singing " . Mandi Bierly for Entertainment Weekly similarly noted that : " So much happened in this hour that the musical numbers , though enjoyable , were almost an afterthought . " Bierly favoured the girls ' performance , and praised Morrison 's acting , commenting : " Matthew Morrison communicates so much with his eyes . There ’ s a softness and a longing in them that I ’ m always surprised Emma ( Jayma Mays ) matches . "
Mike Hale for the New York Times praised Mays ' performance , noting : " Jayma Mays registered Emma ’ s devastation with just the slightest widening of those enormous eyes . In fact all the best non @-@ singing moments in the episode were hers . " Hale was less impressed with the rest of the episode , deeming the pregnancy storyline " so boring that is hardly mattered " . He noted that : " For many viewers , the best moments in the episode probably came very early on and involved Jane Lynch ’ s Sue Sylvester , who still got all the best lines . " Jarett Wieselman for the New York Post agreed with this assessment , opining that although the episode was " filled with more brilliant moments than ever before " , the stand @-@ out scene was Sue writing in her journal , which Wieselman deemed " jam @-@ packed with so many one liners , it acted as a vacuum , sucking the smart out of everything else on TV from 9 : 05 to 9 : 07 pm . " Fellow New York Post critic Maxine Shen deemed the episode her favorite of the series so far . Anna Pickard of The Guardian called the pseudoephedrine storyline " relentlessly silly [ ... ] but joyfully so " , preferring the boys ' performance to the girls ' as " some excellent comedy helped me forget about Finn 's dodgy autotuned vocals for once " .
= Fern Hobbs =
Fern Hobbs ( May 8 , 1883 – April 10 , 1964 ) was an American attorney in the U.S. state of Oregon , and a private secretary to Oregon Governor Oswald West . She was noted for her ambition and several accomplishments as a young woman , and became the highest @-@ paid woman in public service in America in her mid @-@ twenties .
Hobbs made international news when Governor West sent her to implement martial law in the small Eastern Oregon town of Copperfield . The event was considered a strategic coup for West , establishing the State 's authority over a remote rural community and cementing his reputation as a proponent of prohibition .
Hobbs later worked for the American Red Cross in Europe and at the Oregon Journal newspaper . She died in Portland in 1964 .
= = Early life = =
Hobbs was born on May 8 , 1883 , in Bloomington , Nebraska , to John Alden Hobbs and Cora Bush Hobbs . Her family moved to Salt Lake City , Utah when she was six years old ; she lived there for 12 years , finishing high school . Her father then met with financial difficulties , and she moved to Oregon , settling in Hillsboro . There , she put her younger brother and sister through school , while studying stenography and working for a living .
She soon became a private secretary to the president of the Title Guarantee and Trust Company . The bank , which held many assets of the Oregon Common School Fund , failed during Hobbs ' time there . Ben Olcott , who was the Secretary of State and a member of the State Land Board , was charged with protecting the Common School Fund , and was involved in negotiating with the failing bank over the State 's assets . He took note of Hobbs ' strong loyalty to her employer .
After the bank 's failure , Hobbs worked as a governess for J. Wesley Ladd ( brother of William S. Ladd ) in Portland . She also helped raise her younger brother and sister , studied stenography and the law , and worked as a secretary . In 1913 , Hobbs graduated from Willamette University College of Law with a Bachelor of Laws degree , and was admitted to the Oregon State Bar .
Olcott , who managed Oswald West 's successful 1910 campaign to become Governor of Oregon , recommended that West hire Hobbs as his private stenographer . She was hired , and impressed West to the point that he hired her as his private secretary two years later . At that time , at age 27 , she was the highest @-@ paid woman in public service in the United States , earning $ 3 @,@ 000 per year .
= = Martial law in Copperfield , Oregon = =
West ordered Hobbs to Copperfield , Oregon to
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restore law and order on January 2 , 1914 , along with a group of six militia men that included Oregon State Penitentiary warden B.K. Lawson . Copperfield , located on the Snake River in Baker County , had grown up around construction projects for a railroad tunnel and power plant . Fifteen @-@ hundred jobs in the area came from the railway project of E. H. Harriman or the power generation facility .
The town had descended into lawlessness with a number of saloons , brothels , dancing halls , and widespread gambling . The town had no law enforcement officers , and the local government officials had become bar keepers . Governor West had extended prohibition laws , Some local residents had appealed to the state government for assistance. but they were widely ignored in Copperfield . Over half the residents of the town had signed a petition , addressed to West , alleging that saloons owned by the mayor and City Council members were selling liquor to minors and staying open later than their posted hours . Governor West responded by ordering county officials to restore order , close the saloons , and force the resignations of the corrupt city leaders by December 25 , 1913 .
County officials did not take care of the problem , so West sent Hobbs , hoping the presence of a woman would prevent any outbreak of violence . Hobbs was a petite woman standing 5 feet 4 inches ( 1 @.@ 63 m ) tall and weighing less than 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) . She was dispatched with orders to restore order and to implement martial law if necessary . While Hobbs was traveling to Eastern Oregon , both she and Governor West were coy with reporters about the presence of the militia men , suggesting that Hobbs might be acting alone .
The saloon keepers , who received word that Hobbs was accompanied by law enforcement officers only shortly before her arrival , greeted her by dressing up the town with bunting , blue and pink ribbons , and flowers . A town meeting was arranged at 2 : 30 p.m. on January 3 . Hobbs renewed the call for the resignation of city officials , but was the request was refused . Hobbs ' escorts then arrested the city leaders and ordered Lawson to declare martial law . It was the first time in Oregon since the Civil War that martial law was put into effect .
Soon the town was disarmed and order restored , with the gambling equipment and weapons confiscated , and the saloons closed down . Hobbs then left Lawson in charge and caught the 4 : 00 p.m. train out of town that same day . The residents did not openly resist Hobbs or the militia men , although nearly all were armed and had been prepared to offer non @-@ violent resistance . She stopped at the county seat in Baker City to officially remove the town 's officials in front of a judge before returning to the state capitol in Salem . The Baker County Circuit Court quickly enjoined the militia from holding the town under martial law ; Sheriff Rand began assembling a posse to carry out the court order . Governor West requested a hearing , seeking Rand 's temporary removal from office , and appointed Hobbs to represent the State as special counsel .
The actions of the governor were later challenged in court , with Hobbs and West among the defendants . The saloon keepers sought remuneration for liquor they claimed was confiscated during the period of martial law . The Baker County circuit court determined the governor 's actions were within his powers , and the Oregon Supreme Court ultimately concurred .
These events made Hobbs the most famous woman in Oregon at that time . Hobbs also made national and international news for these events . Writer Stewart Holbrook reported :
= = Later life = =
After the Copperfield affair , Hobbs continued as Governor West 's secretary until the end of his term in 1915 . She visited the Union County town of Cove in February 1914 , also to investigate complaints about a saloon . A local election had declared the town " dry , " but a county election had declared the entire county " wet . " On advice of a judge , the mayor of Cove stated that he was unable to determine whether the saloon was legal or not , but expressed deference to the governor 's wishes . Hobbs did not order the saloon closed down .
She then moved to Portland and practiced law . Women 's rights groups promoted Hobbs as a candidate to run for governor , but she never ran for office . Within a few years Fern Hobbs became the commissioner of Oregon State Industrial Accident Commission , working on getting taxes due on the Oregon & California Lands . In 1917 , with the United States entering World War I , she began a long association with the Red Cross . From 1917 to 1922 she worked in Europe , including time spent as the chief of the casualty division in Paris , France . In that position Hobbs was responsible for notifying dead soldiers ' next of kin . She returned to Europe in the 1930s , working in the Rhine Valley when it was occupied by France .
Upon returning to Oregon , Hobbs worked as a secretary for the Oregon Journal newspaper . She retired in 1948 as the secretary to the paper 's business manager . Fern Hobbs died on April 10 , 1964 , at the age of 80 , and was buried at the Hillsboro Pioneer Cemetery in Hillsboro , Oregon .
The Oregon writer Stewart Holbrook interviewed her in the early 1950s , a few years after her retirement , observing that she " still weighs 104 pounds . Her eyes are clear and blue behind her glasses . There is not a gray hair on her head . She lives as quietly as she has always lived , except for those dreadful few days so long ago [ concerning Copperfield ] . " Holbrook noted during his interview that " the subject of Copperfield bores her " and concluded his account of her as follows :
= Jessie Stephen =
Jessie Stephen , MBE ( 19 April 1893 – 12 June 1979 ) was a twentieth @-@ century British suffragette , labour activist and local councillor . She grew up in Scotland and won a scholarship to train as a teacher . Family finances dictated otherwise , leading to her becoming a domestic worker at the age of 15 . She became involved in national labour issues as a teenager , via organisations such as the Independent Labour Party and the Women 's Social and Political Union . After moving to Lancashire and London she visited the United States and Canada , where she held meetings with the public including migrant English domestic workers .
Stephen later become more involved in formal political parties , being elected as a local councillor and standing as a candidate in general elections . After moving to Bristol she became the first woman president of Bristol Trades Council . She was appointed MBE in 1977 and her life is commemorated by a blue plaque in Bristol .
= = Biography = =
Stephen is recorded in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography as a " suffragette and labour activist " , and has been described as " working @-@ class " .
= = = Childhood and family = = =
Some sources give Stephen 's place of birth as Marylebone , London , others as Glasgow . The eldest of eleven children in a " closely @-@ knit ... family " , her father was a tailor . She has been described as " virtually the only Scottish working @-@ class Women 's Social and Political Union ( WSPU ) member about whom anything is known " . She attended Sunday schools separately linked to the church and to socialism , and was educated at North Kelvinside School . She won a scholarship to train as a pupil @-@ teacher .
Her father 's low and variable income meant that she could not afford to pursue her aspiration to become a teacher , and became a domestic worker at the age of 15 . Her father was a founder member of the Independent Labour Party ( ILP ) when it was established in 1893 . She described her mother as being " so quiet and the very opposite of dad " .
= = = Early career = = =
She was referred to as a " young activist in the Maryhill Branch of the ILP " , before she joined the WSPU in 1909 , aged 16 . She was the youngest member of the WSPU Glasgow delegation to the Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George in 1912 . As a member of the WSPU and organiser of the Domestic Workers ' Union , she led the first of the " Scottish Outrages " ( involving attacks on pillar boxes ) in Glasgow in February 1913 .
Stephen was approached by Sylvia Pankhurst and moved from Glasgow to London , where she became considered one of the " most active members " ( along with Emma Boyce , around 1916 ) of the Workers ' Suffrage Federation . In April 1919 , Stephen was one of a number of speakers to address a crowd of " about 10 @,@ 000 people " in Trafalgar Square , opposing the Blockade of Germany . Other speakers included Emmeline Pethick @-@ Lawrence and Theodora Wilson Wilson . She was also an active member of the Women 's Peace Crusade and at the 1920 ILP conference argued against the use of force during events preceding the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR .
In the 1920s she visited the United States , holding public meetings with immigrant communities from Scotland and Wales. and fund @-@ raising for the Socialist Party of America . She also visited Vancouver , where she encouraged migrant English domestic workers to unionise .
= = = Middle years = = =
Stephen later lived in Lancashire and also in London , where she became involved in the East London Federation and sold the Women 's Dreadnought . She was elected Labour borough councillor for Bermondsey in 1922 , after failing to be selected as a parliamentary candidate for the ILP , and worked for Bermondsey MP Alfred Salter . She stood as Labour candidate for Portsmouth South in the general elections of 1923 , 1924 and 1929 , and for Kidderminster in 1931 .
From 1924 she worked as a freelance journalist , established a secretarial agency in Lewes in 1935 and joined the National Union of Clerks in 1938 . At the time of the Second World War , she worked for Murphy Radio in Welwyn Garden City .
She later moved to Bedminster , Bristol , where she worked at the Broad Quay branch of the Co @-@ operative Wholesale Society ( CWS ) and with the National Union of Clerks . She later became chair of the local CWS management committee . Around this time , she spoke publicly and gave advice on birth control . She was elected to the city council . In 1952 she became the first woman president of Bristol Trades Council .
= = = Later life = = =
In the 1964 general election , she was a candidate for the Labour Party in the Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare constituency . She was appointed MBE for " services to the trade union movement " in June 1977 . She died at Bristol General Hospital in 1979 , and her life is commemorated by a blue plaque in Bedminster .
= Of Human Feelings =
Of Human Feelings is a studio album by American jazz saxophonist and composer Ornette Coleman . It was recorded on April 25 , 1979 , at CBS Studios in New York City with his band Prime Time , which featured guitarists Charlie Ellerbee and Bern Nix , bassist Jamaaladeen Tacuma , and drummers Calvin Weston and Coleman 's son Denardo . It followed Coleman 's failed attempt to record a direct @-@ to @-@ disc session earlier in March 1979 .
Of Human Feelings explores jazz @-@ funk music and continues Coleman 's harmolodic approach to improvisation with Prime Time , whom he introduced on his 1975 album Dancing in Your Head . He drew on rhythm and blues influences from early in his career for Of Human Feelings , which had shorter and more distinct compositions than Dancing in Your Head . Coleman also applied free jazz principles from his music during the 1960s to elements of funk .
Following a change in management , Coleman signed with Island Records , and Of Human Feelings was released in 1982 by its subsidiary label Antilles Records . Critics generally praised Coleman 's expressive music and harmolodic approach , but the album made little commercial impact and went out of print . Coleman enlisted his son Denardo as manager after a dispute with his former managers over the album 's royalties , a change that inspired him to perform publicly again during the 1980s .
= = Background = =
By the end of the 1960s , Ornette Coleman had become one of the most influential musicians in jazz after pioneering its most controversial subgenre , free jazz , which jazz critics and musicians initially derided for its deviation from conventional structures of harmony and tonality . In the mid @-@ 1970s , he stopped recording free jazz , recruited electric instrumentalists , and pursued a new creative theory he called harmolodics . According to Coleman 's theory , all the musicians are able to play individual melodies in any key , and still sound coherent as a group . He taught his young sidemen this new improvisational and ensemble approach , based on their individual tendencies , and prevented them from being influenced by conventional styles . Coleman likened this group ethic to a spirit of " collective consciousness " that stresses " human feelings " and " biological rhythms " , and said that he wanted the music , rather than himself , to be successful . He also started to incorporate elements from other styles into his music , including rock influences such as the electric guitar and non @-@ Western rhythms played by Moroccan and Nigerian musicians .
Of Human Feelings was a continuation of the harmolodics approach Coleman had applied with Prime Time , an electric quartet introduced on his 1975 album Dancing in Your Head . The group comprised guitarists Charlie Ellerbee and Bern Nix , bassist Jamaaladeen Tacuma , and drummers Ronald Shannon Jackson and Denardo Coleman , Ornette Coleman 's son . Tacuma was still in high school when Coleman enlisted him , and first recorded with Prime Time in 1975 for the album Body Meta , which was released in 1978 . Tacuma had played in an ensemble for jazz organist Charles Earland , but Earland dismissed him as he felt audiences gave excessive attention to his playing . Coleman found Tacuma 's playing ideal for harmolodics and encouraged him not to change . Although Coleman 's theory initially challenged his knowledge and perception of music , Tacuma came to like the unconventional role each band member was given as a soloist and melodist : " When we read Ornette 's music we have his notes , but we listen for his phrases and phrase the way he wants to . I can take the same melody , then , and phrase it like I want to , and those notes will determine the phrasing , the rhythm , the harmony – all of that . "
In March 1979 , Coleman went to RCA Records ' New York studio to produce an album with Prime Time by direct @-@ to @-@ disc recording . They had mechanical problems with the studio equipment and the recording was rejected . The failed session was a project under Phrase Text , Coleman 's music publishing company . He wanted to set up his own record company with the same name , and chose his old friend Kunle Mwanga as his manager . In April , Mwanga arranged another session at CBS Studios in New York City , and Coleman recorded Of Human Feelings there on April 25 ; the session was originally titled Fashion Faces . Jackson did not record with the band and Calvin Weston was hired in his place to play simultaneously with Denardo Coleman . They recorded all the album 's songs on the first take without any equipment problems . The album was recorded with a Sony PCM @-@ 1600 two @-@ track digital recorder , a rare item at the time . According to journalist Howard Mandel , the passages played by the band sounded neither very soft or loud on the album , because it had been mixed with a middle @-@ frequency range and compressed dynamics . Because of the equipment used , Coleman did not embellish the album with added effects and avoided overdubbing , multi @-@ tracking , and remixing . According to him , Of Human Feelings was the first jazz album to be digitally recorded in the United States .
= = Composition = =
According to The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music ( 2004 ) , Of Human Feelings features jazz @-@ funk , a type of music that originated around 1970 and was characterized by intricate rhythmic patterns , a recurrent bass line , and Latin rhythmic elements . Lloyd Sachs of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote that , although Coleman was not viewed as a jazz fusion artist , the album can be described as such because of its combination of free jazz and funk . Glenn Kenny disagreed and felt its boisterous style had more in common with the no wave genre and the artists of New York City 's downtown music scene such as John Zorn . Jazz writer Stuart Nicholson viewed it as the culmination of Coleman 's musical principles that dated back to his free jazz music in 1960 , but reappropriated with a funk @-@ oriented backbeat . According to jazz critic Barry McRae , " it was as if Coleman was translating the concept of the famous double quartet " from his 1961 album Free Jazz to what was required to perform jazz @-@ funk .
Coleman incorporated traditional structures and rhythms , and other elements from the rhythm and blues music he had played early his career . According to Mandel , the album 's simple , brisk music was more comparable to a coherent R & B band than jazz fusion . Although Coleman still performed the melodies on a song , he employed two guitarists for contrast to make each pair of guitarist and drummer responsible for either the rhythm or melody . Ellerbee provided accented linear counterpoint and Nix played variations of the song 's melody , while Denardo Coleman and Weston played both polyrhythms and backbeats . Tacuma and Ornette Coleman 's instrumental responses were played as the foreground to the less prominent guitars . McRae remarked that Coleman and Prime Time exchanged " directional hints " throughout the songs , as one player changed key and the others modulated accordingly . The band made no attempt to harmonize their radically different parts .
Of Human Feelings features shorter and more distinct compositions than Dancing in Your Head . " Sleep Talk " , " Air Ship " , and " Times Square " were originally performed by Coleman during his concerts in 1978 under the names " Dream Talking " , " Meta " , and " Writing in the Streets " , respectively . " What Is the Name of That Song ? " was titled as a sly reference to two of his older compositions , " Love Eyes " and " Forgotten Songs " ( also known as " Holiday for Heroes " ) , whose themes were played concurrently and transfigured by Prime Time . The theme from " Forgotten Songs " , originally from Coleman 's 1972 album Skies of America , was used as a refrain .
On songs such as " Jump Street " and " Love Words " , Ellerbee incorporated distortion into his guitar playing , which gave the songs a thicker texture . " Jump Street " is a blues piece , " Air Ship " comprises a six @-@ bar riff , and the atonal " Times Square " has futuristic dance themes . " Love Words " heavily uses polymodality , a central feature of harmolodics , and juxtaposes Coleman 's extended solo against a dense , rhythmically complex backdrop . Nicholson observed West African rhythms and collective improvisation rooted in New Orleans jazz on " Love Words " , and suggested that " Sleep Talk " was derived from the opening bassoon solo in Igor Stravinsky 's 1913 orchestral work The Rite of Spring .
= = Release and reception = =
A few weeks after Of Human Feelings was recorded , Mwanga went to Japan to negotiate a deal with Trio Records to have the album released on Phrase Text . Trio , who had previously released a compilation of Coleman 's 1966 to 1971 live performances in Paris , prepared to press the album once Mwanga provided the label with the record stamper . Coleman was also set to perform his song " Skies of America " with the NHK Symphony Orchestra , but cancelled both deals upon Mwanga 's return from Japan . Mwanga immediately quit after less than four months as Coleman 's manager . In 1981 , Coleman hired Stan and Sid Bernstein as his managers , who sold the album 's recording tapes to Island Records . He signed with the record label that year , and Of Human Feelings was released in 1982 on Island 's subsidiary jazz label Antilles Records . Billboard magazine published a front @-@ page story at the time about its distinction as both the first digital album recorded in New York City and the first digital jazz album recorded by an American label .
According to jazz writer Francis Davis , " a modest commercial breakthrough seemed imminent " for Coleman , who appeared to be regaining his celebrity . German musicologist Peter Niklas Wilson said the album may have been the most tuneful and commercial @-@ sounding of his career at that point . The album 's clean mix and relatively short tracks were interpreted as an attempt for radio airplay by Mandel , who described its production as " the surface consistency that would put it in the pop sphere " . Of Human Feelings had no success on the American pop charts , only charting on the Top Jazz Albums , where it spent 26 weeks and peaked at number 15 . Because the record offered a middle ground between funk and jazz , McRae argued that it consequently appealed to neither demographic of listeners . Sound & Vision critic Brent Butterworth speculated that it was overlooked because it had electric instruments , rock and funk drumming , and did not conform to what he felt was the hokey image of jazz that many of the genre 's fans preferred . The album later went out of print .
Of Human Feelings received considerable acclaim from contemporary critics . In a review for Esquire , Gary Giddins hailed it as another landmark album from Coleman and his most accomplished work of harmolodics , partly because of compositions which he found clearly expressed and occasionally timeless . In his opinion , the discordant keys radically transmuted conventional polyphony and would be the most challenging part for listeners , whom he said should concentrate on Coleman 's playing and " let the maelstrom resolve itself around his center " . Kofi Natambu from the Detroit Metro Times said Coleman 's synergetic approach displayed expressive immediacy rather than superficial technical flair while calling the record " a multi @-@ tonal mosaic of great power , humor , color , wit , sensuality , compassion and tenderness " . He found the songs inspirational , danceable , and encompassing developments in African @-@ American music over the previous century . Robert Christgau found the music heartfelt and sophisticated in its exchange of rhythms and simple pieces of melody , writing in The Village Voice , " the way the players break into ripples of song only to ebb back into the tideway is participatory democracy at its most practical and utopian . "
Purist critics in jazz complained about the music 's incorporation of danceable beats and electric guitar . In Stereo Review , Chris Albertson deemed the combination of saxophone and bizarre funk occasionally captivating but ultimately unfocused . Dan Sullivan of the Los Angeles Times argued that the album 's supporters in " hip rock circles " had overlooked flaws ; he felt Tacuma and Coleman 's playing sounded like a unique " beacon of clarity " amid an incessant background . Leonard Feather wrote in the Toledo Blade deemed the music stylistically ambiguous , potentially controversial , and difficult to assess but interesting enough to warrant a listen . At the end of 1982 , Billboard editor Peter Keepnews named Of Human Feelings the year 's best album , calling it a prime example of fusing free jazz with modern funk . In year @-@ end lists for The Boston Phoenix , James Hunter and Howard Hampton ranked the album number one and number four , respectively . It was voted 13th best in the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics nationwide , published in The Village Voice . Christgau , the poll 's supervisor , ranked it number one in an accompanying list , and in 1990 he named it the second @-@ best album of the 1980s .
Coleman received $ 25 @,@ 000 for the publishing rights to Of Human Feelings but said his managers sold it for less than the recording costs and that he did not receive any of its royalties . According to Stan Bernstein , Coleman had financial expectations that were " unrealistic in this business unless you 're Michael Jackson " . Antilles label executive Ron Goldstein felt the $ 25 @,@ 000 Coleman received was neither a great nor a fair amount for someone in jazz . After he had gone over budget to record a follow @-@ up album , Island did not release it nor pick up their option on him , and in 1983 , he left the Bernstein Agency . He chose Denardo Coleman to manage his career while overcoming his reticence of public performance , which had been rooted in his distrust of doing business with a predominantly White music industry . According to Nicholson , " the man once accused of standing on the throat of jazz was welcomed back to the touring circuits with both curiosity and affection " during the 1980s . Coleman did not record another album for six years and instead performed internationally with Prime Time .
In a 1986 article for The New York Times on Coleman 's work with Prime Time , Robert Palmer said Of Human Feelings was still innovative and radical by the standards of other music in 1982 , three years after it was recorded . Because writers and musicians had heard its test pressing in 1979 , the album 's mix of jazz improvisation and gritty , punk and funk @-@ derived energy sounded " prophetic " when it was released , Palmer explained . " The album is clearly the progenitor of much that has sounded radically new in the ongoing fusion of punk rock , black dance rhythms , and free jazz . " AllMusic critic Scott Yanow believed that although Coleman 's compositions never achieved popularity , they succeeded within the context of an album that showcased his distinctive saxophone style , which was high @-@ brow yet catchy . Joshua Klein from The A.V. Club recommended Of Human Feelings as the best album for new listeners of Coleman 's harmolodics @-@ based music , while Chicago Tribune rock critic Greg Kot included it in his guide for novice jazz listeners ; he named it one of the few albums that helped him both become a better listener of rock music and learn how to enjoy jazz . In 2008 , New York magazine 's Martin Johnson included it in his list of canonical albums from what he felt had been New York 's sceneless yet vital jazz scene in the previous 40 years ; Of Human Feelings exuded what he described as a spirit of sophistication with elements of funk , Latin , and African music , all of which were encapsulated by music that retained a jazz identity .
= = Track listing = =
All compositions by Ornette Coleman .
Side one
" Sleep Talk " – 3 : 34
" Jump Street " – 4 : 24
" Him and Her " – 4 : 20
" Air Ship " – 6 : 11
Side two
" What Is the Name of That Song ? " – 3 : 58
" Job Mob " – 4 : 57
" Love Words " – 2 : 54
" Times Square " – 6 : 03
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = Musicians = = =
Denardo Coleman – drums
Ornette Coleman – alto saxophone , production
Charlie Ellerbee – guitar
Bern Nix – guitar
Jamaaladeen Tacuma – bass guitar
Calvin Weston – drums
= = = Additional personnel = = =
Susan Bernstein – cover painting
Peter Corriston – cover design
Joe Gastwirt – mastering
Ron Saint Germain – engineering
Ron Goldstein – executive direction
Harold Jarowsky – second engineering
Steven Mark Needham – photography
Ken Robertson – tape operation
= Dangerously in Love Tour =
The Dangerously in Love Tour was the debut concert tour by American recording artist Beyoncé . Although the tour was intended to showcase songs from her debut solo album , Dangerously in Love , ( 2003 ) the set list also contained a special segment dedicated to Beyoncé 's girl group Destiny 's Child and featured songs from her 2003 film The Fighting Temptations . The stage was simple and featured a large LED screen in the back that displayed video images of Beyoncé and her dancers , as well as some images from her music videos and some prerecorded images . The tour was reviewed negatively by Dave Simpson of The Guardian who graded it with two stars out of five . The Dangerously in Love Tour only reached Europe and Beyoncé 's performance at the Wembley Arena in London , was filmed and later released on the CD / DVD Live at Wembley ( 2004 ) .
= = Background and development = =
The Dangerously In Love Tour was the debut solo concert tour by American recording artist Beyoncé . The tour was intended to showcase songs from Beyoncé ' debut solo album , Dangerously in Love released in 2003 . However , the set list also contained a special segment of her show dedicated to her girl group Destiny 's Child and songs from Beyoncé ' 2003 film The Fighting Temptations ( " Fever " and " Summertime " ) . The stage was simple and featured a large LED screen in the back that moved up and down throughout the entire show and displayed video images of Beyoncé and her dancers , as well as some images from her music videos and some prerecorded images with special effects . The show also featured a small staircase and platforms on both side of the stairs for her band . Beyoncé later toured alongside Missy Elliott and Alicia Keys as ensemble for the Verizon Ladies First Tour ( 2004 ) in North America .
= = Synopsis and reception = =
Dave Simpson of The Guardian described the opening of the show during his review : " Some while after Beyoncé is due on stage , a voice announces that the support act won 't be appearing and that Beyoncé will be with us ' in a moment ' . Like everything else – hits , boots , hair and sponsorship deals – moments are very big in Beyoncé world . An age later , cheers erupt for the raising of a curtain which revealed , er , a roadie fiddling with a drum kit . An hour later , the piped music is getting gradually louder to drown boos and the cries of small children whose parents are moaning it 's getting past their bedtime . " The show opens with " Baby Boy " which Beyoncé sang while being lowered onto the stage upside down . A highlight for many fans was her performance of " Dangerously in Love 2 " . During the tour , a special 8 @-@ minutes rendition of the song was performed .
Simpson of The Guardian reviewed the opening show of the tour negatively , grading it with two out of five stars . He was negative about Beyoncé ' clothing during the show , saying : " The delays may well be down to Beyoncé 's wardrobe , which could trouble Imelda Marcos . There are skimpy skirts , tails ( for a note perfect if pointless version of Peggy Lee 's Fever ) and a general theme of low material , high glitz . But often , the main sparkle is on Beyoncé 's outfit . " He also added that " The dancers ' ' naked suits ' make the former church girl a raunchy rival to Kylie [ Minogue ] . But there 's an interminable section where they pretend to be homies , and when Beyoncé disappears for long periods it feels like an expensive night with Legs and Co . " He concluded his review by saying ,
" Clearly , the armies of industry professionals that put Beyoncé together aren 't sure of her core audience . A vague Saturday night TV , family entertainment feel gradually gives way to a more intriguing cross between Liza Minelli showbiz and thumping R & B. However , a ticker tape festooned Crazy In Love and a belting Work It Out suggest Beyoncé is best sticking to her roots . Bizarrely , if implausibly , she puts the carnage down to her tour manager falling off stage , but at least she 's grasped one showbiz adage : the show must go on . "
= = Broadcasts and recordings = =
On November 10 , 2003 , Beyoncé performed at the Wembley Arena in London ; this was later put on a DVD , titled Live at Wembley , which was released in April 2004 . It was accompanied by a CD comprising three previously @-@ unreleased studio recorded songs and one remix each of " Crazy in Love " , " Baby Boy " and " Naughty Girl " . Behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage can be also seen on the DVD . The album debuted at number seventeen on the Billboard 200 , selling 45 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The DVD has been certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipping 200 @,@ 000 copies . According to Nielsen SoundScan , it had sold 264 @,@ 000 copies in the US by October 2007 , while as at October 6 , 2010 , it had sold 197 @,@ 000 digital downloads . In an interview with The New York Times in 2007 , American singer Miranda Lambert revealed that Live at Wembley inspired her to " take little bits from that [ Beyoncé ' performance ] " for her live shows .
= = Set list = =
" Baby Boy "
" Naughty Girl "
" Fever "
" Hip Hop Star "
" Yes "
" Work It Out "
" Gift from Virgo "
" Be with You "
" Speechless "
Destiny 's Child Medley :
" Bug a Boo "
" No , No , No Part 2 "
" Bootylicious "
" Jumpin ' , Jumpin ' "
" Say My Name "
" Independent Women Part I "
" ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde "
" Survivor "
" Me , Myself and I "
" Summertime "
" Dangerously in Love 2 "
" Crazy in Love "
= = Tour dates = =
= Zhou Tong ( archer ) =
Zhou ( or Jow ) Tong ( Chinese : 周同 and 周侗 ; pinyin : Zhōu Tóng ) ( died late 1121 CE ) was the archery teacher and second military arts tutor of famous Song Dynasty general Yue Fei . Originally a local hero from Henan , he was hired to continue Yue Fei 's military training in archery after the boy had rapidly mastered spearplay under his first teacher . In addition to the future general , Zhou accepted other children as archery pupils . During his tutelage , Zhou taught the children all of his skills and even rewarded Yue with his two favorite bows because he was his best pupil . After Zhou 's death , Yue would regularly visit his tomb twice a month and perform unorthodox sacrifices that far surpassed that done for even beloved tutors . Yue later taught what he had learned from Zhou to his soldiers and they were successful in battle .
With the publishing of Yue Fei 's 17th folklore biography , The Story of Yue Fei ( 1684 ) , a new distinct fictional Zhou Tong emerged , which differed greatly from his historical persona . Not only was he now from Shaanxi ; but he was Yue 's adopted father , a learned scholar with knowledge of the eighteen weapons of war , and his personal name was spelled with a different , yet related , Chinese character . The novel 's author portrayed him as an elderly widower and military arts tutor who counted Lin Chong and Lu Junyi , two of the fictional 108 outlaws on which the Water Margin is based , among his former pupils . A later republican era folktale by noted Yangzhou storyteller Wang Shaotang not only adds Wu Song to this list , but represents Zhou as a knight @-@ errant with supreme swordsmanship . The tale also gives him the nickname " Iron Arm " , which he shares with the executioner @-@ turned @-@ outlaw Cai Fu , and makes the outlaw Lu Zhishen his sworn brother . Because of his association with the outlaws , he is often confused with the similarly named outlaw Zhou Tong .
Various wuxia novels and folk legends have endowed Zhou with different kinds of martial and supernatural skills . These range from mastery of the bow , double broadswords , and Chinese spear to that of Wudang hard qigong and even x @-@ ray vision . Practitioners of Eagle Claw , Chuojiao and Xingyi commonly include him within their lineage history because of his association with Yue Fei , the supposed progenitor of these styles . He is also linked to Northern Praying Mantis boxing via Lin Chong and Yan Qing . Wang Shaotang 's folktale even represents him as a master of Drunken Eight Immortals boxing . However , the oldest historical record that mentions his name only says he taught archery to Yue Fei . Nothing is ever said about him knowing or teaching a specific style of Chinese martial arts .
Zhou has appeared in various forms of media such as novels , comic books , and movies . His rare 20th century biography , Iron Arm , Golden Sabre , serves as a sequel to The Story of Yue Fei because it details his adventures decades prior to taking Yue as his pupil . This was later adapted into a ten volume Lianhuanhua comic book . He also appears in a novel concerning one of his fictional martial arts brothers . He was portrayed by three different actors in a string of black and white Yue Fei films produced in the 1940s and 1960s , one of which featured a ten @-@ year @-@ old Sammo Hung as the lead . Veteran martial arts actor Yu Chenghui , who played the sword @-@ wielding antagonist in Jet Li 's Shaolin Temple , stated in a 2005 interview that he has always wanted to portray Zhou in a film .
= = History = =
= = = Mention in Yue family memoirs = = =
On his deathbed , Yue Fei 's third son Yue Lin ( 岳霖 , born 1130 ) asked his own son , the poet and historian Yue Ke ( 岳珂 , 1183 – post @-@ 1240 ) , to complete Yue Fei 's memoirs . This two @-@ part memoir was completed in 1203 , some sixty years after the general 's political execution , but was not published until 1234 . It was later abridged in 1345 and published in the Yuan Dynasty 's dynastic chronology History of the Song Dynasty under the title Yue Fei Biography ( chapter 365 , biography 124 ) . Zhou 's mention in Yue Ke 's memoir was only briefly summarized in the Yuan rewrite . It reads , " He [ Yue Fei ] learned archery from Zhou Tong . He learned everything and could fire with his left and right hands . After Tong 's death , he would offer sacrifices at his tomb " .
Western Washington University history professor Edward Kaplan explains Zhou was a " local hao " ( 豪 - " heroic ( person ) " ) . He comments Hao can also mean " a ' knight errant ' in poetic translation , or in prosaic terms a professional strongman and bodyguard . ' " This means Zhou was a local hero from Tangyin County , Anyang prefecture , Henan province ( the same area as Yue Fei ) .
Historical and scholarly sources spell his personal name as 同 ( Tong ) , meaning " same or similar " . This differs from the spelling present in fictional sources , which will be further explained below . So , " 周同 " represents the historical archer .
= = = Tutelage = = =
Despite being literate , giving him a chance to become a scholar , young Yue Fei chose the military path because there had never been any tradition of full @-@ fledged Confucian civil service in his family history . He would stay up all night reading military strategy books and idolized such great historical heroes as Guan Yu . However , the Yue family was much too poor to afford military lessons for their son , so , Yao Dewang , the boy 's maternal grandfather , hired Chen Guang ( 陈广 ) to teach the eleven @-@ year @-@ old how to wield the Chinese spear . Yao was very surprised when his grandson quickly mastered the spear by the age of thirteen . Zhou was then brought in to continue Yue 's military training in archery . Dr. Kaplan describes Zhou as the " most important " of the two teachers .
A section of the Jin Tuo Xu Pian , the second part of Yue Ke 's original published memoir , describes one of Zhou 's archery lessons and reveals that he took other children as his pupils :
" One day , [ Chou ] T 'ung gathered his pupils for an archery session and to display his ability put three arrows in succession into the center of the target . Pointing to the target to show grandfather [ Yue Fei ] , he said : ' After you can perform like this , you can say you are an archer ' . Grandfather , thanked him and asked to be allowed to try . He drew his bow , let fly his arrow and struck the end of T 'ung 's arrow . He shot again and again hit the mark . T 'ung was greatly amazed and subsequently presented to grandfather his two favorite bows . Thereafter grandfather practiced still more [ until ] he was able to shoot to the left and right , accurately letting fly the arrow as he moved . When he became a general he taught this to his officers and men so that his whole army became skilled at shooting to the left and right and frequently used this technique to crush the enemy 's spirit " .
The last sentence of the passage is similar to one from the Republican era Biography of Song Yue , Prince of E. But instead of teaching them his own technique , it states Yue taught what he had learned from Zhou to his soldiers who were victorious in battle .
= = = Death = = =
Zhou continued to teach the children until his death , prior to Yue 's legal adulthood . Following his passing , Yue became extremely depressed since Zhou had been the greatest influence on his early life . Zhou 's student would regularly visit his tomb on the first and fifteenth of every month with sacrifices of meat and wine and would shoot three arrows in succession with one of the two bows his tutor had presented him with ( it is never mentioned whether any of Zhou 's other archery pupils came to visit his tomb ) . Dr. Kaplan comments this continuous unusual display of mourning " went far beyond the ceremonial appropriate for even a highly respected teacher " . Noted Sinologist Hellmut Wilhelm claims even though the display of grief was genuine , it was also a way of emulating the stories of his heroic idols and " [ establishing himself ] in the public eye " . Yue 's father later followed him secretly to Zhou 's tomb after striking him during an argument over his melancholic behavior . There , he saw him perform the unorthodox obediences involving the meat , wine , and three arrows . When he finally confronted him , the son confessed that " his gratitude for Chou 's instruction could not be requited simply by the usual first and middle of the month ceremonies and so he ... shot off the three arrows to symbolize that Chou had been the source of his inspiration as an archer " . Dr. Kaplan 's states this happened just prior to Yue 's entrance into the army and that the entire event served as a symbol for Yue 's " entrance into responsible manhood " .
The Chronology of Yue Wumu lists the events at Zhou 's tomb happening in 1121 when Yue was nineteen , but Yue would have been eighteen in that year since he was born on " the fifteenth day of the second month of 1103 " . The author of the original source material was using xusui age
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calculation , in which a child is already considered one year old at birth . Since Yue joined the military shortly after Zhou 's death , a relative time frame can be given for when he died . During the early months of 1122 , the Song empire mobilized its armed forces to assist the Jurchen in confronting their common enemy , the Liao Dynasty . Therefore , it appears that Zhou died in late 1121 , before the call to arms was issued .
= = Fiction = =
Zhou Tong 's fictional life story can be pieced together from two sources : The Story of Yue Fei and Iron Arm , Golden Sabre . The Story of Yue Fei is a fictionalized retelling of Yue Fei 's young life , military exploits , and execution . It was written by a native of Renhuo named Qian Cai ( 钱彩 ) , who lived sometime between the reigns of the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors in the Qing dynasty . The preface dates the book 's publication to 1684 . It was deemed a threat by the Qing emperors and banned during the Qianlong era . In the novel , Zhou is portrayed as an elderly widower and Yue 's only military arts tutor . The General 's historical spear master Chen Guang is never mentioned . Zhou teaches Yue Fei and his sworn brothers military and literary arts from chapters two through five , before his death .
In the writing of his novel , Qian Cai used a different character when spelling Zhou 's given name . Instead of the original character meaning " similar " , it was changed to 侗 , meaning " rude or rustic " . So , " 周侗 " represents Zhou 's distinct fictional persona . This spelling has even been carried over into modern day martial arts manuals .
Iron Arm , Golden Sabre was written by Wang Yun Heng and Xiao Yun Long and published in 1986 . This novel , which serves as Zhou 's own fictional biography , is a prequel to The Story of Yue Fei because it details his adventures decades prior to taking Yue Fei as his student . It follows his life as a young martial arts instructor in the Song army 's Imperial guard , his struggles against the Xixia and Liao Tartar barbarian tribes and his tutelage of Water Margin outlaws . The last few chapters incorporate the storyline from the four chapters that he appears in The Story of Yue Fei . This was later adapted into a ten volume Lianhuanhua @-@ style comic book called The Legend of Zhou Tong in 1987 .
= = = Early life and adulthood = = =
Zhou is born in Shaanxi and trains in the martial arts from a young age . He is taken as one of the pupils of Shaolin master Tan Zhengfang ( 谭正芳 ) and , learning the true essence of Shaolin Kungfu , becomes proficient in things both literary and martial . Tan 's other students include the future generals Jin Tai ( 金台 ) and Zong Ze ( 宗澤 ) and the future Water Margin outlaws Sun Li and Luan Tingyu . As a young man , Zhou catches the attention of Judge Bao Zheng and enlists in the military as an officer . His superiors take note of his great skill after he helps his classmate General Jin battle Liao Tartars in northern China and install him as a teacher in the Capital Imperial Martial Arts School . The school has three teaching positions named in order of prestige : " Heaven , " " Earth , " and " Man . " Since he has the greatest skill , he occupies the Heaven position . He uses this post and his friendship with General Zong to get their classmate Sun Li installed as the Superintendent of Forces of Dengzhou . Sun later becomes an outlaw under Chao Gai and helps defeat the evil Zhu Family , who learn military arts from his classmate Luan Tingyu .
As he grows older , Zhou becomes dissatisfied with politics because the Imperial court chooses to appease the northern barbarian tribes instead of standing against them . He then devotes himself wholeheartedly to his martial arts practice and creates several official and authoritative techniques including the " five step , thirteen lance piercing kick " , which is a development of Shaolin Fanzi boxing , and the " Zhou Tong cudgel . " He makes a concerted effort to transmit his martial efforts while teaching at the Imperial Martial Arts School and formally accepts two disciples : " Jade Unicorn " Lu Junyi and " Panther head " Lin Chong . Lu Junyi is a millionaire with vast land holdings and does not hold office , but Lin Chong inherits Zhou 's position after his retirement , and continues to serve as the lead instructor for the 800 @,@ 000 members of the Song army 's Imperial Guard .
During this time , Zhou Tong also has an additional disciple named Wu Song . Wu Song becomes famous for killing a man @-@ eating tiger with his bare hands and is appointed as a constable in his native Shandong . The county magistrate Sun Guoqin later sends Wu on a mission to Kaifeng with precious tiger bone balm in order to curry favor with influential personages . During his stay in the capital , he makes the acquaintance of Zhou . Zhou finds Wu to be a man of great strength , but feels that he lacks refinement in his martial technique and , therefore , offers guidance for Wu 's training . Unfortunately , these two men only interact for a brief two months before Wu has to return home , never to see Zhou again .
Following his retirement , Zhou serves for a time as an advisor to General Liu Guangshi ( 劉光世 ) , whose troops are garrisoned in Henan Province . But Zhou later becomes an outlaw himself after he aids the heroes of the Water Margin and is forced to flee from government forces . Meanwhile , he learns his elderly classmate Jin Tai is close to death and hurries to Shaolin ( where the general had become a Buddhist monk after the murder of his family ) to pay his last respects . As the oldest of Tan 's pupils , Jin orders Zhou to find a talented youth to pass on all of his martial arts knowledge to . However , this reunion is cut short when the troops track him to Shaolin . He flees to Wine Spring mountain and lives in hiding for sometime before being invited by his old friend Wang Ming ( 王明 ) to become the precept of the Wang family in Unicorn Village .
= = = Old age and death = = =
One day , Zhou surprises the children with a written exam and leaves the classroom to speak with a visitor . Wang 's son , Wang Gui ( 王贵 ) , tricks their maid 's son , Yue Fei , into completing their assignment while they go outside to play . After easily finishing the task at hand , Yue writes a heroic poem on a whitewashed wall and signs it with his name . The children then burst into the classroom upon learning of Zhou 's forthcoming return and tell Yue to escape in order to avoid apprehension . The old teacher eventually discovers the ruse and , after marveling at Yue 's impromptu ballad , asks Yue to fetch his mother , Lady Yao ( 姚夫人 ) , for an important meeting . With the entire Wang household assembled in the main hall , Zhou asks the Lady for her blessing to have the boy as his adopted son and student . She consents and Yue takes his seat amongst Zhou 's students the following morning . Because Zhou knows Yue is poor , he commands the four students to become sworn brothers . Zhou also begins to teach Yue all of the eighteen weapons of war .
Six years later , Zhou takes the group to visit his old friend , the abbot of a small Buddhist temple on the " Hill of Dripping Water " . Thirteen @-@ year @-@ old Yue wanders behind the temple and finds the " Cave of Dripping Water " , in which lives a magical snake . When it lunges at Yue , he dodges to one side and pulls on its tail with his supernatural strength , causing it to turn into an 18 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) , gold @-@ plated spear named the " Supernatural Spear of Dripping Water " . When they return home , Zhou begins to drill all of his students in the military arts — eighteen weapons of war , archery , and hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . After three years of practice , Zhou enters them into a preliminary military examination in Tangyin in which sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Yue wins first place by shooting a succession of nine arrows through the bullseye of a target two hundred and forty paces away . After his display of marksmanship , Yue is asked to marry the daughter of Li Chun ( 李春 ) , an old friend of Zhou 's and the county magistrate who presided over the military exams . Father and son then return home to their village .
Magistrate Li writes out a marriage certificate and dispatches a messenger to deliver the document to Yue Fei in Unicorn Village . Zhou and Yue set out at dawn and travel back to Tangyin to thank the Magistrate for his generosity and kindness . There , Li prepares a great feast for them , but when food is brought out for any servants that might have accompanied them , Zhou comments that they had come on foot without help . Li decides to let Yue pick from any one of his thousands of horses because every able military man needs a strong steed . After finishing their feast , Zhou and Yue thank Li once again and leave Tangyin to return home . During their journey , Zhou recommends that Yue run the horse to test its speed . Yue spurs the horse on leaving Zhou in pursuit . When they reach the village gate , the two dismount and Zhou returns to his study where he feels hot from the race and removes his outer garments to fan himself . But he soon falls ill and stays bedridden for seven days . Then the book describes his death and burial :
" ... his phlegm bubbled up and he died . This was on the fourteenth day of the ninth month in the seventeenth year of the Reign of Xuan He , and his age was seventy @-@ nine ... Buddhist and Taoist Priests were asked to come and chant prayers , for seven times seven , namely forty @-@ nine days . Then the body was taken up to be buried beside the Hill of Dripping Water " .
Yue lives in a shed by his grave through the winter and in the second lunar month of the following year , his martial brothers come and pull the building down , forcing him to return home and take care of his mother .
The quoted death date is not only unreliable because the book is fiction , but also because the Xuan He reign era of Emperor Huizong lasted only seven years ( 1119 – 1125 ) and not seventeen . Although The Story of Yue Fei states Zhou died shortly before Yue took a wife , he historically died after Yue married . It is likely that the original author invented this fictional date .
= = = Family = = =
According to The Story of Yue Fei , Zhou was married with a son . But Zhou comments that his " old wife " died and his " small son " was killed in battle against the Liaos after leaving with the outlaw Lu Junyi to fight in the war . In The Legend of Zhou Tong , his wife is named Meng Cuiying ( 孟翠英 ) and his son is named Zhou Yunqing ( 周云清 ) . He defeats Meng in a lei tai martial arts contest and wins her as his wife . But she is shortly thereafter kidnapped by the wicked monks of the Stone Buddha temple . Both Zhou and Meng eventually defeat the monks with their combined martial skills and later marry at the Miaochuan Pass in Hubei province .
Zhou Yunqing first appears as a fierce , impulsive young man who rides his horse into the thick of enemy encampments wielding a long spear . He later dies in battle against the Liao Dynasty . After his son 's death , Zhou retreats to the Xiangguo Temple for a long morning period . He later takes seven @-@ year @-@ old Yue Fei as his adopted son and sole heir years after the boy 's father drowns in a great flood :
" I see that he [ Yue Fei ] is clever and handsome and I , an old man , wish to have him as my adopted son ... He need change neither his name nor his surname . I only want him to call me father temporarily so that I can faithfully transmit all the skills I have learned in my life to a single person . Later , when I die , all he has to do is to bury my old bones in the earth and not allow them to be exposed , and that is all " .
However , after comparing events from The Story of Yue Fei and an account of Yue 's life from the sixteenth @-@ century work Restoration of the Great Song Dynasty : The Story of King Yue ( 大宋中興岳王傳 ) , literary critic C.T. Hsia concluded " that his father did not [ historically ] die in the flood and that , although Yueh Fei showed almost filial regard for the memory of his teacher Chou T 'ung 同 ( not 侗 ) , the latter had not been his adopted father " . The Restoration of the Great Song was one of the earliest of four " historical novels " ( fictionalized dynastic chronologies ) written about Yue during the Ming Dynasty , all of which predate The Story of Yue Fei . Despite the addition of popular legends , Xiong Damu ( fl 1552 ) , the author of the The Story of King Yue , relied heavily on historical chronologies including Zhu Xi 's ( 1130 – 1200 ) Outlines and Details Based on the T 'ung @-@ chien , Yue Ke 's family memoir , and the Yuan Dynasty 's official Yue Fei Biography to write his story . So , The Story of Yue Fei was the first full @-@ blown fictionalized novel to introduce the adoption storyline .
= = = Appearance and voice = = =
He is generally portrayed as a large elderly man with a powerful voice . A modern folktale by noted Yangzhou storyteller Wang Shaotang ( 1889 – 1968 ) , whom folklore researcher Vibeke Børdahl called " the unrivaled master of this [ the 20th ] century " , describes Zhou thus ,
" He was beyond the age of fifty , he was more than fifty , and standing upright he measured about eight feet . His face had a golden tan , arched brows , a pair of bright eyes , a regular head form , a square mouth , a pair of protruding ears , and under his chin there were three locks of beard , a grizzled beard . On his head he wore a sky @-@ blue satin scarf , and he was dressed in a stately sky @-@ blue satin coat with a silken girdle , a pair of wide black trousers without crotch and satin boots with thin soles " .
Heroes and religious masters with above normal height are a recurring theme in Chinese folklore . For instance , his student Wu Song is said to be over nine feet tall in the same folktale . In The Story of Yue Fei , the General simultaneously duels with two other warriors vying for first place in a military exam ; one is nine feet tall and the other is eight feet tall . A Hagiography of the Taoist saint Zhang Daoling states he was over seven feet tall .
When Zhou is vocalized in " Yangzhou storytelling " , he speaks in " Square mouth public talk " , which is a manner of speaking reserved for martial heroes , highly respected characters , or , sometimes , lesser characters that pretend to be an important hero . Square mouth public talk is actually a mixture of two forms of dialogue : Fangkou and Guanbai . Fangkou ( square mouth ) is a manner of steady , yet forceful over pronunciation of dialogue that was possibly influenced by Northern Chinese opera . Guanbai ( public talk ) is monologue and dialogue that is sometimes used for " imposing heroes " . This mixture of styles means Zhou Tong is treated as a highly regarded hero .
In her analysis of Yangzhou storytelling , Børdahl noted that the aforementioned tale about Zhou and Wu Song uses different forms of dialogue for both characters . Wu speaks square mouth utilizing standard mandarin without rusheng ( short glottal syllables ) . On the contrary , Zhou speaks squaremouth using the Yangzhou tone system , which does utilize rusheng syllables . Therefore , she believes " square mouth dialogue should at least be divided into two subcategories , namely the Wu Song variant — without rusheng , and the Zhou Tong variant — with rusheng " .
= = = Students = = =
= = = = Water Margin outlaws = = = =
The Water Margin ( c . 1400 ) is a Ming Dynasty military romance about one hundred and eight demons @-@ born @-@ men and women who band together to rebel against the lavish Song Dynasty government . Lin Chong and Lu Junyi , two of these outlaws , are briefly mentioned as being Zhou 's previous students in The Story of Yue Fei . They are not characters within the main plot , though , as both are killed by " villainous officials " prior to Zhou becoming precept of the Wang household . Most importantly , the two were not among his historical students since they are fictional characters .
Zhou 's portrayal as their teacher is connected to a recurring element in Chinese fiction where Tang and Song Dynasty heroes train under a " celestial master " , usually a Taoist immortal , prior to their military exploits . C.T. Hsia suggests the mold from which all other similar teachers are cast is Guiguzi , master of the feuding strategists Sun Bin and Pang Juan , from the Yuan Dynasty tale Latter Volume of the Spring and Autumn Annals of the Seven Kingdoms ( 七國春秋後集 ) . Hsia goes on to say that Qian Cai , Yue 's fictional biographer , associated Zhou with the outlaws because " most such teachers [ in the military romance genre ] are celestials " with at least two students . But in adopting this format , Qian reversed the traditional pattern of " celestial tutelage " since Zhou is written as a human , while his students are reincarnations of demons ( Lin and Lu ) and the celestial bird Garuda ( Yue Fei ) .
Although Lin and Lu have been connected to Zhou since the early Qing Dynasty , Wu Song did not become associated with him until Wang Shaotang created a 20th @-@ century folktale in which the two meet in Kaifeng . The tale takes place during Wu 's mission to Kaifeng , but before the murder of his older brother Wu Dalang . Zhou teaches Wu the " Rolling Dragon " style of swordplay during the constable 's one @-@ month stay in the capital city . This tale was chapter two of Wang 's " Ten chapters on Wu Song " storytelling repertoire , which was later transcribed and published in the book Wu Sung in 1959 . It eventually carried over into the storyline of Iron Arm , Golden Sabre and , subsequently , The Legend of Zhou Tong . In the latter version , Wu instead learns Chuo Jiao boxing from Zhou during a two month stay in the capital .
Wang 's tale portrays Zhou as an aging itinerant swordmaster with " a fame reverberating like thunder " throughout the underworld society of Jianghu . He is made the sworn brother of the outlaw " Flowery Monk " Lu Zhishen , a military officer @-@ turned @-@ fighting monk , who is , according to Hsia , first among the most popular protagonists of the Water Margin . He is also given the nickname " Iron Arm " ( 铁臂膀 ) , which carried over into the title of his fictional biography Iron Arm , Golden Sabre . While the tale fails to explain the reason for the moniker , it does mention Zhou 's ability to direct his qi to any part of his body to make it hard enough to overpower the " Iron shirt " technique of another martial artist . Furthermore , Zhou shares the same nickname with Cai Fu , an executioner @-@ turned @-@ outlaw known for his ease in wielding a heavy sword .
Because of his association with these outlaws , Zhou is often confused with the similarly named outlaw " Little Conqueror " Zhou Tong . In the Water Margin , this Zhou Tong is a bandit chief of Mount Peach Blossom whom Lu Zhishen beats for trying to forcibly marry the daughter of the Liu family . He dies later under the sword of Li Tianrun , an officer in the rebel army of Fang La . So , the connection between both Zhou 's is based solely on the romanized transcription of their name .
= = = = Yue Fei = = = =
The Story of Yue Fei comments Lu Junyi is Zhou 's last student prior to taking on seven @-@ year @-@ old Yue Fei and his three sworn @-@ brothers Wang Gui , Tang Huai ( 湯懷 ) and Zhang Xian ( 張顯 ) . He teaches them literary and military lessons on even and odd days . The novel says Yue is talented in all manners of " literary and military matters " and even surpasses the skill of Lin and Lu . After Yue acquires his " Supernatural Spear of Dripping Water " , Zhou tutors all of his students in the eighteen weapons of war , but each excels with one in particular ; Yue Fei and Tang Huai , the spear ; Zhang Xian , the Hook @-@ Sickle spear and Wang Gui , the Yanyue Dao . All of them learn the skill of archery in addition . Some of these and other children are mentioned in Yue Ke 's memoir as being his grandfather 's historical childhood friends , but they are never specified as being Zhou 's students .
Books written by modern @-@ day martial artists make many claims that are not congruent with historical documents or current scholarly thought . For instance , internalist Yang Jwing @-@ Ming says Zhou was a scholar who studied martial arts in the Shaolin Monastery and later took Yue as his student after the young man worked as a tenant farmer for the official @-@ general Han Qi ( 韓琦 , 1008 – 1075 ) . During this time , he learned all types of military weapons , horseback riding , and hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . The General later created Xingyi and Eagle Claw boxing from his internal and external training under Zhou . However , history Prof. Meir Shahar notes that unarmed boxing styles did not develop at Shaolin until the late Ming Dynasty . He also states that Ji family memoirs and Qing Dynasty records suggest Xingyi was created hundreds of years after the death of Yue by a spearplayer named Ji Jike ( fl . 1651 ) . In addition , the appearance of Han Qi in the story is a chronological anachronism since he died nearly 30 years before Yue 's birth . Yue historically worked as a tenant farmer and bodyguard for descendants of Han Qi in 1124 after leaving the military upon the death of his father in late 1122 , but he learned from Zhou well before this time .
Eagle Claw Grandmasters Leung Shum and Lily Lau believe " Jow Tong " ( the Cantonese rendering of his name ) was a monk who brought young Yue to the Shaolin Monastery and taught him a set of hand techniques , which Yue later adapted to create his Ying Kuen ( Eagle fist ) . Liang Shouyu states practitioners of Emei Dapeng Qigong believe Yue trained under Zhou as a child and competed to become China 's top fighter at an early age . Their lineage story dictates Zhou also took Yue to a " Buddhist hermit " who taught him said qigong style . Northern Praying Mantis Master Yuen Mankai says Zhou taught Yue the " same school " of martial arts as he did his Water Margin students and that the General was the originator of the praying mantis technique " Black Tiger Steeling [ sic ] Heart " . Although Martial arts historian Stanley Henning admits that Yue 's biographies do not mention boxing , he says " he [ Yue ] almost certainly did practice some form of bare handed fighting " to prepare for his weapons training . But he does not suggest who Yue might have learned it from .
= = = Martial arts = = =
There is insufficient historical evidence to support the claim he knew any skills beyond archery . Contemporary records never once mention Zhou teaching Yue boxing . Despite this , various wuxia novels and folk legends have attributed many different military and supernatural skills to Zhou . These range from mastery of the bow , double swords and Chinese spear to that of Wudang hard qigong , Chuojiao boxing and even X @-@ ray vision . Wang Shaotang 's folktale even represents him as a master of Drunken Eight Immortals boxing .
Zhou can also be linked to these combat arts through his historical and folklore students . Practitioners of Eagle Claw , Chuojiao and Xingyi commonly include him within their lineage history because of his association with Yue Fei , the supposed progenitor of these styles . Yuen Mankai believes Zhou taught Lin Chong and Lu Junyi the " same school " of martial arts that was later combined with seventeen other schools to create Mantis fist . This combination of various schools refers to an eighteenth @-@ century martial arts manual that describes the gathering of eighteen masters at the Shaolin Monastery that supposedly took place during the early years of the Song Dynasty . Lin Chong and Yan Qing are listed as two of the eighteen masters invited , which means their skills of Mandarin Duck Leg and ground fighting are treated as two separate schools , instead of one . But he believes Mantis fist was created during the Ming Dynasty , and was therefore influenced by these eighteen schools from the Song . He also says Lu Junyi taught Yan Qing the same martial arts as he learned from Zhou .
Very few references are made to the people who supposedly taught martial arts to Zhou . In The Legend of Zhou Tong , he learns as a child from a Shaolin master named Tan Zhengfang . Practitioners of Chuojiao claim he learned the style from its creator , a wandering Taoist named Deng Liang . Practitioners of Geok Gar Kuen , a style attributed to Yue Fei , believe he studied under Han De , a " chivalrous person " from Shaanxi .
= = In popular culture = =
Zhou has appeared in various kinds of media including novels , comic books , and movies . Apart from The Story of Yue Fei and Iron Arm , Golden Sabre , he appears in a novel based around his older martial arts brother , Jin Tai . A recent graphic novel of The Story of Yue Fei , deletes all mythological elements from the storyline and presents it in a historical manner . Instead of traveling from Hebei to Hubei to inspect land , Zhou travels from Shaanxi to Kaifeng City in Henan to visit an old friend who had been promoted to General . While en route to the capital city , Zhou takes note of a great famine plaguing the peasantry and even hears stories of some people resorting to Cannibalism . However , when he arrives in Kaifeng , he sees the empire is wasting money on the construction of large imperial gardens , the court officials Cai Jing and Wang Pu have extravagant residencies , and hears that even eunuchs are rich because they are given high government posts . Upon locating his friend , Zhou is distressed to find him in stocks and shackles and being escorted to the farthest reaches of China by imperial guards . He later learns that the General had accidentally offended some court officials and was sentenced to permanent exile on some trumped up charges . Apparently having little or no money , Zhou decides to visit Wang Ming in Hubei ( mistakenly called Hebei ) and becomes the estate 's tutor .
Another noticeable difference in the storyline takes place when Zhou travels with his teenage disciples to visit his friend the Abbot . Instead of Yue wandering behind the temple to battle the magical snake , he stays with Zhou and the Abbot , while the other disciples go off to explore . Zhou watches as the Abbot tests Yue 's strength by asking him to move an ornate three @-@ hundred pound copper stove dating from the Han Dynasty . The abbot then lifts a stone floor tile and presents the boy with a large book on military strategy . He goes on to tell Yue how he was once a great soldier who fought in campaigns against the Liao and Western Xia empires , but became a monk after the Song agreed to become a vassal of each state . He later made a name for himself by teaching military skills to youths from the surrounding area . Since he has no heir of his own , the Abbot presents Yue with his own personal spear and instructs him in the proper use of the weapon . Zhou kindly protests the gift at first , but allows Yue to keep it out of friendship .
A second graphic novelization drastically changes the storyline involving Zhou . Like the original , Zhou becomes the tutor of the Wang estate , but , when news of his arrival prompts rich families to send their sons to learn from him , he is forced to accept droves of these students on a trial basis . He eventually chooses his friends ' sons as his indoor disciples and Yue as his " godchild " . Years later , he takes his now teenage students not to see the Buddhist abbot , but to teach them military strategy out in the mountain wilderness . Yue senses trouble after his martial brothers separate to explore the forest and rushes off to rescue them , only to be confronted by a monstrous snake . After vanquishing the beast with his sword , Yue discovers a magic glowing spear within a cave and reports back to Zhou . Following their training , Zhou becomes ill from overexposure to the cold mountain air on the return trip home and dies soon after . Instead of just Yue , all of his students live beside his grave for a mourning period of one hundred days before returning home to their families . These events take place three years before Zhou originally died in The Story of Yue Fei .
Stories including Zhou have also been used to educate . The Secondary School system of Hong Kong teaches children the value of mentorship by making them read about the close teacher @-@ pupil relationship between Zhou and Yue . A morale tale called " Yue Fei Studies Archery " in Children 's Pictorial , a Chinese magazine tailored for children ages two through seven , demonstrates how great achievements are only made possible via diligent practice . The story states how young Yue stumbles upon Zhou 's training hall in a neighboring town while gathering fire wood . Yue applies to become a student , but Zhou tells him he must first practice the art of the " far @-@ sighted person " by staring into the morning sun to improve his eyesight . After years of unrelenting practice , Yue is able to spot a lone goose flying off in the distance and two cicadas on a tree far into the forest . Zhou then officially takes him as his disciple and adopted son . Under his tutelage , Yue is able to master the eighteen weapons of war and to shoot a falling leaf from one @-@ hundred paces away .
He is mentioned numerous times in author Robert Liparulo 's thriller Deadlock ( 2009 ) . Zhou is first featured in chapter eight during a conversation between the main character John " Hutch " Hutchinson , a journalist bent on stopping the maniacal plans of a billionaire madman , and his friend 's young son Dillon , an archery enthusiast . When Hutch asks him if he had ever heard of the archery @-@ champion @-@ turned @-@ actor Howard Hill , Dillon replies : " I don 't think so ... You told me about Zhou Tong " . Hutch then says : " Oh , yeah . Zhou Tong was something . Taught the Song Dynasty to be the best military archers in history . But Howard Hill [ was the best ] " . Later in chapter fifty , while Hutch is trailing a killer through an airport , a page goes out over the intercom system for a " Mr. Zhou Tong " . When the page goes out again , Hutch muses : " Zhou Tong had been a famous archery teacher and military arts tutor in the Song Dynasty . [ Dillon and I ] had long telephone conversations about him , because of Tong 's blending of archery skills and self @-@ discipline . He was an inspiration to [ me ] . Dillon had sensed that and wanted to known everything about him " . He finally realizes that the page had to have been left by Dillon 's mother Laura to catch his attention . The page is sent to warn him of a trap , but Hutch receives it too late .
Screen actors who have portrayed Zhou in film 's from the 1940s and 1960s include Wong Sau Nin , Li Ming , and Jing Ci Bo . Jing starred alongside a ten @-@ year @-@ old Sammo Hung , who played young Yue Fei . Veteran martial arts actor Yu Chenghui , who played the sword @-@ wielding antagonist in Jet Li 's Shaolin Temple , stated in a 2005 newspaper interview that he never shaved his trademark beard , even at the request of movie producers , because he wanted to portray Zhou in a future film . He went on to say " He is an outstandingly able person from the northern and southern Song Dynasties and many Water Margin heroes are his disciples . This person is very important in the martial arts and many people want to portray him in films " .
= Romanian Land Forces =
The Romanian Land Forces ( Romanian : Forțele Terestre Române ) is the army of Romania , and the main component of the Romanian Armed Forces . In recent years , full professionalisation and a major equipment overhaul have transformed the nature of the force .
The Romanian Land Forces were founded on 24 November [ O.S. 12 November ] 1859 . They participated in World War I , together with the Russian Empire forces in actions against the Central Powers and , despite initial setbacks , won the decisive battles of Mărăşti and Mărăşeşti . During most of World War II ( until August 23 , 1944 ) Romanian forces supported the Axis powers , fighting against the Soviet Union on the Eastern Front . From August 1944 until the end of the war , Romania fought against Germany under the control of the Soviet Union . When the communists seized power after the Second World War , the army underwent reorganisation and sovietization .
Following the Romanian Revolution , due to shortage of funds , many units were disbanded and much equipment was phased out . Likewise , Romanian military capability declined because of a lack of fuel as well as training . However , since the late 1990s , a number of positive changes have come about and the level of combat readiness is growing greatly ; since 1996 , the military budget has grown more than four times - rising from 636 million dollars to 2 @.@ 8 billion dollars in 2007 . Conscription has been abolished and professionalisation has been completed .
= = Mission = =
The Land Forces represent the most important component of the Romanian Armed Forces and they are destinated for execution of various military actions , with terrestrial or aeromobile character , in any zone or direction .
The Land Forces must , independently or together with other Romanian military branches , conduct operations and defensive or offensive battles , for capture , or destruction of the invading enemy , being part of national , or multinational military structures .
A part of the units which compose the current operational structure of the Land Forces , must be able to conduct military operations outside the national territory , together with the international military forces .
= = History = =
The first attempt to create an independent Romanian army was made by Gheorghe Magheru during the 1848 Wallachian Revolution , and it was based at Râureni ( now part of Râmnicu Vâlcea ) . However , Magheru rapidly ordered his troops to disband when the Ottoman forces swept into Bucharest to stop the revolution .
= = = Romanian War of Independence = = =
The current Romanian Land Forces were formed in 1859 , immediately after the unification of Wallachia with Moldavia , and were commanded by Alexandru Ioan Cuza , Domnitor of Romania until his abdication in 1866 . In 1877 , at the request of Nikolai Konstantinovich , Grand Duke of Russia the Romanian army fused with the Russian forces , and led by King Carol I , fought in what was to become the Romanian War of Independence . They participated in the Siege of Plevna and several other battles . The Romanians won the war , but suffered about 27 @,@ 000 casualties . Until World War I , the Romanian army didn 't face any other serious actions .
= = = Second Balkan War = = =
The Romanian Army entered the Second Balkan War against Bulgaria , allowing Romania to annex Southern Dobruja ( also known as the Cadrilater ) . Although some 330 @,@ 000 troops were mobilised , the Romanians met little resistance in Bulgaria and as such this is not considered a major conflict in Romanian history . This was due to historical claims on land . This area no longer belongs to Romania .
= = = World War I = = =
On July 6 , 1916 , Romania declared war on Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary , following the initial success of the Brusilov Offensive ( a major Russian offensive against the armies of the Central Powers on the Eastern Front ) . The Romanian armies entered Transylvania ( then part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire ) , together with Russian forces . However , German forces under the command of General Erich von Falkenhayn stalled the attack in November , 1916 , and drove back the Romanians . At the same time , Austrian and Turkish troops invaded southern Romania , forcing the country into a two @-@ front war . The Central Powers drove deep into Romania and conquered the south of the country ( Wallachia , including Bucharest ) by the end of 1916 . The Romanian forces , led by Marshal Constantin Prezan , retreated into the north @-@ east part of Romania ( Moldavia ) . In the summer of 1917 however , Prezan , aided by the future Marshal , General Ion Antonescu , successfully defended the remaining unoccupied territories against German and Austro @-@ Hungarian forces led by Field Marshal August von Mackensen . General Alexandru Averescu led the Second Army in the victories of the Battle of Mărăşti ( July 22 to August 1 , 1917 ) and the Battle of Mărăşeşti ( August 6 to September 8 , 1917 ) . As a result of the Russian Revolution , Romania was left isolated and unable to continue the war , and was forced to sign the Treaty of Bucharest with the Central Powers . Later on , in 1919 , Germany agreed , in the Treaty of Versailles Article 259 , to renounce all the benefits provided to it by the Treaty of Bucharest in 1918 . After the successful offensive on the Thessaloniki front , which put Bulgaria out of the war , Romania re @-@ entered the war on November 10 , 1918 , a day before its end in the West .
= = = Hungarian @-@ Romanian War of 1919 = = =
After World War I , Transylvania proclaimed union with the Kingdom of Romania . As a result , in April 1919 , the newly established Hungarian Soviet Republic vowed to retake the region by force , and Hungarian troops attacked Romanian formations in Transylvania . The Romanian Army defeated the Hungarians and conquered Budapest in August 1919 .
From 1921 to 1939 in Transylvania Inspectorate General of Army no . 3 had subordinate the 6th and 7th Army Corps . By 1 April 1921 , when he disbanded Forces Western Command , to order 6th Army Corps ( and earlier structures ) have been generals Prezan Constantin , Constantin Christescu Traian Mosoiu , Mardarescu George , Nicholas and Arthur Văitoianu et al . After 1 April 1921 to 23 March 1939 , C. 6 A. was commissioned by General Nicholas Petal , Danila Pop Hanzu Alexander , John Prodan , Motas Dumitru Gheorghe Florescu and Christie Doe , prominent military leaders , whom Octavian Goga wrote that " in the interwar period , in Cluj in Transylvania , commanders have made a large @-@ scale opera and unanimous praise . " Three divisions were part of 6th Army Corps : 16th ( Dej ) , 17th ( Oradea ) and 20th Infantry Divisions ( Targu @-@ Mureş ) . With rapid and marked worsening international situation , especially in neighboring Romania , on 22 September 1939 , the 4th Army , recently founded , became Army Group Command no . 1 of Transylvania .
= = = World War II = = =
After General ( later Marshal ) Ion Antonescu took power in September 1940 , Romania signed the Tripartite Pact with the Axis Powers and subsequently took part in Operation Barbarossa in 1941 . An expeditionary force invaded the Soviet Union in Bessarabia and southern Ukraine , alongside the German Wehrmacht . The expeditionary force , ' Army Group Antonescu , ' was composed on 22 June 1941 of the 3rd Army , the 4th Army , the 2nd Army Corps , and the 11th Infantry Division . The 3rd Army comprised the 4th Army Corps ( 6th and 7th Infantry Divisions ) , the Cavalry Corps , the Mountain Corps , two separate artillery battalion , a TA unit , and the Air Force 's 3rd Army Cooperation Command . The 4th Army consisted of the 3rd Army Corps , the 5th Army Corps , the 11th Army Corps ( two fortress brigades ) , and the 4th Army Cooperation Command . The army group @-@ level 2nd Army Corps , under Major General N. Macici , controlled the 9th and 10th Infantry Divisions and the 7th Cavalry Brigade . Additionally the 1st Armoured Division was formed for service on the Eastern Front . The Army Group 's first offensive , in conjunction with the Eleventh Army , Operation Munchen , enabled Romania to retake the territory immediately east of the Dnister , former part of Moldavia . The Romanian Armies saw their first major battles at Odessa and Sevastopol , and in 1942 advanced with other Axis forces deeper into Soviet territory during Operation Blue .
The greatest disaster for the Romanian expeditionary force on the Eastern Front came at Stalingrad , where , during the Soviet counter @-@ offensive of November 1942 , the thinly spread forces of the Third Army ( deployed north of Stalingrad ) and of the Fourth Army ( deployed south of Stalingrad ) were attacked by vastly superior Soviet forces and suffered combined losses of some 158 @,@ 000 personnel .
During April – May 1944 the Romanian forces led by General Mihai Racoviţǎ , together with elements of the German Eighth Army were responsible for defending Northern Romania during the Soviet First Jassy @-@ Kishinev Offensive , and took part in the Battles of Târgu Frumos . In late August 1944 , the Red Army entered eastern Romania . On August 23 , 1944 , a coup led by King Michael I of Romania deposed Marshal Antonescu and set up a pro @-@ Soviet government . It has been estimated that the royal coup shortened the war for Romania by six months . Romania soon declared war on Nazi Germany , and the First and Fourth Armies were pressed into action . After the expelling of the last Wehrmacht remnants from Romania , the Romanian Armies took part in the Siege of Budapest and the Prague Offensive of May 1945 .
= = = Cold War = = =
The Soviet occupation of Romania led to a complete reorganisation of the Romanian Land Forces under the supervision of the Red Army . At the onset , pro @-@ German elements were purged from the Romanian armed forces . In 1944 – 45 , two divisions were formed out of Romanian volunteers — ex @-@ prisoners of war , trained and indoctrinated in the Soviet Union during the war , but also of many Communist activists . One was the Tudor Vladimirescu First Volunteer Division , under the command of Colonel Nicolae Cambrea , and the other the Horia , Cloşca şi Crişan Division , under the command of General Mihail Lascăr ( who later served as Minister of Defence from 1946 to 1947 ) . These two units formed the nucleus of the new Romanian Land Forces under Soviet control . The postwar reorganisation of the Land Forces included cavalry but the arm disappeared from the force with the disbandment in November 1954 of the 59th Cavalry Division at Oradea .
After the Romanian Communist Party seized political power , the sovietization of the army commenced , under the supervision of the new Minister of Defence , Emil Bodnăraş . Thirty per cent of the officers and noncommissioned officers ( mostly experienced soldiers , and a potential source of opposition ) were purged from the military . This involved copying the Soviet model of military and political organisation , and changing the military doctrine of combat and defence , also in the context of Romania 's integration in the strategic system of the Soviets , at the beginning of the Cold War .
In the early 1950s the RLF reached a level of 12 rifle , one mechanised , and one tank division . Between 1960 and 1964 the rifle and mechanised divisions were converted to motor rifle divisions , and reductions in strength began ; force size dropped to six motor rifle and two tank divisions by 1970 . From 1970 to 1976 , three more motor rifle divisions were formed , but one was deactivated in 1977 , and the eight motor rifle and three tank division figure remained that way for the rest of the Cold War .
From 1947 to 1960 the country seems to have been divided into three major military regions : Cluj , Bacău , and Bucharest in the west , east , and south , respectively . In wartime the land forces in each military region would become an army corps with their headquarters in Cluj @-@ Napoca , Iaşi , and Bucharest . Armies seem to have succeeded military regions in 1960 , and three armies seem to have become four in 1980 . What is known is that on 01 @.@ 07 @.@ 1947 Fourth Army became 3rd Military Region , based in Cluj . The 3rd Military Region became the 3rd Army on 30 April 1960 , and the 4th Army on 5 April 1980 .
During the 1980s , the land forces numbered 140 @,@ 000 personnel , of whom two thirds were conscripts . In 1989 four armies appeared to exist : the First Army at Bucharest , Second Army at Buzau , Third Army at Craiova , and Fourth Army at Napoca . In 1989 the land forces consisted of eight mechanised ( infantry ) divisions ( 1st , Bucharest , 2nd , Craiova , 9th , Constanta , 10th , Iași , 11th , Oradea , 18th , Timişoara , 67th , and 81st , Tirgu Mureş ) two tank divisions ( the 57th Tank Division at Bucharest and the 6th Tank Division at Tirgu Mureş ) , four mountain infantry brigades , and three airborne brigades . According to the 165 @-@ year ' History of Modern Romanian Artillery , ' in 1989 the 1st Army consisted of the 1st Mech Div , 57th Tank Div . , and the 2nd Mountain Brigade ; the 2nd Army of the 9th Mech Div , 10th Mech Div , 67th Mech Div , and 32nd TActical Rocket Bde ; the 3rd Army of the 2nd Mech Div , 18th Mech Div , and the 4th Mountain Bde ; and the 4th Army of the 11th Mech Div , 81st Mech Div , 6th Tank Div . , 1st Mountain Bde , 5th Mountain Bde , and 37th Tactical Missile Brigade .
Motorised rifle divisions were organized along the Soviet model with three motorised rifle regiments , one tank regiment , and a full complement of 12 @,@ 000 infantry soldiers . The artillery , antitank , and air defence regiments of divisions provided specialised fire support that enabled motorised rifle and tank regiments to maneuver . The air defense regiments consisted of two anti @-@ aircraft artillery battalions and one surface @-@ to @-@ air missile ( SAM ) battalion , each composed of several batteries . In the late 1980s the artillery regiments of motorised rifle and tank divisions included two artillery battalions , one multiple rocket launcher battalion , and one surface @-@ to @-@ surface missile battalion .
Surface @-@ to @-@ surface missile battalions were divided into three or four batteries , each equipped with one missile launcher . They operated thirty FROG @-@ 3 and eighteen SCUD missile launchers . The FROG @-@ 3 , a tactical missile first introduced in 1960 , was being replaced in other non @-@ Soviet Warsaw Pact armies . Proven to be fairly inaccurate in combat , FROG and SCUD missiles would be ineffective weapons carrying conventional high @-@ explosive warheads . Tipped with nuclear or chemical warheads , however , they could be devastating . According to one former Romanian official writing in 1988 , Romania produced chemical agents that could be delivered by battlefield missiles .
= = = Post @-@ communist era = = =
During the early 1990s , some major units were disbanded and a lot of equipment was phased out or scrapped due to a severe shortage of funds . The whole land forces structure was reorganized from armies into territorial corps , and from regiments into battalions . In the mid @-@ 1990s , the situation of the land forces was critical : the military budget was three times lower than in 1989 ( 636 million dollars ) , 50 % of the equipment was older than 30 years , and 60 % of the armoured vehicles and 85 % of the missile units were non @-@ operational . Due to lack of fuel and training , the level of combat readiness and military capability was extremely low ( only about 30 % of the entire land forces were operational ) . However , after 1996 the government took serious action ; the military budget was increased greatly , and modernisation of equipment commenced . Officially , the program to modernize and restructure the armed forces began on 11 April 2000 .
= = Present organisation = =
= = = Manpower = = =
In 2005 , the army comprised eight combat , four combat support and two logistic brigades , while ten combat , five combat support and two logistic brigades could be further mobilised in case of crisis . Many of these units have been restructured , however , as part of the 2007 Force Plan .
Currently , about 75 @,@ 000 military personnel and 15 @,@ 000 civilians comprise the armed forces , for a total of 90 @,@ 000 men and women . Out of these 75 @,@ 000 , cca . 43 @,@ 000 are in the Land Forces .
= = = Modernisation = = =
The Romanian military is undergoing a three @-@ stage restructuring . As of 2007 , the first short @-@ term stage was completed ( reorganisation of the command system , implementation of the voluntary military service ) . The year 2015 marks the end of the second stage ( operational integration in NATO and EU ) , while 2025 is the date when the long @-@ term stage is to be completed ( full technical integration in NATO and EU ) . The stages aim at modernising the structure of the armed forces , reducing the personnel as well as acquiring newer and improved technology that is compatible with NATO standards .
Romania abolished compulsory military service on October 23 , 2006 . This came about due to a 2003 constitutional amendment which allowed the parliament to make military service optional . The Romanian Parliament voted to abolish conscription in October 2005 , with the vote formalising one of many military modernisation and reform programmes that Romania agreed to when it joined NATO in March 2004 .
= = = Structure = = =
In peacetime , the commander of the land forces is the minister of defense , while in wartime , the President of Romania becomes the supreme commander of the armed forces . The main combat formations of Romania are the 2nd Infantry Division Getica , and the 4th Infantry Division Gemina . Until 2015 the Romanian land forces fielded a third division , namely the 1st Division Dacia . Before June 2008 , the 1st and 4th divisions were known as the 1st Territorial Army Corps and the 4th Territorial Army Corps and in turn they used to be called the 1st Army and 4th Army prior to 2000 . However due to their personnel having been reduced considerably in order to reach compatibility with NATO standards they were renamed and reorganized as divisions . In 2010 , the Joint HQ command was renamed as 2nd Infantry Division Getica and received units from the 1st and the 4th Infantry divisions .
The current chief of the Romanian Land Forces Staff is Major General Nicolae Ciucă , who succeeded Major General Mircea Savu on 7 January 2014 . The Land Forces official day is celebrated each year , on 23 April .
= = Equipment = =
The Romanian Land Forces have completely overhauled their equipment in the past few years , replacing it with a more modern one . The TR @-@ 85M1 " Bizon " main battle tank and the MLI @-@ 84M " Jder " infantry fighting vehicle are the most modern native made equipment of the Romanian Land Forces . Also , 43 ex @-@ German Gepard anti @-@ aircraft systems were commissioned in late @-@ 2004 .
The Land Forces ordered about 100 US Army Humvees ; the first eight were delivered to the military police in December 2006 . 31 Piranha III armoured vehicles ( LAV III variant ) and 60 URO VAMTAC high mobility vehicles were also ordered in 2007 for deployment in Iraq and Afghanistan .
Equipment Summary :
= = Special Forces = =
The evolution of the special forces within the Romanian Land Forces led to the establishment of the 1st Special Operations Regiment on 1 August 2009 , headquartered at Târgu Mureş . It later became the 6th Special Operations Brigade on 25 October 2011 , composed of a special operations battalion , two paratrooper battalions and a logistic battalion .
The most famous and well trained unit is the 1st Special Operations Battalion " Vulturii " , which was legally created in late 2005 , after several batches of graduates had already been selected . Members of the special forces battalion have benefitted from courses abroad , such as the US Army Special Forces ( Green Berets ) course , the United States Marine Corps Force Recon course , as well as other courses . The Special Forces battalion became fully operational during 2007 , after a company had already been commissioned in early @-@ 2006 .
The current Romanian reconnaissance battalions ( the 313th , the 317th and the 528th ) are also considered special forces units , and were formed in the 1960s during the communist regime . After the revolution , the units suffered from a lack of funds which resulted in the temporary disbandment of the 313th Battalion . However , their equipment was completely overhauled in the past few years and the combat readiness and capabilities have regained full strength .
DIR , Rapid Intervention Squad of the Romanian Ministry of Defense is an elite special operations unit currently belonging to the Romanian Military Police . It is a special unit inside the military , formed of highly skilled individuals , a very large percentage of its members being champions in martial arts , kickboxing , athletic disciplines and so on . DIR was , until December 2003 , top secret .
= = International missions = =
The following troops are deployed abroad :
45 personnel in Bosnia and Herzegovina ( 23 in Sarajevo and 22 in Banja Luka ) - as part of EUFOR , since 2000 ( to be withdrawn )
150 personnel in Peć , Kosovo - as part of KFOR
1 battalion in Zabul ( 479 personnel ) , 1 guard detachment in Kandahar ( 193 personnel ) , a reconnaissance squad in Mazari Sharif ( 6 personnel ) , Afghanistan - as part of ISAF ; additionally , a special forces squad ( 39 personnel ) and a training detachment ( 47 personnel ) are deployed there
= = Training = =
After the Romanian Revolution , many firing ranges and training areas were closed and abandoned due to lack of funds . Currently , the military schools and training units of the Romanian Land Forces are directly subordinated to the central headquarters . There are 3 military high schools ( Câmpulung Moldovenesc , Alba Iulia and Breaza ) , one military academy ( Sibiu ) , one officers school ( Piteşti ) , 3 training schools ( Sibiu , Piteşti , Buzău ) and 9 training battalions .
In the past few years , lots of training exercises took place in Romania with other Balkan or Allied countries . Most of these exercises took place at Babadag , which is one of the largest and most modern training firing ranges and military facilities in Europe , with a total surface area of 270 square kilometres . It was announced on December 6 , 2006 that 1 @,@ 500 U.S. troops stationed at Mihail Kogălniceanu , which in time will form Joint Task Force East , will be using Babadag as a training base .
= = Ranks and insignia = =
The Romanian Land Forces distinguishes four career paths : officers ( Ofiţeri ) , warrant officers ( Maiştrii militari ) , NCO 's ( Subofiţeri ) and enlisted men ( Soldaţi şi gradaţi voluntari ) . The Marshal rank can be given only in wartime by the President of Romania ; in fact , Romania had only three marshals coming from the officers` rank in its history : Ion Antonescu , Alexandru Averescu and Constantin Prezan . Kings Ferdinand I , Carol II and Mihai I also held the rank of Marshal of Romania . King Carol I held simultaneous ranks as Russian Marshal and German Field @-@ marshal .
= Not Quite Hollywood : The Wild , Untold Story of Ozploitation ! =
Not Quite Hollywood : The Wild , Untold Story of Ozploitation ! is a 2008 Australian documentary film about the Australian New Wave of 1970s and ' 80s low @-@ budget cinema . The film was written and directed by Mark Hartley , who interviewed over eighty Australian , American and British actors , directors , screenwriters and producers , including Quentin Tarantino , Brian Trenchard @-@ Smith , Jamie Lee Curtis , Dennis Hopper , George Lazenby , George Miller , Barry Humphries , Stacy Keach and John Seale .
Hartley spent several years writing a detailed research document , which served to some degree as a script for the film , about the New Wave era of Australian cinema . It focused on the commonly overlooked " Ozploitation " films — mainly filled with sex , horror and violence — which critics and film historians considered vulgar and offensive , often excluded from Australia 's " official film history " . Hartley approached Quentin Tarantino , a longtime " Ozploitation " fan who had dedicated his 2003 film Kill Bill to the exploitation genre , and Tarantino agreed to help get the project off the ground . Hartley then spent an additional five years interviewing subjects and editing the combined 250 hours of interviews and original stock footage into a 100 @-@ minute film .
Not Quite Hollywood , which premiered at the 2008 Melbourne International Film Festival , did not perform well at the box office upon its Australia @-@ wide release , but garnered universally positive reviews from critics and a nomination for " Best Documentary " at the 2008 Australian Film Institute Awards .
= = Synopsis = =
Not Quite Hollywood documents the revival of Australian cinema during the Australian New Wave of the 1970s and ' 80s through B @-@ movies including Alvin Purple , Barry McKenzie Holds His Own , Dead @-@ End Drive In , Long Weekend , Mad Max , The Man from Hong Kong , Patrick , Razorback , Road Games , Stork and Turkey Shoot . From 1971 through to the late 1980s , Australian directors began to take advantage of the newly introduced R @-@ rating which allowed more on @-@ screen nudity , sex and violence for audiences restricted to age 18 and over . " Ozploitation " — writer @-@ director Mark Hartley 's own portmanteau of " Australian exploitation " — was a subgenre of the New Wave which accounted for the critically panned " gross @-@ out comedies , sex romps , action and road movies , teen films , westerns , thrillers and horror films " of the era , commonly overlooked in Australia 's " official film history " . The film addresses three main categories of " Ozploitation " films : sex , horror and action .
= = Interviewees = =
The actors , directors , screenwriters and producers interviewed for the film were :
= = Production = =
As a child , Mark Hartley discovered many of the " Ozploitation " B @-@ movies from the 1970s and ' 80s while watching late @-@ night television , but was disappointed when they were completely overlooked in books he read detailing Australian cinema . After becoming an accomplished music video director , his interest in this era of Australian filmmaking grew and he spent years researching a potential documentary film . He was close to giving up on the project when he sent a 100 @-@ page draft of the script to American film director Quentin Tarantino , not expecting to receive a reply . Tarantino was a longtime fan of " Ozploitation " films and had even dedicated his film Kill Bill to Brian Trenchard @-@ Smith 's work . He replied the day after , telling Hartley that he would do whatever he could to get the film made . Hartley traveled to Los Angeles , California to meet with Tarantino , who agreed to sit for hours of interviews as one of the film 's most prominent interviewees . Hartley spent the following five years interviewing other actors , directors , screenwriters and producers , collecting original stock footage , and then cutting the 100 hours of interviews and 150 hours of film footage down into a 100 @-@ minute film .
= = Release = =
Not Quite Hollywood had its worldwide premiere at the Melbourne International Film Festival on 28 July 2008 , and was screened at the Australian Centre for the Moving Image . Its Australia @-@ wide release was a month later , on 28 August 2008 , and it had its overseas premiere at the Toronto Film Festival on 7 September 2008 , where distribution rights were secured for the United Kingdom , Canada , France , Russia , Germany and Benelux . The film was also screened at the Austin , Sitges , Warsaw , Helsinki and Stockholm International Film Festivals in 2008 , and featured at the London Film Festival on 25 October 2008 .
The film did not perform well at the box office upon its Australian release , taking in a gross of A $ 108 @,@ 330 on its first weekend but only $ 31 @,@ 995 on its second weekend at a screen average of $ 681 on 47 screens .
= = Reception = =
Overall , Not Quite Hollywood received positive reviews from critics . Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes reports that 94 % of critics have given the film a positive review , " Certified Fresh " ,
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the character . According to BabyCenter , the name peaked in popularity in 1996 , during the second season of Friends , becoming the ninth most popular female name in the United States that year .
Aniston 's performance in Friends has been praised since her first appearance in its pilot . Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker wrote that the actress provides Rachel with " prickly intelligence " . Writing for The Baltimore Sun , David Zurawik cited Aniston among the show 's " very strong cast " , while Variety 's Tony Scott wrote that " All six of the principals ... appear resourceful and display sharp sitcom skills " . Robert Bianco of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette praised the show 's female cast collectively . TV Guide wrote that the actress " instantly charmed audiences with her perfect looks and endearingly flawed persona " . Kevin Fallon of The Daily Beast dubbed Aniston 's performance on Friends " the work of a brilliant character actress . " The Guardian 's Ryan Gilbey reviewed that " Aniston was the sparkiest member of the ensemble and the one least reliant on goofball caricature " , concluding , " Playing the only character with whom a sane viewer might reasonably identify also meant that she got the lion 's share of attention " . Andrew Collins of Radio Times described Aniston as a " natural comic performer , as adept with a subtle nose wrinkle as a full @-@ on pratfall , and fluent in quick @-@ fire patter " . In 2002 , Aniston won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series , one of the show 's six wins out of a total of 62 nominations . In 2003 , the actress won the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress In A Television Series – Comedy Or Musical . Karen Thomas of USA Today dubbed Aniston " our favorite Friend " . According to Turner Classic Movies , Aniston ultimately became " One of the most popular television actresses of her era " . According to Jennifer Aniston : From Friends to Films author Kim Etingoff , the actress ' own fame " outshone " those of her co @-@ stars , becoming the first cast member to " rise to prominence " ; the actress continues to experience the most post @-@ Friends success . Aniston 's performance in Friends led to a successful film career . According to The Inquisitr News , Rachel is " the role that would end up launching [ Aniston 's ] success " , while Bradford Evans of Splitsider believes " that Jennifer Aniston likely wouldn 't have become a major movie star without Friends " . While ranking Aniston the most attractive sitcom star of the 1990s , Josh Robertson of Complex magazine wrote that " With the haircut , the TV fame , and a true gift for comedy ... combined , Aniston became a big star " , replacing Cox as the show 's " established hottie " . According to Steve Charnock of Yahoo ! Movies , Aniston is " the series ' only main castmember to become a bona fide movie star since the end of the show " . While agreeing that Aniston 's film career has been successful , several critics believe that the actress ' filmography remains limited to playing Rachel @-@ like roles in romantic comedies , save for some exceptions . Ryan Gilbey of The Guardian noted that " Consequently , many of Aniston 's movie roles ... have been Rachel in all but name . " Andrew Collins of Radio Times agreed , writing that Aniston " seems trapped , perpetually playing variations of Rachel " . According to TV Guide , Aniston is " usually called upon to play a variation of her neurotic and adorable Friends character " . Aniston cites Rachel as one of three roles for which she is most grateful , to whom she " owe [ s ] everything " . On being typecast , Aniston admits that at times it " gives you more of a challenge , to shape people ’ s perceptions of you " . as audiences struggle " to lose the Rachel tag that has made her one of the world 's most recognisable faces " .
= = = Relationships = = =
Rachel has had several romantic relationships throughout Friends decade @-@ long run , the most famous and prominent of which remains her on @-@ again , off @-@ again relationship with friend Ross . Although wildly popular among audiences , the couple has been met with mixed reviews from critics . Katherine Hassel of the Daily Express described the characters ' relationship as " the heart of the show " . China Daily cited Ross and Rachel 's reunion during the series finale " The Last One " among the episode 's highlights , while Gary Susman of Rolling Stone believes that audiences would not have been happy had the couple not ultimately reunited . Contrastingly , The Wire 's Joe Reid is of the opinion that the show 's second season is " the only time Ross / Rachel was truly great " . Virgin Media wrote that the couple 's dynamics " had grown mightily tedious " by season ten . E ! cable network ranked Rachel and Ross the ninth greatest Friends couple , writing that their relationship gave " Friends fans enough iconic quotes to fill a book " , considering Phoebe 's line " See ? [ Ross is ] her lobster ! " to be among show 's most iconic . Ross and Rachel 's season three breakup has spawned a debate among Friends fans , who continue to argue over which of the two was at fault : Rachel for suggesting that they take a break from their relationship , or Ross for sleeping with another woman immediately afterwards . Writing for E ! , Jenna Mullins ruled in favor of Rachel , elaborating , " there is no excuse for Ross sleeping with someone else after his lobster suggested taking a break " , concluding that Ross " blew it " . The Jewish community was particularly receptive to the fact that a Jewish @-@ American couple existed on prime time television , described by Lilith magazine as " a televisual first " .
Rachel and Ross are considered to be among television 's greatest and most beloved couples . Ninemsn referred to them as " everyone 's favourite on ... off ... on ( a break ! ) duo , " while Us Weekly and BuzzFeed ranked them the first and second best television couple , respectively . TV Guide ranked Ross and Rachel the third greatest television couple , dubbing them " the most iconic TV couple in recent memory " . Extra placed the couple at number eight , writing , " Never did we want two people to get together more than Ross ... and Rachel " . Refinery29 included Rachel and Ross in the website 's " 16 TV Couples We Want To Be Together Forever " list . The pair is also often ranked among television 's greatest " will they or won 't they " couples . Naming Ross and Rachel the greatest " will they , won 't they " couple , Network Ten believes they defined the term , while Suggest dubbed them " The quintessential will they / won ’ t they couple . " According to Sarah Doran of Radio Times , the couple " became synonymous with the phrase ' we 're on a break ' " . Phoebe 's line , in which she refers to the couple as each other 's lobsters , has become one of the show 's most popular and oft @-@ quoted . Kaitlin Reilly of Bustle magazine defined the term as " the person of whom another is meant to be with forever " . Tara Aquino of Complex magazine believes that " Every other person can tell you what exactly a ' Ross and Rachel ' relationship means " . Ultimately , Rachel 's season eight pregnancy arc is credited with reviving the show 's ratings and reviews .
Rachel 's brief romantic relationship with friend Joey during season ten drew strong criticism from both critics and fans alike , although viewership was not harmed . In fact , Joshua Kurp of Splitsider believes that the only reason the show 's final two seasons performed well in spite of lackluster reviews " was because of the Joey / Rachel / Ross love triangle " . Eric Goldman of IGN referred to the Rachel @-@ Joey storyline as " questionable . " Entertainment Tonight Canada ranked " The One After Rachel and Joey Kiss " among the show 's ten worst episodes at number five , with author I. P. Johnson panning it as " desperate " , concluding , " Jeers for even conceiving this romantic plot ; cheers for abandoning it " . Bustle also cited the same episode as one of the show 's worst , calling it " the most nonsensical idea to ever be . " Contrarily , E ! enjoyed Rachel and Joey as a couple because they brought out positive aspects in each other 's personalities . Their relationship also spawned a debate among fans , who argued over whether making Rachel and Joey a couple was a bad idea . Jenna Mullins of E ! determined that it is because " It was too far into the series to throw these two together . They didn 't make sense and their romantic scenes felt forced " .
= = = Fashion = = =
Both Rachel and Aniston have become fashion icons due to their combined influence on womenswear during the 1990s and onwards , particularly among British women . According to Vogue magazine 's Edward Barsamian , Rachel 's fashion sense inspired " the cool New York look " . According to Stylist magazine , Rachel " revived [ a ] love of denim shirts and dungarees " , while Mahogany Clayton of StyleBlazer believes that the character " managed to dominate every fashion trend that passed by her radar in the most stylish ways possible " . Hailing her as the " Fash Queen " , Heat magazine observed the character 's influence on plaid skirts , denim and overalls . Citing every costume the character wore during the first season of Friends , BuzzFeed determined that Rachel popularized the mullet dress . TV Guide published a list of " The 17 Ways Rachel from Friends Changed ' 90s Fashion " .
Rachel is often ranked among television 's best dressed characters . Elle included Rachel in the magazine 's " 50 Best Dressed Women on TV " list . PopSugar ranked Friends 15th on the website 's list of " 50 TV Shows That Changed the Way We Dress " , citing Rachel 's " impressive " wardrobe . InStyle ranked Friends the 36th most fashionable television show of all @-@ time , praising Rachel , Monica and Phoebe 's costumes . StyleCaster ranked Rachel among " The 50 Most Stylish TV Characters Of All Time " at number 28 . Cosmopolitan magazine compiled a list of " 16 things Rachel Green wore to work that we 'd totally wear today " , while Virgin Media ranked the character among television 's sexiest . Brides magazine ranked Rachel 's wedding dress among " The Best TV Wedding Dresses " .
= = = = The " Rachel " haircut = = = =
Named after the character , the " Rachel " refers to a bouncy layered shag inspired by the way in which Aniston wore her hair on Friends between 1994 and 1996 , during the first and second seasons of the series . The " Rachel " debuted in the show 's 20th episode , " The One With the Evil Orthodontist " . Aniston believes that her hair stylist , Chris McMillan , created the haircut while he was " stoned " . The " Rachel " immediately became popular among women , launching an international hair trend . The popularity of the " Rachel " coincided with the popularity of Friends during the mid @-@ to @-@ late @-@ 1990s . Marie Claire estimates that 11 million women donned the hairstyle throughout the decade , while the Daily Express determined that the hairstyle was most popular among British women , who went to hair salons " clutching magazine pictures of Aniston " and asking hairdressers to give them the look .
According to Vanity Fair , the hairstyle 's " widespread popularity ... in the show ’ s very first year cemented the sitcom early on as heavily influential when it came to style . " The " Rachel " remains one of the most popular hairstyles in history , and became the most popular hairstyle in the United States since actress Farrah Fawcett 's . Hair stylists credit its appeal and popularity to its medium length and volume , combined with its tendency to frame the face flatteringly . Hairdresser Mark Woolley described it as " a cut that flatters almost everyone , designed to make women look beautiful " . The " Rachel " is often ranked among the greatest and most iconic hairstyles of all @-@ time , with Redbook placing it at number four and Time ranking it ninth . The Huffington Post determined that the hairstyle is one of " The Most Famous TV Hairstyles Of All Time " . US Weekly ranked the " Rachel " the 17th most iconic hairstyle . Glamour magazine ranked the " Rachel " fourth on the magazine 's list of " The 100 Best Hairstyles of All Time " . Meanwhile , Glamour also cited it among " The very best hair to have graced the small screen " , while ranking it the most memorable hairstyle in television history . The Sydney Morning Herald ranked it the second greatest television hairstyle , while Metro ranked the " Rachel " the character 's second @-@ best hairstyle . Ranked sixth on Entertainment Weekly 's list of the " 25 Fashion Moments That Changed Entertainment " , the haircut was declared the most " desired " hairstyle of the Clinton era .
Zahra Barnes of Self magazine joked that the character 's hair was the " true star of the show " , while its popularity led to Virgin Media coining Rachel " the one with the hair " . Lauding the " Rachel " as one of television 's greatest hairstyles , Sarah Carrillo of Elle magazine believed that its popularity " helped make Friends the phenomenon it was " . Opining that Friends spawned few memorable catchphrases in comparison to its contemporaries , Tom Jicha of The Baltimore Sun attributed much of the show 's legacy to the hairstyle , calling it the show 's " only cultural trend " . Josh Robertson of Complex magazine felt that " With the haircut , the TV fame , and a true gift for comedy ... combined , Aniston became a big star " , replacing Courteney Cox . According to Jim Vorel of Paste magazine , " ' the Rachel ' hairstyle became the decade ’ s defining ' do , calling it " the definition of influence " .
In the second season episode " The One With The Lesbian Wedding " , Rachel complains that her overbearing mother ( Marlo Thomas ) is trying to pattern her own life after hers , lamenting , " Couldn 't she just copy my haircut ? " Although Aniston eventually abandoned the " Rachel " for a straighter , longer look , the hairstyle remained popular nonetheless . Despite her association with the cut , Aniston disliked the hairstyle . She found maintaining the hairstyle without McMillan 's help difficult , stating " I 'd curse Chris every time I had to blowdry . It took three brushes — it was like doing surgery ! " and that she would rather shave her head than have to wear it for the rest of her life .
Since Aniston , several other celebrities have worn variations of the " Rachel " , among them actresses Cameron Diaz , Rachel McAdams , Emma Watson , Reese Witherspoon , Julia Roberts , comedian Tina Fey , model Tyra Banks , and singer Lily Allen .
= Krak des Chevaliers =
Krak des Chevaliers ( French pronunciation : [ kʁak de ʃəvaˈlje ] ; Arabic : حصن الفرسان ) , also Crac des Chevaliers , Ḥoṣn al @-@ Akrād ( حصن الأكراد ) , Castle Alhsn , formerly Crac de l 'Ospital , is a Crusader castle in Syria and one of the most important preserved medieval castles in the world . The site was first inhabited in the 11th century by a settlement of Kurdish troops dispatched there by the Mirdasids ; as a result it was known as Hisn al @-@ Akrad , meaning the " Castle of the Kurds " . In 1142 it was given by Raymond II , Count of Tripoli , to the Knights Hospitaller . It remained in their possession until it fell in 1271 . It became known as Crac de l 'Ospital ; the name Krak des Chevaliers was coined in the 19th century .
The Hospitallers began rebuilding the castle in the 1140s and were finished by 1170 when an earthquake damaged the castle . The order controlled a number of castles along the border of the County of Tripoli , a state founded after the First Crusade . Krak des Chevaliers was among the most important , and acted as a center of administration as well as a military base . After a second phase of building was undertaken in the 13th century , Krak des Chevaliers became a concentric castle . This phase created the outer wall and gave the castle its current appearance . The first half of the century has been described as Krak des Chevaliers ' " golden age " . At its peak , Krak des Chevaliers housed a garrison of around 2 @,@ 000 . Such a large garrison allowed the Hospitallers to extract tribute from a wide area . From the 1250s the fortunes of the Knights Hospitaller took a turn for the worse and in 1271 Mamluk Sultan Baibars captured Krak des Chevaliers after a siege lasting 36 days , supposedly by way of a forged letter purportedly from the Hospitallers ' Grand Master that caused the Knights to surrender .
Renewed interest in Crusader castles in the 19th century led to the investigation of Krak des Chevaliers , and architectural plans were drawn up . In the late 19th or early 20th century a settlement had been created within the castle , causing damage to its fabric . The 500 inhabitants were moved in 1933 and the castle was given over to the French state , which carried out a program of clearing and restoration . When Syria declared independence in 1946 , it assumed control . Today , a village called al @-@ Husn exists around the castle and has a population of nearly 9 @,@ 000 . Krak des Chevaliers is located approximately 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) west of the city of Homs , close to the border of Lebanon , and is administratively part of the Homs Governorate . Since 2006 , the castles of Krak des Chevaliers and Qal 'at Salah El @-@ Din have been recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site . It was partially damaged in the Syrian civil war from shelling : the full extent of the damage is unknown , but there have been reports of hasty repairs .
= = Etymology = =
The modern Arabic word for a castle is Kalaa ( قلعة ) , but Krak des Chavaliers is known as a " Hosn " ( حصن ) , or " fort " . This derives from the name of an earlier fortification on the same site called Ḥoṣn al @-@ Akrād ( حصن الأكراد ) , meaning " fort of the Kurds " . It was called by the Franks Le Crat and then by a confusion with karak ( fortress ) , Le Crac . Crat was probably the Frankish version of Akrād , the word for Kurds . After the Knights Hospitaller took control of the castle , it became known as Crac de l 'Ospital ; the name Crac des Chevaliers ( alternatively spelt Krak des Chevaliers ) was introduced by Guillaume Rey in the 19th century .
= = Location = =
The castle sits atop a 650 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 2 @,@ 130 ft ) hill east of Tartus , Syria , in the Homs Gap . On the other side of the gap , 27 kilometres ( 17 mi ) away , was the 12th @-@ century Gibelacar Castle . The route through the strategically important Homs Gap connects the cities of Tripoli and Homs . To the north of the castle lies the Jebel Ansariyah , and to the south Lebanon . The surrounding area is fertile , benefiting from streams and abundant rainfall . Compared to the Kingdom of Jerusalem , the other Crusader states had less land suitable for farming ; however , the limestone peaks of Tripoli were well @-@ suited to defensive sites .
Property in the County of Tripoli , granted to the Knights Templar in the 1140s , included the Castle of the Kurds , the towns of Rafanea and Montferrand , and the Buqai 'ah plain separating Homs and Tripoli . Homs was never under Crusader control , so the region around the Castle of the Kurds was vulnerable to expeditions from the city . While its proximity caused the Knights problems with regard to defending their territory , it also meant Homs was close enough for them to raid . Because of the castle 's command of the plain , it became the Knights ' most important base in the area .
= = History = =
According to 13th @-@ century Arab historian Ibn Shaddad , the Mirdasid emir of Aleppo , Shibl ad @-@ Dawla , established a settlement of Kurdish tribesmen at the site of the future castle in 1031 CE , hence the castle 's Arabic name " Hisn al @-@ Akrad " ( Castle of the Kurds ) . The site was strategically located at the southern edge of the Jibal al @-@ Alawiyin mountain range and dominated the road between Homs and Tripoli . When building castles , Muslims often chose elevated sites such as hills and mountains that provided natural obstacles .
In January 1099 on the journey to Jerusalem during the First Crusade , the company of Raymond IV of Toulouse came under attack from the garrison of Hisn al @-@ Akrad , the forerunner of the Krak , who harried Raymond 's foragers . The following day Raymond marched on the castle and found it deserted . The crusaders briefly occupied the castle in February of the same year but abandoned it when they continued their march towards Jerusalem . Permanent occupation began in 1110 when Tancred , Prince of Galilee took control of the site . The early castle was substantially different from the extant remains and no trace of this first castle survives at the site .
The origins of the Knights Hospitaller are unclear , but the order probably emerged around the 1070s in Jerusalem . It started as a religious order which cared for the sick , and later looked after pilgrims to the Holy Land . After the success of the First Crusade in capturing Jerusalem in 1099 , many crusaders donated their new property in the Levant to the Hospital of St John . Early donations were in the newly formed Kingdom of Jerusalem , but over time the order extended its holdings to the Crusader states of the County of Tripoli and the Principality of Antioch . Evidence suggests that in the 1130s the order became militarized when Fulk , King of Jerusalem , granted the newly built castle at Bethgibelin to the order in 1136 . A papal bull from between 1139 and 1143 may indicate the order hiring people to defend pilgrims . There were also other military orders , such as the Knights Templar , which offered protection to pilgrims .
Between 1142 and 1144 Raymond II , Count of Tripoli , granted the order property in the county . According to historian Jonathan Riley @-@ Smith , the Hospitallers effectively established a " palatinate " within Tripoli . The property included castles with which the Hospitallers were expected to defend Tripoli . Along with Krak des Chevaliers , the Hospitallers were given four other castles along the borders of the state which allowed the order to dominate the area . The order 's agreement with Raymond II stated that if he did not accompany knights of the order on campaign , the spoils belonged entirely to the order , and if he was present it was split equally between the count and the order . Raymond II could further not make peace with the Muslims without the permission of the Hospitallers . The Hospitallers made Krak des Chevaliers a center of administration for their new property , undertaking work at the castle that would make it one of the most elaborate Crusader fortifications in the Levant .
After acquiring the site in 1142 , they began building a new castle to replace the former Kurdish fortification . This work lasted until 1170 , when an earthquake damaged the castle . An Arab source mentions that the quake destroyed the castle 's chapel , which was replaced by the present chapel . In 1163 the Crusaders emerged victorious over Nur ad @-@ Din in the Battle of al @-@ Buqaia near Krak des Chevaliers .
Drought conditions between 1175 and 1180 prompted the Crusaders to sign a two @-@ year truce with the Muslims , but without Tripoli included in the terms . During the 1180s raids by Christians and Muslims into each other 's territory became more frequent . In 1180 , Saladin ventured into the County of Tripoli , ravaging the area . Unwilling to meet him in open battle , the Crusaders retreated to the relative safety of their fortifications . Without capturing the castles , Saladin could not secure control of the area , and once he retreated the Hospitallers were able to revitalize their damaged lands . The Battle of Hattin in 1187 was a disastrous defeat for the Crusaders : Guy of Lusignan , King of Jerusalem , was captured , as was the True Cross , a relic discovered during the First Crusade . Afterwards Saladin ordered the execution of the captured Templar and Hospitaller knights , such was the importance of the two orders in defending the Crusader states . After the battle , the Hospitaller castles of Belmont , Belvoir , and Bethgibelin fell to Muslim armies . Following these losses , the Order focused its attention on its castles in Tripoli . In May 1188 Saladin led an army to attack Krak des Chevaliers , but on seeing the castle decided it was too well defended and instead marched on the Hospitaller castle of Margat , which he also failed to capture .
Another earthquake struck in 1202 , and it may have been after this event that the castle was remodelled . The 13th @-@ century work was the last period of building at Krak des Chevaliers and gave it its current appearance . An enclosing stone circuit was built between 1142 and 1170 ; the earlier structure became the castle 's inner court or ward . If there was a circuit of walls surrounding the inner court that pre @-@ dated the current outer walls , no trace of it has been discovered .
The first half of the 13th century has been characterized as Krak des Chevaliers ' " golden age " . While other Crusader strongholds came under threat , Krak des Chevaliers and its garrison of 2 @,@ 000 soldiers dominated the surrounding area . It was effectively the center of a principality which remained in Crusader hands until 1271 and was the only major inland area to remain constantly under Crusader control during this period . Crusaders who passed through the area would often stop at the castle , and probably made donations . King Andrew II of Hungary visited in 1218 and proclaimed the castle the " key of the Christian lands " . He was so impressed with the castle that he gave a yearly income of 60 marks to the Master and 40 to the brothers . Geoffroy de Joinville , uncle of the noted chronicler of the Crusades Jean de Joinville , died at Krak des Chevaliers in 1203 or 1204 and was buried in the castle 's chapel .
The main contemporary accounts relating to Krak des Chevaliers are of Muslim origin and tend to emphasize Muslim success while overlooking setbacks against the Crusaders although they suggest that the Knights Hospitaller forced the settlements of Hama and Homs to pay tribute to the Order . This situation lasted as long as Saladin 's successors warred between themselves . The proximity of Krak des Chevaliers to Muslim territories allowed it to take on an offensive role , acting as a base from which neighboring areas could be attacked . By 1203 the garrison were making raids on Montferrand ( which was under Muslim control ) and Hama , and in 1207 and 1208 the castle 's soldiers took part in an attack on Homs . Krak des Chevaliers acted as a base for expeditions to Hama in 1230 and 1233 after the amir refused to pay tribute . The former was unsuccessful , but the 1233 expedition was a show of force that demonstrated the importance of Krak des Chevaliers .
In the 1250s , the fortunes of the Hospitallers at Krak des Chevaliers took a turn for the worse . A Muslim army estimated to number 10 @,@ 000 men ravaged the countryside around the castle in 1252 after which the Order 's finances declined sharply . In 1268 Master Hugh Revel complained that the area , previously home to around 10 @,@ 000 people , now stood deserted and that the Order 's property in the Kingdom of Jerusalem produced little income . He also noted that by this point there were only 300 of the Order 's brethren left in the east . On the Muslim side , in 1260 Baibars became Sultan of Egypt , following his overthrow of the incumbent ruler Qutuz , and went on to unite Egypt and Syria . As a result , Muslim settlements that had previously paid tribute to the Hospitallers at Krak des Chevaliers no longer felt intimidated into doing so .
Baibars ventured into the area around Krak des Chevaliers in 1270 and allowed his men to graze their animals on the fields around the castle . When he received news that year of the Eighth Crusade led by King Louis IX of France , Baibars left for Cairo to avoid a confrontation . After Louis died in 1271 Baibars returned to deal with Krak des Chevaliers . Before he marched on the castle the Sultan captured the smaller castles in the area , including Chastel Blanc . On 3 March , Baibars ' army arrived at Krak des Chevaliers . By the time the Sultan appeared on the scene , the castle may already have been blockaded by Mamluk forces for several days . Of the three Arabic accounts of the siege only one was contemporary , that of Ibn Shaddad , although he was not present at the siege . Peasants who lived in the area had fled to the castle for safety and were kept in the outer ward . As soon as Baibars arrived he erected mangonels , powerful siege weapons which he would later turn on the castle . In a probable reference to a walled suburb outside the castle 's entrance , Ibn Shaddad records that two days later the first line of defences fell to the besiegers .
Rain interrupted the siege , but on 21 March , immediately south of Krak des Chevaliers , Baibar 's forces captured a triangular outwork possibly defended by a timber palisade . On 29 March , the attackers undermined a tower in the southwest corner causing it to collapse whereupon Baibars ' army attacked through the breach . In the outer ward they encountered the peasants who had sought refuge in the castle . Though the outer ward had fallen , with a handful of the garrison killed in the process , the Crusaders retreated to the more formidable inner ward . After a lull of ten days , the besiegers conveyed a letter to the garrison , supposedly from the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller in Tripoli , which granted permission for them to surrender . Although the letter was a forgery , the garrison capitulated and the Sultan spared their lives . The new owners of the castle undertook repairs , focused mainly on the outer ward . The Hospitaller chapel was converted to a mosque and two mihrabs were added to the interior .
= = Later history = =
After the Franks were driven from the Holy Land in 1291 , European familiarity with the castles of the Crusades declined . It was not until the 19th century that interest in these buildings was renewed , so there are no detailed plans from before 1837 . Guillaume Rey was the first European researcher to scientifically study Crusader castles in the Holy Land . In 1871 he published the work Etudes sur les monuments de l 'architecture militaire des Croisés en Syrie et dans l 'ile de Chypre ; it included plans and drawings of the major Crusader castles in Syria , including Krak des Chevaliers . In some instances his drawings were inaccurate , however for Krak des Chavaliers they record features which have since been lost .
Paul Deschamps visited the castle in February 1927 . Since Rey had visited in the 19th century a village of 500 people had been established within the castle . Renewed inhabitation had damaged the site : underground vaults had been used as rubbish tips and in some places the battlements had been destroyed . Deschamps and fellow architect François Anus attempted to clear some of the detritus ; General Maurice Gamelin assigned 60 Alawite soldiers to help . Deschamps left in March 1927 , and work resumed when he returned two years later . The culmination of Deschamp 's work at the castle was the publication of Les Châteaux des Croisés en Terre Sainte I : le Crac des Chevaliers in 1934 , with detailed plans by Anus . The survey has been widely praised , described as " brilliant and exhaustive " by military historian D. J. Cathcart King in 1949 and " perhaps the finest account of the archaeology and history of a single medieval castle ever written " by historian Hugh Kennedy in 1994 .
As early as 1929 there were suggestions that the castle should be taken under French control . On 16 November 1933 Krak des Chevaliers was given into the control of the French state , and cared for by the Académie des Beaux @-@ Arts . The villagers were moved and paid F1 million between them in compensation . Over the following two years a programme of cleaning and restoration was carried out by a force of 120 workers . Once finished , Krak des Chevaliers was one of the key tourist attractions in the French Levant . Pierre Coupel , who had undertaken similar work at the Tower of the Lions and the two castles at Sidon , supervized the work . Despite the restoration , no archaeological excavations were carried out . The French Mandate of Syria and Lebanon , which had been established in 1920 , ended in 1946 with the declaration of Syrian independence . The castle was made a World Heritage Site by UNESCO , along with Qal ’ at Salah El @-@ Din , in 2006 , and is owned by the Syrian government .
Several of the castle 's former residents built their houses outside the fortress and a village called al @-@ Husn has since developed . Many of the al @-@ Husn 's roughly 9 @,@ 000 Muslim residents benefit economically from the tourism generated by the site .
= = = Syrian Civil War = = =
During the Syrian Civil War which began in 2011 , UNESCO voiced concerns that the war might lead to the damage of important cultural sites such as Krak des Chevaliers . It has been reported that the castle was shelled in August 2012 by the Syrian Arab Army , and the Crusader chapel has been damaged . The castle was reported to have been damaged in July 2013 by an airstrike during the Siege of Homs , and once more on the 18th of August 2013 it was clearly damaged yet the amount of destruction is unknown . The Syrian Arab Army recaptured the castle and the village of al @-@ Hosn from rebel forces on March 20 , 2014 , although the extent of damage from earlier mortar hits remained unclear .
= = Architecture = =
Writing in the early 20th century , T. E. Lawrence , popularly known as Lawrence of Arabia , remarked that Krak des Chevaliers was " perhaps the best preserved and most wholly admirable castle in the world , [ a castle which ] forms a fitting commentary on any account of the Crusading buildings of Syria " . Castles in Europe provided lordly accommodation for their owners and were centers of administration ; in the Levant the need for defence was paramount and was reflected in castle design . Kennedy suggests that " The castle scientifically designed as a fighting machine surely reached its apogee in great buildings like Margat and Crac des Chevaliers . "
Krak des Chevaliers can be classified both as a spur castle , due to its site , and after the 13th @-@ century expansion a fully developed concentric castle . It was similar in size and layout to Vadum Jacob , a Crusader castle built in the late 1170s . Margat has also been cited as Krak des Chevaliers ' sister castle . The main building material at Krak des Chevaliers was limestone ; the ashlar facing is so fine that the mortar is barely noticeable . Outside the castle 's entrance was a " walled suburb " known as a burgus , no trace of which remains . To the south of the outer ward was a triangular outwork and the Crusaders may have intended to build stone walls and towers around it . It is unknown how it was defended at the time of the 1271 siege , though it has been suggested it was surrounded by a timber palisade . South of the castle the spur on which it stands is connected to the next hill , so that siege engines can approach on level ground . The inner defences are strongest at this point , with a cluster of towers connected by a thick wall .
= = = Inner ward = = =
Between 1142 and 1170 the Knights Hospitaller undertook a building programme on the site . The castle was defended by a stone curtain wall studded with square towers which projected slightly . The main entrance was between two towers on the eastern side , and there was a postern gate in the northwest tower . At the center was a courtyard surrounded by vaulted chambers . The lay of the land dictated the castle 's irregular shape . A site with natural defences was a typical location for Crusader castles and steep slopes provided Krak des Chevaliers with defences on all sides bar one , where the castle 's defences were concentrated . This phase of building was incorporated into the later castle 's construction .
When Krak des Chevaliers was remodelled in the 13th century , new walls surrounding the inner court were built . They followed the earlier walls , with a narrow gap between them in the west and south which was turned into a gallery from which defenders could unleash missiles . In this area , the walls were supported by a steeply sloping glacis which provided additional protection against both siege weapons and earthquakes . Four large , round towers project vertically from the glacis ; they were used as accommodation for the Knights of the garrison , about 60 at its peak . The southwest tower was designed to house the rooms of the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller . Though the defences which once crested the walls of the inner wards no longer survive in most places , it seems that they did not extend for the entire circuit . Machicolations were absent from the southern face . The area between the inner court and the outer walls was narrow and not used for accommodation . In the east , where the defences were weakest , there was an open cistern filled by an aqueduct . It acted both as a moat and water supply for the castle .
At the north end of the small courtyard is a chapel and at the southern end is an esplanade . The esplanade is raised above the rest of the courtyard ; the vaulted area beneath it would have provided storage and could have acted as stabling and shelter from missiles . Lining the west of the courtyard is the hall of the Knights . Though probably first built in the 12th century , the interior dates from the 13th @-@ century remodelling . The tracery and delicate decoration is a sophisticated example of Gothic architecture , probably dating from the 1230s .
= = = Chapel = = =
The current chapel was probably built to replace the one destroyed by an earthquake in 1170 . Only the east end of the original chapel , which housed the apse , and a small part of the south wall survive from the original chapel . The later chapel had a barrel vault and an uncomplicated apse ; its design would have been considered outmoded by contemporary standards in France , but bears similarities to that built around 1186 at Margat . It was divided into three roughly equal bays . A cornice runs round the chapel at the point where the vault ends and the wall begins . Oriented roughly east to west , it was 21 @.@ 5 metres ( 71 ft ) long and 8 @.@ 5 metres ( 28 ft ) wide with the main entrance from the west and a second smaller one in the north wall . When the castle was remodelled in the early 13th century , the entrance was moved to the south wall . The chapel was lit by windows above the cornice , one at the west end , one on either side of the east bay , and one on the south side of the central bay , and the apse at the east end had a large window . In 1935 a second chapel was discovered outside the castle 's main entrance , however it no longer survives .
= = = Outer ward = = =
The second phase of building work undertaken by the Hospitallers began in the early 13th century and lasted decades . The outer walls were built in the last major construction on the site , lending the Krak des Chevaliers its current appearance . Standing 9 metres ( 30 ft ) high , the outer circuit had towers that projected strongly from the wall . While the towers of the inner court had a square plan and did not project far beyond the wall , the towers of the 13th @-@ century outer walls were rounded . This design was new and even contemporary Templar castles did not have rounded towers . The technique was developed at Château Gaillard in France by Richard the Lionheart between 1196 and 1198 . The extension to the southeast is of lesser quality than the rest of the circuit and was built at an unknown date . Probably around the 1250s a postern was added to the north wall .
Arrow slits in the walls and towers were distributed to minimize the amount of dead ground around the castle . Machicolations crowned the walls , offering defenders a way to hurl projectiles towards enemies at the foot of the wall . They were so cramped archers would have had to crouch inside them . The box machicolations were unusual : those at Krak des Chevaliers were more complex that those at Saône or Margat and there were no comparable features amongst Crusader castles . However , they bore similarities to Muslim work , such as the contemporary defences at the Citadel of Aleppo . It is unclear which side imitated the other , as the date they were added to Krak des Chevaliers is unknown , but it does provide evidence for the diffusion of military ideas between the Muslim and Christian armies . These defences were accessed by a wall @-@ walk known as a chemin de ronde . In the opinion of historian Hugh Kennedy the defences of the outer wall were " the most elaborate and developed anywhere in the Latin east ... the whole structure is a brilliantly designed and superbly built fighting machine " .
When the outer walls were built in the 13th century the main entrance was enhanced . A vaulted corridor led uphill from the outer gate in the northeast . The corridor made a hairpin turn halfway along its length , making it an example of a bent entrance . Bent entrances were a Byzantine innovation , but that at Krak des Chevaliers was a particularly complex example . It extended for 137 metres ( 450 ft ) , and along its length were murder @-@ holes which allowed defenders to shower attackers with missiles . Anyone going straight ahead rather than following the hairpin turn would emerge in the area between the castle 's two circuits of walls . To access the inner ward , the passage had to be followed round .
= = = Frescoes = = =
Despite its predominantly military character , the castle is one of the few sites where Crusader art ( in the form of frescoes ) has been preserved . In 1935 , 1955 , and 1978 medieval frescoes were discovered within Krak des Chevaliers after later plaster and white @-@ wash had decayed . The frescos were painted on the interior and exterior of the main chapel and the chapel outside the main entrance , which no longer survives . Writing in 1982 , historian Jaroslav Folda noted that at the time there had been little investigation of Crusader frescoes that would provide a comparison for the fragmentary remains found at Krak des Chevaliers . Those in the chapel were painted on the masonry from the 1170 – 1202 rebuild . Mold , smoke , and moisture have made it difficult to preserve the frescoes . The fragmentary nature of the red and blue frescoes inside the chapel means they are difficult to assess . The one on the exterior of the chapel depicted the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple .
= The Importance of Being Earnest =
The Importance of Being Earnest , A Trivial Comedy for Serious People is a play by Oscar Wilde . First performed on 14 February 1895 at the St James 's Theatre in London , it is a farcical comedy in which the protagonists maintain fictitious personæ to escape burdensome social obligations . Working within the social conventions of late Victorian London , the play 's major themes are the triviality with which it treats institutions as serious as marriage , and the resulting satire of Victorian ways . Contemporary reviews all praised the play 's humour , though some were cautious about its explicit lack of social messages , while others foresaw the modern consensus that it was the culmination of Wilde 's artistic career so far . Its high farce and witty dialogue have helped make The Importance of Being Earnest Wilde 's most enduringly popular play .
The successful opening night marked the climax of Wilde 's career but also heralded his downfall . The Marquess of Queensberry , whose son Lord Alfred Douglas was Wilde 's lover , planned to present the writer with a bouquet of rotten vegetables and disrupt the show . Wilde was tipped off and Queensberry was refused admission . Soon afterwards their feud came to a climax in court , where Wilde 's homosexual double life was revealed to the Victorian public and he was eventually sentenced to imprisonment . His notoriety caused the play , despite its early success , to be closed after 86 performances . After his release , he published the play from exile in Paris , but he wrote no further comic or dramatic work .
The Importance of Being Earnest has been revived many times since its premiere . It has been adapted for the cinema on three occasions . In The Importance of Being Earnest ( 1952 ) , Dame Edith Evans reprised her celebrated interpretation of Lady Bracknell ; The Importance of Being Earnest ( 1992 ) by Kurt Baker used an all @-@ black cast ; and Oliver Parker 's The Importance of Being Earnest ( 2002 ) incorporated some of Wilde 's original material cut during the preparation of the original stage production .
= = Composition = =
After the success of Wilde 's plays Lady Windermere 's Fan and A Woman of No Importance , Wilde 's producers urged him to write further plays . In July 1894 he mooted his idea for The Importance of Being Earnest to George Alexander , the actor @-@ manager of the St James 's Theatre . Wilde spent the summer with his family at Worthing , where he wrote the play quickly in August . His fame now at its peak , he used the working title Lady Lancing to avoid pre @-@ emptive speculation of its content . Many names and ideas in the play were borrowed from people or places the author had known ; Lady Queensberry , Lord Alfred Douglas 's mother , for example , lived at Bracknell . There is widespread agreement among Wilde scholars that the most important influence on the play was W. S. Gilbert 's 1877 farce Engaged ; Wilde borrowed from Gilbert not only several incidents but , in Russell Jackson 's phrase " the gravity of tone demanded by Gilbert of his actors " .
Wilde continually revised the text over the next months : no line was left untouched , and " in a play so economical with its language and effects , [ the revisions ] had serious consequences " . Sos Eltis describes Wilde 's revisions as a refined art at work : the earliest , longest handwritten drafts of the play labour over farcical incidents , broad puns , nonsense dialogue and conventional comic turns . In revising as he did , " Wilde transformed standard nonsense into the more systemic and disconcerting illogicality which characterises Earnest 's dialogue " . Richard Ellmann argues that Wilde had reached his artistic maturity and wrote this work more surely and rapidly than before .
Wilde hesitated about submitting the script to Alexander , worrying that it might be unsuitable for the St James 's Theatre , whose typical repertoire was relatively serious , and explaining that it had been written in response to a request for a play " with no real serious interest " . When Henry James 's Guy Domville failed , Alexander turned to Wilde and agreed to put on his play . Alexander began his usual meticulous preparations , interrogating the author on each line and planning stage movements with a toy theatre . In the course of these rehearsals Alexander asked Wilde to shorten the play from four acts to three . Wilde agreed and combined elements of the second and third acts . The largest cut was the removal of the character of Mr. Gribsby , a solicitor who comes from London to arrest the profligate " Ernest " ( i.e. , Jack ) for his unpaid dining bills . Algernon , who is posing as " Ernest " , will be led away to Holloway Jail unless he settles his accounts immediately . Jack finally agrees to pay for Ernest , everyone thinking that it is Algernon 's bill when in fact it is his own . The four @-@ act version was first played on the radio in a BBC production and is still sometimes performed . Peter Raby argues that the three @-@ act structure is more effective , and that the shorter original text is more theatrically resonant than the expanded published edition .
= = Productions = =
= = = Premiere = = =
The play was first produced at the St James 's Theatre on Valentine 's Day 1895 . It was freezing cold but Wilde arrived dressed in " florid sobriety " , wearing a green carnation . The audience , according to one report , " included many members of the great and good , former cabinet ministers and privy councillors , as well as actors , writers , academics , and enthusiasts " . Allan Aynesworth , who played Algernon Moncrieff , recalled to Hesketh Pearson that " In my fifty @-@ three years of acting , I never remember a greater triumph than [ that ] first night " . Aynesworth was himself " debonair and stylish " , and Alexander , who played Jack Worthing , " demure " .
The cast was :
John Worthing , J.P. — George Alexander
Algernon Moncrieff — Allan Aynesworth
Rev. Canon Chasuble , D.D. — H. H. Vincent
Merriman — Frank Dyall
Lane — F. Kinsey Peile
Lady Bracknell — Rose Leclercq
Hon. Gwendolen Fairfax — Irene Vanbrugh
Cecily Cardew — Evelyn Millard
Miss Prism — Mrs. George Canninge
The Marquess of Queensberry , the father of Wilde 's lover Lord Alfred Douglas ( who was on holiday in Algiers at the time ) , had planned to disrupt the play by throwing a bouquet of rotten vegetables at the playwright when he took his bow at the end of the show . Wilde and Alexander learned of the plan , and the latter cancelled Queensberry 's ticket and arranged for policemen to bar his entrance . Nevertheless , he continued harassing Wilde , who eventually launched a private prosecution against the peer for criminal libel , triggering a series of trials ending in Wilde 's imprisonment for gross indecency . Alexander tried , unsuccessfully , to save the production by removing Wilde 's name from the billing , but the play had to close after only 86 performances .
The play 's original Broadway production opened at the Empire Theatre on 22 April 1895 , but closed after sixteen performances . Its cast included William Faversham as Algy , Henry Miller as Jack , Viola Allen as Gwendolen , and Ida Vernon as Lady Bracknell . The Australian premiere was in Melbourne on 10 August 1895 , presented by Dion Boucicault , Jr. and Robert Brough , and the play was an immediate success . Wilde 's downfall in England did not affect the popularity of his plays in Australia .
= = = Critical reception = = =
In contrast to much theatre of the time , The Importance of Being Earnest 's light plot does not tackle serious social and political issues , something of which contemporary reviewers were wary . Though unsure of Wilde 's seriousness as a dramatist , they recognised the play 's cleverness , humour and popularity with audiences . George Bernard Shaw , for example , reviewed the play in the Saturday Review , arguing that comedy should touch as well as amuse , " I go to the theatre to be moved to laughter . " Later in a letter he said , the play , though " extremely funny " , was Wilde 's " first really heartless [ one ] " . In The World , William Archer wrote that he had enjoyed watching the play but found it to be empty of meaning , " What can a poor critic do with a play which raises no principle , whether of art or morals , creates its own canons and conventions , and is nothing but an absolutely wilful expression of an irrepressibly witty personality ? "
In The Speaker , A. B. Walkley admired the play and was one of few to see it as the culmination of Wilde 's dramatic career . He denied the term " farce " was derogatory , or even lacking in seriousness , and said " It is of nonsense all compact , and better nonsense , I think , our stage has not seen . " H. G. Wells , in an unsigned review for the Pall Mall Gazette , called Earnest one of the freshest comedies of the year , saying " More humorous dealing with theatrical conventions it would be difficult to imagine . " He also questioned whether people would fully see its message , " ... how Serious People will take this Trivial Comedy intended for their learning remains to be seen . No doubt seriously . " The play was so light @-@ hearted that many reviewers compared it to comic opera rather than drama . W. H. Auden later called it " a pure verbal opera " , and The Times commented , " The story is almost too preposterous to go without music . " Mary McCarthy , in Sights and Spectacles ( 1959 ) , however , and despite thinking the play extremely funny , would call it " a ferocious idyll " ; " depravity is the hero and the only character . "
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde 's most popular work and is continually revived . Max Beerbohm called the play Wilde 's " finest , most undeniably his own " , saying that in his other comedies — Lady Windermere 's Fan , A Woman of No Importance and An Ideal Husband — the plot , following the manner of Victorien Sardou , is unrelated to the theme of the work , while in Earnest the story is " dissolved " into the form of the play .
= = = Revivals = = =
Until after Wilde 's death in 1900 his name remained disgraced , and few discussed , let alone performed , his work in Britain . Alexander revived The Importance in a small theatre in Notting Hill , outside the West End , in 1901 ; in the same year he presented the piece on tour , playing Jack Worthing with a cast including the young Lilian Braithwaite as Cecily . The play returned to the West End when Alexander presented a revival at the St James 's in 1902 . Broadway revivals were mounted in 1902 and again in 1910 , each production running for six weeks .
A collected edition of Wilde 's works , published in 1908 and edited by Robert Ross , helped to restore his reputation as an author . Alexander presented another revival of The Importance at the St James 's in 1909 , when he and Aynesworth reprised their original roles ; the revival ran for 316 performances . Max Beerbohm said that the play was sure to become a classic of the English repertory , and that its humour was as fresh then as when it had been written , adding that the actors had " worn as well as the play " .
For a 1913 revival at the same theatre the young actors Gerald Ames and A. E. Matthews succeeded the creators as Jack and Algy . John Deverell as Jack and Margaret Scudamore as Lady Bracknell headed the cast in a 1923 production at the Haymarket Theatre . Many revivals in the first decades of the 20th century treated " the present " as the current year . It was not until the 1920s that the case for 1890s costumes was established ; as a critic in The Manchester Guardian put it , " Thirty years on , one begins to feel that Wilde should be done in the costume of his period — that his wit today needs the backing of the atmosphere that gave it life and truth . … Wilde 's glittering and complex verbal felicities go ill with the shingle and the short skirt . "
In Sir Nigel Playfair 's 1930 production at the Lyric , Hammersmith , John Gielgud played Jack to the Lady Bracknell of his aunt , Mabel Terry @-@ Lewis . Gielgud produced and starred in a production at the Globe ( now the Gielgud ) Theatre in 1939 , in a cast that included Edith Evans as Lady Bracknell , Joyce Carey as Gwendolen , Angela Baddeley as Cecily and Margaret Rutherford as Miss Prism . The Times considered the production the best since the original , and praised it for its fidelity to Wilde 's conception , its " airy , responsive ball @-@ playing quality . " Later in the same year Gielgud presented the work again , with Jack Hawkins as Algy , Gwen Ffrangcon @-@ Davies as Gwendolen and Peggy Ashcroft as Cecily , with Evans and Rutherford in their previous roles . The production was presented in several seasons during and after the Second World War , with mostly the same main players . During a 1946 season at the Haymarket the King and Queen attended a performance , which , as the journalist Geoffrey Wheatcroft put it , gave the play " a final accolade of respectability . " The production toured North America , and was successfully staged on Broadway in 1947 .
As Wilde 's work came to be read and performed again , it was The Importance of Being Earnest that received the most productions . By the time of its centenary the journalist Mark Lawson described it as " the second most known and quoted play in English after Hamlet . "
For Sir Peter Hall 's 1982 production at the National Theatre the cast included Judi Dench as Lady Bracknell , Martin Jarvis as Jack , Nigel Havers as Algy , Zoë Wanamaker as Gwendolen and Anna Massey as Miss Prism . Nicholas Hytner 's 1993 production at the Aldwych Theatre , starring Maggie Smith , had occasional references to the supposed gay subtext .
In 2005 the Abbey Theatre , Dublin , produced the play with an all @-@ male cast ; it also featured Wilde as a character — the play opens with him drinking in a Parisian café , dreaming of his play . The Melbourne Theatre Company staged a production in December 2011 with Geoffrey Rush as Lady Bracknell .
In 2011 the Roundabout Theatre Company produced a Broadway revival based on the 2009 Stratford Shakespeare Festival production featuring Brian Bedford as director and as Lady Bracknell . It opened at the American Airlines Theatre on 13 January and ran until 3 July 2011 . The cast also included Dana Ivey as Miss Prism , Paxton Whitehead as Canon Chasuble , Santino Fontana as Algernon , Paul O 'Brien as Lane , Charlotte Parry as Cecily , David Furr as Jack and Sara Topham as Gwendolen . It was nominated for three Tony Awards .
The play was also presented internationally , in Singapore , in October 2004 , by the British Theatre Playhouse , and the same company brought it to London 's Greenwich Theatre in April 2005 .
= = Synopsis = =
The play is set in " The Present " ( i.e. 1895 ) .
= = = Act I = = =
Algernon Moncrieff 's flat in Half Moon Street , W
The play opens with Algernon Moncrieff , an idle young gentleman , receiving his best friend , John Worthing , whom he knows as Ernest . Ernest has come from the country to propose to Algernon 's cousin , Gwendolen Fairfax . Algernon , however , refuses his consent until Ernest explains why his cigarette case bears the inscription , " From little Cecily , with her fondest love to her dear Uncle Jack . " ' Ernest ' is forced to admit to living a double life . In the country , he assumes a serious attitude for the benefit of his young ward , the heiress Cecily Cardew , and goes by the name of John ( or , as a nickname , Jack ) , while pretending that he must worry about a wastrel younger brother named Ernest in London . In the city , meanwhile , he assumes the identity of the libertine Ernest . Algernon confesses a similar deception : he pretends to have an invalid friend named Bunbury in the country , whom he can " visit " whenever he wishes to avoid an unwelcome social obligation . Jack refuses to tell Algernon the location of his country estate .
Gwendolen and her formidable mother Lady Bracknell now call on Algernon who distracts Lady Bracknell in another room while Jack proposes to Gwendolen . She accepts , but seems to love him very largely for his professed name of Ernest . Jack accordingly resolves to himself to be rechristened " Ernest " . Discovering them in this intimate exchange , Lady Bracknell interviews Jack as a prospective suitor . Horrified to learn that he was adopted after being discovered as a baby in a handbag at Victoria Station , she refuses him and forbids further contact with her daughter . Gwendolen , though , manages covertly to promise to him her undying love . As Jack gives her his address in the country , Algernon surreptitiously notes it on the cuff of his sleeve : Jack 's revelation of his pretty and wealthy young ward has motivated his friend to meet her .
= = = Act II = = =
The Garden of the Manor House , Woolton
Cecily is studying with her governess , Miss Prism . Algernon arrives , pretending to be Ernest Worthing , and soon charms Cecily . Long fascinated by Uncle Jack 's hitherto absent black sheep brother , she is predisposed to fall for Algernon in his role of Ernest ( a name she , like Gwendolen , is apparently particularly fond of ) . Therefore , Algernon , too , plans for the rector , Dr. Chasuble , to rechristen him " Ernest " .
Jack , meanwhile , has decided to abandon his double life . He arrives in full mourning and announces his brother 's death in Paris of a severe chill , a story undermined by Algernon 's presence in the guise of Ernest .
Gwendolen now enters , having run away from home . During the temporary absence of the two men , she meets Cecily , each woman indignantly declaring that she is the one engaged to " Ernest " . When Jack and Algernon reappear , their deceptions are exposed .
= = = Act III = = =
Morning @-@ Room at the Manor House , Woolton
Arriving in pursuit of her daughter , Lady Bracknell is astonished to be told that Algernon and Cecily are engaged . The revelation of Cecily 's trust fund soon dispels Lady Bracknell 's initial doubts over the young lady 's suitability , but any engagement is forbidden by her guardian Jack : he will consent only if Lady Bracknell agrees to his own union with Gwendolen — something she declines to do .
The impasse is broken by the return of Miss Prism , whom Lady Bracknell recognises as the person who , twenty @-@ eight years earlier , as a family nursemaid , had taken a baby boy for a walk in a perambulator ( baby carriage ) and never returned . Challenged , Miss Prism explains that she had absentmindedly put the manuscript of a novel she was writing in the perambulator , and the baby in a handbag , which she had left at Victoria Station . Jack produces the very same handbag , showing that he is the lost baby , the elder son of Lady Bracknell 's late sister , and thus indeed Algernon 's elder brother . Having acquired such respectable relations , he is acceptable as a suitor for Gwendolen after all .
Gwendolen , though , still insists that she can only love a man named Ernest . What is her fiancé 's real first name ? Lady Bracknell informs Jack that , as the first @-@ born , he would have been named after his father , General Moncrieff . Jack examines the army lists and discovers that his father 's name — and hence his own real name — was in fact Ernest . Pretence was reality all along . As the happy couples embrace — Jack and Gwendolen , Algernon and Cecily , and even Dr. Chasuble and Miss Prism — Lady Bracknell complains to her newfound relative : " My nephew , you seem to be displaying signs of triviality . " " On the contrary , Aunt Augusta " , he replies , " I 've now realised for the first time in my life the vital importance of being Earnest . "
= = Themes = =
= = = Triviality = = =
Arthur Ransome described The Importance ... as the most trivial of Wilde 's society plays , and the only one that produces " that peculiar exhilaration of the spirit by which we recognise the beautiful . " " It is " , he wrote , " precisely because it is consistently trivial that it is not ugly . " Ellmann says that The Importance of Being Earnest touched on many themes Wilde had been building since the 1880s — the languor of aesthetic poses was well established and Wilde takes it as a starting point for the two protagonists . While Salome , An Ideal Husband and The Picture of Dorian Gray had dwelt on more serious wrongdoing , vice in Earnest is represented by Algy 's craving for cucumber sandwiches . Wilde told Robert Ross that the play 's theme was " That we should treat all trivial things in life very seriously , and all serious things of life with a sincere and studied triviality . " The theme is hinted at in the play 's ironic title , and " earnestness " is repeatedly alluded to in the dialogue , Algernon says in Act II , " one has to be serious about something if one is to have any amusement in life " but goes on to reproach Jack for ' being serious about everything ' " . Blackmail and corruption had haunted the double lives of Dorian Gray and Sir Robert Chiltern ( in An Ideal Husband ) , but in Earnest the protagonists ' duplicity ( Algernon 's " bunburying " and Worthing 's double life as Jack and Ernest ) is undertaken for more innocent purposes — largely to avoid unwelcome social obligations . While much theatre of the time tackled serious social and political issues , Earnest is superficially about nothing at all . It " refuses to play the game " of other dramatists of the period , for instance Bernard Shaw , who used their characters to draw audiences to grander ideals .
= = = As a satire of society = = =
The play repeatedly mocks Victorian traditions and social customs , marriage and the pursuit of love in particular . In Victorian times earnestness was considered to be the over @-@ riding societal value , originating in religious attempts to reform the lower classes , it spread to the upper ones too throughout the century . The play 's very title , with its mocking paradox ( serious people are so because they do not see trivial comedies ) , introduces the theme , it continues in the drawing room discussion , " Yes , but you must be serious about it . I hate people who are not serious about meals . It is so shallow of them , " says Algernon in Act 1 ; allusions are quick and from multiple angles .
Wilde managed both to engage with and to mock the genre , while providing social commentary and offering reform . The men follow traditional matrimonial rites , whereby suitors admit their weaknesses to their prospective brides , but the foibles they excuse are ridiculous , and the farce is built on an absurd confusion of a book and a baby . When Jack apologises to Gwendolen during his marriage proposal it is for not being wicked :
JACK : Gwendolen , it is a terrible thing for a man to find out suddenly that all his life he has been speaking nothing but the truth . Can you forgive me ?
GWENDOLEN : I can . For I feel that you are sure to change .
In turn , both Gwendolen and Cecily have the ideal of marrying a man named Ernest , a popular and respected name at the time . Gwendolen , quite unlike her mother 's methodical analysis of John Worthing 's suitability as a husband , places her entire faith in a Christian name , declaring in Act I , " The only really safe name is Ernest " . This is an opinion shared by Cecily in Act II , " I pity any poor married woman whose husband is not called Ernest " and they indignantly declare that they have been deceived when they find out the men 's real names .
Wilde embodied society 's rules and rituals artfully into Lady Bracknell : minute attention to the details of her style created a comic effect of assertion by restraint . In contrast to her encyclopaedic knowledge of the social distinctions of London 's street names , Jack 's obscure parentage is subtly evoked . He defends himself against her " A handbag ? " with the clarification , " The Brighton Line " . At the time , Victoria Station consisted of two separate but adjacent terminal stations sharing the same name . To the east was the ramshackle LC & D Railway , on the west the up @-@ market LB & SCR — the Brighton Line , which went to Worthing , the fashionable , expensive town the gentleman who found baby Jack was travelling to at the time ( and after which Jack was named ) .
= = = Suggested homosexual subtext = = =
It has been argued that the play 's themes of duplicity and ambivalence are inextricably bound up with Wilde 's homosexuality , and that the play exhibits a " flickering presence @-@ absence of … homosexual desire " . On re @-@ reading the play after his release from prison , Wilde said : " It was extraordinary reading the play over . How I used to toy with that Tiger Life . " As one scholar has put it , the absolute necessity for homosexuals of the period to " need a public mask is a factor contributing to the satire on social disguise . "
The use of the name Earnest may have been a homosexual in @-@ joke . In 1892 , three years before Wilde wrote the play , John Gambril Nicholson had published the book of pederastic poetry Love In Earnest . The sonnet Of Boys ' Names included the verse : " Though Frank may ring like silver bell / And Cecil softer music claim / They cannot work the miracle / – ' Tis Ernest sets my heart a @-@ flame . " The word " earnest " may also have been a code @-@ word for homosexual , as in : " Is he earnest ? " , in the same way that " Is he so ? " and " Is he musical ? " were employed .
Sir Donald Sinden , an actor who had met two of the play 's original cast ( Irene Vanbrugh and Allan Aynesworth ) , and Lord Alfred Douglas , wrote to The Times to dispute suggestions that " Earnest " held any sexual connotations :
Although they had ample opportunity , at no time did any of them even hint that " Earnest " was a synonym for homosexual , or that " bunburying " may have implied homosexual sex . The first time I heard it mentioned was in the 1980s and I immediately consulted Sir John Gielgud whose own performance of Jack Worthing in the same play was legendary and whose knowledge of theatrical lore was encyclopaedic . He replied in his ringing tones : " No @-@ No ! Nonsense , absolute nonsense : I would have known " .
A number of theories have also been put forward to explain the derivation of Bunbury , and Bunburying , which are used in the play to imply a secretive double life . It may have derived from Henry Shirley Bunbury , a hypochondriacal acquaintance of Wilde 's youth . Another suggestion , put forward in 1913 by Aleister Crowley , who knew Wilde , was that Bunbury was a combination word : that Wilde had once taken train to Banbury , met a schoolboy there , and arranged a second secret meeting with him at Sunbury .
= = Dramatic analysis = =
= = = Use of language = = =
While Wilde had long been famous for dialogue and his use of language , Raby ( 1988 ) argues that he achieved a unity and mastery in Earnest that was unmatched in his other plays , except perhaps Salomé . While his earlier comedies suffer from an unevenness resulting from the thematic clash between the trivial and the serious , Earnest achieves a pitch @-@ perfect style that allows these to dissolve . There are three different registers detectable in the play . The dandyish insouciance of Jack and Algernon — established early with Algernon 's exchange with his manservant — betrays an underlying unity despite their differing attitudes . The formidable pronouncements of Lady Bracknell are as startling for her use of hyperbole and rhetorical extravagance as for her disconcerting opinions . In contrast , the speech of Dr. Chasuble and Miss Prism is distinguished by " pedantic precept " and " idiosyncratic diversion " . Furthermore , the play is full of epigrams and paradoxes . Max Beerbohm described it as littered with " chiselled apophthegms — witticisms unrelated to action or character " , of which he found half a dozen to be of the highest order .
Lady Bracknell 's line , " A handbag ? " , has been called one of the most malleable in English drama , lending itself to interpretations ranging from incredulous or scandalised to baffled . Edith Evans , both on stage and in the 1952 film , delivered the line loudly in a mixture of horror , incredulity and condescension . Stockard Channing , in the Gaiety Theatre , Dublin in 2010 , hushed the line , in a critic 's words , " with a barely audible ' A handbag ? ' , rapidly swallowed up with a sharp intake of breath . An understated take , to be sure , but with such a well @-@ known play , packed full of witticisms and aphorisms with a life of their own , it 's the little things that make
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" never with conspicuous success " . The earliest such version was a 1927 American show entitled Oh Earnest . The journalist Mark Bostridge comments , " The libretto of a 1957 musical adaptation , Half in Earnest , deposited in the British Library , is scarcely more encouraging . The curtain rises on Algy strumming away at the piano , singing ' I can play Chopsticks , Lane ' . Other songs include — almost predictably — ' A Bunburying I Must Go ' . "
Gerald Barry created the 2011 opera , The Importance of Being Earnest , commissioned by the Los Angeles Philharmonic and the Barbican Centre in London . It was premiered in Los Angeles in 2011 . The stage premiere was given by the Opéra national de Lorraine in Nancy , France in 2013 .
= = = Radio and television = = =
There have been many radio versions of the play . In 1925 the BBC broadcast an adaptation with Hesketh Pearson as Jack Worthing . Further broadcasts of the play followed in 1927 and 1936 . In 1977 , BBC Radio 4 broadcast the four @-@ act version of the play , with Fabia Drake as Lady Bracknell , Richard Pasco as Jack , Jeremy Clyde as Algy , Maurice Denham as Canon Chasuble , Sylvia Coleridge as Miss Prism , Barbara Leigh @-@ Hunt as Gwendolen and Prunella Scales as Cecily . The production was later released on CD .
To commemorate the centenary of the first performance of the play , Radio 4 broadcast a new adaptation on 13 February 1995 ; directed by Glyn Dearman , it featured Judi Dench as Lady Bracknell , Michael Hordern as Lane , Michael Sheen as Jack Worthing , Martin Clunes as Algernon Moncrieff , John Moffatt as Canon Chasuble , Miriam Margolyes as Miss Prism , Samantha Bond as Gwendolen and Amanda Root as Cecily . The production was later issued on audio cassette .
On 13 December 2000 , BBC Radio 3 broadcast a new adaptation directed by Howard Davies starring Geraldine McEwan as Lady Bracknell , Simon Russell Beale as Jack Worthing , Julian Wadham as Algernon Moncrieff , Geoffrey Palmer as Canon Chasuble , Celia Imrie as Miss Prism , Victoria Hamilton as Gwendolen and Emma Fielding as Cecily , with music composed by Dominic Muldowney . The production was released on audio cassette .
A 1964 commercial television adaptation starred Ian Carmichael , Patrick Macnee , Susannah York , Fenella Fielding , Pamela Brown and Irene Handl .
BBC television transmissions of the play have included a 1974 Play of the Month version starring Coral Browne as Lady Bracknell with Michael Jayston , Julian Holloway , Gemma Jones and Celia Bannerman . Stuart Burge directed another adaptation in 1986 with a cast including Gemma Jones , Alec McCowen , Paul McGann and Joan Plowright .
It was adapted for Australian TV in 1957 .
= = = Commercial recordings = = =
Gielgud 's performance is preserved on an EMI audio recording dating from 1952 , which also captures Edith Evans 's Lady Bracknell . The cast also includes Roland Culver ( Algy ) , Jean Cadell ( Miss Prism ) , Pamela Brown ( Gwendolen ) and Celia Johnson ( Cecily ) .
Other audio recordings include a " Theatre Masterworks " version from 1953 , directed and narrated by Margaret Webster , with a cast including Maurice Evans , Lucile Watson and Mildred Natwick ; a 1989 version by California Artists Radio Theatre , featuring Dan O 'Herlihy Jeanette Nolan , Les Tremayne and Richard Erdman ; and one by L.A. Theatre Works issued in 2009 , featuring Charles Busch , James Marsters and Andrea Bowen .
= Lloyd Mathews =
Sir Lloyd William Mathews , GCMG , CB ( 7 March 1850 – 11 October 1901 ) was a British naval officer , politician and abolitionist . Mathews joined the Royal Navy as a cadet at the age of 13 and progressed through the ranks to lieutenant . He was involved with the Third Anglo @-@ Ashanti War of 1873 – 4 , afterwards being stationed in East Africa for the suppression of the slave trade . In 1877 he was seconded from the navy to Sultan Barghash of Zanzibar in order to form a European @-@ style army ; he would remain in the employment of the government of Zanzibar for the rest of his life . His army quickly reached 6 @,@ 300 men and was used in several expeditions to suppress the slave trade and rebellions against the Zanzibar government .
Mathews retired from the Royal Navy in 1881 and was appointed Brigadier @-@ General of Zanzibar . There followed more expeditions to the African mainland , including a failed attempt to stop German expansion in East Africa . In October 1891 Mathews was appointed First Minister to the Zanzibar government , a position in which he was " irremovable by the sultan " . During this time Mathews was a keen abolitionist and promoted this cause to the Sultans he worked with . This resulted in the prohibiting of the slave trade in Zanzibar 's dominions in 1890 and the abolition of slavery in 1897 . Mathews was appointed the British Consul @-@ General for East Africa in 1891 but declined to take up the position , remaining in Zanzibar instead . Mathews and his troops also played a key role in the ending of the Anglo @-@ Zanzibar War of 1896 which erupted out of an attempt to bypass the requirement that new Sultans must be vetted by the British consul . During his time as first minister Mathews continued to be involved with the military and was part of two large campaigns , one to Witu and another to Mwele .
Mathews was decorated by several governments , receiving appointments as a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George , Companion of the Order of the Bath and as a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George from the British government and membership in the Prussian Order of the Crown . Zanzibar also rewarded him and he was a member of the Grand Order of Hamondieh and a first class member of the Order of the Brilliant Star of Zanzibar . Mathews died of malaria in Zanzibar on 11 October 1901 .
= = Early life and career = =
Mathews was born at Funchal on Madeira on 7 March 1850 . His father , Captain William Matthews was Welsh , and his mother Jane Wallis Penfold , was the daughter of William Penfold and Sarah Gilbert . Her sister , Augusta Jane Robley née Penfold was the author of a famous book about the flora and fauna of Madeira , which is now in the Natural History Museum . Mathews became a cadet of the Royal Navy in 1863 and was appointed a midshipman on 23 September 1866 . From 1868 he was stationed in the Mediterranean but his first active service was during the Third Anglo @-@ Ashanti War of 1873 – 4 where he qualified for the campaign medal . He was promoted to lieutenant on 31 March 1874 . On 27 August 1875 Mathews was posted to HMS London , a depot ship and the Royal Navy headquarters for East Africa , to assist in the suppression of the slave trade in the area . Whilst onboard he drilled his own troops , captured several slave dhows and was commended for his actions by the Admiralty .
= = Commander in Chief of Zanzibar = =
In August 1877 , Mathews was seconded from the Navy to Sultan Barghash of Zanzibar to form a European @-@ style army which could be used to enforce Zanzibar 's control over its mainland possessions . The army had traditionally been composed entirely of Arabs and Persians but Mathews opened up recruitment to the African majority on the island and had 300 recruits in training by the end of the year . In addition , Mathews employed some unorthodox recruitment methods such as purchasing slaves from their masters , using inmates from the prison and recruiting from Africans rescued from the slavers . In June 1877 , at the instigation of John Kirk , the explorer and friend of the Sultan , the British government sent a shipment of 500 modern rifles and ammunition as a gift with which to arm the troops . Mathews introduced a new uniform for the troops consisting of a red cap , short black jackets and white trousers for the enlisted ranks and dark blue frock coats and trousers with gold and silver lace for the Arab officers . The latter was possibly modelled on the Royal Navy officers uniform with which he was familiar . The army grew quickly ; by the 1880s Mathews would command 1 @,@ 300 men , his forces eventually numbering 1 @,@ 000 regulars and 5 @,@ 000 irregulars .
One of the first tasks for the new army was to suppress the smuggling of slaves from Pangani on the mainland to the island of Pemba , north of Zanzibar . The troops completed this mission , capturing several slavers and hindering the trade . Mathews retired from the Royal Navy in June 1881 and was appointed Brigadier @-@ General of Zanzibar . In 1880 , the Sultan dispatched a military force under Mathews to bring his unruly African mainland territories under control . Mathews ' expedition was initially intended to reach Unyanyembe but his men refused to march inland and , when made to do so , deserted in large numbers . The expedition ended instead at Mamboya where a 60 @-@ man garrison was established . This had been reduced to a mere handful of men by the mid @-@ 1880s but the expedition proved that the Sultan was serious about maintaining control of all of his possessions . Mathews ' men were also involved in several expeditions to halt the land @-@ based slave trade which had developed once the seas became too heavily policed for the traders .
In 1881 Mathews ' old vessel , the HMS London , was captained by Charles J Brownrigg . This vessel and her crew made several patrols aimed at hindering the slave trade using smaller steam boats for the actual pursuits and captures . On December 3 , 1881 , they caught up with a slave dhow captained by Hindi bin Hattam . This dhow had around 100 slaves on board and was transporting them between Pemba and Zanzibar . Captain Brownrigg led a boarding party to release the slaves but bin Hattam 's men then attacked the sailors , killing Brownrigg and his party before sailing away . Mathews led a force to Wete on Pemba and , after a short battle , took a mortally wounded bin Hattem prisoner before returning to Zanzibar .
Mathews returned to the African mainland territories once more in 1884 when he landed with a force which intended to establish further garrisons there to dissuade German territorial claims . This attempt ultimately failed when five German warships steamed into Zanzibar Town harbour and threatened the Sultan into signing away the territories which would later form German East Africa . Further territories were ceded to the German East Africa Company in 1888 but unrest amongst the locals against them prevented them from taking control and Mathews was dispatched with 100 men to restore order . Finding around 8 @,@ 000 people gathered against the German administrators Mathews was forced to return with his men to Zanzibar . He landed once again with more troops but found himself subject to death threats and that his troops would not obey his orders and so returned again to Zanzibar .
= = First Minister = =
In October 1891 , upon the formation of the first constitutional government in Zanzibar , Mathews was appointed First Minister , despite some hostility from Sultan Ali bin Said . In this capacity Mathews was " irremovable by the sultan " and answerable only to the Sultan and the British Consul . His position was so strong that one missionary on the island is quoted as saying that his powers defied " analytical examination " and that Mathews really could say " L 'état est moi " ( I am the state ) . Mathews was also known as the " Strong man of Zanzibar " . The principal departments of government were mostly run by Britons or British Indians and Mathews ' approval was required before they could be removed from office . Mathews was rewarded by the Zanzibar government for his role with his appointment as a first class member of the Order of the Brilliant Star of Zanzibar , which he was granted licence by Queen Victoria to accept and wear on 17 May 1886 . Mathews used his position to suppress slavery in the country and in 1889 convinced the Sultan to issue a decree purchasing the freedom of all slaves who had taken refuge in his dominions and , from 1890 , the prohibiting the slave trade . On 1 February 1891 Mathews was appointed Her Majesty 's Commissioner and Consul @-@ General to the British Sphere of Influence in East Africa . He never took up the post and instead chose to remain in Zanzibar .
Mathews was rewarded for his service in Zanzibar by the British government which appointed him a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George in 1880 and a Companion of the Order of the Bath on 24 May 1889 . Despite becoming renowned in East Africa as a man who ran a fair administration and was strict with criminals , unhappiness with effective British rule and his halting of the slave trade led some Arabs to petition the Sultan for his removal in 1892 . In 1893 Mathews purchased the island of Changuu for the government . He intended it to be used as a prison but it never housed prisoners and was instead used to quarantine yellow fever cases before its present use as a conservation area for giant tortoises . Mathews was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in 1894 . He was also awarded membership of the Order of the Crown by the German government .
Matters came to a head when Khalid bin Barghash attempted to take control of the palace in Zanzibar Town upon the death of his uncle in August 1896 , despite failing to gain the consent of the British consul there . Mathews opposed this succession and , with British agreement , called up 900 soldiers in an attempt to prevent it . This situation eventually led to the Anglo @-@ Zanzibar War and Mathews , with the support of Admiral Harry Rawson and five vessels of the Royal Navy , bombarded the palace and secured the end of Khalid 's administration . Mathews ' helped to arrange the succession of a pro @-@ British Sultan , Hamoud bin Mohammed , as Khalid 's successor . Mathews continued his reforms after the war , abolishing slavery in 1897 and establishing new farms to grow produce using Western techniques . He was appointed a member of the Grand Order of Hamondieh of Zanzibar and was permitted to accept and wear the decoration on 25 August 1897 .
= = Military expeditions = =
= = = Mwele = = =
In addition to the smaller @-@ scale expeditions described earlier , Mathews embarked on two much larger expeditions to the African mainland during his tenure as first minister , the first at Mwele . The initial rebellion in the area had been led by Mbaruk bin Rashid at Gazi , which Mathews had put down with 1 @,@ 200 men in 1882 . However , in 1895 Mbaruk 's nephew , Mbaruk bin Rashid , refused to acknowledge the appointment of a new leader at Takaungu . This led to open rebellion at Konjoro in February of that year when the younger Mbaruk attacked Zanzibari troops under Arthur Raikes , one of Mathews ' officers . Mathews was part of an Anglo @-@ Zanzibari expedition sent to quell it , which consisted of 310 British sailors , 50 Royal Marines , 54 Sudanese and 164 Zanzibari troops . Konjoro was destroyed and the leaders fled to Gazi where the older Mbaruk failed to turn them over . Another force , under Admiral Rawson , with 400 British marines and sailors , was sent after them . This further expedition failed to capture the ringleaders and a third expedition was organised by Rawson with 220 sailors , 80 marines , 60 Sudanese and 50 Zanzibaris , which destroyed Mwele . During the latter action Mathews was wounded in the shoulder .
= = = Witu = = =
Following the death of a German logger who had been operating illegally , the Sultan of Zanzibar and the British government dispatched an expedition on 20 October 1890 to bring the Sultan of Witu to justice . Nine warships and three transports carrying 800 sailors and marines , 150 Imperial British East Africa Company ( IBEA ) Indian police , 200 Zanzibari and 50 Sudanese troops were sent , defeating the Sultan and establishing a British protectorate . The IBEA was given control of the area and established a force of 250 Indian police to maintain the peace . The police were withdrawn in July 1893 following threats of violence from the new Sultan of Witu , Oman , and another expedition was dispatched to the region . This consisted of three warships : HMS Blanche , HMS Sparrow and the Zanzibari ship HHS Barawa . The latter carried Mathews with 125 Askaris and 50 Sudanese under Brigadier @-@ General Hatch of the Zanzibar army .
Mathews and an escort force went to Witu where , on 31 July , they removed the flag of the IBEA company and replaced it with the red flag of Zanzibar , before destroying several villages and causing Oman to retreat into the forests . The British troops then withdrew , having suffered heavily from malaria , but the Sudanese and Zanzibari troops remained . A further expedition was sent of 140 sailors and 85 other troops but Oman died soon after and a more pliable sultan , Omar bin Hamid , was appointed to govern on behalf of Zanzibar , bringing the affair to a close . In return for this action , Mathews received the British East and West Africa campaign medal .
= = Later life = =
Mathews died of malaria in Zanzibar on 11 October 1901 and was buried with full military honours in the British cemetery outside Zanzibar Town . His successor as first minister was A.S. Rogers . Changuu island , which Mathews bought for a prison , now has a restaurant named in his honour and also a church . Mathews House , at the Western end of Zanzibar Town , is also named for him .
= HMS Boreas ( H77 ) =
HMS Boreas was a B @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy around 1930 . Initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , she was transferred to the Home Fleet in 1936 . The ship then patrolled Spanish waters enforcing the arms blockade during the first year of the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 39 . She spent most of World War II on convoy escort duties in the English Channel and the North Atlantic , based at Dover , Gibraltar , and Freetown , Sierra Leone . Boreas also served two brief tours with the Mediterranean Fleet and participated in Operation Husky , the 1943 Allied invasion of Sicily . She was loaned to the Royal Hellenic Navy the next year after conversion into an escort destroyer . She was renamed Salamis and served in the Aegean for the rest of the war . Salamis became a training ship after the war until she was returned to Britain and scrapped in 1951 .
= = Description = =
Boreas displaced 1 @,@ 360 long tons ( 1 @,@ 380 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 790 long tons ( 1 @,@ 820 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 32 feet 3 inches ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 3 inches ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . Boreas carried a maximum of 390 long tons ( 400 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 134 officers and enlisted men , although it increased to 142 during wartime .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Boreas had two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on a platform between her funnels . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began . The ship was fitted with a Type 119 ASDIC set to detect submarines through sound waves beamed into the water that would reflect off the submarine .
By October 1940 , the ship 's AA armament was increased when the rear set of torpedo tubes was replaced by a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ( 12 @-@ pounder ) AA gun and ' Y ' gun was removed to compensate for the additional depth charges added . Boreas was converted to an escort destroyer in late 1943 with the replacement of the 12 @-@ pounder high @-@ angle gun with additional depth charge stowage . The 2 @-@ pounder mounts were replaced during the war by 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon autocannon . Four additional Oerlikon guns were added in the forward superstructure for a total of six guns .
= = Construction and service = =
The ship was ordered on 22 March 1929 from Palmer 's at Jarrow , under the 1928 Naval Programme . She was laid down on 22 July 1929 , and launched on 11 June 1930 , as the fourth RN ship to carry this name . Boreas was completed on 21 February 1931 at a cost of £ 221 @,@ 156 , excluding items supplied by the Admiralty such as guns , ammunition and communications equipment . After her commissioning , she was assigned to the 4th Destroyer Flotilla with the Mediterranean Fleet until September 1936 when it was transferred to Home Fleet . Her service in the Mediterranean was uneventful until shortly before she returned home when Boreas evacuated civilians at the start of the Spanish Civil War in July 1936 . After a refit at Portsmouth that lasted until 26 September , she made multiple deployments off the coast of Spain in 1937 and 1938 . On 6 March 1938 , She rescued survivors of the torpedoed Nationalist heavy cruiser Baleares off Cartagena , Spain with the destroyer Kempenfelt . Upon her return the following month , the ship began a refit at Portsmouth that lasted until 11 June . Boreas escorted the royal yacht Victoria and Albert during the Royal Tour of Scotland from 26 July to 4 August . The ship escorted the battleship Revenge and the ocean liner Aquitania in September during the Munich Crisis . She remained with the 4th Destroyer Flotilla until April 1939 . Boreas briefly served as a plane guard for the aircraft carriers of the Home Fleet later that year .
The ship was assigned to the 19th Destroyer Flotilla on the start of the war and spent the first six months on escort and patrol duties in the English Channel and North Sea . While assisting the damaged minesweeper Sphinx on 4 February 1940 in the Moray Firth , Boreas 's stern was damaged and she required repairs that lasted until the following month . The ship was attached to the 12th Destroyer Flotilla on 29 March until she was damaged in a collision with her sister ship Brilliant on 15 May . Her repairs lasted until 19 June and Boreas was assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla at Dover upon their completion . On 25 July , the ship engaged German E @-@ boats off Dover Harbour together with Brilliant and was badly damaged by German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers after she was ordered to withdraw . Her bridge was hit twice by bombs that killed one officer and twenty crewmen . Boreas was under repair at Millwall Dock until 23 January 1941 ; she was lightly damaged by bomb splinters on 19 January . Around 1941 , she was fitted with a Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar .
After working up , the ship was briefly assigned to Western Approaches Command on escort duties before she was transferred to the 18th Destroyer Flotilla at Freetown , Sierra Leone , where she arrived on 28 April . Boreas remained there until she joined Convoy HG 70 on 10 August at Gibraltar . The ship rescued survivors from four ships and returned them to Gibraltar on 25 August . She received a lengthy refit at South Shields from 19 September to 4 January 1942 , after which rejoined the 18th Destroyer Flotilla on 25 January .
Boreas remained on escort duty in the Eastern Atlantic until she arrived in Alexandria , Egypt on 11 November after escorting a convoy around the Cape of Good Hope . She was immediately assigned to escort the ships of Operation Stoneage that relieved the Siege of Malta . The ship remained in the Mediterranean until January 1943 before she was briefly assigned to the 13th Destroyer Flotilla at Gibraltar . Boreas returned to Freetown in February and remained there until June when she was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in preparation for Operation Husky . She was converted into an escort destroyer in Liverpool from September 1943 to February 1944 . As part of the conversion , a Type 271 target indication radar was installed above the bridge that replaced her director @-@ control tower and rangefinder and her Type 286 radar was replaced by a Type 290 .
The ship was loaned to the Royal Hellenic Navy on 10 February and recommissioned by them on 25 March as Salamis . She was damaged while working up at Scapa Flow and was under repair at Hull from 28 April to 13 June . Salamis was assigned to escort duty at Gibraltar until October when she was transferred to the Aegean where she served with the 12th ( Greek ) Destroyer Flotilla for the rest of the war . The ship was used as a training ship after the war until she was returned to the Royal Navy at Malta on 9 October 1951 . Salamis arrived at Rosyth under tow on 15 April 1952 to be broken up by Metal Industries , Limited .
= Kaimanawa horse =
Kaimanawa horses are a population of feral horses in New Zealand that are descended from domestic horses released in the 19th and 20th centuries . They are known for their hardiness and quiet temperament . The New Zealand government strictly controls the population to protect the habitat in which they live , which includes several endangered species of plants . The varying heritage gives the breed a wide range of heights , body patterns and colours . They are usually well @-@ muscled , sure @-@ footed and tough .
Horses were first reported in the Kaimanawa Range in 1876 , although the first horses had been brought into New Zealand in 1814 . The feral herds grew as horses escaped and were released from sheep stations and cavalry bases . Members of the herd were recaptured by locals for use as riding horses , as well as being caught for their meat , hair and hides . The herd declined as large scale farming and forestry operations encroached on their ranges , and only around 174 horses were known to exist by 1979 . The Kaimanawa herd was protected by the New Zealand government in 1981 , and there were 1 @,@ 576 horses in the herd by 1994 . A small , mostly unmanaged population also exists on the Aupouri Peninsula at the northern tip of the North Island . Roundups have been carried out annually since 1993 to manage the size of the herd , removing around 2 @,@ 800 horses altogether . The Kaimanawa population is listed as a herd of special genetic value by the United Nations ' Food and Agricultural Organization , and several studies have been conducted on the herd dynamics and habits of the breed .
= = History = =
The first horses were introduced to New Zealand by Protestant missionary Reverend Samuel Marsden in December 1814 , and wild horses were first reported in the Kaimanawa Range in central North Island of New Zealand in 1876 . The Kaimanawa breed descended from domestic horses that were released in the late 19th century and early 20th century in the middle of the North Island around the Kaimanawa mountains . Between 1858 and 1875 , Major George Gwavas Carlyon imported Exmoor ponies to Hawkes Bay and crossed them with local stock to produce the Carlyon pony . These Carlyon ponies were later crossed with two Welsh stallions , Kinarth Caesar and Comet , imported by Sir Donald McLean , and a breed known as the Comet resulted . At some point during the 1870s , McLean released a Comet stallion and several mares on the Kaingaroa Plains and the bloodline apparently became part of the wild Kaimanawa population . Other horses were added to the bloodline through escapes and releases from local sheep stations and from cavalry units at Waiouru that were threatened with a strangles epidemic . It is also thought that in the 1960s Nicholas Koreneff released an Arabian stallion into the Argo Valley region .
Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries , horses were harvested from the feral herds and used as riding and stock horses , as well as being used for their meat , hair and hides . Originally there were many herds that roamed land owned by the British Crown and the native Māori , but many were eradicated with the intensification of large scale farming and forestry operations combined with increased mechanization that decreased the need for stock horses . Kaimanawa horses today have the highest amount of genetic similarity with the Thoroughbred and other Thoroughbred cross breeds .
Pressure from land development and an encroaching human population reduced the range and the number of the Kaimanawa horses , and in 1979 it was found that only about 174 horses remained . Starting in 1981 , the Kaimanawa population , range size , and herd movements began to be officially measured , and a protected area was formed for the breed in the Waiouru Military Training Area . Legislative protection was similar to the kiwi and other native species . There was a rapid increase in the herd size following the protection of the breed , and 1 @,@ 576 horses were known to exist in the area by 1994 . There is also a small population of horses on the Aupouri Peninsula at the northern tip of the North Island , which is mostly unmanaged by the New Zealand government . In 2008 , the Kaimanawa herds were the focus of a novel called Kaimanawa Princess , by Dianne Haworth .
= = Breed characteristics = =
Many characteristics of the Comet type are said to be shown in the Kaimanawa horses today , although the varied gene input has produced a wide range of sizes , colours , and body types among the wild horses . The Kaimanawa breed varies widely in general appearance , with heights ranging between 12 @.@ 2 and 15 hands ( 50 and 60 inches , 127 and 152 cm ) high . Any coat colour or pattern marking is acceptable . They are usually well @-@ muscled . Their feral way of life has given them the ability to adapt quickly and live on very little , and they are usually sure @-@ footed and tough . They have a medium @-@ sized head in good proportion to their body , with wide variation in shape due to the different conformation of their ancestors . Kaimanawa horses have a short , deep neck with a thick throat area , straight shoulders , a deep girth , and a short to medium back . The hindquarters vary from sloping to well @-@ rounded . The legs are long and well @-@ muscled , with strong hooves , and hind hooves that are generally smaller than the front ones . All horses are considered to age a year on the first of August , regardless of their actual foaling date .
= = Population control and study = =
Due to the increase in population after protective legislation was put into place , the Department of Conservation developed a management plan for the Kaimanawa herd in 1989 and 1990 . A draft plan was made available to the public for comment in 1991 , and the public made it clear that it objected to herd reduction through shooting from helicopters , and instead favored the horses remaining alive after being removed from the herd . However , core animal welfare groups felt that shooting was the most humane option . Trial musters were conducted in 1993 , 1994 and 1995 , and were successful , although costly and with a limited demand for the captured horses .
In 1994 , a working party was established to look at the management of the Kaimanawa herd . They aimed to decide which organization was in charge of long term management , to ensure that the treatment of horses is humane , to preserve and control the best attributes of the herds , and to eliminate the impacts of the herds on other conservation priorities . Goals included ensuring the welfare of the horses , protecting natural ecosystems and features that the Kaimanawa herd may impact and keeping the herd at a sustainable level . Ecological objectives included ensuring that Kaimanawa horse does not adversely affect endangered , rare and biogeographically significant plants ; ensuring that the herd does not further degrade the ecosystems in which it lives ; and preventing the herd from spreading into the Kaimanawa Forest Park and the Tongariro National Park . Herd objectives included ensuring that the public was safe from roaming horses , while still allowing and improving public access to the herd and ensuring humane treatment of the horses ; reducing conflict between the herd and other ecological values and land uses ; and ensuring that the herd is contained to a population that is tolerated by the ecosystems in which they live while still maintaining a minimum effective population that is in general free ranging .
The Department of Conservation has since 1993 carried out annual culls and muster of Kaimanawas to keep the herd population around a target level of 500 horses . The target will be reduced to 300 horses in stages starting in 2009 . These horses are either taken directly to slaughter or are placed at holding farms for later slaughter or adoption by private homes . A main reason for the strict population control is to protect the habitat in which they live . This habitat includes 16 plant species listed as endangered , which the Kaimanawa may endanger further through trampling and overgrazing . These plants include herbs , grasses , sedges , flowers and mistletoes ; among these are Deschampsia caespitosa ( a very rare tussock grass ) , Peraxilla tetrapetala ( a vulnerable mistletoe ) and Libertia peregrinans ( a possibly locally extinct sand iris ) . The 2009 culling of the population removed 230 horses from the herd , the largest culling since the beginning of the program , with homes found for 85 % of the horses removed . Conservation of these horses is an important matter to the public , and between 1990 and 2003 the New Zealand Minister for Conservation received more public comments on the Kaimanawa horse than on any other subject . In this period , more than 1 @,@ 400 requests for information and letters were received , with public interest peaking in 1996 and 1997 . This was due to a program of population reduction by shooting scheduled to begin implementation in 1996 ; due to public opposition the shooting was cancelled and a large scale muster and adoption program began in 1997 . In 1997 , around 1 @,@ 069 horses were removed from the range and adopted , reducing the main herd to around 500 , and reducing their range to around 25 @,@ 000 ha from around 70 @,@ 000 . Since 1993 , a total of around 2 @,@ 800 horses have been removed from the range . Only one injury resulting in the death of a horse is known to have occurred .
The United Nations ' Food and Agricultural Organization lists the Kaimanawa horses as a herd of special genetic value that can be compared with other groups of feral horses such as New Forest ponies , Assateague ponies , wild Mustangs , and with free @-@ living zebras . Kaimanawas are of special value because of their low rate of interaction with humans . This lack of interaction may result in a herd with more wild and fewer domestic characteristics , which is of special interest to researchers . Between 1994 and 1997 , students from Massey University studied a population of around 400 Kaimanawa horses to learn their habits and herd dynamics . A 2000 study found that although sometimes there are more than two stallions in Kaimanawa horse herds , only the two stallions highest in the herd hierarchy mate with the herd females . This differs from other feral horse herds , some of which have only one stallion that mates with mares , while others have several stallions that sire foals .
= The Remix ( Lady Gaga album ) =
The Remix is a remix album by American recording artist Lady Gaga . Released in Japan on March 3 , 2010 , it contains remixes of the songs from her first studio album , The Fame ( 2008 ) , and her third extended play , The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) . A revised version of the track list was prepared for release in additional markets , beginning with Mexico on May 3 , 2010 . A number of recording artists have produced the songs , including Pet Shop Boys , Passion Pit and The Sound of Arrows . The remixed versions feature both uptempo and downtempo compositions , with altered vocals from Gaga .
The album received mixed reviews from contemporary critics , but some noted how Gaga was able to sell the songs from The Fame in new and novel ways . It reached the top of charts in Greece and the Dance / Electronic Albums chart of Billboard magazine in the United States . In other nations , The Remix charted within the top ten in Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia region ) , Canada , Ireland , Japan , Mexico , the United Kingdom and the Billboard 200 chart of United States , while reaching the top @-@ twenty in others . It was certified platinum in Japan and Brazil and received gold certification in Belgium and Russia . Worldwide the album has sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies , and it is among the best @-@ selling remix albums of all time .
= = Background = =
On April 15 , 2010 , The Guardian reported that a number of artists , including Pet Shop Boys , Passion Pit and rock musician Marilyn Manson , have contributed to a remix album by Lady Gaga , titled The Remix . The remixes included in the package had been previously released alongside Gaga 's single releases in the past years . The album was originally released in Japan on March 3 , 2010 , containing sixteen of the remixes . The revised version , consisting of seventeen remixes , was released on May 3 , 2010 , the first market being Mexico . Manson features on the Chew Fu remix of " LoveGame " , while Passion Pit remixed " Telephone " and Pet Shop Boys remixed " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " . Other artists who remixed Gaga 's songs included Alphabeat , Frankmusik , Stuart Price , Monarchy and Robots to Mars . The album was released in the United Kingdom on May 10 , 2010 and featured a different artwork for that region . The US release of the album was announced by Interscope Records in July 2010 and it was released on August 3 , 2010 .
= = Composition = =
Chuck Campbell from the California Chronicle felt that the main " trick " adopted by the producers behind The Remix , was to preserve the integrity of Gaga 's nuances in her songs , at the same time bringing something new to her music . The second song in the track list , the " LLG vs GLG Radio Mix " of " Poker Face " , features a computerized chanting of the " mum @-@ mum @-@ mum @-@ mah " hook of the song . Stuart Price remixed " Paparazzi " into an electronic version , changing the original mid @-@ tempo composition of the song . New vocals were added on top of the song , giving it a jungle @-@ like vibe , according to Nicki Escuerdo from Phoenix New Times . She also felt that the remix of " LoveGame " featuring Manson , changed the original composition by " giving the originally innocent and fun song an almost demonic quality " . According to Campbell , The Monarchy Stylites remix of " Dance in the Dark " " pump [ ed ] extra oomph " into the song , with addition of drum beats . Richard Vission 's remix of " Just Dance " introduced an elastic rhythm in the song , while Frankmusik changed the soft composition of " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " to a more upbeat one , also manipulating Gaga 's vocals in the process . Campbell also added that the Passion Pit remix of " Telephone " felt like a " theatrical set up for a song that feels like it 's going somewhere , but never does " ; the remix consists of synths , with a thumping beat accompanying the song . Sound of Arrows remixed " Alejandro " , changing the dark nature of its music into a bright , summery jam while " Bad Romance " was remixed by Starsmith , making it a complete dance track .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , the album met with mixed reviews . At Metacritic it holds an aggregate score of 54 out of 100 points , indicating generally mixed or average reviews . Simon Cage from the Daily Express gave the album three out of five stars and felt that although she " has a winning way with ostentatious hats " , Gaga 's true talent lies in selling the same album over and over again . " It ’ s great but ... enough already ! " Music critic J. D. Considine , while reviewing the album for The Globe and Mail , complimented the piano and voice version of " Poker Face " adding that the latter was " the smartest track on her newest remix album " . He felt that the song " brings out her inner Elton John . And yes , this move , too , is probably just another bit of calculated image management , but that doesn ’ t make it any less brilliant . " Robert Copsey from Digital Spy noted that the release of The Remix was a more natural progression than music labels trying to " cash @-@ in " by releasing something not associated with the artist . He complimented the remixers featured in the album , calling them " as vital to keeping the singer 's music fresh as her Haus Of GaGa designers are to her image . "
Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic gave the album three out of five stars , but felt that the track list could have been shortened . Erlewine complimented some of the remixes , including those by Pet Shop Boys and Space Cowboy , adding that The Remix " is not an essential addition to Gaga ’ s canon goes without saying ... but there ’ s glitz and glamour to enjoy here . " Mark Beech , reviewing the album for Bloomberg Television , noticed that the already familiar tracks from Gaga " are given a new sheen by the Pet Shop Boys and sometime Madonna producer Stuart Price . " Nicki Escudero from Phoenix New Times gave a positive review saying that the songs featured in The Remix can be a great addition during workouts , as well as staple dance floor music . She listed the Chew Fu remix of " LoveGame " as a highlight from the album . Monica Herrera from Billboard complimented the album saying " Gaga has employed a collection of more @-@ than @-@ capable producers to make her dance @-@ ready smashes from The Fame and The Fame Monster even more danceworthy . " Giving it three out of five stars , Caryn Ganz from Rolling Stone noted an uneven sequencing among the tracks in The Remix . She felt that the Passion Pit remix of " Telephone " was the best remix on the album .
= = Chart performance = =
Following the album 's release in Japan , it debuted at number nine on the Oricon Albums Chart . On the issue dated May 17 , 2010 , the album moved to a new peak of number seven and has since been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipments of 250 @,@ 000 copies . In Australia , The Remix entered the ARIA Albums Chart at its peak position of number 12 on May 16 , 2010 , remaining on the chart for a total of five weeks . In the United Kingdom , the album debuted at number three on the official UK Albums Chart dated May 22 , 2010 , and has sold 166 @,@ 440 copies according to the Official Charts Company , being certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . Across Europe , the album debuted at seven on the European Top 100 Albums chart of Billboard . The Remix also reached the top of the charts in Greece , while attaining top @-@ ten positions in Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , Czech Republic , Ireland , the Netherlands and New Zealand .
In the United States , The Remix charted at number six on the Billboard 200 dated August 21 , 2010 , with 39 @,@ 000 copies sold . It became Gaga 's third top ten album on the Billboard 200 . It also debuted at number one on Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums making this Gaga 's third number one entry on the chart . The same week , her studio albums The Fame and The Fame Monster were at positions two and three respectively . Billboard chart manager Keith Caulfield noted that Gaga became the first act to occupy the chart 's top three positions , in its nine @-@ year history . She additionally charted on the Billboard 200 with The Fame at number 12 and The Fame Monster at number 27 , marking the first time an artist placed three concurrent titles in the top 30 since 1993 , when Garth Brooks last achieved the feat on the January 23 , 1993 , chart by placing four sets in the top 30 : The Chase at number two , Beyond the Season at number 23 , Ropin ' the Wind at number 26 and No Fences at number 29 . According to Nielsen SoundScan , The Remix has sold 314 @,@ 000 copies in US as of April 2016 . In Canada , the album debuted at number five on the Canadian Albums Chart issue dated May 22 , 2010 , and remained on the chart for a total of ten weeks . The Remix has sold more than 500 @,@ 000 copies worldwide , and it is among the best @-@ selling remix albums of all time .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of UK pressings of The Remix . Track numbers correspond to international ( non @-@ US and Japan ) pressings .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Architecture of the Song dynasty =
The architecture of the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) was noted for its towering Buddhist pagodas , enormous stone and wooden bridges , lavish tombs , and extravagant palaces . Although literary works on architecture existed beforehand , architectural writing blossomed during the Song dynasty , maturing into a more professional form that described dimensions and working materials in a concise , organized manner . In addition to the examples still standing , depictions in Song artwork , architectural drawings , and illustrations in published books all aid modern historians in understanding the architecture of the period .
The professions of architect , master craftsman , carpenter , and structural engineer did not have the high status of the Confucian scholar @-@ officials during the dynastic era . Architectural knowledge had been passed down orally for thousands of years , usually from craftsman fathers to their sons . There were also government agencies and schools for construction , building , and engineering . The Song dynasty 's building manuals aided not only the various private workshops , but also the craftsmen employed by the central government .
= = City and palace = =
The layout of ancient Chinese capitals , such as Bianjing , capital of the Northern Song , followed the guidelines in Kao Gong Ji , which specified a square city wall with several gates on each side and passageways for the emperor . The outer city of ancient Bianjing was built during the reign of Emperor Shenzong to a rectangular plan , almost square in proportions , about 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) from north to south and 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) from west to east . The south wall had three gates , with Nanxun Gate in the center , Chenzhou Gate to the east , and Dailou Gate to the west . The other walls had four gates each : in the east wall were Dongshui Gate ( at the southern end ) , Xinsong Gate , Xinchao Gate , and North @-@ East Water Gate ; in the west wall Xinzheng Gate , West Water Gate , Wansheng Gate , and Guzi Gate ; and in the north wall Chenqiao Gate ( at the eastern end ) , Fengqiu Gate , New Wild Jujube Gate and Weizhou Gate . The gates in the center of each of the four sides were reserved for the emperor ; these gates had straight passages and only two sets of doors , while the other city gates had zigzag passages and were guarded by three sets of doors .
The Song artist Zhang Zeduan 's painting Along the River During the Qingming Festival depicts the Dongshui Gate in detail : the building on top had a five @-@ ridged roof with a shallow slope in the Song dynasty style , supported prominently by two sets of brackets ( dougong ) . The lower bracket assembly rested on the city gate to form a wooden foundation , while the upper assembly supported the roof , similar to the dougong in an extant Song building , the Goddess Temple in Taiyuan . This method of using bracket assemblies to support superstructure was specified in Li Jie 's 12th @-@ century building manual Yingzao Fashi as pingzuo ( literally " flat base " ) .
The city wall itself was built with rammed earth , a technique also detailed in Yingzao Fashi , vol . III , " Standards for Moat , Stronghold and Masonry Work " :
Foundation : For every square chi , apply two dan of earth ; on top of it lay a mixture of broken brick , tile and crushed stones , also two dan . For every five @-@ cun layer of earth , two men , standing face to face , should tamp six times with pestles , each man pounding three times on a dent ; then tamp four times on each dent , two men again standing face to face , each pounding twice on the same dent ; then tamp two more times , each man pounding once . Following this , tamp the surface with pestles or stamp with feet randomly to even out the surface . Every five @-@ cun layer of earth should be compressed to three cun ; every three @-@ cun layer of brick and stone to one and a half cun .
Rammed @-@ earth walls during this time were tapered : the thickness of the wall is greatest at the base and decreases steadily with increasing height , as detailed in Li Jie 's book .
During the Song dynasty , the city of Bianjing had three enclosures : the outer city wall , the inner city wall , and the palace at the center . The inner city was rectangular , with three doors on each side . The palace enclosure was also rectangular , with a watch tower on each of the four corners . It had four main gates : Xihua Gate to the west , Donghua Gate to the east , Gongchen Gate to the north , and Xuande Gate , also known as Duan Gate or Xu
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andelou , at the south . Xuande Gate had five @-@ paneled doors , painted red and decorated with gold tacks ; its walls were lavishly decorated with dragon , phoenix and floating @-@ cloud patterns to match the carved beams , painted rafters and glazed @-@ tile roof . There were also two glazed dragons , each biting an end of the rooftop ridge , its tail pointing to the sky . The symbolic function of these chi wei was explained in Yingzao Fashi :
There is a dragon in the East Sea , whose tail ( wei ) is similar to that of a sparrow @-@ hawk ( chi ) ; it stirs up waves and causes rainfall , so people put its likeness on the rooftop to prevent fire . However , they misnamed it " sparrow @-@ hawk tail " ( chi wei ) .
Running southward from Xuande Gate was the Imperial Boulevard , about two hundred paces wide , with the Imperial Corridors on either side . Merchants opened shops in the Corridors until 1112 , when they were banned . Two rows of black fencing were placed at the center of the boulevard as a barrier to pedestrians and carriages . Along the inner sides of the fences ran the brick @-@ lined Imperial Water Furrows , filled with lotus . About 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) south from Xuande Gate , the Bian River intercepted the Imperial Boulevard , which crossed it over the stone Zhou Bridge , balustraded and flat @-@ decked . This design of a boulevard with a stone bridge crossing a river was later imitated in the Forbidden City . During spring and summer , mingled peach , plum , pear and apricot trees adorned the banks of the Bian with a variety of flowers .
= = Buddhist pagodas = =
Following the reign of the Han dynasty , ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) , the idea of the Buddhist stupa entered Chinese culture , as a means to house and protect scriptural sutras . During the Southern and Northern Dynasties period , the distinctive Chinese pagoda was developed , its predecessors being the tall watch towers and towering residential apartments of the Han dynasty ( as inferred from models in Han @-@ era tombs ) . During the Sui ( 581 – 618 ) and Tang ( 618 – 907 ) periods , Chinese pagodas were developed from purely wooden structures to use articulated stone and brick , which could more easily survive fires caused by lightning or arson and were less susceptible to decay . The earliest brick pagoda that remains extant is the Songyue Pagoda , built in 523 , and a typical example of a Tang @-@ era stone pagoda is the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda , constructed in 652 . Although Buddhist influences on China waned after the late Tang period , numerous Buddhist pagoda towers were built during the Song dynasty . Tall Chinese pagodas were often built in the countryside rather than within a city 's walls , largely to avoid competition with the cosmic @-@ imperial authority embodied in the cities ' drum- and gate @-@ towers . The Giant Wild Goose Pagoda , built in a city ward of what was southeastern Chang 'an , is among the exceptions .
The Iron Pagoda of Youguo Temple in Kaifeng earned it name from the iron @-@ grey color of the glazed bricks forming the tower . Originally built of wood by the architect Yu Hao , it was struck by lightning and burned down in 1044 , during the Northern Song period . In 1049 the pagoda was rebuilt as it appears today , under the order of Emperor Renzong of Song . This 13 @-@ story pagoda , structured on an octagonal base , is 56 @.@ 88 meters ( 186 @.@ 6 ft ) tall . Its glazed tile bricks feature carved artwork of dancing figures , solemn ministers , and Buddhist themes ( see gallery below ) .
The period also featured true cast @-@ iron pagodas , such as the Iron Pagoda of Yuquan Temple ( Jade Springs Temple ) , Dangyang , Hubei Province . Built in 1061 , it incorporates 53 @,@ 848 kg ( 118 @,@ 715 lb ) of cast iron and stands 21 @.@ 28 m ( 69 @.@ 8 ft ) tall . Imitating contemporary wooden , stone , and brick pagodas , the pagoda features sloping eaves and an octagonal base . Another iron pagoda was constructed in 1105 , Jining , Shandong , and was cast layer by layer in octagonal sections , standing 78 feet high . Several such cast iron pagodas exist in China today .
The Liuhe Pagoda , or Six Harmonies Pagoda , is another example of Song @-@ era pagoda architecture . It is located in the Southern Song capital of Hangzhou , in Zhejiang Province , at the foot of Yuelun Hill facing the Qiantang River . Although the original was destroyed in 1121 , the current tower was erected in 1156 and fully restored by 1165 . It stands 59 @.@ 89 m ( 196 @.@ 5 ft ) tall , and was constructed from a red brick frame with 13 stages of wooden eaves . Because of its size , the pagoda served as a permanent lighthouse to aid sailors at night ( as described in Hangzhou Fu Zhi ) .
The Zhengjue Temple Pagoda in Pengxian County of Sichuan Province ( near Chengdu ) is a brick pagoda that was built between 1023 and 1026 , according to inscriptions running along its first storey . It has a square base on a sumeru pedestal , thirteen stories totaling 28 m ( 92 ft ) in height , and multiple layers of eaves similar in style to the earlier Tang pagodas of Chang 'an , the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda and the Small Wild Goose Pagoda .
Wood @-@ and @-@ brick hybrid pagodas were also built . The first four floors of the octagonal , 42 m ( 138 ft ) Lingxiao Pagoda of 1045 are brick ( with wooden eaves ) , while from the fifth floor up it is entirely made of wood . Even pagodas made of stone or brick featured architectural elements that were typical of Chinese wooden buildings ; for example the Pizhi Pagoda , built from 1056 to 1063 , uses the dougong brackets typical of wooden architecture to hold up pent , shingled roofs and tiers . Both of these pagodas feature interior staircases , although the Lingxiao Pagoda 's only reaches to the fourth floor , and the Pizhi Pagoda 's to the fifth . However , the Pizhi Pagoda features winding exterior stairs that provide access to the ninth and topmost floor .
Although the Pagoda of Fogong Temple is the tallest extant wooden pagoda , the tallest Chinese pagoda built in the dynastic era that remains standing is the Liaodi Pagoda . Completed in 1055 , it is 84 meters ( 276 ft ) tall , with an octagonal base on a large platform , surpassing the 69 @-@ meter ( 226 ft ) Qianxun Pagoda , which had held the record since its construction in the 9th century by the Kingdom of Dali . Although the Liaodi Pagoda served its religious purpose as a Buddhist landmark in the Kaiyuan Monastery of Ding County , Hebei province , its great height gave it another valuable function , as a military watch tower that was used to observe movements of the Liao enemy . Beside their utility in surveillance , pagoda towers could also serve as astronomical observatories ; one such is the Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory , built in 1276 and still standing today .
Yunyan pagoda
= = Temples = =
It was not uncommon for wealthy or powerful families to facilitate the construction of large temple complexes , usually by donating a portion of their family estate to a Buddhist sect . Often the land already contained buildings that could be re @-@ purposed for religions use . The Fei ( 費 ) family of the town of Jinze , located just west of Shanghai , converted a mansion on their property into a Buddhist sutra @-@ recitiation hall , and later built several other religious buildings around the hall . This spurred a boom in temple construction in the area , causing Jinze to become a major center of the White Lotus sect of Buddhism , which in turn spurred the construction of more temples and lead the town to become a significant location within the Song . The nearby town of Nanxiang gained prominence shortly after the fall of the Song in large part to the construction of temples and other religious buildings , which spanned the entire Song empire .
Apart from stimulating the development of urban areas , temples and religious buildings featured a number of unique aesthetic and structural features . The Temple of the Saintly Mother ( 圣母殿 ) and the Hall of Sacrifice of the Jin Temple ( 晋祠 ) , located in a southeastern suburb of Taiyuan City , Shanxi province , are extant examples of early Song architecture . The Temple of the Saintly Mother is the main building of the Jin Temple , first built in the period between 1023 and 1032 and renovated in 1102 . It has a double @-@ eaved roof with nine ridges , and two dragon @-@ heads with wide @-@ open jaws biting the ends of the main ridge . The roof is supported by massive dougong brackets corresponding to drawings in Yingzao Fashi . The eaves of the Temple of the Saintly Mother curve upward slightly at each end , a characteristic of Song architecture . The columns of the façade , decorated with dragons that coil around the shafts , become progressively taller with increasing distance to either side of the central pair . The building has a porch around it , the sole example of such a structure ; another unique feature of the site is a cross @-@ shaped bridge that leads to the Goddess Temple .
The Trinity Hall of Xuan Miao Temple ( 玄妙观 ) , situated in the heart of Suzhou city , is another example of Song architecture . In 1982 , it was established as a National Heritage Site by the Chinese government .
The Jingling Palace ( 景灵宫 , Jingling Gong ) , a temple to the legendary Yellow Emperor located near modern @-@ day Qufu , was built in the 11th century . It was subsequently destroyed near the end of the Yuan dynasty . However , several other structures in Shou Qiu , the complex that Jingling Palace was situated in , remain intact . Two giant tortoise @-@ borne steles flank what was the entrance to the palace . One of the two steles , the Stele of the Sorrow of 10 @,@ 000 , is at 52 meters ( 171 ft ) high , the tallest unmarked stele in the country . A large pyramid constructed of rounded stone blocks , the symbolic tomb of the Yellow Emperor 's son Shaohao , is located outside the Shou Qiu complex . Another important large tortoise @-@ borne stele of the same period has been preserved at the Dai Miao of Mount Tai .
= = Bridges = =
Bridges over waterways had been known in China since the ancient Zhou dynasty . During the Song dynasty , large trestle bridges were constructed , such as that built by Zhang Zhongyan in 1158 . There were also large bridges made entirely of stone , like the Ba Zi Bridge of Shaoxing , built in 1256 and still standing today . Bridges with pavilions crowning their central spans were often featured in such paintings as the landscapes of Xia Gui ( 1195 – 1224 ) . Long , covered corridor bridges , like the 12th @-@ century Rainbow Bridge in Wuyuan , Jiangxi province , which has wide stone @-@ based piers and a wooden superstructure , were also built .
While serving as an administrator for Hangzhou , the poet Su Shi ( 1037 – 1101 ) had a large pedestrian causeway built across the West Lake , which still bears his name : Sudi ( 蘇堤 ) . In 1221 , the Taoist traveler Qiu Changchun visited Genghis Khan in Samarkand , describing various Chinese bridges encountered on the way there through the Tian Shan Mountains , east of Yining . The historian Joseph Needham quotes him as saying :
[ The road had ] " no less than 48 timber bridges of such width that two carts can drive over them side by side " . It had been built by Chang Jung [ Zhang Rong ] and the other engineers of the Chagatai some years before . The wooden trestles of Chinese bridges from the − 3rd century [ BC ] onwards were no doubt similar to those supposed to have been employed in Julius Caesar 's bridge of − 55 [ BC ] across the Rhine , or drawn by Leonardo , or found in use in Africa . But where in + 13th century [ AD ] Europe could a two @-@ lane highway like Chang Jung 's have been found ?
In Fujian Province , enormous beam bridges were built during the Song dynasty . Some of these were as long as 1 @,@ 220 m ( 4 @,@ 000 ft ) , with individual spans of up to 22 m ( 72 ft ) in length ; their construction necessitated moving massive stones of 203 t ( 203 @,@ 000 kg ) . No names of the engineers were recorded or appear in the inscriptions on the bridges , which give only the names of local officials who sponsored them and oversaw their construction and repair . However , there might have been an engineering school in Fujian , headed by a prominent engineer known as Cai Xiang ( 1012 – 1067 ) , who had risen to the position of governmental prefect in Fujian . Between 1053 and 1059 , he planned and supervised the construction of the large Wanan Bridge ( once called the Luoyang Bridge ) near Quanzhou ( on the border of the present @-@ day Luojiang District and Huai 'an County . This bridge , a stone structure similar to a number of other bridges found in Fujian , still stands , and features ship @-@ like piers bound to their bases using mucilage from oysters as an adhesive . It is 731 m ( 2 @,@ 398 ft ) in length , 5 m ( 16 ft ) in width , and 7 m ( 23 ft ) in height . Another famous bridge near Quanzhou , the Anping Bridge , was constructed between 1138 and 1151 .
Other examples of Song bridges include Guyue Bridge , a stone arch bridge in Yiwu , Zhejiang Province . The bridge was built in 1213 , the sixth year of the Jiading Era in the Southern Song dynasty . Song @-@ era pontoon bridges include the Dongjin Bridge , 400 m ( 1 ⁄ 4 mi ) long , which may still be seen today .
= = Tombs of the Northern Song emperors = =
Located southwest of Gongyi city in Gongxian County , Henan province , the large tombs of the Northern Song number about one thousand , including individual tombs for Song emperors , empresses , princes , princesses , consorts , and members of the extended family . The complex extends approximately 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) from east to west and 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) from north to south . The construction of the complex began in 963 AD , during the reign of the first Song ruler , Emperor Taizu of Song , whose father is also buried at the site . The only Northern Song emperors not buried there are Emperor Huizong of Song and Emperor Qinzong of Song , who died in captivity after the Jurchen invasion of northern China in 1127 . Lining the spirit ways of the tomb complex are hundreds of Song sculptures and statues of tigers , rams , lions , horses with grooms , horned beasts and mythical creatures , government officials , military generals , foreign ambassadors , and others featured in an enormous display of Song @-@ era artwork .
The layout and style of the Song tombs resemble those found in the contemporary Tangut kingdom of the Western Xia , which also had an auxiliary burial site associated with each tomb . At the center of each burial site is a truncated pyramidal tomb , each having once been guarded by a four @-@ walled enclosure with four centered gates and four corner towers . About 100 km ( 62 mi ) from Gongxian is the Baisha Tomb , which contains " elaborate facsimiles in brick of Chinese timber frame construction , from door lintels to pillars and pedestals to bracket sets , that adorn interior walls . " The Baisha Tomb has two large separate chambers with conical ceilings ; a large staircase leads down to the entrance doors of the subterranean tomb .
= = Literature = =
During the Song dynasty , previous works on architecture were brought to more sophisticated levels of description , as in Yili Shigong , written by Li Ruogui in 1193 AD . One of the most definitive works , however , was the earlier Mu Jing ( " Timberwork Manual " ) , ascribed to Yu Hao and written sometime between 965 and 995 . Yu Hao was responsible for the construction of a wooden pagoda tower in Kaifeng , which was destroyed by lightning and replaced by the brick Iron Pagoda soon after . In his time , books on architecture were still considered a lowly scholarly achievement due to the craft 's status , so Mu Jing was not even recorded in the official court bibliography . Although the book itself was lost to history , the scientist and statesman Shen Kuo wrote of Yu 's work extensively in his Dream Pool Essays of 1088 , praising it as a work of architectural genius , saying that no one in his own time could reproduce such a work . Shen Kuo singled out , among other passages , a scene in which Yu Hao gives advice to another artisan @-@ architect about slanting struts in order to brace a pagoda against the wind , and a passage in which Yu Hao describes the three sections of a building , the area above the crossbeams , the area above ground , and the foundation , and then proceeds to provide proportional ratios and construction techniques for each section .
Several years later Li Jie ( 李誡 ; 1065 – 1110 ) published Yingzao Fashi ( " Treatise on Architectural Methods " or " State Building Standards " ) . Although similar books came before it , such as Yingshan Ling ( " National Building Law " ) of the early Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) , Li 's book is the earliest technical manual on Chinese architecture to have survived in full .
= = = Yingzao Fashi = = =
Yingzao Fashi is a technical treatise on architecture and craftsmanship written by Li Jie , an architect and official at the Directorate of Buildings and Construction . Li completed the book in 1100 , and presented it to Emperor Zhezong of Song in the last year of his reign . His successor , Emperor Huizong of Song , had Li 's treatise officially published three years later , in 1103 , for the benefit of foremen , architects , and literate craftsmen . The book was intended to provide standard regulations , to not only the engineering agencies of the central government , but also the many workshops and artisan families throughout China who could benefit from using a well @-@ written government manual on building practices .
Yingzao Fashi included building codes and regulations , accounting information , descriptions of construction materials , and classification of crafts . In its 34 chapters , the book outlined units of measurement , and the construction of moats , fortifications , stonework , and woodwork . For the latter , it included specifications for making bracketing units with inclined arms and joints for columns and beams . It also provided specifications for wood carving , drilling , sawing , bamboo work , tiling , wall building , and decoration . The book contained recipes for decorative paints , glazes , and coatings , also listing proportions for mixing mortars used in masonry , . brickwork , and manufacture of glazed tiles , illustrating practices and standards with drawings . His book outlined structural carpentry in great detail , providing standard dimensional measurements for all components used ; . here he developed a standard eight @-@ grade system for sizing timber elements , known as the cai @-@ fen system of units , which could be universally applied in buildings . About 8 % of Li Jie 's book was derived from pre @-@ existing written material on architecture , while the majority of the book documented the inherited traditions of craftsmen and architects . The Yingzao Fashi provided a full glossary of technical terms that included mathematical formulae , building proportions , and construction techniques , and discussed the implications of the local topography for construction at a particular site . He also estimated the monetary costs of hiring laborers of different skill levels from various crafts on the basis of a day 's work , in addition to the price of the materials they would need and according to the season in which they were to be employed .
= = Architecture in Song artwork = =
= Lost Horizons ( Lemon Jelly album ) =
Lost Horizons is the second studio album from the British electronic duo Lemon Jelly , released on 7 October 2002 . Released by XL Recordings and produced by Nick Franglen , the album generated two charting singles in the UK , " Space Walk " and " Nice Weather for Ducks " ; the latter has often been called the album 's stand @-@ out track . The album , which is built around a mix of organic instrumentation and idiosyncratic samples , was met with largely positive reviews by music critics , although it was somewhat critiqued due to its near @-@ constant mellowness .
In the United Kingdom , Lost Horizons peaked at number 20 on the Official Albums Chart , whereas in the United States , it peaked at number 24 on Billboard 's Top Electronic Albums component chart . The album 's two singles , " Space Walk " and " Nice Weather for Ducks " , were also successful , peaking on the UK Singles Chart , at number 36 and 16 respectively . The album , was nominated for the Mercury Music Prize in 2003 , was eventually certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry for shipments exceeding 100 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Music = =
Lost Horizons opens with " Elements " , which " blends acoustic guitars , flugelhorns , synths , skittering breakbeat rhythms , a folksy harmonica , and ... a falsetto ' doo @-@ doo ' chorus " . Overlaying the music is a voiceover , courtesy of English actor John Standing , that lists the basic ' elements ' that make up the world : ash , metal , water , wood , fire , and ( eventually , later in the song ) sky . The second track , " Space Walk " , is set to a recording of Ed White 's 1965 space walk on the Gemini 4 mission . Franglen and Deakin chose to use the sample after listening to an album called Flight to the Moon ( 1969 ) ; the two were struck by how moving and emotive many of the tracks were . Deakin later said , " ' One small step ' leaves me cold , because it was so obviously scripted . But the spacewalk … even after hearing it so many times , it 's so vivid . "
" Ramblin ' Man " features a conversation between an interviewer ( the voice of Michael Deakin — father of Lemon Jelly 's Fred Deakin ) and " John the Ramblin ' Man " ( the voice of Standing ) , during which he lists various places from around the world , ranging from " from small Sussex villages to major world capitals . " When listed in the order in which the locations are narrated , the message " Bagpuss Sees All Things " is spelled out midway through the song ( from Brixton at four minutes ten seconds , to San José at four minutes 31 seconds ) using the first letter of each location . The fourth track , " Return to Patagonia " , features several jazz @-@ inspired elements .
The song " Nice Weather for Ducks " is built around a sample inspired by John Langstaff 's song " All the Ducks " . This song was based on the popular Dutch children 's song , " Alle eendjes zwemmen in het water " ( translated : " All the ducks are swimming in the water " ) . Franglen later said that he and Deakin were drawn to Langstaff 's recording because it " had a gentle madness to it , slightly unhinged " . The duo had attempted to clear Langstaff 's version for sampling , but were unable to . In the end , they had Enn Reitel re @-@ record the vocal snippet . Franglen , while noting that Reitel 's performance was good , said that once the sample was re @-@ recorded , its " edge disappeared " . " Experimental Number 6 " , arguably the album 's darkest track , features a faux field recording of a doctor documenting the side effects of an unnamed drug administered to a patient ; the recording tells how the patient progresses from normalcy , to an " overwhelming sense of well @-@ being and euphoria " , before eventually expiring . The album closes with " The Curse of Ka 'Zar " , which features " a two @-@ part harmony chorus and jazzy drum loop " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical Reviews = = =
Lost Horizons received mostly positive reviews from music critics , although several critics critiqued the album 's near @-@ constant mellowness . Stuart Mason of AllMusic called the album " a delightful but slightly faceless blend of lounge pop , subtle beats , found sound , with mellow jazz influences . " A reviewer for Entertainment.ie praised the band for approaching electronica from a new angle , writing , " this London @-@ based duo employ Playschool pianos , acoustic guitars and sprightly beats to create laid @-@ back instrumentals guaranteed to sooth even the most restless of souls . [ ... ] What really marks Lemon Jelly as exciting new talents is their quirky sense of humour , which they use to brighten up their sound with skilful [ sic ] use of nursery rhymes , brass bands and offbeat samples . Pascal Wyse of The Guardian wrote , " Everything is approachable and purely crafted , but Lost Horizons cheats banality with some choice quirks : Magnificent Seven strings , astronauts chatting , panoramic sound effects . " Chris Dahlen of Pitchfork Media felt that the album was a little too saccharine at times , but that it is " the perfect disc to throw on after your four @-@ disc Ultrachill Dub Groove Mix has put the whole party to sleep . It 's like eight flavors of ribbon candy , beach balls hitting the ground like hail , and a big plastic clown face that blows helium . "
Many reviews singled out " Nice Weather for Ducks " as the album 's stand @-@ out track . Mason selected the " dreamy , acoustic guitar @-@ based " song as one of the album 's highlights in his review . Dahlen described it as " the most likeable " on the album , and concluded that it is " a happy @-@ slappy lollipop of a song that nicely sums this record up : Sunny , bright , and vaguely irritating . " Wysel wrote , " When the flugelhorn arrives on ' Nice Weather for Ducks ' it is impossible to believe there is any evil in the world . " Conversely , several critics felt that " Experiment Number Six " did not fit with the mood of the rest of the album . Wysel called it a " pool of darkness " that " comes as quite a shock . " Dahlen felt that the song is " is the only break in the [ album 's ] mood . " While he enjoyed the song 's concept , calling it " so different and sinister that it 's more intriguing than the rest of the album " , he felt that it was " annoyingly displaced . " Hermann , on the other hand , called the track " clever " and " spooky " with " music ... so well crafted that [ the concept ] works " .
= = = Sales and accolades = = =
In the UK , the album charted at number 20 on the Albums Chart . In the US , it peaked at number 24 on the Billboard Top Electronic Albums chart . In both cases , it was the first Lemon Jelly album to do so . The album 's two singles , " Space Walk " and " Nice Weather for Ducks " , also managed to chart on the UK Singles Chart , at number 36 and 16 respectively . Again , this was a first for the band . On 20 December 2002 the album was certified Silver . Almost six months later , on 22 July 2013 , it was certified gold , denoting shipments of over 100 @,@ 000 . In 2003 , the album was nominated for a Mercury Music Prize , although the album lost to Dizzee Rascal 's Boy in da Corner .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= Fastra II =
The Fastra II is a desktop supercomputer designed for tomography . It was built in late 2009 by the ASTRA ( All Scale Tomographic Reconstruction Antwerp ) group of researchers of the IBBT ( Interdisciplinary institute for BroadBand Technology ) VisionLab at the University of Antwerp and by Belgian computer shop Tones , in collaboration with Asus , a Taiwanese multinational computer product manufacturer , as the successor to the Fastra I ( built in 2008 ) .
The Fastra II was determined to be over three times faster than the Fastra I , which in turn was slightly faster than a 512 @-@ core cluster . However , because of the number of GPUs in the computer , the system initially suffered from several issues , like the system refusing to reboot and overheating due to a lack of space between the video cards .
= = Development = =
The computer was built as a researching and demonstration project by the ASTRA group of researchers at the Vision Lab in the University of Antwerp in Belgium , one of the researchers being Joost Batenburg . Unlike other modern supercomputers such as the Cray Jaguar and the IBM Roadrunner , which cost millions of euros , the Fastra II only uses consumer hardware , costing € 6 @,@ 000 in total .
The Fastra II 's predecessor , the Fastra I , has 4 dual @-@ GPU GeForce 9800 GX2 video cards , for a total of 8 GPUs . At that time , the ASTRA group needed a motherboard that had four PCI Express x16 slots with double @-@ spacing between each of them . The only such motherboard the ASTRA group could find at that time was the MSI K9A2 Platinum , which has four such slots . In 2009 , the Asus P6T7 WS Supercomputer motherboard , which the Fastra II uses , was released , which has seven PCI Express x16 slots . The Fastra II has six faster dual @-@ GPU GeForce GTX 295 video cards , and a single @-@ GPU GeForce GTX 275 , for a total of 13 GPUs . In the Fastra II , the GPUs mainly perform tomographic reconstruction . The technique which allows GPUs to perform general @-@ purpose tasks like this outside of gaming , instead of CPUs , is called GPGPU , general @-@ purpose computing on graphics processing units .
Overheating caused by the lack of space between the video cards forces researchers using the FASTRA II to keep the side panel door open , so that the video cards can get regular air , decreasing the overall temperature inside the case .
Due to the number of GPUs in the system , its initial boot was unsuccessful . This was because its motherboard uses a 32 bit BIOS , which only had approximately 3 GB of address space for the video cards . However , Asus managed to provide them a specialized BIOS that entirely skipped the address space allocation of the GTX 295 video cards . The BIOS @-@ replacement coreboot was not tested .
All seven PCI Express x16 slots in the Asus P6T7 motherboard were used in the building of the Fastra II computer . However , the video cards in the Fastra II are wide enough to require two such slots each . To solve this issue , the researchers came up with flexible PCI Express cables , and Tones developed a custom cage which allowed the video cards to suspend over the motherboard .
= = Specifications and benchmarks = =
Like the Fastra I , the Fastra II uses a Lian Li PC @-@ P80 Armorsuit case , which has 10 expansion slots . The motherboard in the Fastra II was at that time the only workstation motherboard that had seven full @-@ sized PCI Express x16 slots . The memory modules were initially six 2 GB modules , but were later upgraded to 4 GB each , for a total of 24 GB . Instead of an eighth dual @-@ GPU video card , the single @-@ GPU GTX 275 is in the computer because , out of all the video cards in the Fastra II , the GTX 275 is the only one the Fastra II 's BIOS can fully initialize . The total amount of GPUs is 13 . The video cards together bring 12 teraflops of computing power . Four of the six GTX 295 video cards have 2 PCBs , while the other two have only 1 PCB .
According to the benchmarks on its official website , the Fastra II is faster and more power efficient than its competitors , including the Fastra I and the Tesla C1060 video card . The benchmarks were performed on the Fastra II , the Fastra I , a 512 @-@ core cluster ( consisting of Opteron CPUs ) , an Nvidia Tesla C1060 workstation card on an Intel Core i7 940 CPU , and on an Intel Core i7 940 CPU itself . The Fastra II is over three times faster than the Fastra I in CT slice reconstruction speed . Although the Fastra II consumes more power than the Fastra I , it 's nearly 3 times as energy efficient as the Fastra I , and over 300 times as energy efficient as the 512 @-@ core cluster . The video cards run at 37 degrees Celsius when idle , and at 60 degrees Celsius at full load .
= = Applications and reception = =
The operating system is CentOS , a community driven Linux distribution and Red Hat Enterprise Linux clone . The Fastra II received a positive public impression . Techie.com called it the " world 's most powerful desktop @-@ sized supercomputer " , describing it as a computer with " so much power in such a small space . " iTech News Net called it " the Most Powerful Desktop Supercomputer " .
Fastra II relies on Nvidia 's Scalable Link Interface ( SLI ) and is therefore limited to the number of GPUs supported by it and also by the vendor respectively the free and open @-@ source device drivers . The Fastra II 's motherboard is designed for workstations , and it is mainly being used in hospitals for medical imaging .
It remains to be seen whether another Fastra featuring NVLink , first available with Pascal @-@ based GPUs , will be build .
= USS Breese ( DD @-@ 122 ) =
USS Breese ( DD – 122 ) was a Wickes class destroyer in the United States Navy during World War I , and later redesignated , DM @-@ 18 in World War II . She was the only ship named for Captain Kidder Breese .
Commissioned as a destroyer in 1919 , she undertook a number of patrol and training duties along the East Coast of the United States until being decommissioned in 1922 . Overhauled in 1931 , she returned to service with the United States Pacific Fleet on training and patrol for the next 10 years . She was present during the attack on Pearl Harbor , and following this she supported several operations during the war , laying minefields and sweeping for mines in the Pacific . Following the end of the war , she was sold for scrap in 1946 and broken up .
= = Design and construction = =
Breese was one of 111 Wickes @-@ class destroyers built by the United States Navy between 1917 and 1919 . She , along with ten of her sisters , were constructed at Newport News Shipbuilding shipyards in Newport News , Virginia using specifications and detail designs drawn up by Bath Iron Works .
She had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 213 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 194 long tons ; 1 @,@ 337 short tons ) an overall length of 314 feet 5 inches ( 95 @.@ 83 m ) , a beam of 31 feet 8 inches ( 9 @.@ 65 m ) and a draught of 9 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 84 m ) . On trials , Harding reached a speed of 33 @.@ 2 knots ( 61 @.@ 5 km / h ; 38 @.@ 2 mph ) . She was armed with four 4 " / 50 caliber guns , two 3 " / 23 caliber guns , and twelve 21 @-@ inch torpedo tubes . She had a regular crew complement of 122 officers and enlisted men . She was driven by two Parsons or Westinghouse turbines , and powered by four Normand boilers .
Specifics on Breese 's performance are not known , but she was one of the group of Wickes @-@ class destroyers known unofficially as the ' Liberty Type ' to differentiate them from the destroyers constructed from detail designs drawn up by Bethlehem , which used Curtis steam turbines and Yarrow boilers . The Bethlehem destroyers deteriorated badly in service , and in 1929 all 60 of this group were retired by the Navy . Actual performance of these ships was far below intended specifications especially in fuel economy , with most only able to make 2 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 600 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) instead of the design standard of 3 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 700 km ; 3 @,@ 600 mi ) at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . The class also suffered problems with turning and weight . Ships such as Breese , however , performed better than this .
Breese was the only U.S. Navy ship to be named for Kidder Breese , who had been a U.S. Navy officer during the Mexican @-@ American War and later the Civil War .
= = Service history = =
= = = Interwar period = = =
Breese was launched on 11 May 1918 out of Newport News , Virginia . She was sponsored by Gilbert McIlvaine , daughter of Breese ; and commissioned 23 October 1918 under the command of Lieutenant B. Smith . After her commissioning , she reported to the United States Atlantic Fleet and cruised for several days as an escort for convoys supporting World War I , before the end of the conflict on 11 November . Returning to Norfolk , Virginia at the end of the war , she was assigned to Destroyer Division 12 and served off the coast of Cuba on training exercises during the spring of 1919 . In July 1919 , Destroyer Division 12 was assigned to the United States Pacific Fleet , based at San Diego , California . For the next year , she served with Destroyer Squadron 4 and , from June 1920 , began operating in Rotating Reserve . From October 1920 to June 1922 , she participated in division maneuvers and fleet maneuvers with the Pacific Fleet 's main battle force , and she was placed out of commission 17 June 1922 .
On 5 January 1931 , Breese was redesignated as a light minelayer , with the hull classification symbol of DM @-@ 18 . Following an overhaul and conversion at Mare Island Navy Yard , she was recommissioned on 1 June 1931 . She then returned to San Diego for sea trials and standardization tests in her new role . These completed , she departed for Pearl Harbor . She was assigned to Mine Division 1 of the Pacific Fleet , and operated out of Hawaiian waters . She conducted several training exercises , including with the submarine divisions where she served as a target ship . She also served as a station ship for aircraft . She returned to San Diego in June 1937 , and placed out of commission and in reserve on 12 November 1937 . On 25 September 1939 , Breese was again recommissioned and assigned to Mine Division 5 of the Pacific Fleet . On 2 November 1939 , she arrived at Puget Sound Navy Yard and began to conduct Neutrality Patrol off the Oregon and Washington coasts . Throughout 1940 , she cruised to different bases along the coastline of Alaska with the commander of the Alaskan Sector aboard . Upon returning , she rejoined Mine Division 5 in San Francisco and steamed for Hawaii , returning there on 10 December 1940 . Attached to Mine Division 2 in the Pacific Fleet , she took part in training exercises in the operating area and on the Maui range during much of 1941 .
= = = World War II = = =
On 7 December 1941 , Breese was moored in the Middle Loch , northwest of Ford Island . She was moored to Buoy D @-@ 3 alongside a nest of three other minelayers which were also converted Wickes destroyers ; Ramsay , Montgomery , and Gamble . At the outbreak of the attack , her crew was distracted by the initial assault on Ford Island and was buzzed by a flight of Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers . Breese quickly loaded her machine guns and began firing at 07 : 57 . She and many of the other ships in the area were quickly able to mobilize a strong anti @-@ aircraft defense which lasted throughout the morning . She was credited with hits on several Japanese aircraft and damaging at least one midget submarine . Breese was undamaged in the attack .
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor , she remained berthed in the harbor until leaving on 26 December , carrying mail and orders for other ships . She rendezvoused with Southard at the mouth of the harbor to offload this , then steamed east on patrol .
On 6 May 1942 , she took on 84 survivors of the carrier Yorktown which had sunk in the aftermath of the Battle of Midway . During the summer of 1942 , she operated out of the South Pacific On 3 August 1942 , she , along with minesweepers Gamble and Tracy , were laying mines in Segond Channel , Espiritu Santo . Destroyer Tucker entered the strait on escort patrol , having not been notified of the minefield , when she struck one of the mines and sank . Breese , which was moored in the channel , rendered aid . On 30 September 1942 , she was on a nighttime exercise off Espiritu Santo when she was damaged in a collision with the cruiser San Francisco . She carried out minesweeping duties during the consolidation of the Solomon Islands from 1 – 13 May 1943 , where she was assigned to Task Group 36 @.@ 5 alongside Gamble , Preble , and Radford . They laid mined in Blackett Strait to guard the western approaches to Kula Gulf .
She supported Allied efforts around New Georgia @-@ Rendova Vangunu from 29 June to 25 August . Assigned to Task Unit 36 @.@ 2 @.@ 2 , she , Preble and Gamble laid mines off Shortland Harbor , Bougainville . She then supported the occupation and defense of Cape Torokina conducting minesweeping duties there from 1 to 8 November . She later supported the Leyte landings from 12 to 24 October 1944 . She was subsequently among the ships to support the Lingayen Gulf landings from 4 to 18 January 1945 . She supported the Battle of Iwo Jima from 7 February to 7 March . She undertook mine duties supporting the Battle of Okinawa between 25 March and 30 June . In her final act of the war , she steamed in support of the United States Third Fleet near mainland Japan between 5 and 31 July . In August and September 1945 Breese swept mines in the East China Sea and Kyūshū @-@ Korean area following the end of the war .
On 7 November 1945 , Breese steamed to the west coast arriving 26 November . She transited the Panama Canal and arrived at New York City on 13 December . She was decommissioned on 15 January 1946 and sold for scrap on 16 May 1946 . She received ten battle stars for her service in World War II .
= Sandwich Day =
" Sandwich Day " is the fourteenth episode of the second season of 30 Rock and the thirty @-@ fifth episode overall . It was written by one of the season 's executive producers , Robert Carlock , and one of the season 's co @-@ executive producers , Jack Burditt . The episode was directed by one of the season 's producers , Don Scardino . The episode first aired on May 1 , 2008 on the NBC network in the United States . Guest stars in this episode included Bill Cwikowski , Brian Dennehy , Marceline Hugot , Johnnie May , Jason Sudeikis , Miriam Tolan and Rip Torn . The episode earned Tina Fey the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series .
Unusually this episode begins on the 30 Rock title sequence - there is no cold open as is normally the case .
This episode begins on the annual TGS with Tracy Jordan ( a fictional sketch comedy series ) Sandwich Day . Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) receives a phone call from her ex @-@ boyfriend , Floyd ( Jason Sudeikis ) , asking for a place to stay ; Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) , Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) and the TGS writers try to get a new sandwich for Liz ; Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) reconsiders his future at General Electric .
= = Plot = =
It is the annual Sandwich Day for the crew of TGS . The Teamsters , led by Mickey J. ( Brian Dennehy ) , bring in " secret " sandwiches from an unknown Italian delicatessen in Brooklyn . When the writers eat Liz 's sandwich , Liz threatens that she will " cut [ their ] faces up so bad [ ... ] [ they 'll ] all have chins . " As a result , the writers and Tracy , aided by Jenna , enter a drinking contest against the Teamsters in an attempt to get Liz a new sandwich .
Floyd , who broke up with Liz in the episode " Hiatus " , calls Liz to ask if he can have a place to stay , as he has come to visit New York on business . Liz tries to win Floyd back , only for him to lie to her about going home to Cleveland , Ohio . Floyd eventually travels home , and the pair agree to remain friends .
Meanwhile , after being ousted from his office on the 52nd floor by Devon Banks ( Will Arnett ) , Jack is not taking well to his new job on the 12th floor . He later decides to move to Washington , D.C. , to be the new " Homeland Security Director for Crisis and Weather Management . "
= = Production = =
This episode was primarily filmed on April 1 , 2008 . This episode was the fourth episode written by Jack Burditt and the seventh written by Robert Carlock . The episode was the twelfth episode which was directed by Don Scardino .
Jason Sudeikis , who played Floyd in this episode , has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Tina Fey was the head writer on Saturday Night Live from 1999 until 2006 . Various other cast members of Saturday Night Live have appeared on 30 Rock , including Rachel Dratch , Fred Armisen , Kristen Wiig , Will Forte , Jimmy Fallon , Amy Poehler , Will Ferrell , Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus , Bill Hader , Tim Meadows , Andy Samberg , Chris Parnell and Molly Shannon . Tina Fey and Tracy Morgan have both been part of the main cast of Saturday Night Live . Alec Baldwin has also hosted Saturday Night Live sixteen times , the highest number of episodes of any host of the series . This was actress Johnnie May 's second appearance in 30 Rock . She previously appeared in the episode " Tracy Does Conan " as a nurse who takes Liz 's blood for donation . In this episode she plays a screener who would not allow Liz past airport security because she had her Sandwich Day sandwich with her , and its dipping sauce container held " more than 3 ounces . "
= = Reception = =
" Sandwich Day " brought in an average of 5 @.@ 4 million viewers . The episode also achieved a 2 @.@ 6 / 7 in the key 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . The 2 @.@ 6 refers to 2 @.@ 6 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the U.S. , and the 7 refers to 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast in the U.S.
Robert Canning of IGN wrote that this episode " turned out to be an absolute winner " . He concluded that " with its more relatable storylines and moments like the eerie @-@ voiced guy at the hospital , Liz tipping tables for her mac and cheese , and watching an entire sandwich be eaten in real time in the airport security line , ' Sandwich Day ' was a definite highlight in the post @-@ writers ' strike season . " Erin Fox of TV Guide said that " the minor story of the episode was probably the funniest " . Jeff Labrecque of Entertainment Weekly thought that this episode " was nothing more than ... eh " . He called this episode a " weak link " .
= Tiber Oil Field =
The Tiber Oil Field is a deepwater offshore oil field located in the Keathley Canyon block 102 of the United States sector of the Gulf of Mexico . The deepwater field ( defined as water depth 1 @,@ 300 to 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 400 to 1 @,@ 520 m ) , ) was discovered in September 2009 and it is operated by BP . Described as a " giant " find , it is estimated to contain 4 to 6 billion barrels ( 640 × 10 ^ 6 to 950 × 10 ^ 6 m3 ) of oil in place . Although BP states it is too early to be sure of the size – a " huge " field is usually considered to contain 250 million barrels ( 40 × 10 ^ 6 m3 ) . It required the drilling of a 10 @,@ 685 m ( 35 @,@ 056 ft ) deep well under 1 @,@ 260 m ( 4 @,@ 130 ft ) of water , making it one of the deepest wells ever drilled at the time of discovery .
= = Description = =
Tiber comprises multiple Lower Tertiary petroleum reservoirs located in Keathley Canyon block 102 about 250 mi ( 400 km ) southeast of Houston and 300 mi ( 480 km ) south west of New Orleans . Tiber is only the 18th Lower Tertiary well to date , and drilling in these formations is in its infancy . The oil from Tiber is light crude , and early estimates of recoverable reserves are around 20 – 30 % recovery , suggesting figures of around 600 to 900 million barrels ( 95 × 10 ^ 6 to 143 × 10 ^ 6 m3 ) of reserves . Sources such as Bloomberg suggest caution , warning that the find is technically complex and potentially could take 5 – 6 years to produce oil or be lower yield ( 5 – 15 % ) based on " rates talked about " at nearby Kaskida Oil Field , BP 's previous giant find ( 2006 ) 40 mi ( 64 km ) away . The commercial prospects of the field have not yet been evaluated .
= = Discovery = =
BP acquired the Outer Continental Shelf lease of Keathley Canyon block 102 reference G25782 , NOAA station 42872 , on October 22 , 2003 , in Phase 2 of the Western Gulf of Mexico ( WGOM / GOM ) Sale 187 . Lower Tertiary rock formations are some of the oldest and most technically challenging offshore rock formations currently drilled for oil , dating to between 23 and 66 million years ago . The plan of exploration was filed in June 2008 .
Tiber was initially drilled by Transocean 's fifth @-@ generation dynamic positioned semi @-@ submersible oil rig , Deepwater Horizon , with exploratory drilling commencing around March 2009 , slightly delayed from the planned date of September 2008 . Much of the deeper gulf reserves are buried under salt accumulations thousands of feet thick , which present a problem for seismic exploration . BP had previously developed exploration techniques to bypass this difficulty . Oil was located at " multiple levels " . The field was announced on September 2 , 2009 , and BP shares rose 3 @.@ 7 percent on the news . With Tiber joining at least ten other successful Lower Tertiary explorations in the area , analysts viewed the announcement as a sign for optimism , and a harbinger of renewed interest in , and production from , the offshore Gulf of Mexico .
= = Exploration on hold = =
Following the April 2010 destruction of the Deepwater Horizon while drilling the Macondo well , and the resulting oil spill , all appraisal activities at 33 wells under exploration in the Gulf of Mexico , including Tiber , were placed on hold . At least two rigs that might otherwise have been used for developing Tiber are also in use on the relief wells for the ruptured well .
= Glorious First of June =
The Glorious First of June ( also known in France as the Bataille du 13 prairial an 2 or Combat de Prairial ) [ Note A ] of 1794 was the first and largest fleet action of the naval conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the First French Republic during the French Revolutionary Wars .
The action was the culmination of a campaign that had criss @-@ crossed the Bay of Biscay over the previous month in which both sides had captured numerous merchant ships and minor warships and had engaged in two partial , but inconclusive , fleet actions . The British Channel Fleet under Admiral Lord Howe attempted to prevent the passage of a vital French grain convoy from the United States , which was protected by the French Atlantic
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Fleet , commanded by Rear @-@ Admiral Villaret @-@ Joyeuse . The two forces clashed in the Atlantic Ocean , some 400 nautical miles ( 700 km ) west of the French island of Ushant on 1 June 1794 .
During the battle , Howe defied naval convention by ordering his fleet to turn towards the French and for each of his vessels to rake and engage their immediate opponent . This unexpected order was not understood by all of his captains , and as a result his attack was more piecemeal than he intended . Nevertheless , his ships inflicted a severe tactical defeat on the French fleet . In the aftermath of the battle both fleets were left shattered ; in no condition for further combat , Howe and Villaret returned to their home ports . Despite losing seven of his ships of the line , Villaret had bought enough time for the French grain convoy to reach safety unimpeded by Howe 's fleet , securing a strategic success . However , he was also forced to withdraw his battle fleet back to port , leaving the British free to conduct a campaign of blockade for the remainder of the war . In the immediate aftermath both sides claimed victory and the outcome of the battle was seized upon by the press of both nations as a demonstration of the prowess and bravery of their respective navies .
The Glorious First of June demonstrated a number of the major problems inherent in the French and British navies at the start of the Revolutionary Wars . Both admirals were faced with disobedience from their captains , along with ill @-@ discipline and poor training among their shorthanded crews , and they failed to control their fleets effectively during the height of the combat .
= = Background = =
Since early 1792 France had been at war with four of its neighbours on two fronts , battling Austria and Prussia in the Austrian Netherlands , and the Austrians and Piedmontese in Italy . On 2 January 1793 , almost one year into the French Revolutionary War , republican @-@ held forts at Brest in Brittany fired on the British brig HMS Childers . [ Note B ] A few weeks later , following the execution of the imprisoned King Louis XVI , diplomatic ties between Britain and France were broken . On 1 February France declared war on both Britain and the Dutch Republic .
Protected from immediate invasion by the English Channel , Britain prepared for an extensive naval campaign and dispatched troops to the Netherlands for service against the French . Throughout the remainder of 1793 , the British and French navies undertook minor operations in Northern waters , the Mediterranean and the West and East Indies , where both nations maintained colonies . The closest the Channel Fleet had come to an engagement was when it had narrowly missed intercepting the French convoy from the Caribbean , escorted by 15 ships of the line on 2 August . The only major clash was the Siege of Toulon , a confused and bloody affair in which the British force holding the town — alongside Spanish , Sardinian , Austrian and French Royalist troops — had to be evacuated by the Royal Navy to prevent its imminent defeat at the hands of the French Republican army . The aftermath of this siege was punctuated by recriminations and accusations of cowardice and betrayal among the allies , eventually resulting in Spain switching allegiance with the signing of the Treaty of San Ildefonso two years later . Nevertheless , the siege produced one major success : Sir Sidney Smith , with parties of sailors from the retreating British fleet , accomplished the destruction of substantial French naval stores and shipping in Toulon . More might have been achieved had the Spanish raiding parties that accompanied Smith not been issued with secret orders to stall the destruction of the French fleet .
The situation in Europe remained volatile into 1794 . Off Northern France , the French Atlantic Fleet had mutinied due to errors in provisions and pay . In consequence , the French Navy officer corps suffered greatly from the effects of the Reign of Terror , with many experienced sailors being executed , imprisoned or dismissed from the service for perceived disloyalty . The shortage of provisions was more than a navy problem though ; France itself was starving because the social upheavals of the previous year had combined with a harsh winter to ruin the harvest . By this time at war with all her neighbours , France had nowhere to turn for overland imports of fresh provisions . Eventually a solution to the food crisis was agreed by the National Convention : food produced in France 's overseas colonies would be concentrated on board a fleet of merchant ships gathered in Chesapeake Bay , and augmented with food and goods purchased from the United States . During April and May 1794 , the merchantmen would convoy the supplies across the Atlantic to Brest , protected by elements of the French Atlantic Fleet .
= = Fleets = =
The navies of Britain and France in 1794 were at very different stages of development . Although the British fleet was numerically superior , the French ships were larger and stronger , and carried a heavier weight of shot . The largest French ships were three @-@ decker first rates , carrying 110 or 120 guns , against 100 guns on the largest British vessels .
= = = Royal Navy = = =
Since the Spanish Armament of 1790 , the Royal Navy had been at sea in a state of readiness for over three years . The Navy 's dockyards under First Lord of the Admiralty Charles Middleton were all fully fitted and prepared for conflict . This was quite unlike the disasters of the American Revolutionary War ten years earlier , when an ill @-@ prepared Royal Navy had taken too long to reach full effectiveness and was consequently unable to support the North American campaign — which ended in defeat at the Battle of Yorktown due to lack of supplies . With British dockyards now readily turning out cannon , shot , sails , provisions and other essential equipment , the only remaining problem was that of manning the several hundred ships on the Navy list .
Unfortunately for the British , gathering sufficient manpower was difficult and never satisfactorily accomplished throughout the entire war . The shortage of seamen was such that press gangs were forced to take thousands of men with no experience on the sea , meaning that training and preparing them for naval life would take quite some time . The lack of Royal Marines was even more urgent , and soldiers from the British Army were drafted into the fleet for service at sea . Men of the 2nd . Regiment of Foot - The Queen 's ( Royal West Surrey Regiment ) and the 29th Regiment of Foot served aboard Royal Navy ships during the campaign ; their descendant regiments still maintain the battle honour " 1 June 1794 " .
Despite these difficulties , the Channel Fleet was possessed of one of the best naval commanders of the age ; its commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Richard Howe , 1st Earl Howe , had learned his trade under Sir Edward Hawke and fought at the Battle of Quiberon Bay in 1759 . In the spring of 1794 , with the French convoy 's arrival in European waters imminent , Howe had dispersed his fleet in three groups . George Montagu , in HMS Hector , was sent with six ships of the line and two frigates to guard British convoys to the East Indies , West Indies and Newfoundland as far as Cape Finisterre . Peter Rainier , in HMS Suffolk and commanding six other ships , was to escort the convoys for the rest of their passage . The third force consisted of 26 ships of the line , with several supporting vessels , under Howe 's direct command . They were to patrol the Bay of Biscay for the arriving French .
= = = French Navy = = =
In contrast to their British counterparts , the French Navy was in a state of confusion . Although the quality of the fleet 's ships was high , the fleet hierarchy was riven by the same crises that had torn through France since the Revolution five years earlier . Consequently , the high standard of ships and ordnance was not matched by that of the available crews , which were largely untrained and inexperienced . With the Terror resulting in the death or dismissal of many senior French sailors and officers , political appointees and conscripts – many of whom had never been to sea at all , let alone in a fighting vessel – filled the Atlantic fleet .
The manpower problem was compounded by the supply crisis which was affecting the entire nation , with the fleet going unpaid and largely unfed for months at times . In August 1793 , these problems came to a head in the fleet off Brest , when a lack of provisions resulted in a mutiny among the regular sailors . The crews overruled their officers and brought their ships into harbour in search of food , leaving the French coast undefended . The National Convention responded instantly by executing a swathe of senior officers and ship 's non @-@ commissioned officers . Hundreds more officers and sailors were imprisoned , banished or dismissed from naval service . The effect of this purge was devastating , seriously degrading the fighting ability of the fleet by removing at a stroke many of its most capable personnel . In their places were promoted junior officers , merchant captains and even civilians who expressed sufficient revolutionary zeal , although few of them knew how to fight or control a battle fleet at sea .
The newly appointed commander of this troubled fleet was Villaret de Joyeuse ; although formerly in a junior position , he was known to possess a high degree of tactical ability ; he had trained under Admiral Pierre André de Suffren in the Indian Ocean during the American war . However , Villaret 's attempts to mould his new officer corps into an effective fighting unit were hampered by another new appointee , a deputy of the National Convention named Jean @-@ Bon Saint @-@ André . Saint @-@ André 's job was to report directly to the National Convention on the revolutionary ardour of both the fleet and its admiral . He frequently intervened in strategic planning and tactical operations . Shortly after his arrival , Saint @-@ André proposed issuing a decree ordering that any officer deemed to have shown insufficient zeal in defending his ship in action should be put to death on his return to France , although this highly controversial legislation does not appear to have ever been acted upon . Although his interference was a source of frustration for Villaret , Saint @-@ André 's dispatches to Paris were published regularly in Le Moniteur , and did much to popularise the Navy in France .
The French Atlantic fleet was even more dispersed than the British in the spring of 1794 : Rear @-@ Admiral Pierre Vanstabel had been dispatched , with five ships including two of the line , to meet the much @-@ needed French grain convoy off the American eastern seaboard . Rear @-@ Admiral Joseph @-@ Marie Nielly had sailed from Rochefort with five ships of the line and assorted cruising warships to rendezvous with the convoy in the mid @-@ Atlantic . This left Villaret with 25 ships of the line at Brest to meet the threat posed by the British fleet under Lord Howe .
= = = Convoy = = =
By early spring of 1794 , the situation in France was dire . With famine looming after the failure of the harvest and the blockade of French ports and trade , the French government was forced to look overseas for sustenance . Turning to France 's colonies in the Americas , and the agricultural bounty of the United States , the National Convention gave orders for the formation of a large convoy of sailing vessels to gather at Hampton Roads in the Chesapeake Bay , where Admiral Vanstabel would wait for them . According to contemporary historian William James this conglomeration of ships was said to be over 350 strong , although he disputes this figure , citing the number as 117 ( in addition to the French warships ) .
The convoy had also been augmented by the United States government , in both cargo and shipping , as repayment for French financial , moral and military support during the American Revolution . In supporting the French Revolution in this way , the American government , urged especially by Ambassador Gouverneur Morris , was fulfilling its ten @-@ year @-@ old debt to France . Friendly relations between the United States and France did not long survive the Jay Treaty which came into effect in 1796 ; by 1798 the two nations would be engaged in the Quasi War .
= = May 1794 = =
The French convoy , escorted by Vanstabel , departed America from Virginia on 2 April , and Howe sailed from Portsmouth on 2 May , taking his entire fleet to both escort British convoys to the Western Approaches and intercept the French . Checking that Villaret was still in Brest , Howe spent two weeks searching the Bay of Biscay for the grain convoy , returning to Brest on 18 May to discover that Villaret had sailed the previous day . [ Note C ] Returning to sea in search of his opponent , Howe pursued Villaret deep into the Atlantic . Also at sea during this period were the squadrons of Nielly ( French ) and Montagu ( British ) , both of whom had met with some success ; Nielly had captured a number of British merchant ships and Montagu had taken several back . Nielly was the first to encounter the grain convoy , deep in the Atlantic in the second week of May . He took it under escort as it moved closer to Europe , while Montagu was searching fruitlessly to the south .
Despite Howe 's pursuit , the main French sortie found initial success , running into a Dutch convoy and taking 20 ships from it on Villaret 's first day at sea . For the next week Howe continued to follow the French , seizing and burning a trail of French @-@ held Dutch ships and enemy corvettes . On 25 May Howe spotted a straggler from Villaret 's fleet and gave chase ; Audacieux led Howe straight to his opponent 's location . Having finally found Villaret , on 28 May Howe attacked , using a flying squadron of his fastest ships to cut off its rearmost vessel Révolutionnaire . This first rate was at various times engaged with six British ships and took heavy damage , possibly striking her colours late in the action . As darkness fell the British and French fleets separated , leaving Révolutionnaire and her final enemy , HMS Audacious , still locked in combat behind them . These two ships parted company during the night and eventually returned to their respective home ports . By this stage Villaret knew through his patrolling frigates that the grain convoy was close , and deliberately took his fleet to the west , hoping to decoy Howe away from the vital convoy .
Taking the bait , the following day Howe attacked again , but his attempt to split the French fleet in half was unsuccessful when his lead ship , HMS Caesar , failed to follow orders . Much damage was done to both fleets but the action was inconclusive , and the two forces again separated without having settled the issue . Howe had however gained an important advantage during the engagement by seizing the weather gage , enabling him to further attack Villaret at a time of his choosing . Three French ships were sent back to port with damage , but these losses were offset by reinforcements gained the following day with the arrival of Nielly 's detached squadron . Battle was postponed during the next two days because of thick fog , but when the haze lifted on 1 June 1794 , the battle lines were only 6 miles ( 10 km ) apart and Howe was prepared to force a decisive action .
= = First of June = =
Although Howe was in a favourable position , Villaret had not been idle during the night . He had attempted , with near success , to distance his ships from the British fleet ; when dawn broke at 05 : 00 he was within a few hours of gaining enough wind to escape over the horizon . Allowing his men to breakfast , Howe took full advantage of his position on the weather gage to close with Villaret , and by 08 : 12 the British fleet was just four miles ( 6 km ) from the enemy . By this time , Howe 's formation was strung out in an organised line parallel to the French , with frigates acting as repeaters for the admiral 's commands . The French were likewise in line ahead and the two lines began exchanging long @-@ range gunfire at 09 : 24 , whereupon Howe unleashed his innovative battleplan .
It was normal in fleet actions of the 18th century for the two lines of battle to pass one another sedately , exchanging fire at long ranges and then wearing away , often without either side losing a ship or taking an enemy . In contrast , Howe was counting on the professionalism of his captains and crews combined with the advantage of the weather gage to attack the French directly , driving through their line . However , this time he did not plan to manoeuvre in the way he had during the two previous encounters ; each ship following in the wake of that in front to create a new line arrowing through his opponent 's force ( as Rodney had done at the Battle of the Saintes 12 years earlier ) . Instead , Howe ordered each of his ships to turn individually towards the French line , intending to breach it at every point and rake the French ships at both bow and stern . The British captains would then pull up on the leeward side of their opposite numbers , cutting them off from their retreat downwind , and engage them directly , hopefully forcing each to surrender and consequently destroying the French Atlantic Fleet .
= = British break the line = =
Within minutes of issuing the signal and turning his flagship HMS Queen Charlotte , Howe 's plan began to falter . Many of the British captains had either misunderstood or ignored the signal and were hanging back in the original line . Other ships were still struggling with damage from Howe 's earlier engagements and could not get into action fast enough . The result was a ragged formation tipped by Queen Charlotte that headed unevenly for Villaret 's fleet . The French responded by firing on the British ships as they approached , but the lack of training and coordination in the French fleet was obvious ; many ships which did obey Howe 's order and attacked the French directly arrived in action without significant damage .
= = = Van squadron = = =
Although Queen Charlotte pressed on all sail , she was not the first through the enemy line . That distinction belonged to a ship of the van squadron under Admiral Graves : HMS Defence under Captain James Gambier , a notoriously dour officer nicknamed " Dismal Jimmy " by his contemporaries . Defence , the seventh ship of the British line , successfully cut the French line between its sixth and seventh ships ; Mucius and Tourville . Raking both opponents , Defence soon found herself in difficulty due to the failure of those ships behind her to properly follow up . This left her vulnerable to Mucius , Tourville and the ships following them , with which she began a furious fusillade . However , Defence was not the only ship of the van to break the French line ; minutes later George Cranfield @-@ Berkeley in HMS Marlborough executed Howe 's manoeuvre perfectly , raking and then entangling his ship with Impétueux .
In front of Marlborough the rest of the van had mixed success . HMS Bellerophon and HMS Leviathan were both still suffering the effects of their exertions earlier in the week and did not breach the enemy line . Instead they pulled along the near side of Éole and America respectively and brought them to close gunnery duels . Rear @-@ Admiral Thomas Pasley of Bellerophon was an early casualty , losing a leg in the opening exchanges . HMS Royal Sovereign , Graves 's flagship , was less successful due to a miscalculation of distance that resulted in her pulling up too far from the French line and coming under heavy fire from her opponent Terrible . In the time it took to engage Terrible more closely , Royal Sovereign suffered a severe pounding and Admiral Graves was badly wounded .
More disturbing to Lord Howe were the actions of HMS Russell and HMS Caesar . Russell 's captain John Willett Payne was criticised at the time for failing to get to grips with the enemy more closely and allowing her opponent Téméraire to badly damage her rigging in the early stages , although later commentators blamed damage received on 29 May for her poor start to the action . There were no such excuses , however , for Captain Anthony Molloy of Caesar , who totally failed in his duty to engage the enemy . Molloy completely ignored Howe 's signal and continued ahead as if the British battleline was following him rather than engaging the French fleet directly . Caesar did participate in a desultory exchange of fire with the leading French ship Trajan but her fire had little effect , while Trajan inflicted much damage to Caesar 's rigging and was subsequently able to attack Bellerophon as well , roaming unchecked through the melee developing at the head of the line .
= = = Centre = = =
The centre of the two fleets was divided by two separate squadrons of the British line : the forward division under admirals Benjamin Caldwell and George Bowyer and the rear under Lord Howe . While Howe in Queen Charlotte was engaging the French closely , his subordinates in the forward division were less active . Instead of moving in on their opposite numbers directly , the forward division sedately closed with the French in line ahead formation , engaging in a long distance duel which did not prevent their opponents from harassing the embattled Defence just ahead of them . Of all the ships in this squadron only HMS Invincible , under Thomas Pakenham , ranged close to the French lines . Invincible was badly damaged by her lone charge but managed to engage the larger Juste . HMS Barfleur under Bowyer did later enter the action , but Bowyer was not present , having lost a leg in the opening exchanges .
Howe and Queen Charlotte led the fleet by example , sailing directly at the French flagship Montagne . Passing between Montagne and the next in line Vengeur du Peuple , Queen Charlotte raked both and hauled up close to Montagne to engage in a close @-@ range artillery battle . As she did so , Queen Charlotte also became briefly entangled with Jacobin , and exchanged fire with her too , causing serious damage to both French ships .
To the right of Queen Charlotte , HMS Brunswick had initially struggled to join the action . Labouring behind the flagship , her captain John Harvey received a rebuke from Howe for the delay . Spurred by this signal , Harvey pushed his ship forward and almost outstripped Queen Charlotte , blocking her view of the eastern half of the French fleet for a time and taking severe damage from French fire as she did so . Harvey hoped to run aboard Jacobin and support his admiral directly , but was not fast enough to reach her and so attempted to cut between Achille and Vengeur du Peuple . This manoeuvre failed when Brunswick 's anchors became entangled in Vengeur 's rigging . Harvey 's master asked if Vengeur should be cut loose , to which Harvey replied " No ; we have got her and we will keep her " . The two ships swung so close to each other that Brunswick 's crew could not open their gunports and had to fire through the closed lids , the ships battering each other from a distance of just a few feet .
Behind this combat , other ships of the centre division struck the French line , HMS Valiant under Thomas Pringle passing close to Patriote which pulled away , her crew suffering from contagion and unable to take their ship into battle . Valiant instead turned her attention on Achille , which had already been raked by Queen Charlotte and Brunswick , and badly damaged her before pressing on sail to join the embattled van division . HMS Orion under John Thomas Duckworth and HMS Queen under Admiral Alan Gardner both attacked the same ship , Queen suffering severely from the earlier actions in which her masts were badly damaged and her captain John Hutt mortally wounded . Both ships bore down on the French Northumberland , which was soon dismasted and left attempting to escape on only the stump of a mast . Queen was too slow to engage Northumberland as closely as Orion , and soon fell in with Jemmappes , both ships battering each other severely .
= = = Rear = = =
Of the British rear ships , only two made a determined effort to break the French line . Admiral Hood 's flagship HMS Royal George pierced it between Républicain and Sans Pareil , engaging both closely , while HMS Glory came through the line behind Sans Pareil and threw herself into the melee as well . The rest of the British and French rearguard did not participate in this close combat ; HMS Montagu fought a long range gunnery duel with Neptune which damaged neither ship severely , although the British captain James Montagu was killed in the opening exchanges , command devolving on Lieutenant Ross Donnelly . Next in line , HMS Ramillies ignored her opponent completely and sailed west , Captain Henry Harvey seeking Brunswick , his brother 's ship , in the confused action around Queen Charlotte .
Three other British ships failed to respond to the signal from Howe , including HMS Alfred which engaged the French line at extreme range without noticeable effect , and Captain Charles Cotton in HMS Majestic who likewise did little until the action was decided , at which point he took the surrender of several already shattered French ships . Finally HMS Thunderer under Albemarle Bertie took no part in the initial action at all , standing well away from the British line and failing to engage the enemy despite the signal for close engagement hanging limply from her mainmast . The French rear ships were no less idle , with Entreprenant and Pelletier firing at any British ships in range but refusing to close or participate in the melees on either side . The French rear ship Scipion did not attempt to join the action either , but could not avoid becoming embroiled in the group around Royal George and Républicain and suffered severe damage .
= = Melee = =
Within an hour of their opening volleys the British and French lines were hopelessly confused , with three separate engagements being fought within sight of one another . In the van , Caesar had finally attempted to join the fight , only to have a vital spar shot away by Trajan which caused her to slip down the two embattled fleets without contributing significantly to the battle . Bellerophon and Leviathan were in the thick of the action , the outnumbered Bellerophon taking serious damage to her rigging . This left her unable to manoeuvre and in danger from her opponents , of which Eole also suffered severely . Captain William Johnstone Hope sought to extract his ship from her perilous position and called up support ; the frigate HMS Latona under Captain Edward Thornbrough arrived to provide assistance . Thornbrough brought his small ship between the ships of the French battleline and opened fire on Eole , helping to drive off three ships of the line and then towing Bellerophon to safety . Leviathan , under Lord Hugh Seymour , had been more successful than Bellerophon , her gunnery dismasting America despite receiving fire from Eole and Trajan in passing . Leviathan only left America after a two @-@ hour duel , sailing at 11 : 50 to join Queen Charlotte in the centre .
Russell had not broken the French line and her opponent Témeraire got the better of her , knocking away a topmast and escaping to windward with Trajan and Eole . Russell then fired on several passing French ships before joining Leviathan in attacking the centre of the French line . Russell 's boats also took the surrender of America , her crew boarding the vessel to make her a prize ( although later replaced by men from Royal Sovereign ) . Royal Sovereign lost Admiral Graves to a serious wound and lost her opponent as well , as Terrible fell out of the line to windward and joined a growing collection of French ships forming a new line on the far side of the action . Villaret was leading this line in his flagship Montagne , which had escaped from Queen Charlotte , and it was Montagne which Royal Sovereign engaged next , pursuing her close to the new French line accompanied by Valiant , and beginning a long @-@ range action .
Behind Royal Sovereign was Marlborough , inextricably tangled with Impétueux . Badly damaged and on the verge of surrender , Impétueux was briefly reprieved when Mucius appeared through the smoke and collided with both ships . The three entangled ships continued exchanging fire for some time , all suffering heavy casualties with Marlborough and Impétueux losing all three of their masts . This combat continued for several hours . Captain Berkeley of Marlborough had to retire below with serious wounds , and command fell to Lieutenant John Monkton , who signalled for help from the frigates in reserve . Robert Stopford responded in HMS Aquilon , which had the assignment of repeating signals , and towed Marlborough out of the line as Mucius freed herself and made for the regrouped French fleet to the north . Impétueux was in too damaged a state to move at all , and was soon seized by sailors from HMS Russell .
Dismasted , Defence was unable to hold any of her various opponents to a protracted duel , and by 13 : 00 was threatened by the damaged Républicain moving from the east . Although Républicain later hauled off to join Villaret to the north , Gambier requested support for his ship from the fleet 's frigates and was aided by HMS Phaeton under Captain William Bentinck . As Impétueux passed she fired on Phaeton , to which Bentinck responded with several broadsides of his own . Invincible , the only ship of the forward division of the British centre to engage the enemy closely , became embroiled in the confusion surrounding Queen Charlotte . Invincible 's guns drove Juste onto the broadside of Queen Charlotte , where she was forced to surrender to Lieutenant Henry Blackwood in a boat from Invincible . Among the other ships of the division there were only minor casualties , although HMS Impregnable lost several yards and was only brought back into line by the quick reactions of two junior officers , Lieutenant Robert Otway and Midshipman Charles Dashwood .
The conflict between Queen Charlotte and Montagne was oddly one @-@ sided , the French flagship failing to make use of her lower @-@ deck guns and consequently suffering extensive damage and casualties . Queen Charlotte in her turn was damaged by fire from nearby ships and was therefore unable to follow when Montagne set her remaining sails and slipped to the north to create a new focal point for the survivors of the French fleet . Queen Charlotte also took fire during the engagement from HMS Gibraltar , under Thomas Mackenzie , which had failed to close with the enemy and instead fired at random into the smoke bank surrounding the flagship . Captain Sir Andrew Snape Douglas was seriously wounded by this fire . Following Montagne 's escape , Queen Charlotte engaged Jacobin and Républicain as they passed , and was successful in forcing the surrender of Juste . To the east of Queen Charlotte , Brunswick and Vengeur du Peuple continued their bitter combat , locked together and firing main broadsides from point blank range . Captain Harvey of Brunswick was mortally wounded early in this action by langrage fire from Vengeur , but refused to quit the deck , ordering more fire into his opponent . Brunswick also managed to drive Achille off from her far side when the French ship attempted to intervene . Achille , already damaged , was totally dismasted in the exchange and briefly surrendered , although her crew rescinded this when it became clear Brunswick was in no position to take possession . With her colours rehoisted , Achille then made what sail she could in an attempt to join Villaret to the north . It was not until 12 : 45 that the shattered Vengeur and Brunswick pulled apart , both largely dismasted and very battered . Brunswick was only able to return to the British side of the line after being supported by Ramillies , while Vengeur was unable to move at all . Ramillies took Vengeur 's surrender after a brief cannonade but was unable to board her and instead pursued the fleeing Achille , which soon surrendered as well .
To the east , Orion and Queen forced the surrender of both Northumberland and Jemmappes , although Queen was unable to secure Jemmappes and she had to be abandoned later . Queen especially was badly damaged and unable to make the British lines again , wallowing between the newly reformed French fleet and the British battleline along with several other shattered ships . Royal George and Glory had between them disabled Scipion and Sans Pareil in a bitter exchange , but were also too badly damaged themselves to take possession . All four ships were among those left drifting in the gap between the fleets .
= = French recovery = =
Villaret in Montagne , having successfully broken contact with the British flagship and slipped away to the north , managed to gather 11 ships of the line around him and formed them up in a reconstituted battle squadron . At 11 : 30 , with the main action drawing to a close , he began a recovery manoeuvre intended to lessen the tactical defeat his fleet had suffered . Aiming his new squadron at the battered Queen , Villaret 's attack created consternation in the British fleet , which was unprepared for a second engagement . However , discerning Villaret 's intention , Howe also pulled his ships together to create a new force . His reformed squadron consisted of Queen Charlotte , Royal Sovereign , Valiant , Leviathan , Barfleur , and Thunderer . Howe deployed this squadron in defence of Queen , and the two short lines engaged one another at a distance before Villaret abandoned his manoeuvre and hauled off to collect several of his own dismasted ships that were endeavouring to escape British pursuit . Villaret was subsequently joined by the battered Terrible , which sailed straight through the dispersed British fleet to reach the French lines , and he also recovered the dismasted Scipion , Mucius , Jemmappes , and Républicain — all of which lay within reach of the unengaged British ships — before turning eastwards towards France . At this stage of the battle , Howe retired below and the British consolidation was left to his Captain of the Fleet , Sir Roger Curtis . Curtis was subsequently blamed by some in the Navy for not capturing more of the dismasted French ships , and was also accused of dissuading Howe from attempting further pursuit .
In fact , the British fleet was unable to pursue Villaret , having only 11 ships still capable of battle to the French 12 , and having numerous dismasted ships and prizes to protect . Retiring and regrouping , the British crews set about making hasty repairs and securing their prizes ; seven in total , including the badly damaged Vengeur du Peuple . Vengeur had been holed by cannon firing from Brunswick directly through the ship 's bottom , and after her surrender no British ship had managed to get men aboard . This left Vengeur 's few remaining unwounded crew to attempt to salvage what they could — a task made harder when some of her sailors broke into the spirit room and became drunk . Ultimately the ship 's pumps became unmanageable , and Vengeur began to sink . Only the timely arrival of boats from the undamaged Alfred and HMS Culloden , as well as the services of the cutter HMS Rattler , saved any of the Vengeur 's crew from drowning , these ships taking off nearly 500 sailors between them . Lieutenant John Winne of Rattler was especially commended for this hazardous work . By 18 : 15 , Vengeur was clearly beyond salvage and only the very worst of the wounded , the dead , and the drunk remained aboard . Several sailors are said to have waved the tricolor from the bow of the ship and cried " Vive la Nation , vive la République ! "
Having escaped to the east , Villaret made what sail his battered fleet could muster to return to France , and dispatched his frigates in search of the convoy . Villaret was also hoping for reinforcements ; eight ships of the line , commanded by Admiral Pierre @-@ François Cornic , were patrolling near the Ushant headland . Behind him to the west , the British took the whole night to secure their ships and prizes , not setting out to return to Britain until 05 : 00 on 2 June .
Casualties in the battle are notoriously hard to calculate exactly . With only one exception ( Scipion ) , records made by the French captains of their losses at the time are incomplete . The only immediately available casualty counts are the sketchy reports of Saint @-@ André and the records made by British officers aboard the captured ships , neither of which can be treated as completely reliable . Most sources accept that French casualties in the campaign numbered approximately 7 @,@ 000 , including around 3 @,@ 000 captured , but these figures are vague and frequently do not agree with each other on details . British casualties are easier to confirm but here , too , there are some discrepancies ; overall British casualties are generally given as around 1 @,@ 200 .
= = The convoy arrives = =
With a large portion of his fleet no longer battleworthy , Howe was unable to resume his search for the French convoy in the Bay of Biscay . The Admiralty , though unaware of Howe 's specific circumstances , knew a battle had taken place through the arrival of HMS Audacious in Portsmouth , and was preparing a second expedition under George Montagu . Montagu had returned to England after his unsuccessful May cruise , and was refitting in Portsmouth when ordered to sea again . His force of ten ships was intended to both cover Howe 's withdrawal from Biscay , and find and attack the French grain convoy . Montagu returned to sea on 3 June , and by 8 June was off Ushant searching for signs of either the French or Howe ; unknown to him , neither had yet entered European waters . At 15 : 30 on 8 June Montagu spotted sails , and soon identified them as the enemy . He had located Cornic 's squadron , which was also patrolling for the convoy and the returning fleets . Montagu gave chase and drove Cornic into Bertheaume Bay , where he blockaded the French squadron overnight , hoping to bring them to action the following day . However , on 9 June , Montagu sighted 19 French ships appearing from the west — the remnants of Villaret 's fleet . Hastily turning his ships , Montagu sailed south to avoid becoming trapped between two forces which might easily overwhelm him . Villaret and Cornic gave chase for a day before turning east towards the safety of the French ports .
Howe benefited from Montagu 's withdrawal , as his own battered fleet passed close to the scene of this stand @-@ off on 10 June , pushing north into the English Channel . With Villaret and Cornic fortuitously pursuing Montagu to the south , Howe was free to pass Ushant without difficulty and arrived off Plymouth on 12 June , joined soon afterwards by Montagu . Villaret had anchored with Cornic in Bertheaume Bay the day before , but Saint @-@ André refused to allow him to enter Brest until the republican attitudes of the town 's population had been assessed . On 12 June , the convoy from America finally arrived off France , having lost just one ship in passage during a storm .
= = Aftermath = =
Both Britain and France claimed victory in the battle : Britain by virtue of capturing or sinking seven French ships without losing any of her own and remaining in control of the battle site ; France because the vital convoy had passed through the Atlantic unharmed and arrived in France without significant loss . The two fleets were showered by their respective nations with both praise and criticism – the latter particularly directed at those captains not felt to have contributed significantly to the fighting . The British fleet in Spithead was treated with a Royal visit by King George III and the entire royal household .
= = = France = = =
In France the revolutionary principles of égalité precluded extensive awards , but Villaret was promoted to vice @-@ admiral on 27 September 1794 and other minor awards were distributed to the admirals of the fleet . In addition the fleet 's officers took part in a celebratory parade from Brest to Paris , accompanying the recently arrived food supplies . The role of Vengeur du Peuple was mythified by Bertrand Barrère , giving birth to an exalted legend . Opinion in France concerning the battle 's outcome was divided ; while many celebrated Saint @-@ André 's exaggerated accounts of victory in Le Moniteur , senior naval officers disagreed . Among the dissenters was the highly experienced but recently dismissed Admiral Kerguelen . Kerguelen was disgusted by Villaret 's failure to renew the battle after he had reformed his squadron , and felt that the French fleet could have been successful tactically as well as strategically if only Villaret had made greater efforts to engage the remains of Howe 's fleet . The French Navy had suffered its worst losses in a single day since the Battle of La Hogue in 1692 .
Ultimately the revolutionary excesses of the period would prove disastrous for the French Navy . Poor leadership , conflicting and arbitrary orders and the decimation of the experienced seamen in the ranks promoted a negative attitude in the French officer corps . The French battlefleet did not contest British dominance in Northern European waters again , and their raiding operations repeatedly ended in failure at the hands of more confident British squadrons and the unforgiving Atlantic weather . By 1805 , when the last great French fleet to take to the sea was crushed at the Battle of Trafalgar , poor training and low investment in the Navy had reduced its efficiency to levels unthinkable 20 years earlier .
= = = Britain = = =
In Britain , numerous honours were bestowed on the fleet and its commanders . Admiral Howe , already an earl , refused any further elevation , and King George III was dissuaded from making him a Knight of the Garter by one of Howe 's political opponents . Vice @-@ Admiral Graves was elevated to the Peerage of Ireland as Baron Graves , while Vice @-@ Admiral Hood was made Viscount Bridport . Rear @-@ Admirals Bowyer , Gardner , Pasley and Curtis ( the last @-@ named was promoted from captain on 4 July 1794 ) were all made baronets , and Bowyer and Pasley also received pensions of £ 1 @,@ 000 a year to compensate them for their severe wounds . All first lieutenants were promoted to commander and numerous other officers were promoted in consequence of their actions . The thanks of parliament were unanimously passed to all who fought at the action and various other gifts and awards were distributed among the fleet . A memorial to Captains John Hutt and John Harvey , both of whom had died of their wounds on 30 June , was raised in Westminster Abbey .
There was , however , a bitter consequence of the awards , rooted in Howe 's official dispatch to the Admiralty concerning the battle , which according to some accounts was actually written by Curtis . Howe had appended a list to his report containing the names of officers whom he believed merited special reward for their part in the battle . The list included Vice @-@ Admirals Graves and Hood , Rear @-@ Admirals Bowyer , Gardner , and Pasley , and Captains Seymour , Pakenham , Cranfield @-@ Berkeley , Gambier , John Harvey , Payne , Henry Harvey , Pringle , Duckworth , Elphinstone , Nichols , and Hope . Also mentioned were Lieutenants Monkton and Donnelly . The list had omitted a number of officers who had served in the battle , and the justice of their omission was a highly controversial issue in the Navy . Rear @-@ Admiral Caldwell was the sole British flag officer present not to receive a hereditary honour , although he was promoted to Vice @-@ Admiral on 4 July ( as were Bowyer and Gardner ) . After studying the ship 's logs and reports of the battle , the Admiralty minted a medal to be awarded to the living captains on the list only ( although Captain William Parker of HMS Audacious was awarded one as well ) . The captains excluded from the list were furious , and the furor from this selective commendation lasted years : in 1795 Vice @-@ Admiral Caldwell quit the service in anger as a result , while Cuthbert Collingwood , flag captain of Barfleur , refused all awards for future service until the Glorious First of June medal was presented to him as well . He eventually received it after the Battle of Cape St Vincent in 1797 . Over five decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal , awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847 .
Bitterest of all was the whispering campaign directed at Anthony Molloy , captain of HMS Caesar . Molloy was accused of cowardice by fellow officers for his failure to follow Howe 's orders on both 29 May and 1 June . Molloy 's request for an official court @-@ martial to clear his name failed , and although his personal courage was not called into question , his professional ability was . Molloy was dismissed from his ship .
Of the captured ships , several were purchased and enjoyed long careers in the Royal Navy , in particular the two 80 @-@ gun ships HMS Sans Pareil which was decommissioned in 1802 but not broken up until 1842 , and HMS Juste , which was a popular command until her decommissioning in 1802 at the Peace of Amiens . Of the four 74 @-@ gun prizes , Achille and Northumberland ( both 74s built in the late 1770s ) were broken up as unserviceable soon after arrival in Britain , while Impétueux was destroyed in a dockyard fire on 24 August 1794 while undergoing repairs . America , the final prize , was taken into the Royal Navy as HMS America but renamed HMS Impetueux in July 1795 and remained in service until 1813 . The combined prize money for these ships was £ 201 @,@ 096 ( the equivalent of £ 21 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) , divided among the ships under Lord Howe 's command .
= New York State Route 368 =
New York State Route 368 ( NY 368 ) was a state highway in Onondaga County , New York , in the United States . It was one of the shortest routes in the county , extending for only 1 @.@ 69 miles ( 2 @.@ 72 km ) between NY 321 and NY 5 in the town of Elbridge . NY 368 was known as Halfway Road for the hamlet it served near its midpoint . The route was assigned in the 1930s and removed in 1980 as part of a highway maintenance swap between the state of New York and Onondaga County .
= = Route description = =
NY 368 began at an intersection with NY 321 adjacent to the Carpenter 's Brook Fish Hatchery in the town of Elbridge . The route headed north as Halfway Road , passing by farmland as it headed through a rural area of Onondaga County to the small hamlet of Halfway . Here , NY 368 served a small number of homes as it crossed a Conrail railroad line ( now part of the Finger Lakes Railway ) at the center of the community . Outside of Halfway , the route turned to the northwest toward the village of Elbridge , avoiding a marshy area directly north of Halfway . It intersected with Lynch Road and Campbell Road before turning slightly northward and following Carpenter 's Brook through another undeveloped area to an intersection with NY 5 east of the village , where NY 368 ended .
= = History = =
NY 368 was assigned in the 1930s as a connector between NY 321 and NY 5 in the town of Elbridge by way of the hamlet of Halfway . It remained unchanged until April 1 , 1980 , when ownership and maintenance of the route was transferred from the state of New York to Onondaga County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . The county also assumed ownership and maintenance of the Onondaga County portion of NY 31B as part of the exchange . NY 368 was redesignated as County Route 107 ( CR 107 ) following the swap .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Elbridge , Onondaga County .
= M @-@ 122 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 122 was a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan entirely in the city of St. Ignace . The highway connected US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) to the State Highway Ferry Dock used before the Mackinac Bridge was built . It was retired and the road returned to local control in 1957 .
= = Route description = =
Prior to the opening of the Mackinac Bridge , travelers wishing to venture from St. Ignace to Mackinaw City had to do so via ferry . M @-@ 122 began at US 2 ( now Business Loop Interstate 75 ) near Straits State Park and traveled through town along Ferry Road where it ran southeasterly from the main highway . East of Hornbach Street M @-@ 122 curved around to the east near Paro Street . The highway ended at the State Ferry Docks on the southeast side of the city next to the Coast Guard station .
= = History = =
M @-@ 122 was initially assumed into the state highway system in 1929 as a connector between US 31 and Straits State Park . In 1936 , US 2 was routed into St. Ignace and US 31 was scaled back to end in the Lower Peninsula in Mackinaw City . M @-@ 122 now provided a connection between US 2 and the new docks on the southeast side of the city . It existed in this capacity until 1957 when the Mackinac Bridge opened to traffic .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in St. Ignace , Mackinac County .
= Tupolev Tu @-@ 12 =
The Tupolev Tu @-@ 12 ( development designation Tu @-@ 77 ) was an experimental Soviet jet @-@ powered medium bomber developed from the successful piston @-@ engined Tupolev Tu @-@ 2 bomber after the end of World War II . It was designed as a transitional aircraft to familiarize Tupolev and the VVS with the issues involved with jet @-@ engined bombers .
= = Development = =
The Tupolev Tu @-@ 73 jet @-@ engined bomber project was suffering delays in early 1947 and Tupolev suggested re @-@ engining the Tu @-@ 2 medium bomber with imported British Rolls @-@ Royce Nene jet engines to produce a jet bomber as quickly as possible . Design work began well before official approval was received on 31 May 1947 for one Tu @-@ 2S to be converted in the OKB 's workshop and another five to be converted at Zavod ( Factory ) Nr. 23 , but construction of the prototype had already begun in early May under the bureau designation Tu @-@ 77 .
Changes from the standard Tu @-@ 2 were minimized to speed production and they consisted of the following :
Two Nene jet engines replaced the standard Shvetsov ASh @-@ 82FN radial engines .
The wing dihedral was reduced to 3 ° from 6 ° .
The fuselage was lengthened 400 mm ( 16 in ) and the rear fuselage was heightened by 300 mm ( 12 in ) .
A new tricycle undercarriage was fitted , with the main gear units retracting into the engine nacelles .
Additional fuel tanks were fitted and the design of the tanks was changed to accommodate the change from gasoline to kerosene .
The control system was revised and trim tabs were fitted to the elevators .
The wing and tail were reinforced .
The 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) ShVAK cannon were removed from the wing roots and a 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) Nudelman @-@ Suranov NS @-@ 23 cannon was mounted in an external fairing on the starboard side of the nose .
= = = Testing and evaluation = = =
The prototype was completed in July and was first flown on 27 July 1947 . Two aircraft were shown at the Tushino Aviation Day Display on 3 August 1947 . It completed its manufacturer 's trials in September and underwent the State acceptance trials from 4 October 1947 to 27 February 1948 where it was redesignated as the Tu @-@ 12 . The NII VVS ( Naoochno @-@ Issledovatel 'skiy Institoot Voyenno @-@ Vozdooshnykh Seel – Air Force Scientific Test Institute ) report summarized the differences between the Tu @-@ 2 and Tu @-@ 12 as " a considerable gain in speed , an improved rate of climb , a higher service ceiling , but poorer field performance and a considerably greater fuel load required to achieve the same range as the Tu @-@ 2 . " Both the lack of a pressurized cabin that greatly reduced its effectiveness at high altitude and the lack of deicing equipment for the wing and tail leading edges and the cockpit glazing were noted as major problems . At high speeds it was virtually impossible to traverse and elevate the manually operated VUB @-@ 68 and Lu @-@ 68 gun turrets . The vibration of the NS @-@ 23 cannon when firing rendered the equipment in the navigator 's cabin unusable and damaged the cabin glazing . Turning on the Identification friend or foe ( IFF ) system adversely affected the intercom system and the radios . New generators had to be installed as the originals did not produce enough electrical power .
The trials conducted by the NII VVS included engagements between the Tu @-@ 12 and the Soviet MiG @-@ 9 and Yak @-@ 23 jet fighters which were very useful in evaluating the offensive armament of the fighters , the defensive armament of the bomber and the proper tactics involved for both types of aircraft . The tests demonstrated the inferiority of the current 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) armament and meant that every Soviet bomber henceforth would have a defensive armament using power @-@ operated turrets that carried guns 20 mm or larger .
The five aircraft modified by the factory were given the Klimov RD @-@ 45 engine , the Soviet unlicensed copy of the Nene engine , and all six aircraft , used by the VVS for aircrew familiarization and training . The aircraft completed were later relegated to test duties . One aircraft was used for drone tests and another , redesignated as the Tu @-@ 12LL , mounted various pulse jet engines on a pylon above the fuselage .
= = Operators = =
Soviet Union
Soviet Air Force
= = Specifications ( Tu @-@ 12 ) = =
Data from Gunston , Tupolev Aircraft since 1922
General characteristics
Crew : 5
Length : 16 @.@ 45 m ( 53 ft 11 ½ in )
Wingspan : 18 @.@ 86 m ( 61 ft 10 ½ in )
Wing area : 48 @.@ 80 m2 ( 525 @.@ 30 ft2 )
Empty weight : 8993 kg ( 19 @,@ 826 lb )
Gross weight : 15 @,@ 720 kg ( 34 @,@ 657 lb )
Powerplant : 2 × Rolls @-@ Royce Nene I turbojet , 22 kN ( 5 @,@ 000 lbf ) thrust each each
Performance
Maximum speed : 783 km / h ( 487 mph )
Range : 2 @,@ 200 km ( 1 @,@ 367 miles )
Service ceiling : 11 @,@ 370 m ( 37 @,@ 305 ft )
Armament
1 × 23 mm NS @-@ 23 cannon
2 × 12 @.@ 7 mm Berezin UBT machine @-@ guns
3 @,@ 000 kg ( 6 @,@ 614 lb ) of bombs
= Civilian Public Service =
The Civilian Public Service ( CPS ) was a program of the United States government that provided conscientious objectors with an alternative to military service during World War II . From 1941 to 1947 , nearly 12 @,@ 000 draftees , willing to serve their country in some capacity but unwilling to perform any type of military service , accepted assignments in work of national importance in 152 CPS camps throughout the United States and Puerto Rico . Draftees from the historic peace churches and other faiths worked in areas such as soil conservation , forestry , fire fighting , agriculture , under the supervision of such agencies as the U.S. Forest Service , the Soil Conservation Service , and the National Park Service . Others helped provide social services and mental health services .
The CPS men served without wages and minimal support from the federal government . The cost of maintaining the CPS camps and providing for the needs of the men was the responsibility of their congregations and families . CPS men served longer than regular draftees and were not released until well after the end of the war . Initially skeptical of the program , government agencies learned to appreciate the men 's service and requested more workers from the program . CPS made significant contributions to forest fire prevention , erosion and flood control , medical science and reform of the mental health system .
= = Background = =
Conscientious objectors ( COs ) refuse to participate in military service because of belief or religious training . During wartime , this stance conflicts with conscription efforts . Those willing to accept non @-@ combatant roles , such as medical personnel , are accommodated . There are few legal options for draftees who cannot cooperate with the military in any way .
= = = Experiences of World War I = = =
The conscription law of World War I provided for noncombatant service for members of a religious organization whose members were forbidden from participating in war of any form . This exemption effectively limited conscientious objector status to members of the historic peace churches : Mennonites ( and other Anabaptist groups such as Hutterites ) , Religious Society of Friends ( Quakers ) and Church of the Brethren . The law gave the President authority to assign such draftees to any noncombatant military role .
Conscientious objectors who refused noncombatant service during World War I were imprisoned in military facilities such as Fort Lewis ( Washington ) , Alcatraz Island ( California ) and Fort Leavenworth ( Kansas ) . The government assumed that COs could be converted into soldiers once they were exposed to life in their assigned military camps . Simultaneously the Justice Department was preparing to indict 181 Mennonite leaders for violating the espionage act because of a statement they adopted against performing military service . The draftees ' refusal to put on a uniform or cooperate in any way caused difficulties for both the government and the COs . The treatment received by nearly 2000 of these absolute COs included short rations , solitary confinement and physical abuse so severe as to cause the deaths of two Hutterite draftees .
= = = Preparation for World War II = = =
After World War I , and with another European war looming , leaders from the historic peace churches met to strategize about how to cooperate with the government to avoid the difficulties of World War I. Holding a common view that any participation in military service was not acceptable , they devised a plan of civilian alternative service , based on experience gained by American Friends Service Committee work in Europe during and after World War I and forestry service done by Russian Mennonites in lieu of military service in Tsarist Russia .
As the United States prepared for another war , the historic peace churches , represented by Friends who understood inner dealings of Washington D.C. politics , attempted to influence new draft bills to ensure their men could fulfill their duty in an alternative , non @-@ military type of service . On June 20 , 1940 , the Burke @-@ Wadsworth Bill came before Congress . The arrangements for conscientious objectors were almost identical to the World War I provisions .
= = = Selective Service Act = = =
The Friends representatives continued attempting to make the bill more favorable to the historic peace churches . The Burke @-@ Wadsworth Bill passed on September 14 , 1940 , becoming the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 . The influence of the churches was evident in section 5 ( g ) , which says in part :
Any such person claiming such exemption from combatant training and service ... in lieu of such induction , be assigned to work of national importance under civilian direction .
The bill offered four improvements from the perspective of the churches over the World War I provisions . The exemption applied to conscientious objection based on religious training or belief , opening the door for members of any religious denomination to apply for CO status . Draftees turned down by local draft board could appeal under the new law . Those assigned to " work of national importance " would be under civilian , not military , control and violations of law on the part of those in the program were subject to normal federal jurisdiction , not the military justice system . From the military perspective , it removed the burden of dealing with thousands of uncooperative draftees and segregated the COs and their philosophy from military service members .
Unlike harsher methods , the military found that this gentler approach resulted in about one in eight eventually transferring to military service .
= = Organization = =
When registration commenced on October 16 , 1940 , no structure was in place to handle thousands of anticipated conscientious objectors . Church representatives meeting with government officials learned that little thought had been put into the program , and the churches were advised to create a plan . Because the government wanted to deal with one body , not individual religious denominations , the National Council for Religious Conscientious Objectors was formed as a liaison between the churches and the federal government . The historic peace churches outlined a plan that included running and maintaining CPS camps under church control . However , President Roosevelt opposed any plan not involving military control over the draftees . To save their plan and retain civilian direction of the program , the churches offered to fund the camps . Aides convinced Roosevelt that putting the COs to work in out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ way camps was preferable to repeating the difficulties of World War I. Selective Service and the peace churches agreed to a six @-@ month trial of church supported and funded camps for conscientious objectors and thus Civilian Public Service was born .
The first camp opened on May 15 , 1941 near Baltimore , Maryland . A total of 152 camps and units were established over the next six years . The federal government provided work projects , housing , camp furnishings and paid for transportation to the camps . The responsibilities of the churches included day @-@ to @-@ day management of the camps , subsistence costs , meals and healthcare for the men . When the young men arrived at the first camps , they started a six @-@ month experiment that would extend to six years .
= = = Camp life = = =
Civilian Public Service men lived in barracks @-@ style camps , such as former Civilian Conservation Corps facilities . The camps served as a base of operations , from which the COs departed to their daily assignments . Sites were located typically in rural areas near the agricultural , soil conservation and forestry projects where the work took place . A large camp such as number 57 near Hill City , South Dakota , had five dormitories and housed as many as 172 men building the Deerfield Dam . Later , with projects located in urban areas , the men lived in smaller units , communal housing near their assignments . CPS men typically worked nine hours , six days per week .
Mennonite Central Committee , American Friends Service Committee and Brethren Service Committee administered almost all of the camps . The Association of Catholic Conscientious Objectors managed four camps and the Methodist World Peace Commission two . Each camp was assigned a director responsible for supervising camp operation . The director managed the needs of the men , oversaw maintenance of the camp facilities , handled community relations and reported to Selective Service officials . Initially a pastor had the camp director role . Later , capable men from among the CPS workers directed the camps .
Besides the director , a matron , business manager and dietitian staffed a typical camp . An educational director was responsible for creating recreational , social and educational programs for the men . Church history , Bible and first aid were standard course topics . The strength of instructional programs varied from camp to camp , and after nine hours of physical labor , it could be difficult to motivate the men to attend classes . Most camps had libraries , some showed current films and camp number 56 ( Camp Angel ) near Waldport , Oregon had a particular emphasis on the arts . Camps produced newsletters and yearbooks documenting their experiences .
The camp dietitian , with the help of men assigned as cooks , prepared all of the meals . Camps with large gardens provided their own fresh vegetables . Sponsoring congregations also supplied home canned and fresh produce . The camps were subject to the same shortages and rationing as the rest of the nation .
Sunday worship services were organized by the camp director if he was a pastor , by a visiting pastor , or by the CPS men themselves . While the historic peace churches organized the CPS , 38 % of the men came from other denominations and 4 % claimed no religious affiliation .
Men spent their free time doing crafts such as woodworking , rugmaking , leatherwork and photography . Outdoor activities included hiking and swimming . Men formed choirs and music ensembles , performing in neighboring towns when relations were good . The men earned two days of furlough for each month of service . These days could be saved to allow enough time to travel several hundred miles home or in some cases traded to other men in exchange for cash .
Men with wives and dependents found it difficult to support their families . Beyond a small allowance , the men did not get paid for their service , nor were their dependents given an allowance . To be closer to their husbands , women sought employment near their husband 's assignment . Later , when jobs on dairy farms became available , families could live together in housing provided for farm workers .
Men who became uncooperative with the CPS system and were unable to adjust to the church @-@ managed camps were reassigned to a few camps managed by the Selective Service System . These camps tended to be the least productive and most difficult to administer . Men who felt compelled to protest the restrictions of the conscription law attempted to disrupt the program through the use of various techniques , including the initiation of work slowdowns and labor strikes . Routine rule breaking frustrated camp directors . The most difficult cases were given to the federal court system and the men imprisoned .
= = = Finances = = =
Churches were primarily responsible for financing Civilian Public Service , providing for the men 's food , clothes , and other material needs . The churches also provided and paid for the camp director . The men received an allowance of between $ 2 @.@ 50 and $ 5 @.@ 00 monthly for personal needs . When jobs were available in surrounding farms and communities , those willing to work beyond their regular CPS jobs could earn extra spending money . The federal government spent $ 1 @.@ 3 million on the CPS program . The men performed $ 6 million of unpaid labor in return .
Men who worked for farmers or psychiatric hospitals received regular wages , which they were required to give to the federal government . Objections to this practice developed immediately because the men felt they were helping to fund the war . A compromise was reached where the wages were put into a special fund that was unused until after the end of the war . At one point , church representatives attempted unsuccessfully to have these funds used for providing a living allowance for the men 's dependents .
= = Types of work = =
The first Civilian Public Service projects were in rural areas where the men performed tasks related to soil conservation , agriculture and forestry . Later men were assigned to projects in cities where they worked in hospitals , psychiatric wards , and university research centers .
= = = Soil conservation and agriculture = = =
Anticipating the rural background of most men , the initial camps provided soil conservation and farming @-@ related projects . By August 1945 , 550 men worked on dairy farms and with milk testing . Labor @-@ intensive farming operations like dairies were short of workers and accepted COs to help fill the gap . Men assigned to the Bureau of Reclamation built contours to prevent soil erosion , constructed 164 reservoirs and 249 dams . A sixth of all CPS work was performed in this area .
= = = Forestry and National Parks = = =
At Forest Service and National Park Service camps , CPS men were responsible for fire control . Between fires they built forest trails , cared for nursery stock , planted thousands of seedlings and engaged in pest control . Campgrounds and roadways on the Blue Ridge Parkway and Skyline Drive of Virginia are products of CPS labor .
Hundreds of men volunteered for smoke jumping , showing their willingness to take great personal risks . When fire was detected by a lookout , smoke jumpers were flown directly to the site and dropped by parachute to quickly contain and extinguish the fire . From base camps scattered through the forests of Montana , Idaho and Oregon , the men were flown as many as 200 miles to fire sites , carrying firefighting tools and a two @-@ day supply of K @-@ rations . For larger fires , additional men , supplies and food were airdropped to expand the effort . Up to 240 CPS men served in this specialized program . One of the smokejumping schools was at Camp Paxson in Montana .
= = = Mental health = = =
As the war progressed , a critical shortage of workers in psychiatric hospitals developed , because staff had left for better paying jobs with fewer hours and improved working conditions . Understaffed wards at Philadelphia State Hospital had one attendant member for 300 patients , the minimum ratio being 10 : 1 . The government balked at initial requests that CPS workers have these positions , believing it better to keep the men segregated in the rural camps to prevent the spread of their philosophy .
Eventually the men received permission to work for the mental institutions as attendants or psychiatric aides . Individuals who found jobs at the rural camps unfulfilling and meaningless , volunteered for this new type of assignment . The mental health field promised to provide the work of national importance that the program was designed to produce . By the end of 1945 , more than 2000 CPS men worked in 41 institutions in 20 states .
The CPS men discovered appalling conditions in the mental hospital wards . In an interview , a conscientious objector described his experience when he first entered a mental hospital in October 1942 :
It is sort of like a perpetual bad dream . The smells , the sounds of the insane voices , the bad equipment . The long , dark corridors . I tell you , it is all very much like a medieval fairytale of the nether regions . We ’ d heard about how these patients
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late 1980s and 1990s tropes such as with city financiers being literal demons , and Constantine meeting with Freemasons from the Houses of Parliament . He also had environmentalist issues crop up , especially in " The Fear Machine " ( issues # 15 @-@ 22 ) , where John fell in with a travelling community of environmental activists . Indeed , editor Karen Berger noted on Delano 's departure the irony that his final issue was handed in the week that Margaret Thatcher was forced out of office .
There were five main storylines in the run . The first , collected as " Original Sins " , deals with John travelling to America to exorcise a demon , Mnemoth , and investigate a strange cult known as Damnation 's Army , crossing paths with a demon called Nergal ( from whom he gains demon blood ) , and having to be responsible for killing an old friend , Gary Lester , and betraying another , called Zed , in the process . The following four issues , " The Devil You Know " finally explain John 's failure to save a young girl , Astra , from a demon in Newcastle , an event that left him near insane and incarcerated in an asylum known as Ravenscar , and still haunted him to the comic 's end . He eventually discovers that the demon responsible for this was Nergal , and uses a technological scheme to trap him , and lead him back to hell . It also contains a crossover with Swamp Thing , where Constantine loses his body while the Swamp Thing uses it to procreate .
This was followed by a lengthy nine @-@ issue story arc , " The Fear Machine " , revolving around a masonic plot to collect people 's fears , in order to resurrect a Cthulhian god known as Juntakillokian , and his efforts to prevent this with the help of environmentalists , including Mercury , a young psychic girl , and Marj , her mother , with whom he becomes romantically involved . The penultimate major run of Delano 's tenure was " The Family Man " , which differed from the main body of the series thus far in that Constantine 's nemesis is not supernatural ( beyond an opening metafictional encounter with a fictional fence ) , but a former policeman turned serial killer . John 's ethical quandary as to whether murder is ever acceptable , and his coping with the murder of his father , Thomas , frames this story . During this run on the title , Grant Morrison ( issues # 25 & 26 ) and Neil Gaiman ( issue # 27 ) both filled in during a three @-@ month break , Grant Morrison 's story dealing with nuclear fear , and Neil Gaiman 's being a simple romantic ghost story .
Delano 's run ended with " The Golden Child " , where John is reunited with Marj and Mercury , who help him discover that he murdered his more perfect twin in the womb , culminating in an extended story , in which we are shown what would have occurred had the other twin survived in his place . During his run , there was also a stand @-@ alone issue , the Hellblazer Annual # 1 , exploring Constantine 's ancestry , and featuring the video to John 's punk band , Mucous Membrane 's song " Venus of the Hardsell " .
Jamie Delano returned to the title on several occasions . Between the Garth Ennis and Paul Jenkins runs on Hellblazer , he finally told the story of why John 's best friend Chas ' owes ' him , and he returned again for one of the five Christmas stories in issue # 250 . He also wrote the mini series The Horrorist in 1995 , and Bad Blood in 2000 , both featuring John Constantine . A more substantial return was made in 2010 for a hardcover graphic novel Hellblazer : Pandemonium with artist Jock to commemorate the 25th anniversary of John Constantine 's first appearance in Swamp Thing .
= = = 1991 – 1999 : Garth Ennis ( # 41 – 83 , # 129 – 133 ) and Paul Jenkins ( # 89 – 128 ) = = =
Irish writer Garth Ennis then took over the title in 1991 , again from 2000 AD , where he had been working on Judge Dredd . He proceeded to write the longest run for any writer on the title . His take on the title was more personal than Jamie Delano 's , with John 's relationships coming to the fore . It also had a strong religious theme , with John 's dealings with the First of the Fallen , and some storylines , such as the relationship between an angel , Tali , and a succubus demon , Ellie , would go on to be used again as a major plot device in Preacher , one of his most popular works . He also references the music of The Pogues and the poetry of Brendan Behan , both of these being relevant to Ennis ' Irish heritage .
His run started with " Dangerous Habits " ( 41 @-@ 46 ) , which was the basis for the 2005 film Constantine , and dealt with John Constantine contracting lung cancer , and the desperate deal he makes with the First of the Fallen , and various other lords of Hell , to save himself . In the course of trying to save himself , he visits Ireland , where he becomes reacquainted with Kit Ryan , an old friend . The following few issues follow the early stages of his relationship with Kit , a plot to install a demon on the British throne in the plotline " Royal Blood " , and in the extended issue # 50 , his first meeting with the King of the Vampires . One minor story in this arc ( issue # 51 ) was written by guest writer John Smith .
The next major arc , " Fear and Loathing " ( issues 62 @-@ 67 ) covers a high point of John 's personal life , with his relationship with Kit going well , and a fortieth birthday party where his friends Ellie , Zatanna , and the Swamp Thing attend , and use their various abilities to create a large quantity of Bushmills whiskey and marijuana . The story then takes him to his lowest point , through his dealings with the National Front , their threats towards Kit , and her leaving him to return to Ireland . Following this , John is defeated , and lives homeless on the streets , drinking to forget his life . This remains the case until the King of the Vampires hunts him out , and is poisoned by his demon blood , leaving him out in the sun at dawn , killing him . Following his recovery , the storyline " Damnation 's Flame " ( Issues # 72 – 77 ) follows a trip to the US , where Constantine is put into an alternative America by his old adversary Papa Midnite , a Vodun shaman . He is accompanied by the spirit of JFK , who has to hold his brain in place from his infamous wound . He eventually learns how to escape , shortly before running into the First of the Fallen , in the guise of Abraham Lincoln . There then follows a small break where he meets the spirit of a dead friend in Dublin , offering some closure to his recent problems . Ennis ' run ends with " Rake at the Gates of Hell " , a story which finally brings together the racism storyline , with riots in Mile End , echoing the real @-@ life Brixton and Broadwater Farm riots in London , the revenge attempt of the First of the Fallen , started in " Dangerous Habits " , and the end of John 's relationship with Kit Ryan . John 's eventual Pyrrhic victory leaves this run with closure , and a relatively clean slate for a new writer to take over .
Following a brief interlude by From Hell artist Eddie Campbell , the series ' direction was taken over by Paul Jenkins in 1995 . He had been former editor of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and other Mirage Studios lines . He had pitched to several comic houses , having tired of editing , and eventually managed to gain stewardship of Hellblazer , the first largely untested writer to achieve this . His four @-@ year run is the longest run to remain uncollected . Jenkins ' run is more traditionally English in its themes , with Albion , Arthurian legend , and old English battles all featuring , and even an appearance by Samuel Taylor Coleridge , and a speculative explanation of the writing of Kubla Khan , and what the interruption of the ' man from Porlock ' may have been . He also returns to Jamie Delano 's coverage of anarchist lifestyles , and the effects of the Criminal Justice Act of 1994 , a controversial law which restricted the ability of the public to throw raves and large demonstrations .
Major storylines in this run include " Critical Mass " , where Constantine is forced to use magic to purge his darker side into another human body , in order to avoid being damned to Hell as part of a trade to save the possessed son of a friend , thus creating the antagonistic character , Demon Constantine , with the assistance of Aleister Crowley . The landmark hundredth issue gave more detail on John Constantine 's father , and the abusive relationship that they had shared . However , it is unclear as to whether this is happening in reality , or in his mind as John convalesces in a coma . " Last Man Standing " reveals that his friend Rich is the current descendant of King Arthur , and Merlin 's attempt to discover God 's secret , an act which would destroy England , using John 's few remaining friends as bait .
The tenth anniversary issue breaks from the usual format , in breaking the fourth wall , and addressing the reader as if they are in a pub with Constantine for a monthly get together to hear his stories . Over the course of the issue , most of the characters from Constantine 's history appear , along with Death of the Endless from Sandman . There are also appearances by writers and artists , including series creator Alan Moore , Garth Ennis , and Jenkins himself . Jenkins ' run then draws to a close with two storylines , " Up the Down Staircase " and " How to Play With Fire " , which relate the First of the Fallen 's new plan , to essentially let mankind ruin itself through television and consumerism , and Ellie 's plot to leave Constantine friendless and alone . John eventually saves himself , through a literal deus ex machina , in a campfire conversation with God . However , at that time Rich and his family finally sever their friendship with John , and the latter ends the run alone . Paul Jenkins later returned for one of the five stories in issue # 250 .
Ennis briefly returned to the title in 1998 with " Son of Man " , filling the gaps between Paul Jenkins ' and Warren Ellis ' runs on the title . This more irreverent story is about the consequences of Constantine resurrecting the dead son of an East London gangster , using the spirit of a demon . He also had two specials published during his run on the title , the Hellblazer Special and Heartland , which follows Kit Ryan 's return to Ireland .
= = = 1999 – 2002 = = =
= = = = Warren Ellis ( # 134 – 143 ) = = = =
Warren Ellis took over the title in 1999 , after his work on Transmetropolitan which had moved to the Vertigo imprint , following the closure of Helix Comics . He was meant to become a full @-@ time writer for several years , as Delano , Ennis and Jenkins before him , but left the title early after DC refused to publish the story " Shoot " , about high school shootings , following the Columbine High School massacre , despite the fact it had been written and submitted prior to the event . The story was finally published in 2010 .
His brief run began with " Haunted " , a London @-@ based story in which John investigates the brutal murder of a former girlfriend , Isabel by an Aleister Crowley style magician , Josh Wright . The story introduces , or reintroduces many characters who became an important part of the Hellblazer universe , including Inspector Watford ( originally from Jamie Delano 's run on the title ) , aging magician Clarice , and Map , a powerful magician who works on tube renovations in his part as custodian of London . The remainder of Ellis ' brief tenure was taken up with single issue stories , collected as " Setting Sun " .
= = = = Brian Azzarello ( # 146 – 174 ) = = = =
Following a brief interlude by Croatian writer Darko Macan , the series was then taken over by Brian Azzarello , once again hired on the strength of his own series for Vertigo , 100 Bullets . Azzarello 's run is one large meta @-@ story , that follows John Constantine on a trip across America , starting with his incarceration in prison , then variously uncovering a pornography ring , catching a serial killer , taking on a Neo Nazi group before finally dealing with the architect of his incarceration , Stanley W. Manor , a thinly @-@ veiled pastiche of Batman . Brian Azzarello did return for one of the five stories in issue # 250 .
= = = 2002 – 2006 : Mike Carey ( # 175 – 215 , # 229 ) = = =
Following Azzarello 's run , writer Mike Carey took over the title , following his Eisner award @-@ winning title Lucifer , set in the Sandman universe . Carey 's run attempted to return John Constantine to his roots , with the title largely set back in London , and featuring many characters from former runs on the title . Mike Carey also has the honour of being the first Liverpudlian to write the Liverpudlian character . His was the second longest run by any single author on the title , second only to Garth Ennis .
The start of his run introduces Angie Spatchcock , a fellow magician , and reintroduces his niece , Gemma Constantine , who has also fallen into magic use , to her uncle 's consternation . After ridding his sister 's house of an evil spirit , and finding out Gemma has gone missing , John returns to London , to find his old colleagues and enemies are all taking sides in the hunt for a mythical item , known as the Red Sepulchre . John eventually locates the item , and finds Gemma , freeing her from his old enemy Josh Wright . Following several forewarnings , Constantine then travels the world to set up a plan for a forthcoming tragedy , which will occur when " Three doors are opened " , involving Swamp Thing and the Garden of Eden amongst others .
John 's preparations have no effect , however , as he is tricked into killing the guardian that had been preventing the tragedy , freeing a beast which can control the collective unconsciousness of mankind . John Constantine cuts his own wrists , in order to free himself from consciousness , and plays a confidence trick on the beast , allowing his friends time to use the collective consciousness to rebuild the guardian that had kept the beast trapped . However , in this process , Swamp Thing has his human soul removed , setting up the fourth run of the comic , relaunched shortly afterward . In the process John loses his memory , setting up the events leading up to the 200th issue . Leading up to the landmark issue , John has little control over events , and is led along by a psychic serial killer , who threatens to kill Chas and his family , and a demon , Rosacarnis , who offers his memories back , at the cost of 24 hours in her service . John eventually gives into this offer , and the 200th issue shows how Rosacarnis manipulates his reality , making him raise three children with her , in the guise of Kit Ryan , from Garth Ennis ' time on the title , Zed , from Jamie Delano 's , and Angie , from the current run , with three different artists , Steve Dillon , Marcelo Frusin and Leonardo Manco each drawing one story , as the past , present and future of the title .
Carey 's final run followed the attempts of John 's three new children attempting to kill all of his family and friends , culminating in the death of his sister , Cheryl , at the hands of her possessed husband . John then travels into Hell to try to rescue her soul , with the assistance of Rosacarnis ' father , Nergal . The plan ultimately fails , and John returns broken , and intending to renounce magic .
Mike Carey returned to the title for a single issue between Denise Mina and Andy Diggle 's runs on the title , and also wrote the well @-@ received Hellblazer graphic novel All His Engines about a strange illness sweeping the globe .
= = = 2006 – 2013 = = =
= = = = Denise Mina ( # 216 – 228 ) = = = =
Denise Mina had not written for comics when she took over the title in 2006 , but had three acclaimed crime novels to her name , the Garnetthill trilogy , the first of which won the CWA award for best debut crime novel . Her run on the title took John to Scotland , to attempt to stop a plot to make everybody empathise with each other . However , John fails to stop this , and , overwhelmed by the grief and horror they 're forced to empathically share , suicides abound through the people of Glasgow . With help from Gemma Constantine , Angie Spatchcock and Chas Chandler , a plan to reverse the problem is made , as tension builds among the soldiers now surrounding the city . The soldiers keenly listen to a World Cup match between England and Portugal on the radio . When England loses the match , it seems all is lost , but the expected psychic riot fails to materialize . The soldiers are Scottish , so England 's loss is celebrated , saving the day , and proving there 's no source of joy like Schadenfreude .
= = = = Andy Diggle ( # 230 – 249 ) = = = =
Andy Diggle , having previously written the Hellblazer special , Lady Constantine , and Vertigo titles The Losers and Swamp Thing , took over the title in 2007 , another former writer for 2000 AD to have done this . He left the title in 2009 after accepting an exclusive contract with Marvel .
The run starts by introducing two main antagonists , an aging politician , who is using a strange portal to enter other people 's minds and commit crimes , and Mako , a cannibalistic mage who devours other magicians in order to obtain their power . Constantine 's attempt to play them off one another only succeeds in making them join forces in a further plot . Constantine then traps them both with considerable ease , and questions how this has been so easy . It then becomes apparent that he has been manipulated by the ' Golden Child ' , his twin who did not survive childbirth , and has been manipulating events for the whole of the series , including his battle with cancer and many other events . He declines his twin 's offer to merge souls , suspicious that his twin has been weakening his will in past years to make him accept this offer , choosing instead to take control of his own destiny .
= = = = Peter Milligan ( # 250 – 300 ) = = = =
Peter Milligan , a veteran of the Vertigo line , having written both Shade , The Changing Man and Animal Man at the publisher 's inception , then took over , starting with a short story in the landmark 250th issue , and taking over full @-@ time following this . His run implemented several major changes , including John Constantine 's wedding and the loss of his thumb .
In a rare change , Milligan 's run on the title starts with John living in domestic bliss with a nurse , Phoebe . Over the course of the first storyline , several new characters are introduced , including Epiphany Greaves , the alchemist daughter of a notorious London gangster , and Julian , a Babylonian demon . Over the course of the run , John dealt with a demon taking revenge on people involved in the Liverpool dockers ' strike gone insane and sought help from Shade , The Changing Man , after chopping off his own thumb , seen Phoebe die at the hands of Julian , and traveled to India to try to find a way of saving her . Following this , he realised that he was in love with Epiphany , and married her in the 275th issue . However , the events of this wedding turned Constantine 's niece Gemma against him , due to the Demon Constantine sexually assaulting her in the restroom . The strain of this traumatic incident turned her against John , and she enlisted the help of a coven of witches to kill him , which later came to a head when John was forced to fight off a brutal Demon summoned by them using John 's iconic trenchcoat to target him .
Afterwards , John 's coat ( which Gemma sold on eBay ) began to manipulate its various new owners into murder , suicide , or other horrific acts until coming into the hands of a man from the U.S. , who tried to kill John and Epiphany . During the time the coat was missing , John 's magical abilities had begun to go out of control . John eventually resolves this , and he was re @-@ united with his coat . Since this , Gemma and John have a very shaky relationship with one another , and she began a sexual relationship with Epiphany 's crime @-@ boss father Terry in order to " punish " John . When he confronted her about this relationship though , she told him that she would not stop unless he was able to retrieve her mother 's soul from Hell . John agreed . In order to get his sister to leave Hell , John agreed to track down her son , his adopted nephew , in Ireland .
On October 8 , 2012 , the series was announced as ending with issue 300 , following which a new title , Constantine started at the main imprint of DC comics . By 2013 , Constantine was contacted by the Three Fates , who tell him that he will finally meet his end in five days . Having lived a good and adventurous life , he happily accepts his fate rather than trying to fight it like he always does . When the last day came , Constantine was ambushed and shot in his own home right in front of a horrified Epiphany . After he died , Epiphany and Finn had an affair as a way to comfort each other . John 's ghost saw them having sex in a graveyard and seemed to give his blessing , making the fates decide that John wasn 't going to try to come back to life . Then , of course , he did . He contacted Epiphany and asked her to help resurrect him by making him cigarettes from his ashes , which , after he smoked them , made him corporeal again . Thinking to disappear and live happily ever after with Epiphany , they moved to a tiny house in Ireland , courtesy of Finn , that was totally off the grid and far removed from any apparent trouble , the last place anyone would think to look for John . That didn 't last long , though , as John realized he can never run from his past .
So John left Epiphany in Ireland and returned to England to confront Gemma . He stole the last dart holding the concoction that killed his demon twin , but ultimately gave it back to Gemma and told her either she could kill him , and live her life without him in but consumed with guilt for killing him , or she could let him disappear from her life forever , without any guilt for murdering him . Gemma shot the dart at him , but John disappeared . The final panel of Hellblazer reveals John , looking shocked and much older than we 'd previously seen him , standing in a bar appropriately called " A Long Journey 's End " surrounded by people , in front of a shelf full of bottles with the names of the comic 's staff over the years .
= = Justice League Dark , Constantine and cancellation = =
In 2011 , it was announced that a younger John Constantine would feature in Justice League Dark , one of the new titles launched as part of September 2011 's DC Universe reboot . He was to be part of a team including Shade , The Changing Man , Deadman and Madame Xanadu , known as Justice League Dark . As part of the DC universe reboot in September 2011 , Peter Milligan started the title which featured an alternate version of John Constantine as a prominent part of the team . Milligan wrote eight issues of Justice League Dark , with writer Jeff Lemire taking over on issue nine .
On November 8 , 2012 , DC announced that Hellblazer would be cancelled following its 300th issue , and would be replaced by Constantine written by Robert Venditti and drawn by Renato Guedes starring the younger New 52 John Constantine , rather than the version from Hellblazer , depicted as being in his late 50s . The Constantine series finally ended its run on its 23rd issue in May 1 , 2015 . Nonetheless , the character would again star in another solo series entitled Constantine : The Hellblazer , written by Ming Doyle and art by Riley Rossmo , and released in June 10 , 2015 . Writer Ming Doyle expressed excitement in her chance to write Constantine , stating that the reason of putting the term Hellblazer back to the character 's title was to " take Constantine back to what he was at the start . "
= = Themes and style = =
Hellblazer was first published during the early days of the Modern Age of Comics , and so its themes were dark , edgy , politically and morally complex as its contemporaries . Hellblazer mixes supernatural and real life horror , akin to contemporary gothic , with noire , surrealism and occult detective fiction elements . Unlike other comic books , Hellblazer is unique as it follows real time in its span of 20 years , with its protagonist John Constantine aging in every publication . Because of this , writers of the series often places their era 's culture and social commentary in their run . When Jamie Delano first wrote the series in the late 1980s and early 1990s , his issues were heavily inspired by the era such as punk rock and the British economy . Delano would be the first to put his political views in the series , an element never before seen in mainstream comics , such as his negative views of Thatcher 's regime and by 2005 includes the War on Terror . This made John Constantine different from other comic book characters at that time , in that he fights the political and social injustice of Great Britain .
When Garth Ennis took over writing , he included his trademark representation of racism and religious fanaticism , as well his depictions of the Falklands War . The most controversial writer , Brian Azzarello , tackled issues such as Neo @-@ Nazism , prison rape and homosexuality . During Warren Ellis ' run , he included American school shootings in a one @-@ shot issue which led to a major controversy . In his run , Peter Milligan managed to put punk ideology in the series , with the protagonist trying to reacquire his former punk self , while also characterizing the Conservative government as a demon infestation with the punk subculture fighting against this supposed subversion and abuse . As such , much of Hellblazer 's horror often comes in the crisis and controversies of its time . Being set in the UK , many famous British personalities have appeared or made cameos such as Sid Vicious , Margaret Thatcher , Aleister Crowley and Alan Moore .
As stated by Warren Ellis , Hellblazer 's major themes were cynicism , nihilism and " sudden violence " , with the protagonist oftentimes narrating the story in dark proses with occasional breaking of the fourth wall . In many story arcs every victory Constantine makes has a negative side effect and often leads to tragedy . His friends , family , and others would be sacrificed or be caught in the crossfire , many of them dead or have left him . John tries his best to make something good in his life , but most of it leading to failure .
= = Reception = =
Over the two decades that it had been published , Hellblazer had normally been quite well received . While not attaining the sales of ' mainstream ' comics , it had sustained healthy figures , consistently being one of the top selling Vertigo titles , and was sustained by healthy sales of trade paperbacks . Hillary Goldstein of IGN described it as , " Sometimes surreal , often provocative and almost always entertaining , the adventures of the Hellblazer are among the best Vertigo has to offer . " Well @-@ known comic book writer Warren Ellis also praised the series as his favorite , calling it as " among the very best horror works of the 1990 's . " Andre Borges from DNA India listed it in the " 15 Must Read Graphic Novels " , describing it as " one of the first of its kind " , and that its " writing and art work have been praised throughout its run . " Robert Tutton of Paste Magazine listed the series at # 4 in its " 13 Terrifying Modern Horror Comics " , stating that " Constantine ’ s most frightening encounters have hewn close enough to that kernel of truth to remind readers that real life can be as terrifying as any succubus or demon spawn . "
Jamie Delano 's original run on the title is looked on fondly , with journalist Helen Braithwaite stating , " His take on the character of John Constantine has never been equalled . Delano 's Original Sins graphic novel should be in every comic book fan 's collection . " She added that , " His writing evokes an incredible sense of dread and terror in a reader . " IGN listed the title as one of the 25 Best Vertigo Books , calling John Constantine as " one of Vertigo 's best characters . "
Garth Ennis ' run is also much loved , particularly Dangerous Habits , which was voted the best Garth Ennis story on Comic Book Resources , ahead of his work on Preacher , The Boys and The Punisher . In the same article Brian Cronin describes John 's one time love , Kit Ryan , as one of the series ' most memorable characters . The popularity of Ennis and Dillon 's run on Hellblazer is also credited for Vertigo agreeing to publish their seminal series Preacher . Empire Magazine called Dangerous Habits storyline as " rightly one of the most celebrated in comic book history . " Glenn Fabry who was the cover artist during Ennis ' run , won an Eisner Ward for " Best Cover Artist " in 1995 .
The creator of the protagonist , Alan Moore , praised Jamie Delano 's portrayal of the character , commenting " [ Delano ] demonstrates brilliantly that English horror didn 't vanish with the fog and gas lit cobblestones at the end of the Victorian era . " Moore also liked Brian Azzarello 's run on the series , commenting that Azzarello and Corben captured the character " down , cold and to the life . "
The character received positive critical reception while starring in the series . Empire Magazine ranked Constantine third in their 50 Greatest Comic Characters of All Time , while IGN ranked him # 29 in their Top 100 Comic Book Heroes , and the character ranked # 10 in Wizard Magazine 's Top 200 Comic Book Characters of All Time .
= = = Legacy = = =
The comic book 's initial cancellation , and the introduction of the character to DC led to many negative feedback and reception . I , Vampire writer Joshua Hale Fialkov expressed sadness he would never get to write " the ' real ' John Constantine " , noted crime author and former Hellblazer writer Ian Rankin stated that Constantine was the only comic book character he ever wanted to write for , and Alan Moore 's daughter , Leah Moore expressing doubt that Constantine could replace Hellblazer , among others . As a result , DC co @-@ publisher Dan Didio issued a statement defending this decision , stating that , " Hellblazer 's had a long and incredibly successful run and that 's a tip of the hat to all the great creators that have worked on the book over the years . The new Constantine series will return him back to his roots in the DCU and hopefully be the start of another incredible run . " Comic Alliance described Hellblazer 's cancellation as marking " the end of an era for Vertigo " while adding it to be " one of a handful of comics from the late eighties that helped comic books and their readers grow up . "
Hellblazer boosted the popularity and image of the occult detective fiction genre and shaped it to its modern form . Many modern examples of the genre such as Hellboy , Supernatural , Grimm , The Originals , and The Dresden Files have been influenced by it , and many imitators of both the series and its character flourished such as Criminal Macabre , Gravel , Planetary , and others . Its elements and style have been used countless of times in other works and many analogues of the cynical John Constantine have appeared .
= = Publications = =
= = Collected editions = =
= = = Trade paperbacks = = =
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Film = = =
The first adaptation of Hellblazer ever filmed for the screen is one of the scenes in the documentary feature film The Mindscape of Alan Moore , which was shot in early 2002 . The dramatization consists of the John Constantine character wandering through London and , in the film ending , experiencing a mystical epiphany of sorts .
In 2005 , Constantine was released , a feature film that did not use the same title as the comic book , in order to avoid confusion with the Hellraiser horror franchise . The only links to the character of John Constantine were the name and a plotline loosely based on the " Dangerous Habits " story arc ( Hellblazer # 41 – 46 ) . DC Comics announced a sequel to the 2005 Constantine movie was in the works , with producer Lorenzo di Bonaventura linked to the project . He stated : " I 'd love to do it ... We want to do a hard , R @-@ rated version of it . We 're going to scale back the size of the movie to try and persuade the studio to go ahead and make a tough version of it . " In late 2012 , director Guillermo del Toro publicly discussed the notion of creating a film that would star John Constantine alongside other DC / Vertigo characters such as Zatanna , Swamp Thing , and more .
= = = Television = = =
In January 2014 it was announced that David Goyer and Daniel Cerone were developing a TV series based on Hellblazer and that NBC had ordered a pilot for it . A few weeks later it was announced that Neil Marshall would be directing the pilot . The series will follow Constantine in his early years , defending humanity against dark forces from beyond . On February , 21 it was announced that Welsh actor Matt Ryan ( whose credits include Criminal Minds : Suspect Behavior and Edward Kenway in Assassin 's Creed IV : Black Flag ) will play the role of Constantine in the TV series pilot . On May 8 , NBC announced it had officially picked up Constantine for the Fall 2014 season . The show ran for 13 episodes , and on May 8 , 2015 , NBC cancelled Constantine after the end of its first season . It was later announced that the character of Constantine as portrayed by Ryan would be reappearing in the fourth season of the CW 's Arrow .
= = = Others = = =
THQ released a video game film tie @-@ in of the film entitled Constantine . The song Stranger in the Mirror by Ookla the Mok is written from Constantine 's point of view , including a lyrical reference to ' the Newcastle incident ' . The song " Venus of the Hardsell " , which first appeared in Hellblazer Annual # 1 and written by Jamie Delano , was adapted by the rock group Spiderlegs .
Fantasy fiction author John Shirley is credited in making three Hellblazer novels , including the novelisation of the Constantine film . The novel Hellblazer : War Lord features Constantine talking about " another John Constantine in an alternate universe , [ who ] has black hair and lives most of his life in Los Angeles " whilst giving a brief summary of the film 's plot .
= Curtis Woodhouse =
Curtis Woodhouse ( born 17 April 1980 ) is an English former professional footballer turned professional boxer and football manager . Most recently manager of Hull United , Woodhouse played football as a central midfielder , and competed as a light @-@ welterweight boxer . He is the former British light @-@ welterweight champion . His career in the Football League spanned across nine seasons , earning four caps for the England under @-@ 21 football team . Woodhouse 's professional boxing record stands at 29 fights 22 wins , 13 of which are by knock @-@ out , and 7 defeats .
He started his footballing career with York City 's centre of excellence before joining Sheffield United . In November 2001 , he was transferred to Birmingham City for a fee of £ 1 million , before joining Rotherham United in January 2003 , on loan for five months . He then joined Peterborough United on a free transfer in October 2003 . In May 2005 , he joined Hull City for £ 25 @,@ 000 , before joining Grimsby Town just eight months later in January 2006 . He retired at the end of the 2006 – 07 season .
Woodhouse stated that he had " fallen out of love " with football and decided to turn to professional boxing , despite no previous experience . In September 2006 , he won his first professional boxing match , defeating Dean Marcantonio , on points , knocking him down twice in the final round . His only defeat was by Jay Morris in April 2009 , losing 37 – 36 on points .
He was convicted of assaulting a police officer and of using threatening , abusive or insulting words or behaviour in April 2006 . As a result , he had his boxing licence suspended for five months by the British Boxing Board of Control , despite the incident happening before he was under the BBBofC 's jurisdiction . Woodhouse returned to football in November 2006 , joining Rushden & Diamonds in the Conference National before moving to Mansfield Town in January 2009 . After leaving them , he moved to Harrogate Town . At the end of February 2010 , he joined Sheffield in the Northern Premier League . Before the start of the 2011 – 12 football season , he moved up two divisions in the football league system when he joined Conference North outfit Eastwood Town .
= = Career = =
= = = York City and Sheffield United = = =
Woodhouse began his football career at York City 's centre of excellence in 1994 , before being transferred to Sheffield United for an initial compensation fee of £ 2 @,@ 200 . Sheffield United and York City later agreed on an additional £ 15 @,@ 000 fee plus a five @-@ percentage sell @-@ on clause . He made his debut for Sheffield United at the age of 17 , coming on as a 79th @-@ minute substitute in a 1 – 0 home win against Crewe Alexandra in the First Division on 29 November 1997 . He made a total of nine First Division appearances in the 1997 – 98 season . Woodhouse holds the record for being the club 's youngest ever captain , aged 19 . He earned a call @-@ up to the England under @-@ 21 team , and made his debut in a 2 – 2 away draw against Hungary on 27 April 1999 . He went on to earn another three caps against Sweden , Bulgaria and Poland in England 's 2000 European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualifying group . He made a total of 104 appearances in the Football League , scoring six goals , before being sold to Birmingham City for £ 1 million in February 2001 .
= = = Birmingham City = = =
He made his debut for Birmingham City on 3 February 2001 , in a 2 – 1 home victory against Norwich City . He made 17 appearances for Birmingham during the 2000 – 01 season , scoring twice . Both goals came in the final league match of the season , a 2 – 1 away win against Huddersfield Town , sealing their relegation fate . Birmingham reached the League Cup final , however , Woodhouse was unable to play as he was cup @-@ tied , having previously played in three League Cup games for Sheffield United that season . He was arrested after the final of the League Cup , on 25 February 2001 , having been charged with affray along with two others after they " trashed " an Indian restaurant and he wielded a chair in a brawl with university students . In July 2002 , he was sentenced to 120 hours of community service and ordered to pay £ 250 costs . Birmingham finished fifth in the First Division , and reached the play @-@ offs , losing in a penalty shootout in the semi @-@ final , after the game was drawn 2 – 2 on aggregate . Woodhouse played in both semi @-@ final matches . The following season , 2001 – 02 , he made 28 appearances in the First Division . Birmingham reached the play @-@ offs again for the fourth consecutive season , this time gaining promotiton after beating Millwall in the semi @-@ final and Norwich City in the final . This time , Woodhouse did not play in any of the play @-@ off matches . He made just three appearances for Birmingham City in the Premier League , before being loaned out to Rotherham United in January 2003 . Grimsby Town and Brighton & Hove Albion were also reportedly interested in signing the midfielder . During his loan spell at Rotherham , he turned out 11 times in the First Division .
= = = Peterborough United = = =
Woodhouse signed for Peterborough United on 14 October 2003 , the same day that he made his debut against Torquay United in a 3 – 2 victory in the Football League Trophy . However , he had been training with Peterborough a month prior to signing for them , whilst he " sorted out some problems at Birmingham City " . He went on to captain the side , and was later described as " Captain Marvel " by manager , Barry Fry . In 2003 – 04 , he made 27 appearances in the Second Division , scoring seven goals . Peterborough finished 18th in the Second Division , two points from relegation , with Woodhouse being named as Peterborough 's player of the season . In May 2004 , Hull City manager , Peter Taylor , made a failed £ 100 @,@ 000 bid to try and sign the midfielder . The following season , 2004 – 05 , he made 34 appearances in the newly named League One and scored four goals . Peterborough suffered relegation , after finishing 23rd in the league .
= = = Hull City = = =
He joined Hull City in May 2005 , the club he supported as a child , on a two @-@ year contract for a fee of £ 25 @,@ 000 , with the potential to rise to £ 150 @,@ 000 depending on
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the game 's story .
A critical aspect of gameplay in Voyage is the inventory system , which allows the player to pick up and keep dozens of different items . However , the maximum quantity of a given item that the player may keep in his inventory at any one time is three . One of the main uses of the inventory is to combine items together to make new items . This process of breaking and reforming items in the inventory comprises a large portion of the puzzle aspect of the game . The inventory can also be used to create meals which the player can consume ; this ability plays a major role in several puzzles . Another use of the inventory is to create hybrid lunar plants , which play a critical role in the earlier puzzles of the game .
= = = Intelligence Management System = = =
The " Intelligence Management System " featured in Voyage is a score assigned to the player by the Selenites , the natives of the moon . For each puzzle the player solves , and for certain actions , this score is increased , and the Selenites treat the player with more respect . During an interview with GamersInfo , Benoît Hozjan , Managing Director and co @-@ founder of Kheops Studio , described the system , saying :
In the same interview , Alexis Lang , the Lead Game Designer at Kheops , commented that : " [ A ] low score does not mean that you are stupid in any way , it just means that some pompous and bombastic lunar people think that your character is dumb ! " This reflects the fact that the " Intelligence Management System " is designed primarily to earn the respect of the Selenites . However , Hozjan also said that he hopes " players will try to increase their score and certainly share their experience through forums . " The Adventure Company has marketed the system as bringing a degree of replay value to Voyage , as players can replay the game to achieve a higher score .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Voyage is set in 1865 . President Barbicane of the ' Gun Club ' decides to build an enormous cannon in Baltimore to shoot a shell , capable of supporting human life , towards the moon in the hopes of a successful landing . Voyage 's protagonist , Michel Ardan , volunteers to travel in the aluminium shell . After the game 's brief introduction in the shell , Ardan lands on the moon and discovers the Selenites , as well as a complex ecosystem of lunar plants . The main accessible areas in the game are the moon 's surface , and the underground Selenite civilization .
The ' Selenites ' are the subterranean inhabitants of the moon , and are a highly intelligent society maintained by hierarchy and secret . They possess blue skin , large black eyes and transparent cerebral lobes on the sides of their heads . This is in fact a reference to H.G. Wells ' book The first men in the moon , as the adventurers never actually land on the moon in Verne 's original story .
They are divided into castes . The Selenites live in a large complex under the surface of the moon from which they rarely venture , with the exception of the ' exiles ' . The Selenites " banish [ these ] dregs of their society , the criminals and psychotics , " to the surface of the moon . There are three Selenite exiles with whom the player can interact ; they live on the surface and sleep in their isolated underground stables at night . Each exile has two different plants on either shoulder with which they share a special bond .
= = = Characters = = =
The player character is Michel Ardan , an eccentric and intrepid French scientist who is enthusiastic , daring and cheerful . President Barbicane , the President of the Gun Club , and Captain Nicholl , an engineer , are both found dead at the start of the game , not having survived the flight to the moon . A woman called Diana features in the game 's backstory , as a woman whose ancestors made contact with the Selenites . Apart from these human characters , there are also several Selenite characters such as the Supreme Moon Ruler , the High Dignitary , Scurvy , Scruple , and the three exiles .
= = = Plot = = =
Voyage begins as Ardan awakes in the shell and discovers his two dead companions : Barbicane and Nicholl . The first part of the game consists of Ardan investigating the shell , trying to regain his memory of what happened , and how Barbicane and Nicholl died , he will also encounter other problems , most notably when his oxygen supply is low and needs to be remedied . Eventually Ardan 's journey will carry him into orbit around the moon in which he must prepare himself for a lunar landing .
Once Ardan successfully lands the shell on the moon , he must solve a series of puzzles on the surface in order to gain access to the hidden civilization below . There he encounters the Selenite race . Following this , Ardan focusses on finding a way to leave the moon and report his findings to Earth . After acquiring what he needs , Ardan travels back to Earth in the shell . He lands in the ocean and manages to swim to a nearby island , where he meets another famous Jules Verne character , Captain Nemo .
= = Development = =
Journey to the Center of the Moon was announced for the PC at E3 2005 . The Adventure Company collaborated with developers Kheops Studios for the release . Benoît Hozjan , the co @-@ founder of Kheops Studio , became Managing Director of the game , while Alexis Lang became the Lead Game Designer .
Journey to the Center of the Moon was later renamed Voyage : Inspired by Jules Verne . Benoît Hozjan explained the change , saying that Journey to the Center of the Moon " seems to be confusing and some people thought that it could be the sequel to Journey to the Center of the Earth , " another Verne @-@ inspired PC game , " so marketing decided to change it . " The name was changed on July 7 , 2005 , a few months after the game 's announcement .
Benoît Hozjan explained Kheops Studio 's choice of Jules Verne 's work as a basis for Voyage , saying that : " Jules Verne 's novels provide the two core elements of adventure games : dreams and challenges . Characters are ordinary men engaged in concrete challenges that are [ a ] great inspiration for puzzles . " He further went on to say that the game is influenced by Verne 's From the Earth to the Moon , which documents the lead up to the lunar trip , but draws more heavily from the sequel Around the Moon , which recounts the actual voyage . The main difference , Hozjan said , was that in the novel the protagonists fail to reach the moon , whereas in Voyage the trip is a success . Additionally , Alexis Lang attributed the inspiration for the Selenites to H.G. Wells ' The First Men in the Moon , explaining that : " [ Wells ] pictured a very ancient Selenite civilisation horrified at human roughness . Wells was more misanthropist than Verne . To balance this fact , we 've added a touch of irony in our story and chosen a very optimistic and joyful main character . "
The Adventure Company announced the release of the Voyage demo on August 3 , 2005 . The demo included the game 's introduction in the shell . Voyage , originally slated for a September 27 release , was shipped to stores ahead of schedule on August 16 , 2005 . The game retailed for US $ 19 @.@ 99 .
= = Reception = =
In general , Voyage received mixed reviews upon its release . According to Metacritic , reviewers have given Voyage scores between 60 % and 86 % . One of the more positively received aspects of the game was its ability to recreate the mood of 19th century science @-@ fiction , with GameSpot writing that the game " nicely re @-@ creates the whimsical mood of 19th @-@ century sci @-@ fi [ and ] a sense of wonder fills every pixel of the graphic design . " In contrast , Game Over Online Magazine said that once the player leaves the capsule and arrives on the moon , instead of viewing colorful and wondrous sights , the game turns into a drab and unlikely bore . The puzzle aspect of Voyage met with mixed responses . On the other hand , GameSpot accused the puzzle aspects of Voyage of " reduc [ ing ] Jules Verne 's tale of a visit to the moon in 1865 to a series of clumsily arranged logic puzzles geared to try the patience of adventure @-@ game veterans . " The puzzles in the game are often extremely difficult , with Just Adventure attributing the unexpected difficulty in the game to the fact that there are often several different ways to achieve the same goals , thanks to the game 's " Intelligence Management System " . The game 's inventory system received praise from Gamersinfo as being very well done .
In terms of graphics , Voyage was poorly received , with the graphics being described by Gamezone as containing some vibrant colors , but lacking the lush , spectacular view that has been seen in countless other adventure games . Voyage has also been criticized for its lack of story and over @-@ reliance on back story . The game 's music was generally appreciated , with Jolt describing the music has having a nice retro @-@ futuristic feel which sets the mood perfectly . G4 commented on the game 's voice acting as overly dramatic but appropriate , but criticized many of the sound effects as being cheesy . GameSpot described Ardan 's dialogue as somewhat lame , and also criticized the game 's sound effects . Metacritic averaged out the scores of several internet reviews of Voyage to reach a rating of 71 % , the closest to an ' overall ' rating of the game .
= Old Baltimore Pike =
Old Baltimore Pike is a road in the U.S. state of Delaware . The road , known as New Castle County Road 26 , runs from Maryland Route 281 ( MD 281 ) at the Maryland state line south of Newark , Delaware and continues east to Christiana , ending near Delaware Route 1 ( DE 1 ) . The road is paralleled by Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 , Delaware Turnpike ) to the north and U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 , Pulaski Highway ) to the south . The Old Baltimore Pike was built before 1720 and connected Elkton , Maryland to Christiana . It was a turnpike called the Elk and Christiana Turnpike between 1817 and 1838 . In the past it served as a major connection between Philadelphia and Baltimore .
= = Route description = =
Old Baltimore Pike begins at the Delaware – Maryland state line near Newark , Delaware , where the highway continues west into that state as MD 281 . The road heads northeast from the state line through wooded residential areas as a two @-@ lane undivided road , intersecting Otts Chapel Road before passing south of Iron Hill Park . Old Baltimore Pike crosses DE 896 and enters rural areas . Here , the roadway passes Cooch 's Bridge , a historic battle site of the American Revolutionary War . It then crosses Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line and encounters DE 72 .
After this intersection , Old Baltimore Pike continues past suburban neighborhoods , gaining a center left @-@ turn lane and intersecting Salem Church Road . Farther east , the highway reaches a junction with DE 273 in a wooded area . At this point , the road narrows to two lanes again and heads into the community of Christiana . Here , the highway intersects DE 7 , where it turns north and follows that route through residential areas . The road comes to an interchange with DE 1 to the west of the Christiana Mall , where DE 7 continues north along with DE 1 and Old Baltimore Pike reaches a dead end .
= = History = =
The Old Baltimore Pike was built before 1720 . The road was known as the Great Road and ran between Head of Elk ( now Elkton , Maryland ) and Christiana Bridge . It was later known as the Christiana @-@ Elkton Turnpike before becoming Old Baltimore Pike . This path served as a major connection between Philadelphia and Baltimore in addition to providing access between the shipping area of Christiana Bridge and agricultural areas in northern Delaware , northern Maryland , and southeastern Pennsylvania . In 1723 , Welsh Tract settlers pushed for the road to be improved . This road was part of the Washington – Rochambeau Revolutionary Route that was used by the French army during their march from Newport , Rhode Island to Yorktown during the Revolutionary War , passing through the area in September 1781 .
The road , also known as Old Post Road , was incorporated in 1813 as the Elk and Christiana Turnpike in order to get more money for repairs . The turnpike was completed in April 1817 . As a turnpike , tolls were collected to pay for the maintenance of the road . The construction of the New Castle and Frenchtown Railroad lowered the revenues of the turnpike and it became a public road again in 1838 . The road historically went through agricultural areas ; however , the surroundings have become more developed over the years . Much of the Old Baltimore Pike remains two lanes .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
= Mega Man & Bass =
Mega Man & Bass , known in Japan as Rockman & Forte ( ロックマン & フォルテ , Rokkuman ando Forute ) , is an action @-@ platform video game developed and published by Capcom . It is a spin @-@ off title in the original Mega Man series and was originally released exclusively in Japan on April 24 , 1998 for the Super Famicom . Mega Man & Bass was ported to the Game Boy Advance ( GBA ) handheld in 2002 and was localized in North America and PAL regions the following year .
After defeating the evil Dr. Wily many times , the robotic hero Mega Man is called into action once again when a powerful being known as King steals the blueprints to the creations of Dr. Wily and Dr. Light in order to create an army for robotic dominance over humans . Having learned of the threat , Mega Man 's rival Bass decides to take matters into his own hands . The game is an action @-@ platformer where the player advances by defeating bosses and acquiring their signature weapons . Mega Man & Bass lets the player choose between either of its title characters , each of which plays differently from the other .
Mega Man & Bass debuted on the aging 16 @-@ bit Super Famicom despite the series having already transitioned to the PlayStation and Sega Saturn with Mega Man 8 . Artist and designer Keiji Inafune claimed Mega Man & Bass was created with regard to younger players who did not yet own one of the more advanced gaming systems . The game received positive remarks from critics for its graphics and use of a tried @-@ and @-@ true gameplay formula , though many found the difficulty to be too steep . Although Mega Man & Bass shares many traits with previous console games in the series , the ninth numbered title would not be released until 2008 .
= = Plot = =
The story of Mega Man & Bass varies slightly depending on which player character is chosen . It begins One year after Megaman 8 when a robot villain named King breaks into Dr. Wily 's laboratory and then the Robot Museum to collect the data blueprints for the creations of Dr. Light . Dr. Light alerts the hero Mega Man that he must go at once to the Robot Museum to confront this new enemy . Meanwhile , Bass ( Mega Man 's rival and Wily 's greatest creation ) hears of the new criminal 's appearance and decides to prove himself the stronger robot by defeating King . Proto Man is the first to arrive at the scene . King divulges his plan to him ; he desires to create a utopia in which robots rule the world over humans . To accomplish this , King seeks to create an unstoppable army using the data and invites Proto Man to join him . Proto Man refuses and attempts to attack , but King counters and slices his body in half . Proto Man then teleports back to the lab for repairs while King escapes with the data , instructing his minions to handle the heroes . With their own motivations , Mega Man and Bass set out to put a stop to King 's plans .
After vanquishing eight powerful robots under allegiance to King ( Cold Man , Astro Man , Ground Man , Magic Man , Tengu Man , Dynamo Man , Pirate Man , and Burner Man ) , the duo infiltrates his castle and engages him in combat . Proto Man interrupts the fight and again attempts to defeat their new nemesis . Putting all of his remaining energy into a blast , Proto Man manages to destroy King 's shield and loses consciousness , allowing Mega Man and Bass to best King in battle afterwards . King questions why they fight so hard for humans when robots are the superior species . The pair explains that humans are the ones who created robots in the first place , which confuses King . The villain reveals that his creator is Dr. Wily , who then appears on a video monitor . When King asks the evil inventor why robots fight each other for the sake of humans , Wily strengthens his " brainwashing level " and restores his power . Mega Man and Bass engage King in another battle and defeat him , but not before the latter teleports Proto Man out of his castle . The castle begins a self @-@ destruct sequence and the protagonists escape without King .
Mega Man and Bass begin a final confrontation with Dr. Wily in his newly regained laboratory . When Wily is beaten , Bass demands to know why he deceived him . Wily explains that he created King simply to test Bass ' abilities . Wily shows him written plans for making a newer version of King to join with Bass in this venture , promising that the two would be invincible together . Proto Man appears and immediately destroys these plans . Wily then demands Bass to destroy Proto Man , but Bass is unsure . It was then Proto Man tells Bass that although he is a strong robot of free will , he can never defeat his rival because he has nothing for which to fight . Bass doesn 't care and forces Proto Man to leave , saying that he will still destroy Mega Man to prove his cause . Mega Man returns home where his sister Roll presents him a letter from King , who has somehow escaped the destruction of his castle . King wishes to atone for his own crimes against humans and hopes for them to be friends if they were to meet in the future .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay in Mega Man & Bass is similar to earlier games in the series . The player is tasked with completing a series of action @-@ platform stages while overcoming obstacles , solving minor puzzles , and battling enemies . Destroying the " Robot Master " boss at the end of a stage lets the player acquire its special weapon . In previous games , the player generally took on the role of the hero Mega Man . In this game , the player can choose to start the game as either Mega Man or Bass . However , whichever character is picked must be used for the rest of the game and cannot be changed . Mega Man is able to charge his shots to make them more powerful and has the ability to slide along the ground . Bass is able to rapidly fire his arm cannon in eight directions , though shots cannot be fired while moving or pass through walls unless a certain upgrade is obtained . Bass is also able to double @-@ jump ( jump a second time in mid @-@ air ) and dash along the ground . Performing both simultaneously lets him cross great distances by doing a dash @-@ jump .
The stage structure is different from other games in the series . After the introduction level , the player can only choose between three Robot Masters . Defeating Cold Man unlocks Burner Man and Pirate Man ; defeating Astro Man unlocks Dynamo Man , Tengu Man , and Pirate Man ; and defeating Ground Man unlocks Magic Man and Tengu Man . Clearing one of these unlocked stages opens the way to a security room where the player must destroy a series of crystals with obtained Robot Master weapons . Bypassing all eight crystals opens the way to the fortress stages . In a similar fashion to previous installments in the series , enemies often drop bolts after they are destroyed , and these can be exchanged for various restorative items and upgrades . However , unlike in Mega Man 7 the security cavern offers a way to obtain large amounts of bolts without having to repeatedly visit stages . Some upgrades are unique to either character , such as Mega Man 's ability to call on his dog Rush to search for items , or an adaptor for Bass to combine with his wolf Treble to temporarily fly . Also distributed throughout the introduction and Robot Master levels are a collection of 100 data CDs that contain information on many prominent characters in the series . Most of the CDs are hidden either behind obstacles that need to be destroyed with a special weapon or accessed with a character @-@ specific ability , making it impossible to collect them all on a single playthrough . CDs collected in each playthrough are permanently placed in a database and remain unlocked after beating the game . Saved games are used in place of the series ' traditional password system .
= = Development = =
Mega Man & Bass was developed for the Super Famicom after the release of Mega Man 8 , which preceded Mega Man & Bass on the two 32 @-@ bit consoles , the PlayStation and Sega Saturn . According to series producer Keiji Inafune , Mega Man & Bass was intended for younger players who still owned a Super Famicom and did not have the means to experience Mega Man 8 on one of the newer systems . " Even though trying to bridge out a new title on the [ Super Famicom ] was a little backwards at the time , we didn 't want to make a half @-@ hearted attempt at it , " Inafune explained . The design team included several new employees , as well as members of previous Mega Man games . Inafune required them to make the game " as hardcore as possible " . Designer Hideki Ishikawa recalled the development of Mega Man & Bass as " one big party " . The staff attempted to create an original game while avoiding the " same old , same old [ ... ] pitfall " that so many long video game series suffer and " had a lot of fun doing it " .
Graphically , Mega Man & Bass uses many of the same two @-@ dimensional sprites and animations as Mega Man 8 . Two of the eight Robot Master bosses in Mega Man & Bass ( Tengu Man and Astro Man ) are borrowed from Mega Man 8 . The other six were newly created for the game by three character designers : Hitoshi Ariga ( credited as " H. Ariga " ) , Yoshihiro Iwamoto ( credited as " Y. Iwamoto " ) and Koji Izuki ( credited as " K. Iduki " ) designed two characters each . The bosses were officially unveiled on a teaser page in the Kodansha magazine Comic BonBon . Each boss was given distinct characteristics so that they could be easily identified by players in both their aesthetics and personalities . Some of these characters had different names during their conceptual phase prior to the finalization of the game . " Blast Man " became Burner Man , " Freezer Man " became Cold Man , and " Coil Man " became Dynamo Man . Iwamoto originally denoted Ground Man as " Drill Man " despite there already being a Robot Master by that name in Mega Man 4 . The musical score for Mega Man & Bass was composed by Akari Kaida ( credited as " A. Kaida " ) , Naoshi Mizuta ( credited as " N. Mizuta " ) , and " Kirikiri @-@ chan " ( real name unknown ) . Rather than create tracks together , each composer was responsible for their own songs . Kaida would later work with other composers in the Mega Man series on the soundtrack for Mega Man 10 , released in 2010 .
Mega Man & Bass was originally available in Japan through the Nintendo Power game service in Lawson convenience stores . Its popularity prompted Capcom to later release the game in Super Famicom cartridge form . Until its GBA re @-@ release , it was one of the few Mega Man titles not localized for English @-@ speaking countries . The company commemorated the 15th anniversary of the Mega Man franchise with the GBA version of the game .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The GBA port has received generally positive critical reviews , currently holding an aggregate score of 79 % on both GameRankings and Metacritic . Most critics found the game to be a solid yet conventional action @-@ platformer that successfully adheres to the classic Mega Man formula . Electronic Gaming Monthly summarized that Mega Man & Bass is " one of the best action games on GBA " and " a great , if slightly derivative , platformer " with plenty of replay value due to the collectible CDs . GamePro was pleased with the game 's fidelity to its predecessors when compared to the deviations made by the Mega Man Battle Network and Mega Man Zero series on the same system . GameSpy contrarily criticized its lack of innovation , declaring , " Anyone that hasn 't tried a Mega Man game yet would be better advised to spend $ 15 on a new copy of Mega Man 8 on the PSOne rather than paying $ 30 for an inferior retread of the same game " .
Many reviews also noted the game 's high difficulty . Both Giancarlo Varanini of GameSpot and Craig Harris of IGN found that the game 's bosses have very unpredictable attack patterns , thus making the battles extremely challenging . Harris additionally observed a heavy amount of trial @-@ and @-@ error for the levels themselves where the player must die several times before completing each one . He concluded , " [ ... ] It 's really the way Mega Man games have always been ... and to be honest , with all of the annoying little deaths in the game , there 's always that sensation after every failure that you 've learned the challenge , and perseverance definitely prevails in this game " .
According to Famitsu , Mega Man & Bass for the GBA sold 91 @,@ 097 copies in Japan between its release date and the week of December 23 , 2002 . Nintendo Power listed Mega Man & Bass as the 14th best GBA game of all time in its 20th anniversary issue in 2008 . A related game exclusive to Japan titled Rockman & Forte Mirai kara no Chōsensha ( ロックマン & フォルテ 未来からの挑戦者 , lit . Rockman & Forte : Challenger from the Future ) was released for the WonderSwan handheld in 1999 . The plot consists of the titular duo 's struggle against an adversary named " Rockman Shadow " . As Mega Man & Bass was released directly after Mega Man 8 and it shares plot and gameplay characteristics with the rest of the numbered titles in the series , many believed it to be the ninth main game in the series ; however , the actual Mega Man 9 would not be released until 2008 . Inafune explained in an interview with the Brazilian magazine Nintendo World that the ninth installment follows the storyline of Mega Man 8 and that the worlds for Mega Man & Bass and Mega Man 9 are meant to coincide with one another , as evidenced by a schematic of Bass in the ending of the game . In 2010 , Bass was made playable via downloadable content in Mega Man 10 . As in Mega Man & Bass , he is able to dash , fire in seven directions with his buster , and fly by combining with Treble .
Elements of the game appeared in the Mega Man comic series from Archie Comics before it went on hiatus . Most notably , King appeared during a time travel story in issue 20 , while issue 55 saw Dr. Light experiencing a vision of the events of the game among other yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ adapted games .
= Ohio State Route 319 =
State Route 319 ( SR 319 ) is a very short , two @-@ lane state highway in the western portion of the U.S. state of Ohio . A spur route , SR 319 has its western terminus at an abandoned railroad grade just west of Washington Street in the village of Burkettsville . Its eastern terminus is 0 @.@ 56 miles ( 0 @.@ 90 km ) to the east of its western terminus at its junction with SR 118 . SR 319 was established in the early 1930s . It started out as a much longer highway , but earlier segments would become a part of SR 118 in the late 1930s .
= = Route description = =
For its entire length , SR 319 runs along the boundary between Darke County on the south side and Mercer County on the north side . SR 319 begins in downtown Burkettsville at a former railroad grade just west of Washington Street . Known as Main Street within Burkettsville , the route runs due east through the village 's central business district prior to entering a residential area where it intersects a few side streets . After leaving the village of Burkettsville , SR 319 becomes the boundary between Darke County 's Allen Township and Mercer County 's Granville Township . After a short distance through farmland , the highway comes to an end as it arrives at its junction with SR 118 . Continuing east after the route terminates is Darke – Mercer County Line Road .
The Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) conducts surveys throughout its highway system to determine traffic volume . This is most commonly expressed as the average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , or the measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2010 , ODOT determined that an average of 710 vehicles per day traveled along the length of SR 319 . This state highway is not included as a part of the National Highway System , a system of highways identified as being most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the nation .
= = History = =
SR 319 was assigned in 1932 . Originally , SR 319 included the entirety of the current route , along with the stretch of SR 118 from SR 319 north to SR 219 in Coldwater . In 1935 , SR 319 was extended further north along the present alignment of SR 118 to what was then designated as SR 32 , now a part of SR 29 , west of Celina . Two years later , SR 118 was extended south from its former southern terminus in Rockford to its present southern terminus in Greenville . Consequently , the entirety of what was the north – south stretch of SR 319 prior to that time became a part of the new extension of SR 118 . In turn , SR 319 became the short spur route that it is today .
= = Major intersections = =
= Parliament Act 1911 =
The Parliament Act 1911 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . It is constitutionally important and partly governs the relationship between the House of Commons and the House of Lords which make up the Houses of Parliament . This Act must be construed as one with the Parliament Act 1949 . The two Acts may be cited together as the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 .
Following the rejection of the 1909 " People 's Budget " , the House of Commons sought to establish its formal dominance over the House of Lords , who had broken convention in opposing the Bill . The budget was eventually passed by the Lords after the Commons ' democratic mandate was confirmed by holding elections in January 1910 . The following Parliament Act , which looked to prevent a recurrence of the budget problems , was also widely opposed in the Lords and cross @-@ party discussion failed , particularly because of the proposed Act 's applicability to passing an Irish home rule bill . After a second general election in December , the Act was passed with the support of the monarch , George V , who threatened to create sufficient Liberal peers to overcome the then Conservative majority .
The Act effectively removed the right of the Lords to veto money bills completely , and replaced a right of veto over other public bills with a maximum delay of two years . It also reduced the maximum term of a parliament from seven years to five .
= = Background = =
Until the Parliament Act 1911 , there was no way to resolve contradictions between the two Houses of Parliament except through the creation of additional peers by the Monarch . Queen Anne had created 12 Tory peers to vote through the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 . The Reform Act 1832 was passed when the House of Lords dropped opposition — William IV had threatened to create 80 new peers by request of the Prime Minister , Earl Grey — creating an informal convention that the Lords would give way when the public was behind the House of Commons . For example , Irish Disestablishment , which had been a major bone of contention between the two main parties since the 1830s , was — following intervention by the Queen — passed by the Lords in 1869 after W.E. Gladstone won the 1868 Election on the issue . However , in practice , this gave the Lords a right to demand that such public support was present and to decide the timing of a General Election .
It was the prevailing wisdom that the House of Lords could not amend money bills , since only the House of Commons had the right to decide upon the resources the Monarch could call upon . This did not , however , despite the apparent contradiction , prevent it from rejecting such bills outright . In 1860 , with the repeal of the paper duties , all money bills were consolidated into a single budget . This denied the Lords the ability to reject individual components and the prospect of voting down the entire budget was seemingly unpalatable . It was only in 1909 that this became a possibility . Until the Act , the Lords had equal rights over legislation compared to the Commons , but did not utilise its right of veto over financial measures by convention .
There had been an overwhelming Conservative @-@ Unionist majority in the Lords since the Liberal split in 1886 . With the Liberal Party attempting to push through significant welfare reforms with considerable popular support , this seemed certain to cause problems in the relationship between the Houses . Between 1906 and 1909 , several important measures were being considerably watered down or rejected outright : for example , Birrell introduced the Education Bill 1906 , which was intended to address nonconformist grievances arising from the Education Act 1902 , but which was amended by the Lords to such an extent that it was effectively a different bill , upon which the Commons dropped the bill . This led to the 26 June 1907 resolution in the House of Commons declaring that the Lords ' power should be curtailed , put forward by Liberal Prime Minister Henry Campbell @-@ Bannerman . In 1909 , hoping to force an election , the Lords rejected the financial bill based on the government budget ( the " People 's Budget " ) put forward by David Lloyd George , by 350 votes to 75 . This , according to the Commons , was " a breach of the Constitution , and a usurpation of the rights of the Commons " . The Lords suggested that the Commons justify its position as representing the will of the people : it did this through the January 1910 general election . The Liberal government lost heavily , but remained in majority with the help of a significant number of Irish Nationalist and Labour MPs . The Irish Nationalists saw the continued power of the Lords as detrimental to securing Irish Home Rule . Following the election , the Lords relented on the budget ( since reintroduced by the government ) , it passing the Lords on 28 April , a day after the Commons .
= = Passage = =
The Lords was now faced with the prospect of a Parliament Act , which had considerable support from the Irish Nationalists . A series of meetings between the Liberal government and Conservative opposition members was agreed . Twenty @-@ one such meetings were held between 16 June and 10 November . The discussions considered a wide range of proposals , with initial agreement on finance bills and a joint sitting of the House of Commons and Lords as a means by which to enforce Commons superiority in controversial areas ; the number of Lords present would be limited such that a Liberal majority of 50 or more in the House of Commons could overrule the Lords . However , the issue of home rule for Ireland was the main contention , with Conservatives looking to exempt such a law from the Parliament Act procedure by means of a general exception for " constitutional " or " structural " bills . The Liberals supported an exception for bills relating to the monarchy and Protestant succession , but not home rule . Discussions were declared failed on 10 November .
The government threatened another dissolution if the Parliament Act were not passed , and followed through on their threat when opposition in the Lords did not diminish . The elections of December produced little change from January . The calling of a second dissolution of parliament now seems to have been contrary to the wishes of Edward VII . Edward had died in May 1910 while the crisis was still in progress . His successor , George V , was asked if he would be prepared to create sufficient peers , which he would only if the matter arose . This would have meant creating over 400 new Liberal peers . The King did , however , demand that it would have to be rejected at least once by the Lords before his intervention . Two amendments made by the Lords were rejected and opposition showed little sign of slipping . This led Asquith to declare the King 's intention to overcome the majority in the House of Lords by creating sufficient new peers . It was passed in the Lords by 131 votes to 114 votes , a majority of 17 . This reflected a large number of abstentions .
= = Provisions = =
The preamble included the words " it is intended to substitute for the House of Lords as it at present exists a Second Chamber constituted on a popular instead of hereditary basis , but such substitution cannot be immediately brought into operation " at the request of prominent Cabinet member Sir Edward Grey . The long title of the Act was " An Act to make provision with respect to the powers of the House of Lords in relation to those of the House of Commons , and to limit the duration of Parliament . " Section 8 defined the short title as the " Parliament Act 1911 " .
The bill was also an attempt to place the relationship between the House of Commons and House of Lords on a new footing . As well as the direct issue of money Bills , it set new conventions about how the power the Lords continued to hold would be used . It did not change the composition of the Lords , however .
The Lords would only be able to delay money bills for one month , effectively ending their ability to do so . These were defined as any public bill which contained only provisions dealing with the imposition , repeal , remission , alteration , or regulation of taxation ; the imposition for the payment of debt or other financial purposes of charges on the Consolidated Fund , or on money provided by Parliament , or the variation or repeal of any such charges ; supply ; the appropriation , receipt , custody , issue or audit of accounts of public money ; and the raising or guarantee of any loan or the repayment thereof . It did not however , cover any sort of local taxes or similar measures . Some Finance Bills have not fallen within this criterion ; Consolidated Fund and Appropriation Bills have . The Speaker of the House of Commons would have to certify that a bill was a money bill , endorsing it with a Speaker 's certificate . The Local Government Finance Bill 1988 , which introduced the Community Charge ( " Poll Tax " ) , was not certified as a Money Bill and was therefore considered by the Lords . Whilst Finance Bills are not considered Money Bills , convention dictates that those parts of a Finance Bill dealing with taxation or expenditure ( which , if in an Act alone , would constitute a Money Bill ) are not questioned .
Other public bills could no longer be vetoed ; instead , they could be delayed for up to two years . This two @-@ year period meant that legislation introduced in the fourth or fifth years of a parliament could be delayed until after the next election , which could prove an effective measure to prevent it being passed . Specifically , two years had to elapse between the second reading in the House of Commons in the first session and the passing of the bill in the House of Commons in the third session . The Speaker has to also certify that the conditions of the bill had been complied with . Significant restrictions on amendments are made to ensure that it is the same bill that has been rejected twice . The 1911 Act made clear that the life of a parliament could not be extended without the consent of the Lords .
Parliament had been limited to a maximum of seven years under the Septennial Act 1715 , but this was reduced by the passing of the Parliament Act 1911 . Parliament would now be limited to five years , beginning the first meeting of parliament after the election . In practice , no election has been forced by such a limitation as all parliaments have been dissolved by the Monarch on request of the Prime Minister . It should be noted , however , that the five @-@ year maximum duration referred to the lifetime of the Parliament , and not to the interval between General Elections . For example , the 2010 General Election was held five years and one day after the 2005 General Election , whilst the 1992 General Election was held on 9 April 1992 and the next General Election was not held until 1 May 1997 . The reduction in parliament length was seen as a counterbalance to the new powers granted to the Commons .
= = Result = =
The Lords continued to suggest amendments to money bills over which it had no right of veto and in several instances these were accepted by the Commons . These included the China Indemnity Bill 1925 and the Inshore Fishing Industry Bill 1947 . The use of the Lords ' now temporary veto remains a powerful check on legislation .
It was used in relation to the Government of Ireland Act 1914 , which had been under the threat of a Lords veto , now removed . Ulster Protestants had been firmly against the passing of the bill . However , it never came into force because of the outbreak of the First World War . Amendments to the Parliament Act 1911 were made to prolong the life of the 1910 parliament following the outbreak of the First World War and 1935 parliament because of the Second World War . These made special exemptions to the requirement to hold an election every five years .
Legislation passed through the Parliament Act , without the consent of the Lords , is still considered primary legislation . The importance of this was highlighted Jackson v Attorney General , where the legality of the Parliament Act 1949 was questioned . The challenge asserted foremost that the 1949 Act was delegated rather than primary legislation , and that the 1911 Act had delegated power to the Commons . If this were the case , then the Commons could not empower itself through the 1949 Act without direct permission from the Lords . Since it was passed under the 1911 Act , it had never received the required consent of the Lords . However , the 1949 Act was found to be legal . The 1911 Act , it was concluded , was not primarily about empowering the Commons , but rather to restrict the ability of the Lords to affect legislation . This ruling also means that efforts to abolish the House of Lords ( a major constitutional change ) using the Act could be successful , although the issue was not directly addressed in the ruling .
= = Analysis = =
The Parliament Act 1911 can be seen in the context of the British constitution : rather than creating a written constitution , parliament chose instead to legislate through the usual channels in response to the crisis . This was a pragmatic response , which avoided the further problems of codifying unwritten rules and reconstructing the entire government . It is commonly considered a statute of " constitutional importance " , which gives it informal priority in parliament and in the courts with regards to whether later legislation can change it and the process by which this may happen .
It is also mentioned in discussion of constitutional convention . Whilst it replaced conventions regarding the role of the House of Lords , it also relies on several others . Section 1 ( 1 ) only makes sense if money bills do not arise in the House of Lords and the provisions in section 2 ( 1 ) only if proceedings on a public bill are completed in a single session , otherwise they must fail and be put through procedure again .
= = = Case law = = =
= Hibiscus ( restaurant ) =
Hibiscus is a London restaurant owned and run by French chef Claude Bosi . It was opened in 2000 in Ludlow , Shropshire , and won its first Michelin star within a year , and a second in the 2004 Guide . In July 2006 , Bosi and his wife Claire announced that they were to sell the location in Ludlow and move closer to London . The property was sold to Alan Murchison , and Bosi purchased a new site on Maddox Street in London .
Bosi uses molecular gastronomy to create some items on the menu in an effort to enhance their flavours , such as freeze @-@ drying cabbage to create a purée . The restaurant has received mixed reviews from critics , but has been listed in The World 's 50 Best Restaurants since 2010 , and was named by Egon Ronay as the best restaurant in the UK in 2005 . The Good Food Guide ranked Hibiscus as the eighth @-@ best restaurant in the UK in the 2013 edition . It has also been awarded five AA Rosettes .
In 2011 , Bosi started a new venture , the Fox & Grapes in Wimbledon . This new gastropub operates under the same philosophy as Hibiscus , and is a collaboration with brother Cedric and former sous chef at Hibiscus , Patrick Leano .
= = History = =
Claude Bosi and his wife Claire opened Hibiscus in Ludlow , Shropshire , in 2000 . The location had a 36 @-@ seat capacity , and was previously occupied by a three AA Rosette restaurant called the Oaks .
Bosi had previously been head chef and won a Michelin star at the Overton Grange restaurant , just outside the town . He had intended to open a restaurant in Warwickshire , but found the premises too expensive and purchased a 25 @-@ year lease on the former Oaks property in Ludlow for £ 40 @,@ 000 . Within a year Hibiscus won its first Michelin star , and at the same time Overton Grange was downgraded before going in to receivership .
Working under Bosi at Hibiscus was sous chef Glynn Purnell , who left Hibiscus in 2003 to become head chef at Jessica 's restaurant in Edgbaston . Hibiscus gained a second star in the 2004 Michelin Guide .
In July 2006 , Bosi and his wife Claire announced that they were intending to sell Hibiscus and open a new restaurant closer to London , or in the capital itself . Hibiscus closed in Ludlow in April 2007 , with Bosi selling the site to fellow chef Alan Murchison for £ 247 @,@ 500 , but retaining the Hibiscus name for himself . The restaurant was renamed " Le Becasse " ( sic ) , and underwent a £ 100 @,@ 000 makeover before being re @-@ opened under head chef Will Holland . In 2014 , Murchison 's company went into voluntary liquidation after running up debts of almost half a million pounds .
Bosi completed the deal in June 2007 for a new site at 29 Maddox Street in London . He intended for the new Hibiscus to be open by September , and to transfer over the style of cooking he had used in Ludlow , saying , " I 'm transferring Hibiscus , not starting a new restaurant . The idea is to continue and build on what I have been doing . " Purchasing and fitting out the London premises cost around £ 1 million .
Many of the staff from the Ludlow incarnation of Hibiscus agreed to move to London to continue working at the restaurant , including head chef Marcus McGuinness and sommelier Simon Freeman . Hibiscus re @-@ opened in October 2007 in its new location after following building works and planning delays . The interior of the London @-@ based restaurant was decorated in orange and shades of brown . The walls were covered in pale @-@ coloured wooden panels , and a chandelier designed as a series of globes hungs from the middle of the main dining room 's ceiling .
The handover on the first day was so tight that builders moved out at midday , and the first service was run at 7 pm that evening . The late opening resulted in the reviewers for the Michelin Guide having only a two @-@ week window in which to re @-@ assess the restaurant for the 2008 guide . Bosi admitted later that the restaurant was not yet up to scratch in those two weeks and agreed with the decision of Michelin to downgrade Hibiscus to a single star in the 2008 Guide . The restaurant was also given a " rising star " as one with potential to go up to two stars in the future . During the run up to Christmas , the stress of serving 550 covers a week in a new location with a modified menu resulted in three sous chefs resigning .
The two @-@ star award was restored a year later in the 2009 Michelin Guide , as had been predicted by a number of Bosi 's fellow chefs including Tom Aikens , Antonin Bonnet and Richard Corrigan . Sat Bains went a step further and said " I would love to see Claude Bosi regain his second star at Hibiscus and win his third in time . He ’ s probably the best chef I know . "
= = Menu = =
The menu is created by Bosi . He has been described as an innovator and his work has been compared to that of Heston Blumenthal at The Fat Duck . One of the new dishes Bosi introduced following his move to London was a two @-@ part pork dish . The first part was roasted suckling pig served with sea urchin , kohlrabi and a fondant of sweet potato . The second , inspired by his daughter , featured a sausage roll with a salad and a truffle dressing . Other dishes have included roast chicken with an onion fondue and licorice , and desserts include a chocolate tart served with basil ice cream .
Bosi uses molecular gastronomy techniques , such as in the process for making a Savoy cabbage purée , in which the cabbage is freeze dried into a powder and then reconstituted , but he prefers only to enhance the flavours of individual ingredients rather than changing those flavours by using unusual techniques .
= = Reception = =
Jay Rayner reviewed the restaurant for The Observer after Hibiscus moved from Ludlow to London , his first time at the restaurant . While stating that elements of the meal were " very clever indeed " , such as foie gras ice cream and a sausage roll he described as a " colossus " , he described the desserts as a " disappointment " , calling an olive oil parfait a " gloopy mess " . Overall , he planned on returning to give Bosi another chance .
Zoe Williams also reviewed the restaurant shortly after it arrived in London , for The Daily Telegraph . She enjoyed her visit , and was impressed with the unusual combinations of foods that worked together saying " the sheer expertise of taking a food with a range of flavours , and knowing it 's in peak condition to meet four others ... it really is something " .
John Walsh also visited it , for The Independent , after the restaurant arrived in London , and gave the food four stars , and the ambience and service three stars ; Terry Durack reviewed it for the same paper , giving the restaurant 17 out of 20 .
Food critics from Time Out visited the restaurant in 2009 , and were " disappointed " compared to their previous visit . They thought that Bosi 's food combinations just did not work , but still said that some of his desserts were " faultless " .
Andy Hayler gave the restaurant a score of six out of ten on his scale during his November 2011 visit . The redeeming feature of his trip was a dish of venison , he thought , served with a confit of pear in mulled wine and Savoy cabbage with a red wine and smoked chocolate sauce , but he otherwise felt that the food was " over @-@ worked " and the service " peculiarly amateurish " .
= = = Ratings and awards = = =
In 2005 Hibiscus was one of three restaurants to be awarded three @-@ stars by the Egon Ronay Restaurant Guide , along with The Waterside Inn and Restaurant Tom Aikens , and was named Ronay 's Restaurant of the Year .
The restaurant made its first entry in the World 's 50 Best Restaurants in 2010 , ranked in 49th place and one of three British restaurants in the list ; the following year it moved up to 43rd .
The Good Food Guide ranked Hibiscus as the eighth @-@ best restaurant in the UK in its 2013 guide .
The restaurant has been given five AA Rosettes by The Automobile Association .
= Chris Turner ( American football ) =
Chris Turner ( born September 8 , 1987 ) is an American football quarterback . He played quarterback for the Maryland Terrapins at the University of Maryland from 2007 to 2009 . Turner began his career at Maryland as a redshirt in 2005 and then served as a reserve quarterback before he earned the starting position .
After a redshirt season in 2005 , Turner saw no playing time as the third @-@ string quarterback the following year . In 2007 , he replaced the injured starter during the game against 10th @-@ ranked Rutgers and led the Terrapins to an upset victory . After that , he remained as the team 's leader for the remainder of the season , and against eighth @-@ ranked Boston College , engineered another upset victory . Turner also helped Maryland secure an appearance in the Emerald Bowl . At the start of the 2008 season , he was relegated to backup status , but soon regained the starting position . That year , he led Maryland in wins over four of their five ranked opponents and to an appearance in the Humanitarian Bowl . He returned as the starter for the 2009 season , but suffered a knee injury and was replaced by Jamarr Robinson .
= = Early years = =
Turner was born in Simi Valley , California to parents John and Grace Turner . His father was the original drummer of the glam metal band Ratt . Chris Turner attended high school at the Chaminade College Preparatory School , where he was a three @-@ year letterwinner and starting quarterback in football and pitcher in baseball . As a sophomore , he was on the junior varsity football team until midseason when the varsity quarterback suffered an injury against Valencia High School , a regional powerhouse . Turner described the incident as the last time that he was nervous during a game and said , " It got pretty ugly to be honest . Ever since then , I 've always thought to myself , ' It can 't get worse than that . ' "
At Chaminade , he led a pass @-@ oriented offense and , during his senior year , accumulated 139 completions on 265 attempts , 2 @,@ 047 yards , 16 touchdowns , and 11 interceptions . He was named to the All @-@ California Interscholastic Federation ( CIF ) second team as a senior and the All @-@ Mission League team as both a junior and senior . SuperPrep picked him as a Far West all @-@ region selection and PrepStar as an all @-@ region selection . Turner was assessed as a Rivals.com three @-@ star and Scout.com two @-@ star recruit . He received scholarship offers from Boise State , Illinois , Louisville , Maryland , Oregon , Utah , and UTEP . Maryland offered him after another Californian recruit , Josh Portis , chose Florida instead — although Portis later transferred to Maryland and served as a backup alongside Turner . Turner ultimately chose Maryland , which is located just outside Washington , D.C. , partly due to his interest in politics .
= = College career = =
= = = Experience = = =
Turner sat out his true freshman year during the 2005 season on redshirt status . In 2006 , he served as the third @-@ team quarterback behind starter Sam Hollenbach and reserve Jordan Steffy , but Turner saw no playing time during that season .
= = = = 2007 season = = = =
In 2007 , as the second @-@ string quarterback , he saw his first action against Villanova when he was substituted for injured starter Jordan Steffy . Turner executed a scoring drive and completed four of six passes , but also threw two interceptions . He sat out the next two games and then took one snap against Wake Forest . When the unranked Terps faced 10th @-@ ranked Rutgers , Steffy suffered a concussion and Turner again filled in . He led drives for two touchdowns and two field goals in an upset of the Scarlet Knights , 34 – 24 . About the then relatively unknown Turner , Rutgers head coach Greg Schiano said , " I wish I would have seen this guy before . " Turner started for the remaining eight games of the season . In his career @-@ first start , he passed for 255 yards in a win against Georgia Tech , 28 – 26 . In the game , he threw a 78 @-@ yard touchdown pass , which was caught by tight end Jason Goode rather than his intended receiver , Darrius Heyward @-@ Bey . After a three @-@ game losing streak , Turner led another upset win over a top @-@ ten team , this time against eighth @-@ ranked Boston College , 42 – 35 . In the 24 – 16 loss to Florida State , Turner had his worst performance of the season . Late in the second quarter , he was benched and replaced by Steffy for two possessions . Turner said , " I didn 't know that my leash was that short in the first place , to be honest . I didn 't think it would come to this . I guess I should have . " After an uneven performance by Steffy , Turner played the entire second half and showed improvement . The following week Maryland played their regular season finale against NC State and both teams needed an additional win to attain bowl eligibility . Maryland led in the second quarter , 3 – 0 , but was struggling offensively . Turner , a generally immobile pocket quarterback , invigorated the offense when he executed a 41 @-@ yard option run for a first down . He completed 19 of 24 passes for 206 yards and led a shutout of NC State , 37 – 0 . With the sixth win , Maryland was invited to the Emerald Bowl , where they were beaten by Oregon State , 21 – 14 . Turner finished the season as the third @-@ most efficient passer in the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) .
= = = = 2008 season = = = =
In 2008 , Maryland hired a new offensive coordinator , James Franklin , who installed a West Coast offense . That season started with some controversy when head coach Ralph Friedgen initially selected senior Jordan Steffy as the starting quarterback . Turner considered returning home with a transfer to a Californian school , but ultimately decided against it . When Steffy was injured again in the season @-@ opener against Delaware , Turner was awarded the starting job for the rest of the season . After Maryland defeated 21st @-@ ranked Wake Forest , 26 – 0 , Turner was voted the ACC Player of the Week and ESPN named him an " On the Mark " quarterback . Against 16th @-@ ranked North Carolina , Turner 's split @-@ second decision to hold onto the ball for a nine @-@ yard run on fourth down and five put the team within range for the game @-@ winning field goal , 17 – 15 . For that , he was nominated for the week 's Pontiac Game Changing Performance . The win improved Maryland 's record to 7 – 3 and reasserted control over their ACC championship destiny , although they lost the next game against Florida State , 37 – 3 , which ended the Terrapins ' title hopes . The following week against Boston College , Turner set career highs with 33 completions , 57 attempts , and 360 passing yards , but the effort fell short and Maryland lost , 28 – 21 . In the postseason , the Terrapins played Nevada in the Humanitarian Bowl where Turner threw for 198 yards , one interception , two touchdowns including a 59 @-@ yard long , and a two @-@ point conversion . At the end of the season , Maryland had beaten four out of their five Top 25 @-@ ranked opponents , a feat that was surpassed only by the teams in the BCS Championship Game : Florida and Oklahoma .
= = = = 2009 season = = = =
Fifth @-@ year senior Turner entered the 2009 season as the uncontested starter at quarterback for the first time in his career . He was backed @-@ up by sophomore Jamarr Robinson and true freshmen C. J. Brown and Danny O 'Brien . Turner 's seniority was called critical for the performance of the team 's relatively youthful offensive line . Head coach Friedgen said , " If I had to choose between a veteran offensive line and an inexperienced quarterback , or an inexperienced line with a veteran quarterback , I think I 'd go with the veteran quarterback . " Upon the conclusion of preseason camp , the coaching staff praised his progress , particularly his game @-@ planning , for which he had been criticized in the past . Turner said , " Mentally , I am way further ahead than where I was last year . " Physically , he dropped 16 pounds by adding muscle and losing body fat , and weighed 220 pounds before the start of the season . Offensive coordinator Franklin said , " You look at him , he was kind of mushy last year . You look at him now and he 's muscular and shaped . He looks more athletic . "
Before the season , Turner was added to the watch list for the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award , an annual honor bestowed upon the nation 's top senior quarterback . At that time , he ranked as the school 's fourth all @-@ time quarterback in terms of completion percentage , fifth in completions , seventh in total offensive yards , and he is tied for 11th in number of touchdown passes . In June 2009 , Turner stated that he wanted to leave a " legacy " at Maryland in his final season . He also expressed a desire to pursue a professional playing career in the National Football League ( NFL ) if possible . The NFL Draft Scout assessed Turner as the 16th @-@ ranked quarterback out of the 135 available for the 2010 NFL Draft and projected him as a potential seventh @-@ round selection .
= = = Playing style and personality = = =
Prior to his senior year , Jeff Barker of The Baltimore Sun noted that Turner 's strengths were " poise , smarts , [ and ] toughness , " while he had room for improvement in arm strength and mobility . Barker said , " He 's a bit streaky — he calls himself a ' rhythm ' passer … But he doesn 't quit when things go poorly . His coolness can be mistaken for apathy . " Turner typically confines himself to the pocket , as his ability to run the ball himself is limited by his speed . He has made light of his own lack of quickness by saying that he runs a " flat 5 @.@ 0 " -second 40 @-@ yard dash . The CBS Sports @-@ affiliated NFL Draft Scout records his actual time as ranging from a low of 4 @.@ 89 to a high of 5 @.@ 16 seconds , while Scout.com reports his 40 @-@ yard time as 4 @.@ 8 seconds . Turner 's supposedly one @-@ dimensional nature , however , has occasionally allowed him to make unexpected plays with his feet . The most noteworthy of these were the momentum @-@ changing 41 @-@ yard option run against NC State in 2007 , and the fourth @-@ down nine @-@ yard scramble into field goal range against North Carolina in 2008 .
Pundits and coaches sometimes characterized Turner as a quarterback who did not excel during practices , but executed well on game @-@ day . Maryland head coach Ralph Friedgen said " He 's pretty go @-@ with @-@ the @-@ flow . And that 's his greatest strength and maybe his greatest weakness . The bottom line is , he plays well in games . " The Baltimore Sun wrote that he " seems to play his best when it counts — and his worst when it doesn 't . " Regarding the 2008 summer practices , offensive coordinator James Franklin said Turner ranked in the middle compared with Jordan Steffy and Josh Portis in terms of completion percentage , fewest interceptions , and " explosive " plays that gained 16 yards or more . Turner conceded that Steffy was a better game @-@ planner during practices . Head coach Ralph Friedgen who had offered critical or subdued assessments of Turners ' practice , said his intensity grew after losing the starting position to Steffy prior to the 2008 season . Turner said , " It lit a fire in me in the sense that I had to be ready . "
Among his Maryland teammates and coaches , Turner earned a reputation as an archetypal " laid @-@ back " Californian and for remaining calm under pressure . After the 2007 win over Rutgers , offensive tackle Scott Burley described his roommate Turner as " real calm [ in the huddle ] . . . He would say , ' Guys , are you ready to score again ? Are you ready to run the ball on these guys ? ' And we 're like , ' Yeah , let 's do that . ' " Turner received the nicknames " Sunshine " and " Napoleon Dynamite " , in reference to his similar appearance to the fictional characters in the films Remember the Titans and Napoleon Dynamite , respectively .
= = Personal life = =
Turner graduated from the University of Maryland in May 2009 with a bachelor 's degree in government and politics . His strong interest in politics factored into his decision on where to attend college . He chose the University of Maryland partly based on its close proximity to Washington , D.C. Turner 's political views are liberal ; he is registered as a Democrat , and has described himself as an idealist .
During the 2008 season , political discussions were common in the Maryland locker room because of the presidential election . Turner and fellow quarterback Jordan Steffy , a conservative and supporter of presidential candidate Senator John McCain , were the most frequent debaters , while defensive tackle Dean Muhtadi was described as the primary instigator . During the summer of 2009 , Turner held an internship on Capitol Hill working for Democratic Representative Steny Hoyer , the House Majority Leader and Maryland 's fifth district congressman . Turner had previously considered volunteering for the presidential campaign of Barack Obama , which he said probably annoyed his conservative father , John Turner . Describing his experience during the internship , Turner said , " It 's funny to compare how serious politics is and how serious football is . Depending on who you talk to , they 're both pretty big deals . . . There 's more to life than football . "
Incidentally , Turner 's favorite sport is soccer , not football . He is also interested in foreign cultures and expressed regret at being unable to spend a semester abroad because of college football . Turner said that , dependent upon the outcome of his football career , he would like to attend the 2010 World Cup in South Africa . He also got to meet his childhood idol David Beckham while at the 2010 South Africa world cup .
= = Statistics = =
= Jack and Jill ( nursery rhyme ) =
" Jack and Jill " ( sometimes " Jack and Gill " , particularly in earlier versions ) is a traditional English nursery rhyme . The Roud Folk Song Index classifies this tune and its variations as number 10266 . The rhyme dates back at least to the 18th century and exists with different numbers of verses each with a number of variations . Several theories have been advanced to explain its origins and to suggest meanings for the lyrics .
= = Lyrics and structure = =
The first and most commonly repeated verse is :
Jack and Jill went up the hill
To fetch a pail of water .
Jack fell down and broke his crown ,
And Jill came tumbling after .
Many verses have been added to the rhyme , including a version with a total of 15 stanzas in a chapbook of the 19th century . The second verse , probably added as part of these extensions has become a standard part of the nursery rhyme . Early versions took the form :
Up Jack got , and home did trot ,
As fast as he could caper ;
To old Dame Dob , who patched his nob
With vinegar and brown paper .
By the early 20th century this had been modified in some collections , such as L. E. Walter 's , Mother Goose 's Nursery Rhymes ( London , 1919 ) to :
Up Jack got and home did trot ,
As fast as he could caper ;
And went to bed and bound his head
With vinegar and brown paper .
A third verse , sometimes added to the rhyme , was first recorded in a 19th @-@ century chapbook and took the form :
Then Jill came in , and she did grin ,
To see Jack 's paper plaster ;
Her mother whipt her , across her knee ,
For laughing at Jack 's disaster .
Twentieth @-@ century versions of this verse include :
When Jill came in how she did grin
To see Jack 's paper plaster ;
Mother vexed did whip her next
For causing Jack 's disaster .
The rhyme is made up of quatrains , with a rhyming scheme of abcb ( with occasional internal rhymes ) , using falling rhymes ( where the rhyming sound is on a relatively unstressed syllable : de @-@ emphasising the rhyme ) and a trochaic rhythm ( with the stress falling on the first of a pair of syllables ) , known as a ballad form , which is common in nursery rhymes . The melody commonly associated with the rhyme was first recorded by the composer and nursery rhyme collector James William Elliott in his National Nursery Rhymes and Nursery Songs ( 1870 ) . The Roud Folk Song Index , which catalogues folk songs and their variations by number , classifies the song as 10266 .
= = Meaning and origins = =
The rhyme has traditionally been seen as a nonsense verse , particularly as the couple go up a hill to find water , which is often thought to be found at the bottom of hills . Vinegar and brown paper were a home cure used as a method to draw out bruises on the body . The phrase " Jack and Jill " , indicating a boy and a girl , was in use in England as early as the 16th century . A comedy
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the 8th Indian Division would attack northward toward Crecchio , preventing German reinforcements from reaching The Gully . When the 48th Highlanders reached the Cider Crossroads , the Royal Canadian Regiment would move north , overrunning Cider itself , then advance up the Ortona @-@ Orsogna road . Both battalions would be supported by tanks of The Three Rivers Regiment . At first , the attack went extremely well . However , when the artillery shifted their barrage , the German defences quickly recovered and their machine gun fire devastated the advancing forces . In C Company of the Royal Canadian Regiment , every platoon commander was killed or wounded . The attack was quickly abandoned .
On 20 December , Canadian forces tried again and The Royal Canadian Regiment attacked Cider Crossroads at noon . This time , Vokes was determined that the operation would be successful , with armoured forces of the Three Rivers Regiment moving to the start lines well before 07 : 00 . Due to shortages of fuel and poor weather , H @-@ Hour was postponed until 14 : 15 . When H @-@ Hour came , a powerful creeping barrage supported two companies of the Royal Canadian Regiment eastward . By evening , B Company controlled the Cider Crossroads , having met virtually no resistance in their advance to the objective . However , German forces had already evacuated The Gully , falling back to prepare for a strong defence of Ortona , with elements of the powerful 1st Parachute Division firmly entrenched in the town .
= = Villa Grande = =
In order to keep up pressure on the whole front , the 19th Indian Brigade was ordered to attack Villa Grande and exploit any gains as far as the Arielli river which ran from the mountains through Tollo to the Adriatic . The attack went in at 05 : 30 on 22 December but failed in desperate fighting . The 1 / 5th Battalion , Essex Regiment renewed their attack the following morning with more success . After a counterattack by German paratroops had been repulsed at midday , the Essex advanced to mop up the remainder of the village . However , deadly small scale house @-@ to @-@ house battles continued throughout the rest of 23 December and for the next two days as the determined parachute soldiers clung on . To the south of Villa Grande , the 3rd / 15th Punjabis had taken Vezzano on 23 December and a continuous brigade line had been established .
On 25 December , reinforcements in the form of 3rd Battalion , 8th Punjab Regiment were brought forward and after a softening up barrage were launched at the east side of Villa Grande . With four battalions now involved ( the 5th Battalion , Royal West Kents had by now been tasked on the south east side of the village ) supported by tanks , Villa Grande was finally cleared by the end of 26 December . The troops of the 8th Indian Division entered the village to find a shambles . One correspondent described the scene " as though a giant had trodden on a child 's box of blocks " .
= = XIII Corps attacks Orsogna = =
On 23 December , Lieutenant @-@ General Dempsey 's XIII Corps launched a new attack to push back the German line from Orsogna . In the afternoon , the British 5th Infantry Division attacked on the right wing of the Corps front toward the Arielli stream . Their objective was to secure the flank of the 2nd New Zealand Division , which was in turn to attack northwest and west from the salient in order to roll up the Orsogna defences from the north .
After the British 5th Infantry Division had achieved its objectives , the 5th New Zealand Infantry Brigade attacked at 04 : 00 on 24 December . Despite intensive artillery support ( 272 guns on a 3 @,@ 500 yards ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) front ) , the tired and understrength New Zealand battalions struggled to make progress . By the afternoon , it had become clear to the New Zealand commander — Bernard Freyberg — that the stubborn defences of the 26th Panzer Division would not be broached . He is reported to have remarked , " It is not a question of further advance , it is a question of holding on to what we have got " . The XIII Corps front was effectively deadlocked and settled into a posture of active defence and patrolling .
= = Ortona = =
Throughout the week of 11 – 18 December , the 1st Parachute Battalion from the German 1st Parachute Division — with supporting units — had prepared strong defences within the Italian coastal town of Ortona . Paratroop engineers and infantry had destroyed much of Ortona itself , turning the streets into a debris @-@ filled maze . Major streets were mined , with demolition charges throughout the main piazza , and booby traps littered the town . German forces had also buried tanks in the rubble , leaving only the turrets exposed .
On 20 December 1943 , the under @-@ strength Loyal Edmonton Regiment moved toward Ortona , with the Seaforth Highlanders covering their eastern flank . Throughout the day , they encountered heavy machine gun fire during their attempts to enter Ortona . By nightfall , both battalions held a toehold on the western edge of Ortona , yet had encountered heavy resistance in their attempts to secure it . The following day , D Company of the Loyal Edmonton Regiment launched attacks eastward towards the city centre , but accurate German sniper fire rapidly stalled the advance .
Throughout the remainder of the week , the Battle of Ortona degenerated into a small @-@ scale version of the Battle of Stalingrad , with vicious house @-@ to @-@ house fighting through the narrow streets and debris of Ortona . Over the course of the battle , Canadian forces developed innovative " mouse @-@ holing " tactics , moving between houses to avoid German sniper fire in the open streets . German counterattacks on 24 and 26 December caused significant casualties to Canadian forces in the town . In danger of being outflanked by Allied advances west of Ortona , the 1st Parachute Regiment abandoned the town the following day , leaving Ortona to Canadian forces . Canadian casualties in the fighting for the town approached 650 killed or wounded .
= = Aftermath = =
With Ortona and Villa Grande captured , it looked as if it would require Eighth Army only to regather itself and strike one more concentrated blow at Orsogna to complete the breaching of the Gustav Line 's main Adriatic strongpoints . However , on 31 December , as V Corps probed along the coastal plain towards Pescara , a blizzard enveloped the battlefield . Drifting snow , sleet and biting winds paralysed movement and communications on the ground while cloud ceiling and visibility fell to nil and grounded the airforce . Montgomery — realising the Eighth Army no longer had the strength or conditions to force its way to Pescara and the Via Valeria to Rome — recommended to General Alexander that the Eighth Army offensive should be halted . Alexander agreed but ordered him to maintain aggressive patrolling in order to pin the units of the LXXVI Panzer Corps in the Adriatic sector and prevent Kesselring moving them to reinforce the XIV Panzer Corps front opposite Mark Clark 's U.S. Fifth Army where the Allied offensive would continue .
In spite of this , three attempts during the winter of 1943 / 44 by Fifth Army to break through into the Liri valley at Cassino failed . As spring approached in 1944 , Alexander concentrated his forces in great secrecy by thinning out the Adriatic front and bringing the bulk of Eighth Army 's striking power to the Cassino front . The combined attack of his two armies during the fourth and final Battle of Monte Cassino in early May took Kesselring by surprise and led to the Allied capture of Rome in early June .
= Berkley Bedell =
Berkley Warren Bedell ( born March 5 , 1921 ) is a former U.S. Representative from Iowa . After starting a successful business in his youth , Berkley Fly Co . , he ran for the United States Congress in 1972 , but was defeated by incumbent Wiley Mayne . In 1974 , however , Bedell beat Wiley Mayne and was elected to Congress .
He was known for his support of representative democracy and his populist style . For example , he would hold town halls and let constituents vote on motions to decide what he would do in Congress on their behalf . These meetings helped Bedell understand the problems of his constituents ; as a result , he backed issues that were important to his farming constituency , such as waterway usage fees and production constraints .
He did not seek reelection in 1986 after contracting Lyme disease from a tick bite . Though he no longer serves in Congress , Bedell remains active in Iowa politics , strongly supporting Howard Dean in 2004 over John Kerry . In the 2008 presidential election , he met several times with Chris Dodd , but endorsed Barack Obama in the end .
= = Early life = =
Born in Spirit Lake , Iowa , Bedell was educated in Spirit Lake public schools . He graduated from Spirit Lake High School in 1939 , where he earned spending money with a business in the midst of the Great Depression . His business involved braiding dog hairs around fishhooks , the result of which could be sold as trout flies . He began tying the fly @-@ fishing lures in his bedroom , then he moved the business into his parents ' basement . In time , he got space above a grocery store to continue the business full @-@ time .
After graduating from high school , he attended Iowa State University from 1940 to 1942 , where he met fellow ISU student Elinor Healy from Grand Marais , Minnesota . Berkley and Elinor married in Minneapolis on August 29 , 1943 and their son Kenneth was born in 1947 , Thomas in 1950 and daughter Joanne in 1952 . Berkley ’ s college and personal life was interrupted in 1942 when he joined the army . He served in the United States Army as first lieutenant and flight trainer from 1942 to 1945 . When he got back , he began to garner success from his fish tackling business . His business became larger , with hundreds of employees and international operations ; he had become a millionaire by the 1960s . He served as member of the Spirit Lake Board of Education from 1957 to 1962 .
= = Political career = =
= = = Running for Congress = = =
By the early 1970s , Bedell had decided to run for political office . In 1972 , he ran against Wiley Mayne , a Republican incumbent in Iowa 's 6th congressional district . Mayne was a staunch supporter of Richard Nixon and secured victory along with the President in a year favorable to the Republicans . Mayne , however , would politically suffer after Watergate ( he was one of only a few Republicans to vote against impeaching the President on the judiciary committee . ) The damage had already been done , and Bedell defeated Mayne in a 1974 rematch .
During his time at Congress , Bedell took efforts to uphold representative democracy . He held town halls regularly with his constituents , and he would let them vote on motions to decide what he would do in Congress on their behalf . This type of communication told Bedell of the types of issues affecting his farming constituency . Thus , though Bedell had not farmed in his life , he would take steps in Congress to benefit farmers .
= = = Waterway usage fees = = =
Bedell sponsored several bold initiatives during his tenure in the United States House of Representatives . One initiative , which came from his constituents ' problems with the barge industry , focused on waterway usage fees . He introduced legislation in 1977 that would require the barge industry to pay a fee for using the waterways which , Bedell pointed out , the Government paid millions of dollars to create and maintain . Bedell 's original plan set the rate the barge industry paid as directly related to the amount the Government spent on waterway projects . This would have the additional effect of helping curb unnecessary waterway projects , and it was the same plan proposed by Pete Domenici in the Senate .
Congress eventually passed a watered @-@ down version of the original plan put forward by Bedell and Senator Pete Domenici . The compromise version enacted a tax on the gasoline barges used and put it into a " trust " for waterway projects . While other supporters of waterway usage fees , including Domenici , backed the compromise , Bedell gave a passioned plea for his colleagues to oppose it . He viewed it as lacking a crucial element of the original plan - that of capital recovery . The trust was optional , and the Government could spend money on waterway projects irrespective of the trust . The compromise was eventually signed by Jimmy Carter . Bedell 's original plan never made it through the House of Representatives , but he continued to introduce it in succeeding sessions . It would not , however , get a floor vote in succeeding sessions .
= = = Farming issues = = =
In 1985 , Bedell put forward an agricultural plan that he thought would increase production controls for farmers , thus raising prices for crops . This plan , backed by labor unions and certain Democrats , passed the Agriculture Committee as an amendment to farm legislation . It mandated a referendum that would then be used to determine what types of production controls to enact . The purpose of this plan was twofold : production controls would decrease the aggregate supply of crops , thus making individual crops cost more ( which would benefit farmers , who were in the middle of an acute debt crisis . ) Second , by styling it as a referendum , the farmers would get to decide the severity of the controls .
On the other hand , opponents of the Bedell plan had a very different view of this legislation . Representatives such as Pat Roberts claimed that the referendum was redundant because the farmers already voted the politicians into office , and this bill was an example of the politicians not doing their jobs . The Reagan Administration opposed the bill because of their opposition to production controls , and the President threatened to veto the farm bill if Bedell 's plan was left in place . When the bill got to the floor , an amendment was proposed to strike this provision , and it was passed 251 @-@ 174 .
= = = Investigations of large businesses = = =
While in Congress , Berkley Bedell was Chairman of the Small Business Subcommittee , and he used this position to investigate underselling on the part of large oil companies . He also claimed that certain large oil companies underpaid their " windfall taxes " in certain cases and wanted to pass legislation to increase regulations on these corporations .
In these investigations , Bedell quickly gained the support of small gasoline marketers and Congressman Bill Nelson . The chief target , ARCO , was accused of not paying all of its taxes on Alaskan crude oil . In the end , the government tried to make a case against ARCO , but it was eventually dropped in 1985 . Bedell used this opportunity to attack the Administration for " not caring " about small business owners , and he advocated that Governmental agencies put aside 1 @-@ 3 % of their research and development money for small businesses .
= = = Clash with Reagan = = =
In late 1982 , Congress passed a law which forbade the United States from funding groups aiming to overthrow the Sandinista government of Nicaragua . Then , in 1983 , Bedell visited Nicaragua and Honduras along with Representative Robert G. Torricelli . During the trip , Bedell spoke with soldiers , generals , governmental officials and members of the contras . His conclusion at the end of the trip was that Ronald Reagan was aiding the contras in violation of federal law . He promised to hold hearings after returning to Congress . Bedell would later join other House Democrats in demanding documents from the White House related to the contras , but the Reagan Administration refused to provide them . Bedell became angrier with the Reagan Administration as the decade wore on . He called his Central American policies " sheer lunacy , " saying that the mining of harbors was an acts of war . Bedell would retire from Congress before Reagan 's acts in Central America would culminate with the Iran @-@ Contra Affair .
Furthermore , Bedell was a sharp critic of Reagan 's agricultural policies , calling for John Block to resign after calling his agricultural plan a failure that was " dead on arrival " in both the House and the Senate . Reagan 's agricultural plan consisted primarily of a gradual reduction in farm subsidies . He also attacked the Department of Agriculture for " looking backward " when it dismissed the only expert on organic farming . Also , as chairman of the subcommittee on Department Operations , Research and Foreign Agriculture , which was in charge of regulating USDA operations , he opposed the proposals Reagan had for reforming the organization . The proposals generally involved shifting costs for meat inspections and other USDA duties from the federal government to the industry .
= = = Controversy = = =
In 1981 , it was revealed in internal memos that Bedell may have known about potential customs violations that his company engaged in . It asserted that Bedell had gone to Taiwan in 1973 to discuss " prior violations of customs law " in regards to the sale of fishing rods from the company 's Taiwan subsidiary . Bedell responded by denying any wrongdoing , saying that he has not been personally involved in the company in years . In the end , no charges were levied against him , and he was reelected after the story was published .
= = After politics = =
Bedell decided not to seek reelection in 1986 after contracting Lyme Disease from a tick bite . Since then , he has founded a center for alternative medicine and is a noted advocate of health freedom . Due largely to his friendship with Tom Harkin , he remains an important political figure in Iowa , with politicians such as Howard Dean meeting him in their trips to the state . Also , the Elinor Bedell State Park was established in 1998 on land donated by Berkley Bedell . The park is named after the Congressman 's wife .
As an opponent of the Vietnam War , Bedell signed a petition urging against United States military intervention in Iraq . This petition was signed with the names of 70 former Congressmen from the 1970s and was presented in a press conference on March 15 , 2003 . Bedell said that it was unbelievable for the United States to settle disputes with war , and he said that an Iraq war would be similar to the Vietnam War .
In the 2004 presidential election , Bedell attacked John Kerry for voting for Newt Gingrich 's Freedom to Farm Act , which Bedell claims wrecked the farm program . Bedell would later officially endorse Howard Dean 's candidacy . For the 2008 election , Bedell met with Chris Dodd . However , in December 2007 , he announced his endorsement of Barack Obama .
= Bart vs. Australia =
" Bart vs. Australia " is the sixteenth episode of the sixth season of The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 19 , 1995 . In the episode , Bart is indicted for fraud in Australia , and the family travels to the country so Bart can apologize . The Australian Parliament decides to give him the additional punishment of a boot to his buttocks , but the Simpson family refuses . Bart later changes his mind and agrees to the punishment , but just as he is about to receive it , he moons the Australians and the family flee back to America .
The episode was written by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein and directed by Wes Archer . It features cultural references to films such as Mad Max 2 and Crocodile Dundee . " Bart vs. Australia " acquired a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 1 and was the fourth highest rated show on the Fox network the week it aired . It received mixed reception in Australia , with some Australian viewers saying the episode was a mockery of their country .
= = Plot = =
While in the bathroom , Bart notices that the water in the sink always drains counterclockwise . Lisa explains ( not entirely correctly ) that the water never drains the other way except in the southern hemisphere , due to the Coriolis effect , but Bart does not believe her . To confirm this , Bart makes phone calls to various countries in the southern hemisphere . Lisa points out how expensive international calls are , so Bart decides to make a collect call instead . He calls Australia , where a little boy answers the phone . Pretending to represent the " International Drainage Commission " , Bart is informed that the toilet and sink are both draining clockwise . Frustrated , Bart asks him to go and check the toilets of the neighbors . The call takes six hours to complete , since the boy lives in the outback , and Bart forgets to hang up the phone . Later , the boy 's father is billed A $ 900 ( referred to as " dollarydoos " ) . The father calls Bart and demands that he pay , but Bart only taunts him . Unfortunately for Bart , the father 's neighbour is a federal Member of Parliament , who reports Bart 's offense to the Prime Minister — who is relaxing naked in a nearby pond .
After a long series of ignored letters , Australia indicts Bart for fraud . The United States Department of State wants to send him to prison in order to placate the Australian government , but Marge furiously objects to this idea . The State Department then settles on having Bart publicly apologize in Australia . The family is sent to Australia and they stay in the American Embassy , which is fitted with all the comforts of their home country , including a specially modified toilet that overcomes an exaggerated Coriolis effect . Then they start exploring the local culture .
After Bart makes his apology , the Parliament reveals that they want to give him the additional punishment of a " booting " , which is a kick in the buttocks using a giant boot . Bart and Homer escape and the family flees to the American Embassy . After a prolonged standoff , the two governments propose a compromise to the Simpson family : one kick from the Prime Minister , through the gate of the embassy , with a regular shoe , believed to be a wingtip . Marge is opposed to the idea , but Bart agrees . However , Bart dodges the kick , moons the Australians with the words " don 't tread on me " written on his buttocks , then hums " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " . In a scene reminiscent of the Fall of Saigon the Simpson family flees the outraged country in a helicopter . Looking down on Australia , they see that bullfrogs have begun to overpopulate and destroy the Australian ecosystem , due to a bullfrog Bart left earlier at the airport . Viewing the devastation , the family remark upon the destruction that can be caused by introducing a foreign species into a new environment , and laugh at the Australians ' misfortune , unaware that a koala is hanging onto the helicopter . The camera zooms in on the koala , ending with a close @-@ up of its eye , implying that America will face a similar fate as Australia .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein , and directed by Wes Archer . The writing staff wanted to do an episode where the Simpsons family traveled to Australia , because they thought everyone in Australia had a good sense of humor and that they " would get the jokes " . The staff had previously poked fun at several American institutions on the show and they thought it would be interesting to poke fun at a whole nation . They designed Australia and the Australian people very inaccurately and many things were completely made up for fun . The animators , however , got two Australian tourist guides to help them out with the design of the Australian landscape and buildings , as well as the American Embassy . The writers did research on the Coriolis effect for this episode . Lisa 's explanation of the effect is incorrect ; it affects global weather patterns and is caused by the spinning of the globe on its axis . The amount of water in a toilet or sink is much too small to be affected by it .
In 1999 , Fox Studios Australia in Sydney used a different version of " Bart vs. Australia " as part of their Simpsons attraction , called The Simpsons Down Under . They had contacted the Simpsons writing staff and asked if they would write the screenplay for a ride in their attraction , based on this episode . The episode was re @-@ edited and re @-@ animated for the ride and new scenes were included . The attraction featured motion capture technology , allowing audience members faces and expressions to be transformed into moving cartoon characters .
= = Cultural references = =
The plot of the episode is based on the story of Michael Fay , an American teenager who was caned in Singapore in 1994 for vandalizing cars . This episode perpetuated a popular myth that the Coriolis effect affects the motion of drains in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres . In reality , the Coriolis effect affects global weather patterns . The amount of water in a toilet or sink is much too small to be affected by it .
When Bart is talking to the boy 's father on the phone he says " I think I hear a dingo eating your baby " , referencing the case of Azaria Chamberlain , a ten @-@ week @-@ old baby who was killed by dingoes . The bullfrogs taking over Australia and destroying all the crops is a reference to the cane toad , originally introduced to Australia in order to protect sugar canes from the cane beetle , but became a pest in the country .
When the Simpson family go to an Australian pub , Bart plays with a pocketknife at the table and a man asks him : " You call that a knife ? " , and as the man draws a spoon from his pocket he says : " This is a knife . " The scene is a reference to a famous scene from Crocodile Dundee in which Mick Dundee is threatened by some thugs with a switchblade , and Mick takes out a bowie knife and says ; " That 's not a knife ; that 's a knife ! " The Simpson family is shown a slide show by the US Department of State depicting a boarded up cinema with a sign out the front saying " Yahoo Serious Festival " , in reference to the Australian actor and director Yahoo Serious . Wez , one of the characters from the 1981 film Mad Max 2 : The Road Warrior , is seen in the Australian mob that chases Bart and Homer to the American Embassy .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Bart vs. Australia " finished 56th in the ratings for the week of February 13 – 19 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 1 . It was the fourth highest rated show on Fox that week . The episode has since become study material for sociology courses at the University of California , where it is used to " examine issues of the production and reception of cultural objects , in this case , a satirical cartoon show " , and to figure out what it is " trying to tell audiences about aspects primarily of American society , and , to a lesser extent , about other societies . "
Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from fans and television critics . In a DVD review of the sixth season , Ryan Keefer said " all the Australian jabs you expect to have here are present . Bart 's international incident is hilarious , from top to bottom . The phone calls he makes to other countries ( particularly Buenos Aires ) are fantastic . This is one of the more under appreciated episodes in the series ' run . " Vanity Fair named it the second best episode of The Simpsons in 2007 . " Bart vs. Australia " was also nominated for an Emmy Award in 1995 in the category " Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or a Special " .
= = = Reaction in Australia = = =
The episode received mixed reception in Australia , with some Australian fans saying the episode was a mockery of their country . Shortly after it had aired , the Simpsons staff received over 100 letters from Australians who were insulted by the episode . They also received letters from people complaining about the Australian accents used in the episode that " sounded more like South African accents " . The Simpsons writer and producer Mike Reiss claimed that this episode is Australia 's least favorite , and that " whenever we have the Simpsons visit another country , that country gets furious , including Australia " . He claimed that they were " condemned in the Australian Parliament after the episode had aired " .
The Newcastle Herald 's James Joyce said he was shocked when he first saw the episode : " Who are the Americans trying to kid here ? I agree Australia has its faults , as does any other country . But laughing in our face about it , then mocking our heritage was definitely not called for . It embarrassed and degraded our country as well as making us look like total idiots " . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , advised that the episode is " best if watched with Australians who will be , perhaps understandably , aggrieved at their portrayal . After the attack on the French , this is a vicious , unkind , offensive and wonderfully amusing slaughter of Australian culture by the makers of The Simpsons " .
The Simpsons executive producer David Mirkin , who produced the episode , responded to the criticism in an interview with The Newcastle Herald by saying : " We like to have the Simpsons , the entire family , travel and this was the beginning of that . Australia was a fantastic choice because it has lots of quirky visual things . And it 's a country that is really very close to America , very in sync with America . We are so similar but yet there are all these fantastic differences , familiar yet twisted . It was intentional to make it very inaccurate . That was our evil side coming out : We 'll take our knowledge of Australia and we 'll twist it around to stimulate an audience and annoy them at the same time " . Despite being criticized for mocking the country , the episode received positive reviews from Australians , too . Jim Schembri of the Australian newspaper The Age named it the funniest episode ever while the CryptoNote was forked ( the ' knifey @-@ spooney ' fork ) into the ' Dollarydoo ' cryptocurrency in honour of the episode .
= Leslie Andrew =
Brigadier Leslie Wilton Andrew VC DSO ( 23 March 1897 – 8 January 1969 ) was a senior officer in the New Zealand Military Forces and a recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest award of the British Commonwealth for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " . He received the decoration for his actions during the Battle of Passchendaele in 1917 .
Born in 1897 , Andrew joined the New Zealand Expeditionary Force in 1915 , having gained military experience while serving with the Territorial Force . He served on the Western Front from September 1916 to early 1918 , and ended the war as a commissioned officer in England . He remained in the military after the cessation of hostilities , and joined the New Zealand Staff Corps . He held staff and administrative positions in New Zealand and , while on an officer exchange program , British India .
Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Andrew was appointed commander of the 22nd Battalion , which he led during the Battles of Greece , Crete and the early part of the North African Campaign . For a short period in late 1941 he commanded an infantry brigade of the 2nd New Zealand Division , and received the Distinguished Service Order for his leadership . He returned to New Zealand in 1942 and commanded the Wellington Fortress Area for the remainder of the war . He retired from the military in 1952 with the rank of brigadier , and died in 1969 aged 71 .
= = Early life = =
Leslie Andrew was born on 23 March 1897 in Ashhurst in the Manawatu region of New Zealand , the son of a local school headmaster . He grew up in Wanganui , where his father had moved his family having taken up a position in the area , and was educated at Wanganui Collegiate School . After leaving school he was employed by the New Zealand Railways Department as a clerk . He participated in the cadet program while at school , and later joined the Territorial Force . By 1915 , he had been promoted to sergeant and had sat the necessary exams to become a commissioned officer in the Territorials .
= = Military career = =
= = = First World War = = =
Andrew volunteered for the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) in October 1915 . Because only men between the ages of 19 and 45 were required to register for service with the NZEF , he falsified his age to ensure that he would be eligible for duty overseas . A member of the 12th Reinforcements , he embarked for the Western Front via Egypt on 1 May 1916 . In France , he was posted to B Company , Wellington Infantry Battalion with the rank of private .
Andrew 's arrival at the front coincided with the start of the Somme Offensive . He participated in the Battle of Flers @-@ Courcelette , which began on 15 September , and was wounded . Promoted to corporal in January 1917 , he took part in the Battle of Messines the following June .
During the early phase of the Battle of Passchendaele , Andrew 's battalion was engaged in fighting around the village of La Basseville , a few kilometres southwest of Messines . Originally captured by the New Zealanders prior to the battle on 26 July , the village had been re @-@ taken by the Germans the next day . Under cover of an artillery barrage , the Wellingtons began an advance towards the village . Andrew was tasked with leading two sections to destroy a machine @-@ gun post . During the advance , he noticed another machine @-@ gun post that was holding up the advance of another platoon . On his own initiative , he promptly diverted his force and removed the newly spotted threat with a flanking attack . He then continued with his men to his original objective . Braving continuous gunfire , he and his men captured the machine @-@ gun post . While most of his men withdrew with the gun , he and another man continued to scout further forward . Coming across another machine @-@ gun post , the two men destroyed it before returning to their lines with useful information on the increasing numbers of Germans in the area .
It was for his leadership and bravery during these actions that Andrew was awarded the Victoria Cross ( VC ) at the age of 20 . The citation read as follows :
For most conspicuous bravery when in charge of a small party in an attack on the enemy 's position . His objective was a machine @-@ gun post which had been located in an isolated building . On leading his men forward he encountered unexpectedly a machine @-@ gun post which was holding up the advance of another company ; he immediately attacked , capturing the machine gun and killing several of the crew . He then continued the attack on the machine gun post which had been his original objective . He displayed great skill and determination in his disposition , finally capturing the post , killing several of the enemy and putting the remainder to flight . Cpl. Andrew 's conduct throughout was unexampled for cool daring , initiative , and fine leadership , and his magnificent example was a great stimulant to his comrades .
Andrew was promoted to sergeant the day after his VC @-@ winning action . He continued to serve on the front until early 1918 , when he was sent to England for officer training . He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in March 1918 , but remained in England until the end of the war .
= = = Interwar period = = =
While in England , Andrew met Bessie Ball , of Nottingham , and they were married on 12 November 1918 . The couple had five children although one died in infancy . Upon discharge from the NZEF in August 1919 , he joined the New Zealand Staff Corps and served in a number of administrative positions for the next several years . From 1927 to 1929 he served with the Highland Light Infantry in British India on an officer exchange program . On his return to New Zealand he was appointed adjutant of the 1st Wellington Regiment . In 1937 , having been promoted to captain , he commanded the New Zealand contingent sent to London for the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth .
= = = Second World War = = =
Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Andrew was seconded to the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force . In early 1940 , he was appointed commander of 22nd Battalion , then forming at Trentham Military Camp near Wellington . He trained his new command hard , and quickly earned the nickname of February due to his habit of issuing 28 @-@ day detentions for any breaches in discipline .
The battalion embarked for England in May 1940 as part of 5th Infantry Brigade , 2nd New Zealand Division . Arriving in June , it spent the remainder of the year on garrison duties in the south of England . In March 1941 it travelled for Egypt and then onto Greece . Andrew led the battalion through the subsequent Battle of Greece , during which it saw little action , and the Battle of Crete .
In Crete , the battalion was tasked with the defence of Maleme airfield and the overlooking hill , Point 107 . Andrew was ordered to maintain control of his positions " at all costs " . Forced to disperse the companies of his battalion widely to cover his positions , he lost contact with most of his units after German paratroopers began landing in the area on 20 May . Failing to receive any support from his brigade commander following a request for assistance , and fearing most of his command overrun after a failed counterattack by his small reserve , he withdrew his remaining units . As it happened , most of his forward companies remained intact and were subsequently able to withdraw themselves after finding they had been abandoned . Andrew was criticised for his withdrawal , which led to the loss of Maleme airfield . This was a significant factor in allowing the German forces to become established on Crete . He and the surviving elements of his battalion were later evacuated from Crete .
Despite the setback of Crete , Andrew remained as commander of 22nd Battalion during the early phases of the North African Campaign . At one stage he was temporary commander of 5th Infantry Brigade when its nominal commander , Brigadier James Hargest , was captured in late November 1941 . Andrew was awarded with the Distinguished Service Order for his leadership of the brigade , which had to deal with repeated attacks by German forces in early December . He relinquished command of 22nd Battalion on 3 February 1942 , and returned to New Zealand . He was promoted to full colonel and commanded the Wellington Fortress Area for the rest of the war .
= = Later life = =
Andrew commanded the New Zealand contingent for the 1946 Victory Parade in London , and the following year attended the Imperial Defence College . He was promoted to brigadier in 1948 and appointed commander of the Central Military District . He remained in this capacity until his retirement from the military in 1952 . Andrew was later invited to run for Parliament but declined . He died on 8 January 1969 , aged 71 . He was buried with full military honours in a ceremony at Levin RSA Cemetery , in Levin .
= = Victoria Cross = =
Andrew 's VC was displayed at the QEII Army Memorial Museum , Waiouru , New Zealand . On 2 December 2007 it was one of nine Victoria Crosses that were among a hundred medals stolen from the museum . On 16 February 2008 , New Zealand Police announced all the medals had been recovered as a result of a NZ $ 300 @,@ 000 reward offered by Michael Ashcroft and Tom Sturgess .
= Rebbie Jackson =
Maureen Reillette " Rebbie " Brown ( née Jackson ; born May 29 , 1950 ) is an American singer professionally known as Rebbie Jackson / ˈriːbi ˈdʒæksən / . Born and raised in Gary , Indiana , she is the eldest child of the Jackson family of musicians . She first performed on stage with her siblings during shows in Las Vegas , Nevada , at the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino in 1974 , before subsequently appearing in the television series The Jacksons . Her sister La Toya was born on Jackson 's 6th birthday . At age 34 , Jackson released her debut album Centipede ( 1984 ) . The album featured songs written by Smokey Robinson , Prince , and Jackson 's younger brother Michael , whose contribution ( the title track " Centipede " ) became Rebbie 's most successful single release . By the end of the 1980s , the singer had released two more albums in quick succession : Reaction ( 1986 ) and R U Tuff Enuff ( 1988 ) .
Following a 10 @-@ year hiatus in her musical career , Jackson returned with the 1998 album Yours Faithfully . The production of the album , her last to date , was a collaboration with artists and producers such as Men of Vizion 's Spanky Williams , Keith Thomas , and Eliot Kennedy . It also featured contributions from her children . In 2011 , Rebbie embarked on the " Pick Up the Phone Tour , " which is dedicated to teens who have committed suicide all over the U.S.
= = Life and career = =
= = = Childhood and youth = = =
Maureen Reillette " Rebbie " Jackson was born in Gary , Indiana , to a working @-@ class family on May 29 , 1950 . The daughter of Joseph Walter " Joe " and Katherine Esther ( née Scruse ) , she is the eldest of their ten children . Her siblings are Jackie , Tito , Jermaine , La Toya , Brandon ( d . March 12 , 1957 ) , Marlon , Michael ( d . June 25 , 2009 ) , Randy , and Janet . Joseph was a steel mill employee who often performed in a rhythm and blues ( R & B ) band called The Falcons with his brother , Luther . His wife , Katherine , is a Jehovah 's Witness and raised her children to follow the religion . Rebbie , La Toya , and Michael became the most devout of the children as time progressed . Reflecting on her early life , Rebbie acknowledged in a 1980s magazine interview that her role within the family had been that of a " second mother " to her younger siblings , whom she would often babysit . She also Graduated from Theodore Roosevelt High school in Gary IN in 1968
= = = Marriage = = =
18 @-@ year @-@ old Rebbie 's announcement that she wanted to marry her childhood love , Nathaniel Brown , in May 1968 created a division in the Jackson family . Jackson expressed her feelings for the man and proclaimed that she wanted to move with him to Kentucky . Katherine encouraged her daughter to proceed with the union ; she felt that being a wife and mother were important roles for all of her daughters to play . Joseph , however , was against the marriage ; he wanted Rebbie to follow in the footsteps of her brothers ( The Jackson 5 ) and become a singer . Her father felt that married life would stop her from becoming a success in the entertainment business . Though Rebbie had taken clarinet , piano and dance lessons in her childhood , she had no interest in a music career . This was despite the fact that according to brother Jermaine she had won several singing contests , duetting with brother Jackie . The teenager thought a happy home was more comforting and secure than the instability of show business . She also wanted to leave her family 's drama @-@ filled home on Jackson Street as well as get away from her controlling father . Arguments ensued for several weeks before her father relented and allowed Rebbie to wed Brown . Having the last word on the matter , Joseph refused to walk his daughter down the aisle .
Brown and Jackson have three children ; daughters , Stacee ( born May 5 , 1971 ) and Yashi ( born October 5 , 1977 ) and son , Austin ( born November 22 , 1985 ) . Jackson 's husband , Nathaniel Brown , died of cancer on January 6 , 2013 . Rebbie has one grandson , London Blue Salas ( born July 25 , 2005 ) , from Stacee .
= = = Early career = = =
Jackson began her singing career in 1974 , performing with her siblings in Las Vegas . The Vegas shows had initially begun in April , without Rebbie ; due to a sprained ankle , Rebbie 's debut was postponed until June . Her five brothers were the main draws , with herself , Randy , Janet , and La Toya serving as fillers for the performances .
When The Jackson 5 parted with their record label Motown in 1976 , they signed to CBS Records and rebranded themselves as The Jacksons . Additionally , the brothers were signed to CBS @-@ TV to star with their family in a variety series called The Jacksons . The shows premiered in June 1976 , and featured all of the siblings excluding Jermaine , who had chosen to stay with Motown . The initial series run of the 30 @-@ minute programs was four weeks . Due to ratings success , more episodes were ordered in January 1977 . The shows marked the first time that an African @-@ American family had ever starred in a television series . The run of programs concluded shortly afterward .
Prior to the series , Jackson had thought of her singing as merely a private hobby . The Jacksons — as well as an early love of musicals — motivated her to become a professional recording artist , and the show 's producer encouraged her to sing . Jackson served as a backing vocalist for several musicians around this time , as well as a cabaret singer . She contributed her voice for songs by artists such as The Emotions , Sonny Bono and Betty Wright before Jackson 's second pregnancy stalled her musical career for a short time .
= = = Centipede = = =
Following years of preparation , Jackson 's debut album Centipede was distributed in October 1984 by CBS Records , who had signed her as a solo artist two years previously . The album was only released once the singer had ensured that family life was secure and that she had spent time with her children during their important younger years . Centipede became a moderate chart success , reaching number 13 on Billboard 's Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart and number 63 on its Top 200 . The recording of the album had been a family affair ; it involved several contributions from her relatives . Her husband Nathaniel Brown co @-@ wrote the song " Come Alive Saturday Night " with two of his wife 's brothers : Randy and Tito . The latter Jackson also penned " Hey Boy " with his wife Dee Dee . The most successful song from the album was the million @-@ selling title track , " Centipede " . Written , arranged and produced by Michael , the song also featured Jackson 's famous brother on backing vocals . It reached number 4 on the Black Singles Chart and was subsequently certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America . " Centipede " marked Michael 's first effort at writing and producing since the release of his successful Thriller ( 1982 ) .
Other tracks from Rebbie 's album included cover versions of songs by Prince ( " I Feel for You " ) and Smokey Robinson and the Miracles ( " A Fork in the Road " ) . The album received mixed reviews from journalists and music critics . According to the magazine Jet , Centipede marked Jackson 's emergence as a " legitimate recording artist " and " cleared the major hurdle of demonstrating that she [ was ] talented and marketable " . With the album , Jackson became the last of her siblings to embark on a recording career and the last in line to release hit material .
Rebbie later revealed that there was a lot of discussion at the time of the release of Centipede over whether she should use the Jackson surname professionally or not . To begin with Rebbie did not want to use her pre @-@ marriage surname , but later reasoned that it was silly to deny her heritage . Jackson explained that she did , however , compromise with the use of her family name on the Centipede album cover - " Rebbie is large and Jackson is small " . She further stated that the success of siblings Michael and Janet had not been a hindrance to her , but served as an enhancement to her career . Rebbie added that she did not have to worry about " name recognition " .
= = = Reaction and R U Tuff Enuff = = =
Reaction served as a follow @-@ up album to Centipede , and was released in October 1986 . The album was recorded at Tito 's Ponderosa Studios in Los Angeles , California . Her brother Tito produced Reaction along with David Conley and David Townsend of the R & B group Surface . Duets were featured on the album , including one with Cheap Trick lead singer Robin Zander and another with Isaac Hayes . The Zander @-@ Jackson collaboration ( " You Send the Rain Away " ) was released as a single , and peaked at number 50 on the R & B singles chart . Jackson 's duet with Hayes , the ballad " Tonight I 'm Yours " , was not released as a single , though received substantial airplay . Reaction 's title track ( " Reaction " ) was the most popular hit from the album , reaching number 16 on the R & B singles chart .
The R U Tuff Enuff album succeeded Reaction upon its release in July 1988 . Jackson was more involved with the production of the album than she had been on her previous releases . She stated at the time of R U Tuff Enuff 's distribution that the sound on the album differed from anything she had done previously . Jackson commented that the album was " more versatile " , while noting that it resembled other albums because it had a lot of dance music . Two singles were released from the album and charted on the R & B singles chart : " Plaything " , which made it into the top 10 , and the title track " R U Tuff Enuff " , which peaked at number 78 . By mid @-@ June 1988 , R U Tuff Enuff had reportedly sold 300 @,@ 000 copies . MTV later concluded that the album " struggled " . Jackson would lend her vocals to " 2300 Jackson Street " ( the title track of her brothers ' 2300 Jackson Street album ) , before taking a hiatus from releasing music . Jackson later stated that she performed around the world during this hiatus .
= = = Yours Faithfully = = =
Following a 10 @-@ year break from music , Jackson signed with her brother Michael 's record label , MJJ Music , in 1997 . From the label , Yours Faithfully was released on March 31 , 1998 . The album featured a remixed version of Jackson 's successful " Centipede " . Initially , the singer had not wanted to feature the track , believing that it was part of the past . After thinking about it for a while , Jackson felt that the inclusion of the remix — which features a rap by son Austin — would be a good way to return to the music scene . In addition , two of her other children , Stacee and Yashi , contributed backing vocals for the album . Other tracks from the album included " Fly Away " , which was written and produced by brother Michael , who also served as co @-@ executive producer for Yours Faithfully . Fellow producers included Keith Thomas and Eliot Kennedy . The album also featured a duet with Men of Vizion 's Spanky Williams on The Spinners ' " I Don 't Want to Lose You " , which Jet described as being a " sizzling " rendition . Yours Faithfully 's title track was released as a single and peaked at number 76 on the R & B chart . Vibe magazine 's Quohnos Mitchell expressed disappointment in the album , labelling its content a " mix of dated R & B grooves dressed up with a few cleverly placed samples " .
= = = Death of Michael Jackson = = =
Rebbie 's brother Michael died on June 25 , 2009 , after suffering a cardiac arrest . His memorial service was held twelve days later on July 7 , and the finale featured group renditions of the Jackson anthems " We Are the World " and " Heal the World " . The singalong featured Michael 's siblings ( including Rebbie ) and the late singer 's children . Following the service — which was held at Los Angeles ' Staples Center — Rebbie , along with sisters Janet and La Toya , addressed fans at the nearby L.A. Live entertainment complex . " We are extremely grateful for all the support . We love you all . " In the weeks following Michael 's death , it was speculated by media sources that Rebbie would be the primary caregiver for her late brother 's children : Prince , Paris and Blanket . It was stated that even if Michael and Rebbie 's mother Katherine were granted custody of the children , Rebbie would care for the siblings on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis at the Jackson family 's Encino home . Katherine was named the legal guardian of them in August 2009 after the death of Michael Jackson . In early 2011 , Rebbie announced she 's begun recording for a new album , her first in 14 years . She 's also been performing throughout the states with a set list that contains her best known songs , some of her brothers ' songs , and some Motown classics .
= = = Voice Type = = =
Rebbie Jackson is a contralto with a 3 octave range . She has an impressive belting range , belting up to F # 5 in her song " Reaction . "
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= Hugh Foliot =
Hugh Foliot ( c . 1155 – 1234 ) was a medieval Bishop of Hereford . Related somehow to his predecessor at Hereford , he served as a priest and papal judge as well as being an unsuccessful candidate as Bishop of St David 's in Wales . In 1219 , he was appointed Bishop of Hereford . During his time in office , he mostly attended to ecclesiastical duties , but did occasionally serve as a royal administrator . He helped found a hospital and a priory , and died in 1234 after a months @-@ long illness .
= = Early life = =
Foliot possibly was the son of Roger Foliot and his wife Rohese . Roger held three knight 's fees in Northamptonshire . Probably born sometime between 1150 and 1160 , Hugh was related in some manner to Robert Foliot , his predecessor at Hereford . He was a canon of Hereford Cathedral before becoming Archdeacon of Shropshire by May 1186 . Foliot is a frequent witness on charters as archdeacon , but little else is known of his tenure of the office . From 1212 to 1219 , he served as a papal judge @-@ delegate three times . In 1215 he was also King John 's candidate for the see of St David 's in Wales , but was not elected .
After Foliot 's failed candidacy as bishop , in February 1216 John appointed him to the benefice of Colwall in Herefordshire , the king having the ability to make the appointment because Giles de Braose , the Bishop of Hereford , who would normally have made the appointment , had recently died . Also from this time comes Foliot 's patronage of Robert Grosseteste , the theologian and future Bishop of Lincoln .
= = Bishop = =
Foliot had been one of three members of the cathedral chapter from Hereford sent to King Henry III 's court to secure permission for the chapter to hold an election in 1219 Foliot was elected to the see of Hereford in June 1219 and consecrated on 27 October 1219 along with William de Goldcliff , the Bishop of Llandaff , at Canterbury .
The new bishop accompanied Peter des Roches , the Bishop of Winchester , on a pilgrimage in 1221 . Because des Roches travelled to Spain to the shrine of St James at Compostela , and it is known that Foliot accompanied him , the statement by a medieval chronicler from Dunstable that Foliot 's destination was not certain , being either Rome or Compostela , should be discounted .
Foliot spent most of his tenure of office in his diocese , only rarely attending the royal court or being assigned governmental duties . On 30 December 1223 , Foliot assumed one of those duties , when he took custody of Hereford Castle after it was surrendered by Hubert de Burgh , during the redistribution of royal castles when de Burgh ousted des Roches from power . He also was appointed to determine the size of the royal forest in Gloucestershire . Foliot also founded a hospital in Ledbury , devoted to St Katherine . He helped found Alberbury Priory , a house of the Grandmontine order . In his cathedral , he reorganised the benefices and offices of the chapter , as well as endowing further benefices .
Foliot died 7 August 1234 , after an illness that began in the spring . He was buried in Hereford Cathedral , where his tomb survives . Foliot appointed his younger brother Thomas to offices in the diocese , first as precentor in the 1220s and then around 1230 as treasurer of the cathedral chapter .
= AIL Storm =
The AIL Storm ( Hebrew : סופה , Sufa ) is an Israeli manufactured off @-@ road vehicle and the workhorse of the Israeli Security Forces . The series of Jeep Wrangler based vehicles have been produced by Automotive Industries Ltd. in Upper Nazareth under licence from Chrysler since 1990 . The vehicles fill a number of military roles , including that of armoured Infantry Mobility Vehicle , and certain models are available for export as well as for the civilian market .
Production of an updated four @-@ door second generation model commenced in 2006 despite some mixed messages from the Storm 's primary customer , the Israel Defense Forces . Development of a third generation vehicle based on the new Jeep Wrangler JK has been completed and significant production for both Israeli and foreign customers is under way .
= = Storm I = =
The M @-@ 240 Storm MultiMission Vehicle is the first of three Storm generations . A variant of the 1991 Jeep Wrangler YJ and the older CJ @-@ 6 / CJ @-@ 8 wheelbase , it is entirely produced in Israel by Automotive Industries Ltd. with the exception of the engines , as their manufacture is not economically viable on the Storm 's market scale .
The Storm was primarily meant to satisfy Israeli military needs , but capable long and short versions are produced for the local civilian market . Like the Jeep , it has a conventional front @-@ engine design with a driver and passenger seated behind the engine , and room for cargo or passengers behind them . It is powered by an AMC 3 @.@ 983 litre 6 @-@ cylinder in @-@ line petrol with fuel injection developing 180 hp ( 130 kW ) at 4 @,@ 700 rpm , fitted with Vortox 2 @-@ stage air cleaner or a Volkswagen 2 @.@ 5 litre 4 @-@ cylinder turbocharged diesel developing 88 kilowatts ( 118 hp ) at 4 @,@ 200 rpm . The front axle is fully floating and the rear axle is semi @-@ floating , while a reinforced frame and body as well as good angles of approach and departure ( 40 ° and 37 ° for short frame , 40 ° and 26 @.@ 5 ° for long frame ) add to the Storm 's off @-@ roading capability .
The two production frame lengths , 4 @.@ 15 ( 13 @.@ 6 ) and 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 14 @.@ 8 ft ) , the latter of which was among the few such Jeep @-@ derivatives in production in recent years , were both available in civilian and military models . Aside from the Israeli market , Storms have long been exported to countries in South America , Asia , and Africa . A Jeep @-@ managed production line in Egypt , whose vehicles are used by the Egyptian armed forces , was absorbed into the AIL Storm production after it closed in 1995 .
= = = Security versions = = =
Like its parent Jeep Wrangler , the Storm is first and foremost an airmobile , capable offroad and utility vehicle meant to tackle extreme terrain in a general reconnaissance role , and can be outfitted with a machine gun or other weapons systems . When armed with a 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) M40 recoilless rifle , the vehicle is uniquely capable of firing directly over its blast guard equipped hood rather than in the perpendicular position required by most other vehicles .
A variant of the extended version used in desert border patrol makes use of a high @-@ ceilinged canopy to allow a swivelling rear @-@ facing heavy machine @-@ gun mount , while the canopy can be extended to provide a mobile command post . An air conditioned hardtop version of the extended model is often used by officers , and a version developed for riot control has clear polycarbonate shielding along the rear sides and roof , as well as gunports for less @-@ lethal weapons . The shielding allows for a wide field of view while at the same time protecting against firebombs and rock @-@ throwing .
= = = Armoured version = = =
As with several analogous light military vehicles , despite being originally designed to fill a light reconnaissance role , the rise of urban warfare and close quarters combat meant that the Israel Defense Forces had to recast the Storm in new roles .
When the need for a light armoured vehicle became apparent to the Israeli security forces , AIL 's engineering department designed a vehicle protection system from the bottom up , integrating it into the existing vehicle in a manner that did not compromise its off @-@ road and other capabilities , and that did not create the mechanical strain and increase in maintenance often associated with up @-@ armouring , in part due to its computerized 180 horsepower ( 130 kW ) injected engine .
The armour protects against 7 @.@ 62 × 39mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) armour @-@ piercing ammunition , and maintains a high protection @-@ to @-@ weight and cost ratio by employing IDF approved advanced materials . The protected Israeli configuration 's gross vehicle weight is 3 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 6 @,@ 614 lb ) , though several varying protection levels are in use with individual units .
Another important asset are the Storm 's narrow dimensions , which allow it to traverse the narrow alleyways common to the casbahs of many Middle Eastern cities , places that armoured Humvees can only enter with great difficulty and minimal manoeuvrability , if at all . Full @-@ height rear doors which allow for the quick deployment of fully equipped troops into combat are touted as another advantage over similar vehicles .
= = = Civilian use = = =
First generation Storms were made available to the general public in Israel from 1992 to 2001 . A small number were purchased directly by private consumers , while larger numbers were acquired second @-@ hand from Israeli government @-@ owned firms like the Israel Electric Company and Mekorot water company , as well as National Parks Authority and Israel Police . Modified Storms are popular with off @-@ roading enthusiasts in Israel .
= = Storm II = =
Beginning in 2006 , AIL began delivery of an improved model to the IDF , the M @-@ 242 Storm Mark II , known in the field as the " Storm Commander " . A number of significant changes have been incorporated into the new TJ @-@ based Storms stemming from soldiers ' feedback , updated operational requirements , and testing by GOC Army Headquarters and Logistics , Medical , and the Centers Directorate . Perhaps the most obvious change is the addition of dual passenger doors , making the Storm II the first five @-@ door Jeep Wrangler derivative .
Other improvements include the change to a manual transmission with six forward speeds ( instead of the previous four ) , and increased stability resulting from wider track axles than its predecessor . Leaf springs were replaced with modern coil spring suspension front and rear , and the Storm II features rear Dana 44 axles and front TJ Dana 30s , factory designed slip yoke eliminators , and the added safety of standard airbags . Soldiers ' comfort was addressed as well with the addition of standard rear air conditioning and a compact disc player .
Storm II is also produced in an armoured version , and is offered with an optional 2 @.@ 8 litre VM Motori turbodiesel , automatic transmission , right hand drive , and run @-@ flat tyres . AIL is capable of completing ten vehicles daily . Due to recently passed tax laws , a civilian version is not yet available in the local market .
= = = MDT David controversy = = =
Developed in the 2000s at an investment of US $ 2 million after IDF commitments for 1 @,@ 200 units , some AIL jobs were believed to be in jeopardy following a mid @-@ 2005 announcement that the IDF would purchase 100 US sold Land Rover Defender @-@ based MDT David . The announcement provoked threats of protests from AIL 's management and labourers , who had recently faced the blow of local Humvee assembly ceasing due to budget considerations . The MDT David was chosen over the armoured version of the Storm because the heavy Storm was said to suffer from handling and reliability problems , safety hazards and limited mission operability . However the IDF said that the purchase of the David was to fill a temporary gap in production until the Storm II 's testing was completed , and has since begun filling its commitment .
= = Storm III = =
A Storm Mark III was set to be produced for the Israeli defense forces starting in June 2008 , when the IDF was to purchase around 600 vehicles beginning in early 2011 . Based on the then new four @-@ door Jeep Wrangler JK design , the Mark III is meant to address some of the shortfalls of the earlier Mark II . Whereas the previous vehicle was an update of the original TK Storm , the Storm III was designed from the outset with a five @-@ door configuration . Unlike the TJ @-@ L , the new JK Storm has a much higher maximum load capacity in part due to heavier @-@ duty shock absorbers , springs and axles , necessary for an armored version . It includes a standard 2.8L VM Motori turbodiesel and automatic transmission .
Like the Storm II , the Mark III was initially available only to the military with versions set to be delivered to the Israel Police in 2009 . A civilian version would only be released if the local tax code was modified to allow it to compete with foreign imports of the same class . AIL states that if such a thing would happen , a petrol engine version could be offered . Regarding Export markets , the Storm 3 has already seen use in several countries , especially in its armored version .
A pair of production J8 's was tested by Israeli web magazine Jeepolog.com journalists in April 2009 . It was dubbed " probably , the best Jeep ever " .
= = = Commander version = = =
The commander version incorporates a 5 @-@ door hard top cab allowing for the quick and convenient entrance and exit of the driver and all passengers or troops . A large rear compartment enables the storage of both cargo and communications equipment .
This version comes equipped with an air conditioning system providing maximum comfort in hot climatic conditions . A roll over protection structure ( ROPS ) maximizes safety conditions for passengers .
= = = Armored version = = =
The armored version of the Storm 3 , designed for protection against light weapon threats , incorporates a heavy duty transfer case and a specially designed suspension system which includes heavy duty springs ( front - coil , rear - leaf ) and shock absorbers , together with rigid heavy duty axles allowing for a smooth and safe ride on both rough terrain as well as regular highways .
= = = Reconnaissance & Patrol version = = =
The Storm 3 reconnaissance and patrol model allows for extra stowage of fuel , water and equipment . This version is especially suited to be fitted with various machine gun or special equipment mountings .
= 1940 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1940 Atlantic hurricane season was a generally average period of tropical cyclogenesis in 1940 . Though the season had no official bounds , most tropical cyclone activity occurred during August and September . Throughout the year , fourteen tropical cyclones formed , of which nine reached tropical storm intensity ; six were hurricanes . None of the hurricanes reached major hurricane intensity . Tropical cyclones that did not approach populated areas or shipping lanes , especially if they were relatively weak and of short duration , may have remained undetected . Because technologies such as satellite monitoring were not available until the 1960s , historical data on tropical cyclones from this period are often not reliable . As a result of a reanalysis project which analyzed the season in 2012 , an additional hurricane was added to HURDAT . The year 's first tropical storm formed on May 19 off the northern coast of Hispaniola . At the time , this was a rare occurrence , as only four other tropical disturbances were known to have formed prior during this period ; since then , reanalysis of previous seasons has concluded that there were more than four tropical cyclones in May before 1940 . The season 's final system was a tropical disturbance situated in the Greater Antilles , which dissipated on November 8 .
All three hurricanes in August brought flooding rainfall to areas of the United States . The first became the wettest tropical cyclone recorded in Louisiana history . The second hurricane impacted regions of the Southeastern United States , producing record precipitation and killing at least 52 people . Despite not making landfall , the third hurricane in August interacted with a stationary front over the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , resulting in localized flooding and thus making the tropical cyclone the wettest in New Jersey history . This hurricane would also be the strongest in the hurricane season , with maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 961 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 39 inHg ) , making it a high @-@ end Category 2 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Activity decreased in September , though a damaging hurricane
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swept through areas of the Canadian Maritimes , resulting in large crop and infrastructural losses . Two tropical cyclones of at least tropical storm strength were recorded in October , though neither resulted in fatalities . Collectively , storms in the hurricane season caused 71 fatalities and $ 29 @.@ 329 million in damages . The 1940 South Carolina hurricane , which swept through areas of the Southeastern United States in August , was the most damaging and deadly of the tropical cyclones .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
On May 18 , a weak low @-@ pressure area was detected south of Hispaniola . Moving northward , the low became sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical storm at 1200 UTC on May 19 , southeast of Turks Island . At the time , ship observations indicated that the disturbance had a well @-@ defined cyclonic circulation , with the strongest winds situated in the northern semicircle of the cyclone . Continuing northward , the tropical storm gradually intensified and attained maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) by 0000 UTC on May 22 . The Belgian ship M.S. Lubrafol recorded a peripheral barometric pressure of 996 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 42 inHg ) ; this was the lowest pressure measured in connection with the storm . The following day , the tropical storm temporarily curved towards the east @-@ southeast before recurving back towards a northeast direction . At the same time , the storm expanded in size and began to transition into an extratropical cyclone . By 1200 UTC , the cyclone completed its extratropical transition , due to the entrainment of colder air . The remnant system persisted until 0600 UTC on May 27 .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
On August 3 , an extratropical cyclone developed into a tropical depression off the west coast of Florida . Initially a weak disturbance , it moved generally westward , slowly gaining in intensity . Early on August 4 , the depression attained tropical storm intensity . Ships in the vicinity of the storm reported a much stronger tropical cyclone than initially suggested . After reaching hurricane strength on August 5 south of the Mississippi River Delta , the storm strengthened further into a modern @-@ day Category 2 hurricane , with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph and a minimum barometric pressure of 972 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 71 inHg ) at 0600 UTC on August 7 . The hurricane moved ashore near Sabine Pass , Texas later that day at peak strength . Once inland , the storm executed a sharp curve to the north and quickly weakened , degenerating into a tropical storm on August 8 before dissipating over Arkansas on August 10 .
Reports of a potentially destructive hurricane near the United States Gulf Coast forced thousands of residents in low @-@ lying areas to evacuate prior to the storm moving inland . Offshore , the hurricane generated rough seas and a strong storm surge , peaking at 6 @.@ 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 95 m ) on the western edge of Lake Pontchartrain . The anomalously high tides flooded many of Louisiana 's outlying islands , inundating resorts . Strong winds caused moderate infrastructural damage , primarily in Texas , though its impact was mainly to communication networks along the U.S. Gulf Coast which were disrupted by the winds . However , much of the property and crop damage wrought by the hurricane was due to the torrential rainfall it produced in low @-@ lying areas , setting off record floods . Rainfall peaked at 37 @.@ 5 in ( 953 mm ) in Miller Island off Louisiana , making it the wettest tropical cyclone in state history . Nineteen official weather stations in both Texas and Louisiana observed record 24 @-@ hour rainfall totals for the month of August as a result of the slow @-@ moving hurricane . Property , livestock , and crops – especially cotton , corn , and pecan crops – were heavily damaged . Entire ecosystems were also altered by the rainfall . Overall , the storm caused $ 10 @.@ 75 million in damages and seven fatalities .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
A storm of potentially Cape Verde origin was detected in the Virgin Islands at 1800 UTC on August 5 . Initially moving westward , the tropical storm gradually gained in intensity before making a sharp curve towards the north on August 8 . The storm continued in a northerly motion before a second curvature brought it in a generally westward direction on August 9 . Shortly after , the tropical storm reached hurricane intensity as a modern @-@ day Category 1 hurricane . The hurricane eventually made landfall at peak intensity on Hilton Head Island , South Carolina at 2030 UTC on September 21 . At the time , the storm had maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 972 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 71 inHg ) , equivalent to a modern @-@ day Category 2 hurricane . Once inland , the tropical cyclone gradually weakened , and recurved northeastward before dissipating over the Appalachian Mountains on August 14 .
The hurricane dropped torrential rainfall over the Southeast United States , causing unprecedented devastation in the region . The storm was considered the worst to impact in the region in at least 29 years . Precipitation peaked at 20 @.@ 65 in ( 525 mm ) in Idlewild , North Carolina . The heavy rainfall caused streams to greatly exceed their respective flood stages , damaging waterfront property . Many of the deaths occurred in North Carolina , where 30 people died . Transportation was disrupted as a result of the debris scattered by the wind and rain . In Caldwell County alone , 90 percent of bridges were swept away . Overall , the storm caused 50 fatalities and $ 13 million in damages .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
On August 26 , a low @-@ pressure area in the open Atlantic Ocean became sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical cyclone . Moving slowly in a general west @-@ northwest motion , the disturbance intensified , reaching tropical storm strength on August 28 and subsequently hurricane intensity on August 30 . The hurricane passed within 85 mi ( 135 km ) of Cape Hatteras before recurving towards the northeast . However , the hurricane continued to intensify , and reached peak intensity as a modern @-@ day Category 2 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 961 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 38 inHg ) , though these statistical peaks were achieved at different times on September 2 . Afterwards , the tropical cyclone began a weakening trend as it proceeded northward , and had degenerated into a tropical storm by the time it made its first landfall on Nova Scotia later that day . The storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone the next day while making another landfall on New Brunswick . The extratropical remnants persisted into Quebec before merging with a larger extratropical system late on September 3 .
Despite not making landfall on the United States , the hurricane caused widespread damage . Extensive precautionary measures were undertaken across the coast , particularly in New England . The heightened precautions were due in part to fears that effects from the storm would be similar to that of a devastating hurricane which struck the region two years prior . Most of the damage associated with the hurricane occurred in New Jersey , where the combination of moisture from the hurricane and a stationary front produced record rainfall , peaking at 24 in ( 610 mm ) in the town of Ewan . This would make the storm the wettest in state history . The resultant floods damaged infrastructure , mostly to road networks . Damage in the state amounted to $ 4 million . Further north in New England , strong winds were reported , though damage remained minimal . Although the storm made two landfalls in Atlantic Canada , damage too was minimal , and was limited to several boating incidents caused by strong waves . Overall , the hurricane caused $ 4 @.@ 05 million in damage , primarily due to flooding in New Jersey , and seven fatalities .
= = = Hurricane Five = = =
A tropical depression was first detected east of the Lesser Antilles on September 7 , though at the time weather observations in the area were sparse . The disturbance gradually intensified throughout much of its early formative stages , attaining tropical storm strength on September 10 ; further strengthening into a hurricane north of Puerto Rico occurred two days later . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane recurved northward , and reached peak intensity the following day as a modern @-@ day Category 2 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of at least 988 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 18 inHg ) . The cyclone steadily weakened thereafter before making landfall on Nova Scotia on September 17 with winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . Moving into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence later that day , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The remnant system curved eastward and passed over Newfoundland before dissipating over the Atlantic on September 19 .
While off of the United States East Coast , the hurricane caused numerous shipping incidents , most notably the stranding of the Swedish freighter Laponia off of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina on September 16 . Two other boat incidents resulted in two deaths . The hurricane also brought strong winds of tropical storm @-@ force and snow over areas of New England . In Atlantic Canada , a strong storm surge peaking at 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) above average sunk or damaged several ships and inundated cities . In New Brunswick , the waves hurt the lobster fishing industry . In Nova Scotia , strong winds disrupted telecommunication and power services . The winds also severely damaged crops . Roughly half of apple production in Annapolis Valley was lost during the storm , resulting in around $ 1 @.@ 49 million in economic losses . Strong winds in New Brunswick caused moderate to severe infrastructural damage , and additional damages to crops occurred there . Overall , the hurricane caused three fatalities , with two off of the United States and one in New Brunswick .
= = = Tropical Storm Six = = =
A westward moving tropical depression developed in the southwestern Caribbean Sea just west of Bluefields , Nicaragua at 1200 UTC on September 18 . The following day , the depression intensified into a tropical storm at 0600 UTC . The tropical storm made landfall on the Mosquito Coast of Nicaragua at 1400 UTC , with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . The cyclone weakened to a tropical depression over land , but reintensified back to tropical storm strength upon entry into the Gulf of Honduras on September 20 . The cyclone 's northwest motion caused it to make a second landfall near the border of Mexico and British Honduras at 0300 UTC on September 21 as a slightly stronger system with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) ; this would be the storm 's peak intensity . Over the Yucatán Peninsula , the tropical storm re @-@ weakened , but later intensified once again once it reached the Gulf of Mexico . In the Gulf , the storm made a gradual curve northward , before making a final landfall near Lafayette , Louisiana at 0900 UTC on September 24 with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1002 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 59 inHg ) . Once inland , the tropical cyclone curved eastward and weakened before dissipating the next day , after becoming absorbed by a frontal boundary .
Upon making landfall , the tropical storm produced strong winds over a wide area . The strongest winds were reported by a station in San Antonio , Texas , which reported 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) winds , far removed from the storm 's center ; these strong winds were likely due to squalls . Heavy rainfall was also reported , though the rains mainly occurred to the east of the passing tropical cyclone . Precipitation peaked at 10 in ( 254 mm ) in Ville Platte , Louisiana . The tropical storm produced three tornadoes over the Southern United States which collecitvely caused $ 39 @,@ 000 in damage and caused two fatalities . Two of the tornadoes formed in Mississippi while one formed in Louisiana . Several other people were also injured by the tornadoes .
= = = Hurricane Seven = = =
In late September , a tropical wave persisted in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean . The low @-@ pressure area later became sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical storm at 0000 UTC on September 22 . The disturbance quickly organized after tropical cyclogenesis , and reached a strength equivalent to a modern @-@ day Category 1 hurricane strength at 1800 UTC later that day . The American steamship Otho encountered the system that day , and reported gale force winds in conjunction with a peripheral barometric pressure of 996 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 42 inHg ) . The tropical cyclone continued to the east @-@ northeast , where it gradually intensified . At 1200 UTC on September 23 , the hurricane attained modern @-@ day Category 2 hurricane intensity with winds of 100 mbar ( 155 km / h ) ; a peak which would be maintained for at least the following 12 hours . A second steamship , the Lobito , reported hurricane @-@ force winds along with a minimum pressure of 977 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 85 inHg ) ; this would be the lowest pressure measured associated with the tropical cyclone . After reaching peak intensity , the hurricane began a weakening trend , and degenerated to a Category 1 hurricane at 0600 UTC as it passed over the Azores . The following day , the hurricane recurved westward , where it weakened before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on September 28 . This remnant system subsequently dissipated .
As the hurricane passed over the Azores , several weather stations reported low barometric pressures , with the lowest being a measurement of 984 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 06 inHg ) on Terceira Island at 0600 UTC on September 25 . As a result of the impending storm , several Pan Am Clipper flights to the archipelago were suspended for three consecutive days . The maximum reported gust in the Azores was an observation of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) on September 25 . As a result of moving slowly over the islands , torrential rainfall was also reported . At Angra do Heroísmo , 13 @.@ 11 in ( 333 mm ) of precipitation was reported in a four @-@ day , accounting for a third of the station 's yearly average rainfall . Strong storm surge was reported at the same location . The waves swept boats away from the coasts of islands . Further inland , there was extensive damage to homes and crops , though no people died . Despite evidence that the system had distinct tropical characteristics , it was not operationally added to HURDAT .
= = = Hurricane Eight = = =
On October 19 , a low @-@ pressure area moved into the southwestern Caribbean Sea . The area of disturbed weather quickly became well @-@ organized , and was analyzed to have become a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on October 20 . Initially , the tropical cyclone moved very slowly towards the west and then the northwest . Shortly after formation , the disturbance intensified into a tropical storm at 1800 UTC later that day . The S.S. Cristobal provided the first indications of a tropical cyclone in the region , after reporting strong gusts and low pressures north of the Panama Canal Zone during that evening . Continuing to intensify , the storm reached hurricane intensity at 0600 UTC on October 22 . Several vessels in the storm 's vicinity reported strong gusts and rough seas generated by the storm . Later that day at 1200 UTC , the ship S.S. Castilla reported a minimum pressure of 983 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 03 inHg ) near the periphery of the storm . Based on this observation , the hurricane was estimated to have reached intensity at the same time with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . The hurricane subsequently curved west and then southwest , before making its only landfall in northern Nicaragua at 1900 UTC on October 23 at peak intensity . Once inland , the tropical cyclone rapidly weakened over mountainous terrain , and dissipated at 1200 UTC the following day . Reports of damage were limited , though a report stated that considerable damage had occurred where the hurricane made landfall .
= = = Tropical Storm Nine = = =
On October 23 , an open trough was centered north of Hispaniola near the Turks and Caicos islands . At 0000 UTC the following day , the area of disturbed weather became organized and was analyzed to have become a tropical storm southeast of Inagua , based on nearby vessel reports . Initially , the storm drifted northward , but later began to accelerate towards the northeast after a roughly 12 @-@ hour period . At 0600 UTC on September 25 , the disturbance slightly gained in intensity to attain maximum wind speeds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) ; these would be the strongest winds associated with the storm as a fully tropical cyclone . A reanalysis of the system indicated that due to a lack of definite tropical features , the storm may have had been a subtropical cyclone . On October 26 , the system became increasingly asymmetric and had developed frontal boundaries , allowing for it to be classified as an extratropical cyclone at 0600 UTC that day . Once transitioning into an extratropical system , the storm continued to intensified as it moved northward . On October 27 , the system was analyzed to have a minimum pressure of at least 985 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 09 inHg ) after passing to the southeast of Bermuda . At 1200 UTC later that day , the cyclone reached an extratropical peak intensity with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) just east of Newfoundland . Had the storm been tropical at the time , it would have been classified as a modern @-@ day Category 1 hurricane . Subsequently , the extratropical storm curved eastward , where it persisted before dissipating by 1800 UTC on September 29 .
= = = Tropical depressions = = =
In addition to the storms which attained at least tropical storm strength in 1940 , five additional tropical depressions were analyzed by the HURDAT reanalysis project to have developed during the season . Due to their weak intensity , however , they were not added to HURDAT . On September 2 , a closed low @-@ pressure area was detected in the open Atlantic Ocean southeast of Bermuda and was analyzed as a tropical depression . At the time , the disturbance had a minimum pressure of at least 1015 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 98 inHg ) . The depression initially moved to the southeast , but later recurved towards the northwest over the next two days . On September 4 , the S.S. West Kebar en route for Boston , Massachusetts reported winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , which would be considered as tropical storm @-@ force winds . The depression later moved to the northeast before it was absorbed by a stationary front on September 7 . Since there was only one report that the disturbance may have reached tropical storm intensity , it was not included in HURDAT . Later on September 10 , a trough was detected in a similar region in the Atlantic where the first depression formed . The trough later became sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical depression . The cyclone moved slowly to the east and did not further intensify before dissipating on September 13 .
On October 7 , a large elongated extratropical cyclone extended across the Atlantic Ocean with a pressure of at most 1015 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 98 inHg ) . The following day , the low @-@ pressure area became more narrow and well @-@ defined , with its central pressure deepening to 1000 mph ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) . On October 9 , the extratropical system was analyzed to have become a tropical depression . The low moved slowly to the northeast and gradually weakened before dissipating on October 10 . On October 14 , offshore observations indicated that a tropical depression had developed north of The Bahamas . The following day , however , the depression became less defined and degenerated into a trough of low pressure . On October 16 , two ships listed in the International Comprehensive Ocean @-@ Atmosphere Data Set reported winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) off the coast of North Carolina . However , since these reports occurred in a higher pressure gradient , the system was not included in HURDAT .
On November 2 , a trough of low @-@ pressure was analyzed near the Lesser Antilles . The system moved westward into the Caribbean Sea without much organization . On November 7 , the low @-@ pressure area moved south of Cuba and became sufficiently organized to be considered a tropical depression with a pressure of at least 1010 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 83 inHg ) . The depression moved over Cuba and into the Atlantic , where it dissipated the following day . On November 9 , a second system was detected northeast of Bermuda with a pressure of 1005 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 68 inHg ) , though it remained unclear whether the two systems were related .
= = Season effects = =
= Ode to a Nightingale =
" Ode to a Nightingale " is a poem by John Keats written either in the garden of the Spaniards Inn , Hampstead , London or , according to Keats ' friend Charles Armitage Brown , under a plum tree in the garden of Keats ' house at Wentworth Place , also in Hampstead . According to Brown , a nightingale had built its nest near the house Keats and Brown shared in the spring of 1819 . Inspired by the bird 's song , Keats composed the poem in one day . It soon became one of his 1819 odes and was first published in Annals of the Fine Arts the following July .
" Ode to a Nightingale " is a personal poem that describes Keats 's journey into the state of negative capability . The tone of the poem rejects the optimistic pursuit of pleasure found within Keats 's earlier poems and , rather , explores the themes of nature , transience and mortality , the latter being particularly personal to Keats .
The nightingale described within the poem experiences a type of death but does not actually die . Instead , the songbird is capable of living through its song , which is a fate that humans cannot expect . The poem ends with an acceptance that pleasure cannot last and that death is an inevitable part of life . In the poem , Keats imagines the loss of the physical world and sees himself dead — as a " sod " over which the nightingale sings . The contrast between the immortal nightingale and mortal man sitting in his garden , is made all the more acute by an effort of the imagination . The presence of weather is noticeable in the poem , as spring came early in 1819 , bringing nightingales all over the heath .
= = Background = =
Of Keats 's six major odes of 1819 , " Ode to Psyche " , was probably written first and " To Autumn " written last . Sometime between these two , he wrote " Ode to a Nightingale " . It is possible that " Ode to a Nightingale " was written between 26 April and 18 May 1819 , based on weather conditions and similarities between images in the poem and those in a letter sent to Fanny Keats on May Day . The poem was composed at the Hampstead house Keats shared with Brown , possibly while sitting beneath a plum tree in the garden . According to Keats ' friend Brown , Keats finished the ode in just one morning : " In the spring of 1819 a nightingale had built her nest near my house . Keats felt a tranquil and continual joy in her song ; and one morning he took his chair from the breakfast @-@ table to the grass @-@ plot under a plum @-@ tree , where he sat for two or three hours . When he came into the house , I perceived he had some scraps of paper in his hand , and these he was quietly thrusting behind the books . On inquiry , I found those scraps , four or five in number , contained his poetic feelings on the song of the nightingale . " Brown 's account is personal , as he claimed the poem was directly influenced by his house and preserved by his own doing . However , Keats relied on both his own imagination and other literature as sources for his depiction of the nightingale .
The exact date of " Ode to a Nightingale " , as well as " Ode on Indolence " , " Ode on Melancholy " , and " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , is unknown , as Keats dated all as ' May 1819 ' . However , he worked on the four poems together , and there is a unity in both their stanza forms and their themes . The exact order the poems were written in is also unknown , but they form a sequence within their structures . While Keats was writing " Ode on a Grecian Urn " and the other poems , Brown transcribed copies of the poems and submitted them to Richard Woodhouse . During this time , Benjamin Haydon , Keats ' friend , was given a copy of " Ode to a Nightingale " , and he shared the poem with the editor of the Annals of the Fine Arts , James Elmes . Elmes paid Keats a small sum of money , and the poem was published in the July issue . The poem was later included in Keats ' 1820 collection of poems , Lamia , Isabella , The Eve of St Agnes , and Other written by pratyush Kumar
Poems .
= = Structure = =
" Ode to a Nightingale " was probably the first of the middle set of four odes that Keats wrote following " Ode to Psyche " , according to Brown . There is further evidence of this in the structure of the poems because Keats combines two different types of lyrical poetry in an experimental way : the odal hymn and the lyric of questioning voice that responds to the odal hymn . This combination of structures is similar to that in " Ode on a Grecian Urn " . In both poems the dual form creates a sort of dramatic element within the poem . The stanza forms of the poem is a combination of elements from Petrarchan sonnets and Shakespearean sonnets .
When it came to vowel forms , Keats incorporated a pattern of alternating historically " short " and " long " vowel sounds in his ode . In particular , line 18 ( " And purple @-@ stained mouth " ) has the historical pattern of " short " followed by " long " followed by " short " and followed by " long " . This alteration is continued in longer lines , including line 31 ( " Away ! away ! for I will fly to thee " ) which contains five pairs of alternations . However , other lines , such as line 3 ( " Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains " ) rely on a pattern of five " short " vowels followed by " long " and " short " vowel pairings until they end with a " long " vowel . These are not the only combination patterns present , and there are patterns of two " short " vowels followed by a " long " vowel in other lines , including 12 , 22 , and 59 , which are repeated twice and then followed up with two sets of " short " and then " long " vowel pairs . This reliance on vowel sounds is not unique to this ode , but is common to Keats 's other 1819 odes and his Eve of St. Agnes .
The poem incorporates a complex reliance on assonance — the repetition of vowel sounds — in a conscious pattern , as found in many of his poems . Such a reliance on assonance is found in very few English poems . Within " Ode to a Nightingale " , an example of this pattern can be found in line 35 ( " Already with thee ! tender is the night " ) , where the " ea " of " Already " connects with the " e " of " tender " and the " i " of " with " connects with the " i " of " is " . This same pattern is found again in line 41 ( " I cannot see what flowers are at my feet " ) with the " a " of " cannot " linking with the " a " of " at " and the " ee " of " see " linking with the " ee " of " feet " . This system of assonance can be found in approximately a tenth of the lines of Keats 's later poetry .
When it came to other sound patterns , Keats relied on double or triple caesuras in approximately 6 % of lines throughout the 1819 odes . An example from " Ode to a Nightingale " can be found within line 45 ( " The grass , the thicket , and the fruit @-@ tree wild " ) as the pauses after the commas are a " masculine " pause . Furthermore , Keats began to reduce the amount of Latin @-@ based words and syntax that he relied on in his poetry , which in turn shortened the length of the words that dominate the poem . There is also an emphasis on words beginning with consonants , especially those that begin with " b " , " p " or " v " . These three consonants are relied on heavily in the first stanza , and they are used syzygically to add a musical tone within the poem .
In terms of poetic meter , Keats relies on spondee throughout his 1819 odes and in just over 8 % of his lines within " Ode to a Nightingale " , including line 12 :
and line 25 :
To Walter Jackson Bate , the use of spondees in lines 31 – 34 creates a feeling of slow flight , and " in the final stanza . . . the distinctive use of scattered spondees , together with initial inversion , lend [ s ] an approximate phonetic suggestion of the peculiar spring and bounce of the bird in its flight . "
= = Poem = =
My heart aches , and a drowsy numbness pains
My sense , as though of hemlock I had drunk ,
Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains
One minute past , and Lethe @-@ wards had sunk :
'Tis not through envy of thy happy lot , 5
But being too happy in thine happiness ,
That thou , light @-@ wingèd Dryad of the trees ,
In some melodious plot
Of beechen green , and shadows numberless ,
Singest of summer in full @-@ throated ease . 10
O for a draught of vintage ! that hath been
Cool 'd a long age in the deep @-@ delvèd earth ,
Tasting of Flora and the country @-@ green ,
Dance , and Provençal song , and sunburnt mirth !
O for a beaker full of the warm South ! 15
Full of the true , the blushful Hippocrene ,
With beaded bubbles winking at the brim ,
And purple @-@ stainèd mouth ;
That I might drink , and leave the world unseen ,
And with thee fade away into the forest dim : 20
Fade far away , dissolve , and quite forget
What thou among the leaves hast never known ,
The weariness , the fever , and the fret
Here , where men sit and hear each other groan ;
Where palsy shakes a few , sad , last grey hairs , 25
Where youth grows pale , and spectre @-@ thin , and dies ;
Where but to think is to be full of sorrow
And leaden @-@ eyed despairs ;
Where beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes ,
Or new Love pine at them beyond to @-@ morrow . 30
Away ! away ! for I will fly to thee ,
Not charioted by Bacchus and his pards ,
But on the viewless wings of Poesy ,
Though the dull brain perplexes and retards :
Already with thee ! tender is the night , 35
And haply the Queen @-@ Moon is on her throne ,
Cluster 'd around by all her starry Fays
But here there is no light ,
Save what from heaven is with the breezes blown
Through verdurous glooms and winding mossy ways . 40
I cannot see what flowers are at my feet ,
Nor what soft incense hangs upon the boughs ,
But , in embalmèd darkness , guess each sweet
Wherewith the seasonable month endows
The grass , the thicket , and the fruit @-@ tree wild ; 45
White hawthorn , and the pastoral eglantine ;
Fast @-@ fading violets cover 'd up in leaves ;
And mid @-@ May 's eldest child ,
The coming musk @-@ rose , full of dewy wine ,
The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves . 50
Darkling I listen ; and , for many a time
I have been half in love with easeful Death ,
Call 'd him soft names in many a musèd rhyme ,
To take into the air my quiet breath ;
Now more than ever seems it rich to die , 55
To cease upon the midnight with no pain ,
While thou art pouring forth thy soul abroad
In such an ecstasy !
Still wouldst thou sing , and I have ears in vain —
To thy high requiem become a sod . 60
Thou wast not born for death , immortal Bird !
No hungry generations tread thee down ;
The voice I hear this passing night was heard
In ancient days by emperor and clown :
Perhaps the self @-@ same song that found a path 65
Through the sad heart of Ruth , when , sick for home ,
She stood in tears amid the alien corn ;
The same that ofttimes hath
Charm 'd magic casements , opening on the foam
Of perilous seas , in faery lands forlorn . 70
Forlorn ! the very word is like a bell
To toll me back from thee to my sole self !
Adieu ! the fancy cannot cheat so well
As she is famed to do , deceiving elf .
Adieu ! adieu ! thy plaintive anthem fades 75
Past the near meadows , over the still stream ,
Up the hill @-@ side ; and now ' tis buried deep
In the next valley @-@ glades :
Was it a vision , or a waking dream ?
Fled is that music : — do I wake or sleep ? 80
= = Themes = =
" Ode to a Nightingale " describes a series of conflicts between reality and the Romantic ideal of uniting with nature . In the words of Richard Fogle , " The principal stress of the poem is a struggle between ideal and actual : inclusive terms which , however , contain more particular antitheses of pleasure and pain , of imagination and common sense reason , of fullness and privation , of permanence and change , of nature and the human , of art and life , freedom and bondage , waking and dream . " Of course , the nightingale 's song is the dominant image and dominant " voice " within the ode . The nightingale is also the object of empathy and praise within the poem . However , the nightingale and the discussion of the nightingale is not simply about the bird or the song , but about human experience in general . This is not to say that the song is a simple metaphor , but it is a complex image that is formed through the interaction of the conflicting voices of praise and questioning . On this theme , David Perkins summarizes the way " Ode to a Nightingale " and " Ode on a Grecian Urn " perform this when he says , " we are dealing with a talent , indeed an entire approach to poetry , in which symbol , however necessary , may possibly not satisfy as the principal concern of poetry , any more than it could with Shakespeare , but is rather an element in the poetry and drama of human reactions " . However , there is a difference between an urn and a nightingale in that the nightingale is not an eternal entity . Furthermore , in creating any aspect of the nightingale immortal during the poem the narrator separates any union that he can have with the nightingale .
The nightingale 's song within the poem is connected to the art of music in a way that the urn in " Ode on a Grecian Urn " is connected to the art of sculpture . As such , the nightingale would represent an enchanting presence and , unlike the urn , is directly connected to nature . As natural music , the song is for beauty and lacks a message of truth . Keats follows Coleridge 's belief , as found in " The Nightingale " , in separating from the world by losing himself in the bird 's song . Although Keats favours a female nightingale over Coleridge 's masculine bird , both reject the traditional depiction of the nightingale as related to the tragedy of Philomela . Their songbird is a happy nightingale that lacks the melancholic feel of previous poetic depictions . The bird is only a voice within the poem , but it is a voice that compels the narrator to join with in and forget the sorrows of the world . However , there is tension in that the narrator holds Keats 's guilt regarding the death of Tom Keats , his brother . The song 's conclusion represents the result of trying to escape into the realm of fancy .
Like Percy Bysshe Shelley ’ s " To a Skylark " , Keats ’ s narrator listens to a bird song , but listening to the song within “ Ode to a Nightingale ” is almost painful and similar to death . The narrator seeks to be with the nightingale and abandons his sense of vision in order to embrace the sound in an attempt to share in the darkness with the bird . As the poem ends , the trance caused by the nightingale is broken and the narrator is left wondering if it was a real vision or just a dream . The poem reliance on the process of sleeping common to Keats 's poems , and " Ode to a Nightingale " shares many of the same themes as Keats 's Sleep and Poetry and Eve of St. Agnes . This further separates the image of the nightingale 's song from its closest comparative image , the urn as represented in " Ode on a Grecian Urn " . The nightingale is distant and mysterious , and even disappears at the end of the poem . The dream image emphasizes the shadowiness and elusiveness of the poem . These elements make it impossible for there to be a complete self @-@ identification with the nightingale , but it also allows for self @-@ awareness to permeate throughout the poem , albeit in an altered state .
Midway through the poem , there is a split between the two actions of the poem : the first attempts to identify with the nightingale and its song , and the second discusses the convergence of the past with the future while experiencing the present . This second theme is reminiscent of Keats 's view of human progression through the Mansion of Many Apartments and how man develops from experiencing and wanting only pleasure to understanding truth as a mixture of both pleasure and pain . The Elysian fields and the nightingale 's song in the first half of the poem represent the pleasurable moments that overwhelm the individual like a drug . However , the experience does not last forever , and the body is left desiring it until the narrator feels helpless without the pleasure . Instead of embracing the coming truth , the narrator clings to poetry to hide from the loss of pleasure . Poetry does not bring about the pleasure that the narrator original asks for , but it does liberate him from his desire for only pleasure .
Responding to this emphasis on pleasure , Albert Guerard , Jr. argues that the poem contains a " longing not for art but a free reverie of any kind . The form of the poem is that of progression by association , so that the movement of feeling is at the mercy of words evoked by chance , such words as fade and forlorn , the very words that , like a bell , toll the dreamer back to his sole self . " However , Fogle points out that the terms Guerard emphasizes are " associational translations " and that Guerard misunderstands Keats 's aesthetic . After all , the acceptance of the loss of pleasure by the end of the poem is an acceptance of life and , in turn , of death . Death was a constant theme that permeated aspects of Keats poetry because he was exposed to death of his family members throughout his life . Within the poem , there are many images of death . The nightingale experiences a sort of death and even the god Apollo experiences death , but his death reveals his own divine state . As Perkins explains , " But , of course , the nightingale is not thought to be literally dying . The point is that the deity or the nightingale can sing without dying . But , as the ode makes clear , man cannot — or at least not in a visionary way . "
With this theme of a loss of pleasure and inevitable death , the poem , according to Claude Finney , describes " the inadequacy of the romantic escape from the world of reality to the world of ideal beauty " . Earl Wasserman essentially agrees with Finney , but he extended his summation of the poem to incorporate the themes of Keats 's Mansion of Many Apartments when he says , " the core of the poem is the search for the mystery , the unsuccessful quest for light within its darkness " and this " leads only to an increasing darkness , or a growing recognition of how impenetrable the mystery is to mortals . " With these views in mind , the poem recalls Keats 's earlier view of pleasure and an optimistic view of poetry found within his earlier poems , especially Sleep and Poetry , and rejects them . This loss of pleasure and incorporation of death imagery lends the poem a dark air , which connects " Ode to a Nightingale " with Keats ' other poems that discuss the demonic nature of poetic imagination , including Lamia . In the poem , Keats imagines the loss of the physical world and sees himself dead — he uses an abrupt , almost brutal word for it — as a " sod " over which the nightingale sings . The contrast between the immortal nightingale and mortal man , sitting in his garden , is made all the more acute by an effort of the imagination .
= = Keats 's reception = =
Contemporary critics of Keats enjoyed the poem , and it was heavily quoted in their reviews . An anonymous review of Keats 's poetry that ran in the August and October 1820 Scots Magazine stated : " Amongst the minor poems we prefer the ' Ode to the Nightingale . ' Indeed , we are inclined to prefer it beyond every other poem in the book ; but let the reader judge . The third and seventh stanzas have a charm for us which we should find it difficult to explain . We have read this ode over and over again , and every time with increased delight . " At the same time , Leigh Hunt wrote a review of Keats 's poem for the 2 August and 9 August 1820 The Indicator : " As a specimen of the Poems , which are all lyrical , we must indulge ourselves in quoting entire the ' Ode to a Nightingale ' . There is that mixture in it of real melancholy and imaginative relief , which poetry alone presents us in her ' charmed cup , ' and which some over @-@ rational critics have undertaken to find wrong because it is not true . It does not follow that what is not true to them , is not true to others . If the relief is real , the mixture is good and sufficing . "
John Scott , in an anonymous review for the September 1820 edition of The London Magazine , argued for the greatness of Keats 's poetry as exemplified by poems including " Ode to a Nightingale " :
The injustice which has been done to our author 's works , in estimating their poetical merit , rendered us doubly anxious , on opening his last volume , to find it likely to seize fast hold of general sympathy , and thus turn an overwhelming power against the paltry traducers of talent , more eminently promising in many respects , than any the present age has been called upon to encourage . We have not found it to be quite all that we wished in this respect--and it would have been very extraordinary if we had , for our wishes went far beyond reasonable expectations . But we have found it of a nature to present to common understandings the poetical power with which the author 's mind is gifted , in a more tangible and intelligible shape than that in which it has appeared in any of his former compositions . It is , therefore , calculated to throw shame on the lying , vulgar spirit , in which this young worshipper in the temple of the Muses has been cried @-@ down ; whatever questions may still leave to be settled as to the kind and degree of his poetical merits . Take for instance , as proof of the justice of our praise , the following passage from an Ode to the Nightingale : --it is distinct , noble , pathetic , and true : the thoughts have all chords of direct communication with naturally @-@ constituted hearts : the echoes of the strain linger bout the depths of human bosoms .
In a review for the 21 January 1835 London Journal , Hunt claimed that while Keats wrote the poem , " The poet had then his mortal illness upon him , and knew it . Never was the voice of death sweeter . " David Moir , in 1851 , used The Even of St Agnes to claim , " We have here a specimen of descriptive power luxuriously rich and original ; but the following lines , from the ' Ode to a Nightingale , ' flow from a far more profound fountain of inspiration . "
At the end of the 19th century , Robert Bridges 's analysis of the poem became a dominant view and would influence later interpretations of the poem . Bridges , in 1895 , declared that the poem was the best of Keats 's odes but he thought that the poem contained too much artificial language . In particular , he emphasised the use of the word " forlorn " and the last stanza as being examples of Keats 's artificial language . In " Two odes of Keats 's " ( 1897 ) , William C Wilkinson suggested that " Ode to a Nightingale " is deeply flawed because it contains too many " incoherent musings " that failed to supply a standard of logic that would allow the reader to understand the relationship between the poet and the bird . However , Herbert Grierson , arguing in 1928 , believed Nightingale to be superior to " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , " Ode on Melancholy " , and " Ode to Psyche " , arguing the exact opposite of Wilkinson as he stated that " Nightingale " , along with " To Autumn " , showed a greater amount of logical thought and more aptly presented the cases they were intended to make .
= = = 20th @-@ century criticism = = =
At the beginning of the 20th century , Rudyard Kipling referred to lines 69 and 70 , alongside three lines from Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's Kubla Khan , when he claimed of poetry : " In all the millions permitted there are no more than five — five little lines — of which one can say , ' These are the magic . These are the vision . The rest is only Poetry . ' " In 1906 , Alexander Mackie argued : " The nightingale and the lark for long monopolised poetic idolatry--a privilege they enjoyed solely on account of their pre @-@ eminence as song birds . Keats 's Ode to a Nightingale and Shelley 's Ode to a Skylark are two of the glories of English literature ; but both were written by men who had no claim to special or exact knowledge of ornithology as such . " Sidney Colvin , in 1920 , argued , " Throughout this ode Keats ’ s genius is at its height . Imagination cannot be more rich and satisfying , felicity of phrase and cadence cannot be more absolute , than in the several contrasted stanzas calling for the draft of southern vintage [ … ] To praise the art of a passage like that in the fourth stanza [ … ] to praise or comment on a stroke of art like this is to throw doubt on the reader ’ s power to perceive it for himself . "
Bridge 's view of " Ode to a Nightingale " was taken up by H. W. Garrod in his 1926 analysis of Keats 's poems . Like Albert Gerard would argue later in 1944 , Garrod believed that the problem within Keats 's poem was his emphasis on the rhythm and the language instead of the main ideas of the poem . When describing the fourth stanza of the poem , Maurice Ridley , in 1933 , claimed , " And so comes the stanza , with that remarkable piece of imagination at the end which feels the light as blown by the breezes , one of those characteristic sudden flashes with which Keats fires the most ordinary material . " He later declared of the seventh stanza : " And now for the great stanza in which the imagination is fanned to yet whiter heat , the stanza that would , I suppose , by common consent be taken , along with Kubla Khan , as offering us the distilled sorceries of ' Romanticism ' " . He concluded on the stanza that " I do not believe that any reader who has watched Keats at work on the more exquisitely finished of the stanzas in The Eve of St. Agnes , and seen this craftsman slowly elaborating and refining , will ever believe that this perfect stanza was achieved with the easy fluency with which , in the draft we have , it was obviously written down . " In 1936 , F. R. Leavis wrote , " One remembers the poem both as recording , and as being for the reader , an indulgence . " Following Leavis , Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren , in a 1938 essay , saw the poem as " a very rich poem . It contains some complications which we must not gloss over if we are to appreciate the depth and significance of the issues engaged . " Brooks would later argue in The Well @-@ Wrought Urn ( 1947 ) that the poem was thematically unified while contradicting many of the negative criticisms lodged against the poem .
Richard Fogle responded to the critical attack on Keats 's emphasis on rhyme and language put forth by Garrod , Gerard , and others in 1953 . His argument was similar to Brooks : that the poem was thematically coherent and that there is a poet within the poem that is different from Keats the writer of the poem . As such , Keats consciously chose the shift in the themes of the poem and the contrasts within the poem represent the pain felt when comparing the real world to an ideal world found within the imagination . Fogle also responded directly to the claims made by Leavis : " I find Mr. Leavis too austere , but he points out a quality which Keats plainly sought for . His profusion and prodigality is , however , modified by a principle of sobriety . " It is possible that Fogle 's statements were a defense of Romanticism as a group that was both respectable in terms of thought and poetic ability . Wasserman , following in 1953 , claimed that " Of all Keats ' poems , it is probably the ' Ode to a Nightingale ' that has most tormented the critic [ ... ] in any reading of the ' Ode to a Nightingale ' the turmoil will not down . Forces contend wildly within the poem , not only without resolution , but without possibility of resolution ; and the reader comes away from his experience with the sense that he has been in ' a wild Abyss ' " . He then explained , " It is this turbulence , I suspect , that has led Allen Tate to believe the ode ' at least tries to say everything that poetry an say . ' But I propose it is the ' Ode on a Grecian Urn ' that succeeds in saying what poetry can say , and that the other ode attempts to say all that the poet can . "
= = = Later critical responses = = =
Although the poem was defended by a few critics , E. C. Pettet returned to the argument that the poem lacked a structure and emphasized the word " forlorn " as evidence of his view . In his 1957 work , Pettet did praise the poem as he declared , " The Ode to a Nightingale has a special interest in that most of us would probably regard it as the most richly representative of all Keats ’ s poems . Two reasons for this quality are immediately apparent : there is its matchless evocation of that late spring and early summer season [ … ] and there is its exceptional degree of ' distillation ' , of concentrated recollection " . David Perkins felt the need to defend the use of the word " forlorn " and claimed that it described the feeling from the impossibility of not being able to live in the world of the imagination . When praising the poem in 1959 , Perkins claimed , " Although the " Ode to a Nightingale " ranges more widely than the " Ode on a Grecian Urn , " the poem can also be regarded as the exploration or testing out of a symbol , and , compared with the urn as a symbol , the nightingale would seem to have both limitations and advantages . " Walter Jackson Bate also made a similar defense of the word " forlorn " by claiming that the world described by describing the impossibility of reaching that land . When describing the poem compared to the rest of English poetry , Bate argued in 1963 , " Ode to a Nightingale " is among " the greatest lyrics in English " and the only one written with such speed : " We are free to doubt whether any poem in English of comparable length and quality has been composed so quickly . " In 1968 , Robert Gittins stated , " It may not be wrong to regard [ Ode on Indolence and Ode on Melancholy ] as Keats 's earlier essays in this [ ode ] form , and the great Nightingale and Grecian Urn as his more finished and later works . "
From the late 1960s onward , many of the Yale School of critics describe the poem as a reworking of John Milton 's poetic diction , but they argued that poem revealed that Keats lacked the ability of Milton as a poet . The critics , Harold Bloom ( 1965 ) , Leslie Brisman ( 1973 ) , Paul Fry ( 1980 ) , John Hollander ( 1981 ) and Cynthia Chase ( 1985 ) , all focused on the poem with Milton as a progenitor to " Ode to a Nightingale " while ignoring other possibilities , including Shakespeare who was emphasised as being the source of many of Keats 's phrases . Responding to the claims about Milton and Keats 's shortcomings , critics like R. S. White ( 1981 ) and Willard Spiegelman ( 1983 ) used the Shakespearean echoes to argue for a multiplicity of sources for the poem to claim that Keats was not trying to respond just Milton or escape from his shadow . Instead , " Ode to a Nightingale " was an original poem , as White claimed , " The poem is richly saturated in Shakespeare , yet the assimilations are so profound that the Ode is finally original , and wholly Keatsian " . Similarly , Spiegelman claimed that Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream had " flavored and ripened the later poem " . This was followed in 1986 by Jonathan Bate claiming that Keats was " left enriched by the voice of Shakespeare , the ' immortal bird ' " .
Focusing on the quality of the poem , Stuart Sperry , argued in 1973 , " ' Ode to a Nightingale ' is the supreme expression in all Keats 's poetry of the impulse to imaginative escape that flies in the face of the knowledge of human limitation , the impulse fully expressed in ' Away ! away ! for I will fly to thee . ' " Wolf Hirst , in 1981 , described the poem as " justly celebrated " and claimed that " Since this movement into an eternal realm of song is one of the most magnificent in literature , the poet 's return to actuality is all the more shattering . " Helen Vendler continued the earlier view that the poem was artificial but added that the poem was an attempt to be aesthetic and spontaneous that was later dropped . In 1983 , she argued , " In its absence of conclusiveness and its abandonment to reverie , the poem appeals to readers who prize it as the most personal , the most apparently spontaneous , the most immediately beautiful , and the most confessional of Keats 's odes . I believe that the ' events ' of the ode , as it unfolds in time , have more logic , however , than is usually granted them , and that they are best seen in relation to Keats 's pursuit of the idea of music as a nonrepresentational art . "
In a review of contemporary criticism of " Ode to a Nightingale " in 1998 , James O 'Rouke claimed that " To judge from the volume , the variety , and the polemical force of the modern critical responses engendered , there have been few moments in English poetic history as baffling as Keats 's repetition of the word ' forlorn ' " . When referring to the reliance of the ideas of John Dryden and William Hazlitt within the poem , Poet Laureate Andrew Motion , in 1999 , argued " whose notion of poetry as a ' movement ' from personal consciousness to an awareness of suffering humanity it perfectly illustrates . "
= = In fiction = =
F. Scott Fitzgerald took the title of his novel Tender is the Night from the 35th line of the ode .
According to Ildikó de Papp Carrington , Keats ' wording , " when , sick for home , / She stood in tears amid the alien corn " , seems to be echoed in by Alice Munro 's Save the Reaper ( 1998 ) , the end of which reads : " Eve would lie down [ ... ] with nothing in her head but the rustle of the deep tall corn which might have stopped growing now but still made its live noise after dark " ( book version ) .
The poem is quoted in Chapter 1 of P. G. Wodehouse 's novel Full Moon ( 1947 ) : " ' Coming here ? Freddie ? ' .A numbness seemed to be paining his sense , as though of hemlock he had drunk . "
= Weather buoy =
Weather buoys are instruments which collect weather and ocean data within the world 's oceans , as well as aid during emergency response to chemical spills , legal proceedings , and engineering design . Moored buoys have been in use since 1951 , while drifting buoys have been used since 1979 . Moored buoys are connected with the ocean bottom using either chains , nylon , or buoyant polypropylene . With the decline of the weather ship , they have taken a more primary role in measuring conditions over the open seas since the 1970s . During the 1980s and 1990s , a network of buoys in the central and eastern tropical Pacific ocean helped study the El Niño @-@ Southern Oscillation . Moored weather buoys range from 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) to 12 metres ( 39 ft ) in diameter , while drifting buoys are smaller , with diameters of 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) to 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) . Drifting buoys are the dominant form of weather buoy in sheer number , with 1250 located worldwide . Wind data from buoys has smaller error than that from ships . There are differences in the values of sea surface temperature measurements between the two platforms as well , relating to the depth of the measurement and whether or not the water is heated by the ship which measures the quantity .
= = History = =
The first known proposal for surface weather observations at sea occurred in connection with aviation in August 1927 , when Grover Loening stated that " weather stations along the ocean coupled with the development of the seaplane to have an equally long range , would result in regular ocean flights within ten years . " Starting in 1939 , United States Coast Guard vessels were being used as weather ships to protect transatlantic air commerce .
During World War II The German Navy deployed weather buoys ( Wetterfunkgerät See — WFS ) at fifteen fixed positions in the North Atlantic and Barents Sea . They were launched from U @-@ boats into a maximum depth of ocean of 1000 fathoms ( 1 @,@ 800 metres ) , limited by the length of the anchor cable . Overall height of the body was 10 @.@ 5 metres ( of which most was submerged ) , surmounted by a mast and extendible aerial of 9 metres . Data ( air and water temperature , atmospheric pressure and relative humidity ) were encoded and transmitted four times a day . When the batteries ( high voltage dry @-@ cells for the valves , and nickel @-@ iron for other power and to raise and lower the aerial mast ) were exhausted , after about eight to ten weeks , the unit self @-@ destructed .
The Navy Oceanographic Meteorological Automatic Device ( NOMAD ) buoy 's 6 @-@ metre ( 20 ft ) hull was originally designed in the 1940s for the United States Navy ’ s offshore data collection program . Between 1951 and 1970 , a total of 21 NOMAD buoys were built and deployed at sea . Since the 1970s , weather buoy use has superseded the role of weather ships by design , as they are cheaper to operate and maintain . The earliest reported use of drifting buoys was to study the behavior of ocean currents within the Sargasso Sea in 1972 and 1973 . Drifting buoys have been used increasingly since 1979 , and as of 2005 , 1250 drifting buoys roamed the Earth 's oceans .
Between 1985 and 1994 , an extensive array of moored and drifting buoys was deployed across the equatorial Pacific Ocean designed to help monitor and predict the El Niño phenomenon . Hurricane Katrina capsized a 10 m ( 33 ft ) buoy for the first time in the history of the National Data Buoy Center ( NDBC ) on August 28 , 2005 . On June 13 , 2006 , drifting buoy 26028 ended its long @-@ term data collection of sea surface temperature after transmitting for 10 years , 4 months , and 16 days , which is the longest known data collection time for any drifting buoy . The first weather buoy in the Southern Ocean was deployed by the Integrated Marine Observing System ( IMOS ) on March 17 , 2010 .
= = Instrumentation = =
Weather buoys , like other types of weather stations , measure parameters such as air temperature above the ocean surface , wind speed ( steady and gusting ) , barometric pressure , and wind direction . Since they lie in oceans and lakes , they also measure water temperature , wave height , and dominant wave period . Raw data is processed and can be logged on board the buoy and then transmitted via radio , cellular , or satellite communications to meteorological centers for use in weather forecasting and climate study . Both moored buoys and drifting buoys ( drifting in the open ocean currents ) are used . Fixed buoys measure the water temperature at a depth of 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Many different drifting buoys exist around the world that vary in design and the location of reliable temperature sensors varies . These measurements are beamed to satellites for automated and immediate data distribution . Other than their use as a source of meteorological data , their data is used within research programs , emergency response to chemical spills , legal proceedings , and engineering design . Moored weather buoys can also act as a navigational aid , like other types of buoys .
= = Types = =
Weather buoys range in diameter from 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) to 12 metres ( 39 ft ) . Those that are placed in shallow waters are smaller in size and moored using only chains , while those in deeper waters use a combination of chains , nylon , and buoyant polypropylene . Since they do not have direct navigational significance , moored weather buoys are classed as special marks under the IALA scheme , are coloured yellow , and display a yellow flashing light at night .
Discus buoys are round and moored in deep ocean locations , with a diameter of 10 metres ( 33 ft ) to 12 metres ( 39 ft ) . The aluminum 3 @-@ metre ( 10 ft ) buoy is a very rugged meteorological ocean platform that has long term survivability . The expected service life of the 3 @-@ metre ( 10 ft ) platform is in excess of 20 years and properly maintained , these buoys have not been retired due to corrosion . The NOMAD is a unique moored aluminum environmental monitoring buoy designed for deployments in extreme conditions near the coast and across the Great Lakes . NOMADs moored off the Atlantic Canadian coast commonly experience winter storms with maximum wave heights approaching 20 metres ( 66 ft ) into the Gulf of Maine .
Drifting buoys are smaller than their moored counterparts , measuring 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) to 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) in diameter . They are made of plastic or fiberglass , and tend to be either bi @-@ colored , with white on one half and another color on the other half of the float , or solidly black or blue . It measures a smaller subset of meteorological variables when compared to its moored counterpart , with a barometer measuring pressure in a tube on its top . They have a thermistor ( metallic thermometer ) on its base , and an underwater drogue , or sea anchor , located 15 metres ( 49 ft ) below the ocean surface connected with the buoy by a long , thin tether .
= = Deployment and maintenance = =
A large network of coastal buoys near the United States is maintained by the National Data Buoy Center , with deployment and maintenance performed by the United States Coast Guard . For South Africa , the South African Weather Service deploys and retrieves their own buoys , while the Meteorological Service of New Zealand performs the same task for their country . Environment Canada operates and deploys buoys for their country . The Met Office in Great Britain deploys drifting buoys across both the northern and southern Atlantic oceans .
= = Comparison to data from ships = =
Wind reports from moored buoys have smaller error than those from ships . Complicating the comparison of the two measurements are that NOMAD buoys report winds at a height of 5 metres ( 16 ft ) , while ships report winds from a height of 20 metres ( 66 ft ) to 40 metres ( 130 ft ) . Sea surface temperature measured in the intake port of large ships have a warm bias of around 0 @.@ 6 ° C ( 1 ° F ) due to the heat of the engine room . This bias has led to changes in the perception of global warming since 2000 . Fixed buoys measure the water temperature at a depth of 3 metres ( 10 ft ) .
= HMS Marlborough ( 1912 ) =
HMS Marlborough was an Iron Duke @-@ class battleship of the British Royal Navy , named in honour of John Churchill , 1st Duke of Marlborough . She was built at Devonport Royal Dockyard between January 1912 and June 1914 , entering service just before the outbreak of the First World War . She was armed with a main battery of ten 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) guns and was capable of a top speed of 21 @.@ 25 knots ( 39 @.@ 36 km / h ; 24 @.@ 45 mph ) .
Marlborough served with the Grand Fleet for the duration of the war , primarily patrolling the northern end of the North Sea to enforce the blockade of Germany . She saw action at the Battle of Jutland ( 31 May – 1 June 1916 ) , where she administered the coup de grâce to the badly damaged German cruiser SMS Wiesbaden . During the engagement , Wiesbaden hit Marlborough with a torpedo that eventually forced her to withdraw . The damage to Marlborough was repaired by early August , though the last two years of the war were uneventful , as the British and German fleets adopted more cautious strategies due to the threat of underwater weapons .
After the war , Marlborough was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , where she took part in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War in the Black Sea in 1919 – 20 . She was also involved in the Greco @-@ Turkish War . In 1930 , the London Naval Treaty mandated that the four Iron Duke @-@ class battleships be discarded ; Marlborough was used for a variety of weapons tests in 1931 – 32 , the results of which were incorporated into the reconstruction programme for the Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships .
= = Design = =
Marlborough was 622 feet 9 inches ( 190 m ) long overall and had a beam of 90 ft ( 27 m ) and an average draught of 29 ft 6 in ( 9 m ) . She displaced 25 @,@ 000 long tons ( 25 @,@ 401 t ) as designed and up to 29 @,@ 560 long tons ( 30 @,@ 034 t ) at combat loading . Her propulsion system consisted of four Parsons steam turbines , with steam provided by eighteen Babcock & Wilcox boilers . The engines were rated at 29 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 21 @,@ 625 kW ) and produced a top speed of 21 @.@ 25 kn ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Marlborough 's cruising radius was 7 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 446 km ; 8 @,@ 976 mi ) at a more economical 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 995 officers and enlisted men ; during wartime this increased to up to 1 @,@ 022 .
The ship was armed with a main battery of ten BL 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk V naval guns mounted in five twin gun turrets . They were arranged in two superfiring pairs , one forward and one aft ; the fifth turret was located amidships , between the funnels and the rear superstructure . Close @-@ range defence against torpedo boats was provided by a secondary armament of twelve BL 6 @-@ inch Mk VII guns . Marlborough was also fitted with a pair of QF 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt anti @-@ aircraft guns and four 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) 3 @-@ pounder guns . As was typical for capital ships of the period , she was equipped with four 21 in ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes submerged on the broadside . She was protected by a main armoured belt that was 12 in ( 305 mm ) thick over the ship 's vitals . Her deck was 2 @.@ 5 in ( 64 mm ) thick . The main battery turret faces were 11 in ( 279 mm ) thick , and the turrets were supported by barbettes 10 in ( 254 mm ) thick .
= = Service history = =
Marlborough was laid down at Devonport Royal Dockyard on 25 January 1912 . She was launched nearly ten months later , on 24 October , and was commissioned on 2 June 1914 . The ship was completed on 16 June 1914 , a month before the First World War broke out on the Continent . Marlborough initially joined the Home Fleets , where she served as the flagship for Sir Lewis Bayly . Following the British entry into the war in August , the Home Fleets was reorganised as the Grand Fleet , commanded by Admiral John Jellicoe . Marlborough was assigned as the flagship of the 1st Battle Squadron , where she served for the duration of the conflict .
= = = First World War = = =
On the evening of 22 November 1914 , the Grand Fleet conducted a fruitless sweep in the southern half of the North Sea to support Vice Admiral David Beatty 's 1st Battlecruiser Squadron . The fleet was back in port in Scapa Flow by 27 November . Marlborough and most of the fleet initially remained in port during the German raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby on 16 December 1914 , though the 3rd Battle Squadron was sent to reinforce the British forces in the area . After receiving further information about the possibility of the rest of the German fleet being at sea , Jellicoe gave the order for the fleet to sortie to try to intercept the Germans , though by that time they had already retreated . Vice Admiral Cecil Burney replaced Bayley aboard Marlborough in December ; at that time , Marlborough became the second @-@ in @-@ command flagship for the Grand Fleet . On 25 December , the fleet sortied for a
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22 km ; 14 mi ) behind the rest of the fleet . At that time , the bulkheads in the starboard forward boiler room started to give way under the strain , forcing Marlborough to reduce speed to 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The damage control teams believed that if the main battery were to fire , the shoring supporting the damaged bulkheads would give way , greatly increasing the risk to the ship . Jellicoe detached the ship to proceed independently to Rosyth or the Tyne ; Burney had ordered the scout cruiser Fearless to come alongside to transfer him to the battleship Revenge . Marlborough thereafter proceeded northward at a speed of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) .
Fearless rejoined Marlborough around 04 : 00 and both ships briefly fired at the German zeppelin L11 . Commodore Reginald Tyrwhitt 's Harwich Force had been ordered to reinforce the Grand Fleet , particularly to relieve ships low on fuel ; they departed at 03 : 50 but this was too late for them to reach the fleet by morning , so Jellicoe ordered Tyrwhitt to detach destroyers to escort Marlborough back to port . On the way , Marlborough and Fearless encountered the British submarines G3 and G5 ; the two submarines prepared to attack the ships but fortunately recognised them before they launched torpedoes . By 15 : 00 , eight destroyers from the Harwich Force had joined Marlborough and another pump had been lowered into the flooded boiler room . At around 23 : 30 , the pump was being moved to clean it when the roll of the ship threw the pump into the damaged bulkhead , knocking the shores loose . Water flooded into the ship and Marlborough 's captain ordered Fearless and the destroyers to prepare to come alongside , to rescue the crew if the flooding worsened at 00 : 47 on 2 June . A diver was sent into the boiler room at that time , and he was able to keep the pump clean , which slowly reduced the water level in the ship .
Jellicoe ordered Marlborough to proceed to the Humber for temporary repairs . While there , her forward main battery and 6 @-@ inch magazines were emptied to lighten the ship , more pumps were brought aboard and the shoring supporting the damaged bulkhead was reinforced . On the morning of 6 June , the ship left the Humber for the Tyne , where she would receive permanent repairs , escorted by four destroyers from the Harwich Force . In the course of the battle , Marlborough had fired 162 shells from her main battery , 60 rounds from her secondary guns and five torpedoes . The torpedo hit had killed two men and wounded another two . She was repaired by the Armstrong Whitworth shipyard at Jarrow , with the work lasting until 2 August , after which she departed for Cromarty , arriving on 5 August . During the repair work , an extra 100 t ( 98 long tons ; 110 short tons ) of armour plating was added to the ship , primarily over the magazines . These alterations were the result of the British experience at Jutland , where three battlecruisers had been destroyed by magazine explosions .
= = = = Later operations = = = =
On 18 August , the Germans again sortied , this time to bombard Sunderland ; Scheer hoped to draw out Beatty 's battlecruisers and destroy them . British signals intelligence decrypted German wireless transmissions , allowing Jellicoe enough time to deploy the Grand Fleet in an attempt to engage in a decisive battle . Both sides withdrew the following day , after their opponents ' submarines inflicted losses in the Action of 19 August : the British cruisers Nottingham and Falmouth were both torpedoed and sunk by German U @-@ boats and the German battleship SMS Westfalen was damaged by the British submarine E23 . After returning to port , Jellicoe issued an order that prohibited risking the fleet in the southern half of the North Sea due to the overwhelming risk from mines and U @-@ boats .
In February 1917 , Revenge replaced Marlborough as the 1st Battle Squadron flagship ; she thereafter served as the second command flagship . She was briefly replaced in this role by Emperor of India in May and she temporarily became a private ship . Toward the end of the year , the Germans began using destroyers and light cruisers to raid the British convoys to Norway ; this forced the British to deploy capital ships to protect the convoys . On 23 April 1918 , the German fleet sortied in an attempt to catch one of the isolated British squadrons , though the convoy had already passed safely . The Grand Fleet sortied too late the following day to catch the retreating Germans , though the battlecruiser SMS Moltke was torpedoed and badly damaged by the submarine HMS E42 . In 1918 , Marlborough and her sisters received flying @-@ off platforms on their " B " and " Q " turrets to handle reconnaissance aircraft .
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , the Allies interned most of the High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive fleet consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . That morning , the Grand Fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training manoeuvres and while they were away Reuter issued the order to scuttle the High Seas Fleet .
= = = Postwar career = = =
On 12 March 1919 , Marlborough was recommissioned at Devonport and assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , as part of the 4th Battle Squadron , along with her three sisters and two Centurion @-@ class battleships . During this period , she served in the Black Sea during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War to support the Whites against the Red Bolsheviks . On 5 April 1919 , Marlborough arrived in Sevastopol before proceeding to Yalta the following day . The ship took Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna and other members of the Russian Imperial Family including Grand Duke Nicholas and Prince Felix Yusupov aboard in Yalta on the evening of the 7th . The Empress refused to leave unless the British also evacuated wounded and sick soldiers , along with any civilians that also wanted to escape the advancing Bolsheviks . The Russian entourage aboard Marlborough numbered some 80 people , including 44 members of the Royal Family and nobility , with a number of governesses , nurses , maids and manservants , plus several hundred cases of luggage .
About 35 officer ’ s cabins were vacated and additional bunks were installed , with the Empress taking over the Captain 's cabin . On the morning of 12 April the ship anchored off Halki Island , about 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Constantinople , due to some uncertainty over the final destination for the Russian Royal family . On 16 April Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich and his wife the Grand Duchess Anastasia , the Grand Duke Peter Nicholaievitch and his wife Grand Duchess Milica , Princess Marina , Prince Roman , Count and Countess Tyszkiewich , Baron and Baroness Staal , Mr Boldyreff and Dr Malama with their respective servants left the ship and boarded HMS Lord Nelson destined for Genoa . They were replaced by Count Dimitri and Countess Sophia Mengden , Count George and Countess Irina Mengden , Countess Vera Mengden , Count Nicholas Mengden , Madame Helena Erchoff and two maids . On the morning of 18 April , Good Friday , the ship sailed for Malta . The ship departed on 18 April , bound for Malta to deposit the Russians , before returning to Constantinople .
In May 1919 , Marlborough conducted tests with new high @-@ explosive 6 @-@ inch shells off the Kerch Peninsula , though these proved to be unreliable . During this period , she operated a kite balloon to aid in spotting the fall of shot . Later that month , a shell broke up in the left barrel of " A " turret and caused minor damage . While stationed off the Kerch Peninsula , the ship provided artillery support to White troops , including bombardments of Bolshevik positions in the villages of Koi @-@ Asan and Dal Kamici . By 1920 , British attention had turned to the Greco @-@ Turkish War . On 20 June 1920 , Marlborough arrived in Constantinople , where the Mediterranean Fleet was being concentrated to support the occupation of the city . On 6 July , British forces landed at Gemlik , while Marlborough provided artillery support .
In October 1920 , the battleship King George V arrived to replace Marlborough in the Mediterranean Fleet . Marlborough then returned to Devonport , where she was paid off for a major refit that took place between February 1921 and January 1922 . During the refit , range dials were installed , along with another range @-@ finder on the rear superstructure . The aircraft platform was removed from " B " turret . Long @-@ base range @-@ finders were installed on " X " turret . After completing the refit in January 1922 , Marlborough was recommissioned and assigned to the Mediterranean , where she replaced Emperor of India . She served as the second command flagship until October . Following the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 , the Allied countries withdrew their occupation forces from Turkey ; Marlborough was involved in escorting the troop convoys out of Constantinople .
Marlborough briefly served as the flagship for the deputy commander of the 4th Battle Squadron after King George V was damaged from striking a rock off Mytilene . In November 1924 , the 4th Battle Squadron was renamed the 3rd Battle Squadron . In March 1926 , the 3rd Battle Squadron , including Marlborough , was transferred to the Atlantic Fleet . There , the battleships served as training ships . In 1929 , the ship 's 3 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns were replaced with more powerful 4 @-@ inch guns . In January 1931 , Marlborough served as the squadron flagship , relieving Emperor of India . She remained in the position for only five months , being decommissioned on 5 June . According to the terms of the London Naval Treaty of 1930 , the four ships of the Iron Duke class were to be scrapped or demilitarised ; Marlborough was scheduled to be removed from service in 1931 and broken up for scrap .
The ship was used as a target to test the effect of various weapons on capital ships , along with Emperor of India . The tests included firing destroyer armament at the upper works at close range to test their effectiveness in a simulated night engagement , direct hits from 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shells , bomb tests , and experiments with flash tightness in the magazines . The first two tests were conducted in July 1931 , and were simulations of magazine explosions . The venting system worked as designed , and while the explosions caused serious internal damage , Marlborough was not destroyed , as the three battlecruisers had been at Jutland . In 1932 , further tests were conducted with dummy 250 @-@ pound ( 110 kg ) and 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bombs to test deck strength ; 450 @-@ pound ( 200 kg ) armour @-@ piercing ( AP ) bombs and 1 @,@ 080 @-@ pound ( 490 kg ) high explosive ( HE ) bombs were then detonated inside the ship to test their effectiveness . The Royal Navy determined that the HE bombs were useless , but that thick deck armour would be required to defeat AP bombs . This led to the decision to reinforce the deck armour of existing battleships throughout the 1930s .
Marlborough was placed on the disposal list in May 1932 and was quickly sold to the Alloa Shipbreaking Co . On 25 June , she arrived in Rosyth , where she was broken up for scrap .
= 766th Independent Infantry Regiment ( North Korea ) =
The 766th Independent Infantry Regiment ( Korean : 제766독립보병연대 ) was a light infantry unit of North Korea 's Korean People 's Army ( KPA ) that existed briefly during the Korean War . It was headquartered in Hoeryong , North Korea , and was also known as the 766th Unit ( Korean : 766부대 ) . Trained extensively in amphibious warfare and unconventional warfare , the 766th Regiment was considered a special forces commando unit . The regiment was trained to conduct assaults by sea and then to lead other North Korean units on offensive operations , to infiltrate behind enemy lines and to disrupt enemy supplies and communications .
Activated in 1949 , the regiment trained for more than a year before the outbreak of the war on June 25 , 1950 . On that day , half of the regiment led North Korean forces against South Korean troops by land and sea , pushing them back after several days of fighting . Over the next six weeks the regiment advanced slowly down the Korean Peninsula , acting as a forward unit of the North Korean army . Suffering from a lack of supplies and mounting casualties , the regiment was committed to the Battle of Pusan Perimeter as part of a push to force United Nations ( UN ) troops out of Korea .
The regiment saw its final action at the Battle of P 'ohang @-@ dong , fighting unsuccessfully to take the town from U.N. troops . Racked by U.N. naval and air forces and suffering extensive losses from continuous fighting , the regiment was forced to retreat from the P 'ohang @-@ dong battlefield . It moved north , joining a concentration of other KPA units , before being disbanded and absorbed into the KPA 's 12th Division .
= = Organization = =
Upon creation , the 766th Unit was designed to vary in size , consisting of a number of smaller units capable of acting alone . Eventually , it was reinforced to the size of a full regiment , with 3 @,@ 000 men equally distributed across six battalions ( numbered 1st through 6th ) . It was made directly subordinate to the KPA Army headquarters and put under the command of Senior Colonel Oh Jin Woo , who would command the unit for its entire existence . All 500 men of the 3rd Battalion were lost just before the war started when their transport was sunk while attacking Pusan harbor by the Republic of Korea Navy . For the remainder of its existence the regiment was whittled down by losses until it numbered no more than 1 @,@ 500 men and could not muster more than three battalions .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
During the planning for the invasion of South Korea in the years before the war , the North Korean leadership began to create large numbers of commando and special forces units to send south . These units subverted South Korean authority before and during the war with terror campaigns , sabotage and inducing rebellions in ROK military units . Hundreds of commandos were sent to South Korea in this fashion , and by the end of the war up to 3 @,@ 000 of them had been trained and armed . During this time , North Korean leadership also ordered the creation of large conventional units to act as advance forces for the actual invasion . The 766th Unit was formed in April 1949 at the Third Military Academy in Hoeryong , North Korea . The academy was specially designed to train commandos , and the 766th was originally designed to supervise North Korean light infantry ranger units . Over the next year , the 766th Unit received extensive training in unconventional warfare and amphibious warfare . During this time , the unit was expanded in size to 3 @,@ 000 men in six battalions .
Prior to the beginning of the war in June 1950 , the 766th completed training and was moved to the front at Yangyang to support the KPA 's 5th Division . The North Korean plan was to conduct amphibious landings in Chongdongjin and Imwonjin on the eastern coast using the 766th Regiment , in conjunction with the 549th Unit . These amphibious landings would harass the rear area of the Republic of Korea Army , providing supporting attacks to the planned frontal attack by the KPA 's II Corps directly from the north . The 766th was in position by June 23 and prepared for the attack . The unit was moved to the ports of Wonsan and Kansong and loaded into ships . With the 3 @,@ 000 men in the 766th , another 3 @,@ 000 in the 549th , and 11 @,@ 000 men in the KPA 's 5th Division , the 17 @,@ 000 North Korean troops outnumbered the Republic of Korea Army 's ( ROK ) 8th Division 's 6 @,@ 866 by a ratio of 2 @.@ 1 to 1 . The combination of the frontal attack and the landings were expected to crush the ROK division and prevent reinforcements from moving in to support it .
The regiment was split into three groups for the attack . Three battalions acted as spearheads for the 5th Division on land while two more battalions conducted the landings in Imwonjin . This 2 @,@ 500 man force reassembled and then led the North Korean units south . In the meantime , the 3rd Battalion , 766th Regiment was detached and sent on a mission to infiltrate Pusan . Paired with additional support , it formed the 600 @-@ man 588th Unit . 588th Unit was tasked with raiding Pusan harbor , destroying vital facilities to make it impossible for UN forces to land troops there . However , the troop transport carrying the 588th Unit was discovered and sunk by United Nations ships outside Pusan harbor the morning of June 25 , destroying the 3rd Battalion .
= = = Outbreak = = =
Around 04 : 00 on June 25 , the KPA 's 5th Division began its first attacks on the ROK 10th Regiment 's forward positions . Three hours later , the 766th Regiment 's two battalions landed at the village of Imwonjin , using motor and sail boats to land troops and mustering South Korean villagers to assist in setting up supplies . The two battalions separated ; one headed into the T 'aeback Mountains and the second advanced north toward Samcheok . At this point , the ROK 8th Division , under heavy attack from the front and aware of attacks in the rear , urgently requested reinforcements . It was denied these reinforcements , as ROK higher commanders informed the division commander that the ROK Army was under heavy attack across the entirety of the 38th parallel and had no reinforcements to spare .
The ROK 21st Regiment , 8th Division 's southernmost unit , moved to counter the amphibious attack . The regiment 's 1st Battalion moved from Bukp 'yong into the Okgye area and ambushed forward elements of the 766th in conjunction with local police and militia forces . They were able to drive back the 766th Regiment 's northern advance . However , at least one of the 766th Regiment 's battalions massed at Bamjae , blocking one of the 8th Division 's main supply routes . ROK troops mustered a civilian militia to help fight the North Koreans , which was only moderately effective . The embattled ROK 8th Division was forced to withdraw under overwhelming attacks and breakdowns in communication on July 27 . With the retreat of the ROK 6th Division , the entire ROK eastern flank was forced back . The 766th Regiment had been successful in establishing a bridgehead and disrupting communications in the initial attack .
= = = Advance = = =
With the ROK army in retreat , the 766th Regiment , 549th Unit , and KPA 's 5th Divisions all advanced steadily south along the eastern roads without encountering much resistance . Across the entire front the North Korean Army had successfully routed the South Koreans and was pushing them south . The 766th Regiment acted as an advance force , attempting to infiltrate further inland as it moved through the mountainous eastern region of the country . The rugged terrain of the eastern regions of Korea , poor communication equipment , and unreliable resupply lines thwarted the South Korean resistance . The North Koreans used this to their advantage in advancing but they began to experience the same problems themselves . The 5th Division and the two other units began advancing south slowly and cautiously , sending strong reconnaissance parties into the mountains to ensure they would not be threatened from the rear . However , this more cautious advance began to give the South Koreans valuable time to build up further south . By June 28 , the 766th had infiltrated into Taebaek @-@ san from Uljin and was moving toward Ilwolsan , Yongyang and Cheongsong in order to block communications between Daegu and Busan , where United States Army forces were landing in an attempt to support the collapsing ROK Army .
The ROK 23rd Regiment of the ROK 3rd Division was moved to block the advance of the three units at Uljin . The ROK forces mounted a series of delaying actions against the main North Korean force , which was significantly dispersed throughout the mountainous region and unable to muster its overwhelming strength . The ROK regiment was subsequently able to hold up the North Korean advance until July 5 . On July 10 , the 766th separated from the 5th Division and met an advance party of North Korean civilians in Uljin who had been sent to set up government in the area . From here , the 766th dispersed in small groups into the mountains . On July 13 it reached Pyonghae @-@ ri , 25 miles ( 40 km ) north of Yongdok .
Over the next week the 766th Regiment and the KPA 's 5th Division continued in a slow advance south as it met increasing South Korean resistance . United Nations air support began to increase , slowing the advance further . The force continued to occupy the eastern flank , and by July 24 it was advancing from the Chongsong @-@ Andong region and approaching Pohang . On its flank was the KPA 's 12th Division . Progress halted as UN aerial and naval bombardment made movement more difficult . At the same time the North Korean units ' supply lines were stretched thin and began to break down , forcing them to conscript South Korean civilians to carry supplies .
= = = Resistance = = =
On July 17 , the KPA 's 5th Division entered Yongdok , taking the city without much resistance before fierce UN air attacks caused the division heavy losses . Still , it was able to surround the ROK 3rd Division in the city . By now , the 5th Division and the 766th Regiment had been reduced to a combined strength of 7 @,@ 500 men to the ROK 3rd Divisions ' 6 @,@ 469 . The 766th massed its force again to assist the 5th Division in surrounding and besieging the ROK 3rd Division , which was trapped in the city . The 3rd Division , in the meantime , was ordered to remain in the city to delay the North Koreans as long as possible . It was eventually evacuated by sea after delaying North Korean forces for a considerable time . The rugged terrain of the mountains prevented the North Korean forces from conducting the enveloping maneuvers they had used so effectively against other troops , and their advantages in numbers and equipment had been negated in the fight .
By July 28 , the division was still embroiled in this fight and the 766th bypassed it and moved toward Chinbo on the left flank of the city . However the 766th had suffered significant setbacks at Yongdok , with substantial losses due to American and British naval artillery fire . Once it arrived in the area , it met heavier resistance from South Korean police and militia operating in armored vehicles . With air support , they offered the heaviest resistance the unit had faced thus far . With the support of only one of the 5th Division 's regiments , the 766th was unable to sustain its advance , and had to pull back by the 29th . Movement from the ROK Capital Division prevented the 766th Regiment from infiltrating further into the mountains . ROK cavalry and civilian police then began isolated counteroffensives against the 766th . These forces included special counter @-@ guerrilla units targeting the 766th and countering its tactics . South Korean troops halted the advance of the North Koreans again around the end of the month thanks to increased reinforcements and support closer to the Pusan Perimeter logistics network .
On August 5 , the KPA 's 12th Division pushed back the ROK Capital Division in the Ch 'ongsong @-@ Kigye area , and linked up with elements of the 766th which had infiltrated the area of Pohyunsan . Unopposed , they began to prepare to attack P 'ohang to secure entry into the UN 's newly established Pusan Perimeter . The Regiment was ordered to begin an attack in coordination with the KPA 's 5th Division . The Korean People 's Army planned simultaneous offensives across the entire Perimeter , including a flanking maneuver by the 766th and the 5th Division to envelop UN troops and push them back to Pusan . The 766th was not reinforced ; North Korean planners intended it to move unseen around the UN lines while the majority of the UN and North Korean troops were locked in fighting around Taegu and the Naktong Bulge .
By this time , however , North Korean logistics had been stretched to their limit , and resupply became increasingly difficult . By the beginning of August , the North Korean units operating in the area were getting little to no food and ammunition supply , instead relying on captured UN weapons and foraging for what they could find . They were also exhausted from over a month of advancing , though morale remained high among the 766th troops . The 766th Regiment specialized in raiding UN supply lines , and effectively mounted small disruptive attacks against UN targets to equip themselves .
= = = Disbandment = = =
At dawn on August 11 , one 300 @-@ man battalion of the 766th Regiment entered the village of P 'ohang , creating a state of alarm among its populace . The village was only protected by a small force of South Korean Navy , Air Force and Army personnel comprising the rear guard of the ROK 3rd Division . The South Korean forces engaged the 766th forces around the village 's middle school with small @-@ arms fire until noon . At that point , North Korean armored vehicles moved in to reinforce the 766th troops and drove the South Koreans out of the village .
The village was strategically important because it was one of the few direct routes through the mountains and into the Gyeongsang plain . It also led directly to the land routes being used by the UN to reinforce Taegu . Upon hearing of the fall of P 'ohang , UN Eighth United States Army commander Lieutenant General Walton Walker immediately ordered naval and air bombardment of the village . He also ordered ROK and US forces to secure regions around the village to prevent further advance of the North Korean troops . Within a few hours , the village was being blasted by artillery forcing the Regiment 's advance force to pull back . The 766th 's forces congregated and fought in the hills around the village . They joined elements of the KPA 's 5th Division , and did not enter P 'ohang until night .
UN forces responded to the threat with overwhelming numbers . A large force of South Korean troops , designated Task Force P 'ohang , was massed and sent into P 'ohang @-@ dong to engage the 766th Regiment and the 5th Division . ROK troops attacked toward An 'gang @-@ ni to the east , forcing the KPA 's 12th Division into a full retreat . Threatened with encirclement , the KPA 's 5th Division and 766th Regiment were ordered into full retreat on August 17 . By this time , the 766th had been reduced to 1 @,@ 500 men , half its original strength .
Exhausted and out of supplies , the 766th Regiment moved to Pihak @-@ san , a mountain 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of Kigye , to join the shattered KPA 's 12th Division . The 12th Division was reduced to 1 @,@ 500 men in the fighting , and 2 @,@ 000 army replacements and South Korean conscripts were brought to replenish the division . The 766th Regiment was also ordered to merge its remaining troops into the depleted KPA 's 12th Division . Upon the completion of the merger with the 12th Division on August 19 , 1950 , the 766th Regiment ceased to exist . It had trained for close to 14 months prior to the war but fought for less than two .
= Sister Wives =
Sister Wives is an American reality television series broadcast on TLC that began airing in 2010 . The show documents the life of a polygamist family , which includes patriarch Kody Brown , his four wives , and their 18 children . The family began the series living in Lehi , Utah , but has since moved to Las Vegas , Nevada in 2011 .
Brown and his wives have said they participated with the show to make the public more aware of polygamist families and to combat societal prejudices . Brown believes his polygamist arrangement is legal because he is legally married only to one woman , and the other marriages are spiritual unions . The series led to the Brown family being investigated for possible prosecution .
= = Concept = =
The show follows the lives of advertising salesman Kody Brown , his wives Meri , Janelle , Christine , and Robyn , and their 18 children . In the first season the show televised Brown 's courting and marriage of his fourth wife , Robyn Sullivan , in 2010 . Sullivan was the first new wife to enter the family in 16 years .
The only legal marriage was between Kody and his first wife Meri , until their legal divorce in September 2014 . ( He legally married fourth wife Robyn in December 2014 in order to legally adopt her three children ) . The other marriages are considered spiritual unions . As of 2015 Kody has been married to Meri for 25 years , Janelle for 22 years , Christine for 21 years , and Robyn for 5 years . Kody and Meri have a daughter named Mariah , their only child . Kody and Janelle have six children : daughters Madison and Savanah and sons Logan , Hunter , Garrison , and Gabriel . Kody and Christine have six children : daughters Aspyn , Mykelti , Gwendlyn , Ysabel , and Truely and son Paedon . Robyn had three children from her first marriage , which was monogamous : Dayton , Aurora , and Breanna . Kody legally adopted them in June 2015 . Kody and Robyn have two children : son Solomon and daughter Ariella .
Meri , Robyn , and Christine were all raised in polygamist families , but Janelle was not . Although Christine 's mother left the faith she still supports them . Months before the marriage of Janelle and Kody , however , Janelle 's mother entered into a polygamist marriage with Kody 's father . The Brown family belongs to the Apostolic United Brethren ( AUB . ) For years before the series , the family kept their polygamist lifestyle what they called a " quasi @-@ secret " .
= = Children = =
Kody has 18 children :
With Meri :
Mariah ( July 29 , 1995 ) daughter
With Janelle :
Logan ( May 21 , 1994 ) son
Madison ( November 3 , 1995 ) daughter
Married to Caleb Brush since June 4 , 2016
Hunter ( February 9 , 1997 ) son
Garrison ( April 10 , 1998 ) son
Gabriel ( October 11 , 2001 ) son
Savanah ( December 7 , 2004 ) daughter
With Christine :
Aspyn ( March 14 , 1995 ) daughter
Mykelti ( June 9 , 1996 ) daughter
Engaged to Antonio Padron
Paedon ( August 7 , 1998 ) son
Gwendlyn ( July 23 , 2001 ) daughter
Ysabel ( March 7 , 2003 ) daughter
Truely ( April 13 , 2010 ) daughter
With Robyn :
Solomon ( October 27 , 2011 ) son
Ariella Mae ( January 10 , 2016 ) daughter
Robyn 's children from her first marriage who were adopted by Kody on June 17 , 2015 :
Dayton ( January 16 , 2000 ) son
Aurora ( June 4 , 2002 ) daughter
Breanna ( April 8 , 2005 ) daughter
= = Development = =
In the autumn of 2009 , independent producers Timothy Gibbons and Christopher Poole approached Figure 8 Films , a North Carolinian company , with the concept of a reality series about the Brown family . Bill Hayes , the president of Figure 8 Films , said the company agreed to the idea after meeting with the Browns and deciding their lives would make a great story . Camera crews shot footage of the family in mid @-@ 2010 to be used in the first season , ending in May with the marriage of Kody Brown and Robyn Sullivan . The crews continued to film them afterward in case the series was picked up for a second season . Sister Wives was publicly introduced on August 6 , 2010 , at the Television Critics Association summer media tour in Beverly Hills , California . The series ' first episode , an hour long , was broadcast on TLC on September 26 , 2010 , and the first season continued with six half @-@ hour chapters until October 17 , 2010 .
The broadcast of Sister Wives came at a time that polygamy and multiple marriages were a prevalent topic in American pop culture . Big Love , the hit HBO series about fictional Utah polygamist Bill Henrickson , his three sister wives , and their struggle to gain acceptance in society , had already been on the air for several years . In early September 2010 , the drama series Lone Star , about a con man on the verge of entering into multiple marriages , premiered on Fox but was quickly canceled after two episodes , and when Sister Wives debuted , actress Katherine Heigl was in the process of developing a film about Carolyn Jessop , a woman who fled from a polygamist sect .
In October 2010 , TLC announced it had commissioned a second season , which began in March 2011 . A TLC interview with the Brown family was broadcast on October 31 , 2010 , and a one @-@ hour program featuring the honeymoon of Kody Brown and Robyn Sullivan aired on November 22 , 2010 .
= = Episodes = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
The nine @-@ episode first season ran from September 26 to November 21 , 2010 . The season premiere introduced viewers to Kody Brown and his three wives , Meri , Janelle , and Christine , and their twelve children , all of whom lived in a ranch @-@ style home with three interconnected apartments . It also chronicled Kody 's dating and engagement to Robyn Sullivan , who herself has three children , marking the first time in 16 years Kody had courted another wife . The new relationship creates insecurity and jealousy among the other three wives , but they ultimately accept her and welcome her into the family . During the fourth episode of the season , Christine gives birth to her sixth child , Truely , which brings the family to 16 children including Robyn 's three kids .
Later , Kody and Meri go to Mexico to celebrate their twentieth wedding anniversary , where Meri discussed her sadness about her infertility problems and the jealousy that has arisen from Kody 's engagement to Robyn . Kody proposes in vitro fertilisation , but she turns down the idea as she is only interested in a naturally occurring conception . As Robyn 's wedding approaches , the three sister wives help Robyn prepare , and they begin to bond . However , Kody upsets his wives when he reveals he secretly chose Robyn 's wedding dress himself , which makes Christine feel so betrayed that she angrily walks away in mid @-@ interview . Kody eventually apologizes , and the five reconcile . The first season finale ends with the wedding of Kody and Robyn , where Meri , Janelle , and Christine present her with a Claddagh ring to welcome her into the family .
= = = Season 2 = = =
Season 2 ran 23 episodes from March 13 , 2011 to November 27 , 2011 , though many sources refer to the episodes airing from September 25 , 2011 to November 27 , 2011 as Season 3 . This is due to a short hiatus from June 5 , 2011 to September 25 , 2011 .
Season 2 begins with the Browns heading to New York to appear on national television for the first time as open polygamists , while back home the kids head off to their first day of public school . Throughout the season , the Browns visit various friends and family members and reflect on how their relationships have changed with these people since they became open polygamists . These friends and family members include Kody 's parents ( also polygamists ) , Kody 's high school friends , and various monogamous couples that Kody and the sister wives know . Part 1 of Season 2 also follows the Browns through Kody and Janelle 's anniversary camping trip , preparing and participating in Halloween , and Christmas , which the Browns celebrate in a snowy mountain cabin . During Season 2 we also learn more about Meri 's personal struggle with her risk of cancer and the loss of her sister . In episode 5 , Kody , Christine , and their children take a trip to Las Vegas , which we later learn is the beginning of the Browns ' subsequent move to Las Vegas . The final episodes of Season 2 follow the Browns with their real estate agent Mona Riekki through their struggle to find a home in Las Vegas suitable for polygamists , telling the kids that they are moving , and the subsequent move to Las Vegas . Realtor , Mona Riekki finds rental homes for each of the wives and Kody . Once the Browns settle into their new homes they discuss the possibility of finding a home for all of them to live together or four homes in one cul @-@ de @-@ sac . In the last episode before the hiatus , Robyn announces that she is expecting her and Kody 's first child .
The second part of Season 2 brings the announcement of the sex of
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. " Underneath the Stars " was chosen as the sixth and final single from the album . Described by Carey as one of her favorite songs , " Underneath the Stars " received a limited number of pressings in the US , where it charted weakly on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs .
= = Promotion = =
In order to promote the album , Carey embarked on her second head @-@ lining tour . Originally , she had not planned to tour , due to the long travel times and hassle ; however , after many requests from fans , Carey agreed to tour . The tour reached Japan and select European countries , not visiting the United States . This was possibly due to the mixed reception Carey 's 1993 North American Music Box Tour received three years prior . The shows were all spaced apart , giving Carey time to rest her vocals , " It 's very strenuous to sing all my songs back to back , but I 'm actually really looking forward to it . " Many musicians joined Carey for the tour , including Randy Jackson who served as the musical director and played the bass , Dan Shea on the keyboards , Vernon Black playing the guitar , Gigi Conway on the drums , and percussion and music sequencing by Peter Michael and Gary Cirimelli . All of the musicians and background vocalists were under the supervision of Walter Afanasieff , who played the piano and guided the production . Before embarking on her world tour in 1996 , Carey performed a sold @-@ out show at Madison Square Garden in 1995 . The performance was filmed , and released as a DVD titled Fantasy : Mariah Carey at Madison Square Garden . It became Carey 's fourth video release .
When the three Japanese shows at the Tokyo Dome went on sale , Carey set a record after all 150 @,@ 000 tickets sold out under three hours . The shows became the fastest sellout in the stadium 's history , breaking the previous record held by The Rolling Stones . The shows in Japan were a critical and commercial success , with critics and fans raving about the show and Carey 's vocals . Carey 's presence in Asia in the 90s was unparalleled to any other international artist . Her international success and anticipation was even compared to the " Beatlemania " in the 1960s . In an interview with MTV , Carey spoke of how she felt performing in Asia :
" First of all , you 're in front of so many people that basically don 't speak your language . It took a little getting used to , but I think by the end of the show , you know , everybody started to kind of relax . "
For the show , Carey sang fourteen original songs , including many of her biggest hits up until that point , as well as many songs from Daydream . They included " Fantasy , " " One Sweet Day , " " Open Arms , " " Always Be My Baby , " " Forever " and " Underneath the Stars " as well as hits from her previous studio efforts . Carey 's following shows in France , Germany , The Netherlands and the United Kingdom were all sold @-@ out as well , receiving warm critical response . During the span of the tour 's seven short dates , Carey had already begun working on concepts for her new album Butterfly . According to author Marc Shapiro , Carey 's European tour was truly a success , in many aspects :
" The European tour mirrored the success of her shows in Japan . Mariah 's appearances overseas were heartening experiences for the singer . The popularity – indeed , mania – surrounding her shows in these countries reached massive proportions . The reception the concerts received reflected the fact that Mariah 's music cut through race and language barriers and had struck at a universal , emotional core with fans . The tour cemented the fact that Mariah Carey had arrived as the performing centerpiece on the world stage . "
In addition to touring the world , Carey performed on a variety of television programs and award shows . After " Fantasy " was released in September throughout Europe , Carey performed the song on the popular British chart show Top of the Pops , which aired live via satellite on Asian television . Carey performed " Fantasy " in France and at the 23rd Annual American Music Awards on January 29 , 1996 . " One Sweet Day " was performed at the 38th Annual Grammy Awards , Princess Diana 's memorial service in September 1997 , and at Carey 's Black Entertainment Television Christmas special in 2001 . During her European promotional tour for the album , Carey performed " Open Arms " on various television programs , including Wetten , dass .. ? in Germany , Top of the Pops and Des O 'Connor in the United Kingdom and on Swedish television .
= = Awards and accolades = =
The music industry took note of Carey 's success . She won two awards at the 1996 American Music Awards for her solo efforts : Favorite Pop / Rock Female Artist and Favorite Soul / R & B Female Artist . Throughout 1995 & 1996 , Carey was awarded various prestigious awards at the World Music Awards , including " World 's Best Selling Female R & B Artist " , " World 's Best Selling Overall Female Recording Artist , " " World 's Best Selling Pop Artist " and " World 's Best Selling Overall Recording Artist . " Additionally , " Fantasy " was named " Song of the Year " at the BMI Awards and " Favorite Song " at the Blockbuster Entertainment Awards , where Carey also won the award for " Top Pop Female . " In 1996 , Carey won many awards at the Billboard Music Awards , including " Hot 100 Singles Artist of the Year " , " Hot 100 Airplay ( Always Be My Baby ) , " " Hot Adult Contemporary Artist of the Year " and " Special Award for 16 weeks at # 1 for ' One Sweet Day . ' "
= = = Grammy controversy = = =
Daydream was proven to be one of the best @-@ selling and most acclaimed albums of 1995 . When the Grammy Award nominees were announced , and Daydream was nominated for six different awards , critics began raving how it would be " cleaning up " that year . The 38th Annual Grammy Awards were held on February 28 , 1996 at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles . Carey , being a multiple award nominee , was one of the headlining performers . Together with Boyz II Men , she sang a live rendition of " One Sweet Day , " to a very positive response . However , as the award winners were announced one by one , Carey watched as her name was not called up even once . Daydream had lost all of its six nominations , shocking most critics who branded it the " album of the year " . With every passing loss , the television cameras continued to zoom on Carey 's face , who was finding it more difficult to retain her smile . By the end of the night , Carey had not won a single award . The disappointment on her face was painfully obvious . While Carey was nominated again the following year , she did not perform again until the 2006 ceremony , when she was nominated for eight awards ( winning three ) for The Emancipation of Mimi .
= = Music videos = =
Carey directed the music video for " Fantasy " . Additionally , she chose the concept and created the idea . The video featured Carey in roller @-@ blades , blading through a theme @-@ park , while enjoying different rides and roller coasters . The video then cut into scenes of Carey dancing on top of a car , celebrating an event with many friends . Carey said her inspiration for the video was to give off a " free and open feeling , " trying to portray the freedom she had finally achieved in being allowed to direct her first video . The video for " Fantasy " debuted on September 7 , at the " MTV Video Music Awards . " Carey expressed how much she enjoyed the video 's filming , speaking about the " roller @-@ coaster scenes " :
" They did not expect me to get that shot ! They were saying , ' How 's she going to sing on a roller coaster ? ... We put a little speaker on the bottom of the car , where my feet where . We built the rig in front of the roller coaster and the lens kept falling off ! "
When Carey and Boyz II Men got together to record " One Sweet Day , " they didn 't have enough time to re @-@ unite and film a video . For this reason , a filming crew was present during the song 's recording , and filmed bits of Carey and Boyz recording the song . In an interview with Fred Bronson , Walter Afanasieff made the following statements regarding the video for " One Sweet Day " :
" It was crazy ! They had film crews and video guys , while I 'm at the board trying to produce . And these guys were running around having a ball , because Mariah and them are laughing and screaming and they 're being interviewed . And I 'm tapping people on the shoulder . " We 've got to get to the microphone ! " They 're gone in a couple of hours , so I recorded everything they did , praying that it was enough . "
The video for " Always Be My Baby " was once again filmed by Carey . It featured Carey swinging on a swing in the middle of a dark meadow , showing her frolicking through the woodlands . The video was set as a " peaceful and relaxing " setting , in order to try to reflect the sweet and mellow song 's message . " Forever " , the album 's fifth single , was the final song to be accompanied by a music video . Carey 's label used footage from her live performances of the song in New York City and Japan and compiled them into a video . On February 11 , 2012 , Carey revealed through her Twitter account that a music video for " Underneath the Stars " was actually recorded . Filming sessions occurred in England and France ; Carey commented , however , that it " never got released and I don 't know where it is ! "
= = Track listing = =
Notes
Track listing and credits from album booklet .
" Fantasy " contains a sample of " Genius of Love " by Tom Tom Club .
= = Album credits = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Leg before wicket =
Leg before wicket ( lbw ) is one of the ways in which a batsman can be dismissed in the sport of cricket . Following an appeal by the fielding side , the umpire may rule a batsman out lbw if the ball would have struck the wicket , but was instead intercepted by any part of the batsman 's body ( except the hand holding the bat ) . The umpire 's decision will depend on a number of criteria , including where the ball pitched , whether the ball hit in line with the wickets , and whether the batsman was attempting to hit the ball .
Leg before wicket first appeared in the laws of cricket in 1774 , as batsmen began to use their pads to prevent the ball hitting their wicket . Over several years , refinements were made to clarify where the ball should pitch and to remove the element of interpreting the batsman 's intentions . The 1839 version of the law used a wording that remained in place for nearly 100 years . However , from the latter part of the 19th century , batsmen became increasingly expert at " pad @-@ play " to reduce the risk of their dismissal . Following a number of failed proposals for reform , in 1935 the law was expanded , such that batsmen could be dismissed lbw even if the ball pitched outside the line of off stump . Critics felt this change made the game unattractive as it encouraged negative tactics at the expense of leg spin bowling .
After considerable debate and various experiments , the law was changed again in 1972 . In an attempt to reduce pad @-@ play the new version , which is used to this day , allowed batsmen to be out lbw in some circumstances if they did not attempt to hit the ball with their bat . Since the 1990s , the availability of television replays and , later , ball @-@ tracking technology to assist umpires has increased the percentage of lbws in major matches . However , the accuracy of the technology and the consequences of its use remain controversial .
In his 1995 survey of cricket laws , Gerald Brodribb states : " No dismissal has produced so much argument as lbw ; it has caused trouble from its earliest days " . Owing to its complexity , the law is widely misunderstood among the general public and has proven controversial among spectators , administrators and commentators ; lbw decisions have sometimes caused crowd trouble . Since the law 's introduction , the proportion of lbw dismissals has risen steadily through the years . Statistics reveal that the probability of a batsman being dismissed lbw in a Test match varies depending on where the match is played and which teams are playing .
= = Definition = =
The definition of leg before wicket ( lbw ) is currently Law 36 in the Laws of Cricket , written by the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) . Before a batsman can be dismissed lbw , the fielding team must appeal to the umpire . For the batsman to be adjudged lbw , the ball , if it bounces , must pitch in line with the wickets , or on the off side of the stumps . Then the ball must strike part of the batsman 's body , without first touching his bat , in line with the wickets and have been going on to hit the stumps . The batsman may also be out lbw if , having made no attempt to hit the ball with his bat , he is struck outside the line of off stump by a ball that would have hit the wickets . The umpire must assume that the ball would have continued on the same trajectory after striking the batsman , even if it would have bounced before hitting the stumps . However , if the bowler delivers a no ball — an illegal delivery — the batsman cannot be lbw under any circumstances .
A batsman can be out lbw even if the ball did not hit his leg : for example , a batsman struck on the head could be lbw . However , he cannot be lbw if the ball pitches on the leg side of the stumps ( " outside leg stump " ) , even if the ball would have otherwise hit the wickets . Similarly , a batsman who has attempted to hit the ball with his bat cannot be lbw if the ball strikes him outside the line of off stump . However , some shots in cricket , such as the switch hit or reverse sweep , involve the batsman switching between a right- and left @-@ handed stance ; this affects the location of the off and leg side , which are determined by the stance . The law explicitly states that the off side is determined by the batsman 's position when the bowler commences his run @-@ up .
According to MCC guidelines for umpires , factors to consider when giving an lbw decision include the angle at which the ball was travelling and whether the ball was swinging through the air . He must also account for the height of the ball at impact and how far from the wicket the batsman was standing ; from this information he must determine if the ball would have passed over the stumps or struck them . The MCC guidance states that it is easier to make a decision when the ball strikes the batsman without pitching , but that the difficulty increases when the ball has bounced and more so when there is a shorter time between the ball pitching and striking the batsman .
= = Development of the law = =
= = = Origins = = =
The earliest known written version of the Laws of Cricket , dating from 1744 , does not include an lbw rule . At the time , batsmen in English cricket used curved bats , which made it unlikely that they would be able to stand directly in front of the wickets . However , a clause in the 1744 laws gave umpires the power to take action if the batsman was " standing unfair to strike " . Cricket bats were modified to become straighter over the following years , allowing batsmen to stand closer to the wickets . Subsequently , some players deliberately began to obstruct the ball from hitting the wickets . Such tactics were criticised by writers and a revision of the laws in 1774 ruled that the batsman was out if he deliberately stopped the ball from hitting the wicket with his leg . However , critics noted that the umpires were left the difficult task of interpreting the intentions of batsmen . The 1788 version of the laws no longer required the umpires to take account of the batsman 's intent ; now a batsman was lbw if he stopped a ball that " pitch [ ed ] straight " . Further clarification of the law came in 1823 , when a condition was added that " the ball must be delivered in a straight line to the wicket " . The ambiguity of the wording was highlighted when two prominent umpires disagreed over whether the ball had to travel in a straight line from the bowler to the wicket , or between the wickets at either end of the pitch . In 1839 the MCC , by then responsible for drafting the Laws of Cricket , endorsed the latter interpretation and ruled the batsman out lbw if the ball pitched in between the wickets and would have hit the stumps .
= = = Controversy and attempted reform = = =
In essence , the lbw law remained the same between 1839 and 1937 , despite several campaigns to have it changed . An 1863 proposal to allow a batsman to be lbw if the ball hit his body at any point between the wickets , regardless of where the ball pitched or whether it would hit the wicket at all , came to nothing . There were few complaints until the proportion of lbw dismissals in county cricket began to increase during the 1880s . Until then , batsmen used their pads only to protect their legs ; their use for any other purposes was considered unsporting , and some amateur cricketers did not wear them at all . As cricket became more organised and competitive , some batsmen began to use their pads as a second line of defence : they lined them up with the ball so that if they missed with the bat , the ball struck the pad instead of the wicket . Some players took this further ; if the delivery was not an easy one from which to score runs , they attempted no shot and allowed the ball to bounce safely off their pads . Arthur Shrewsbury was the first prominent player to use such methods , and others followed . Criticism of this practice was heightened by the increased quality and reliability of cricket pitches , which made batting easier , led to higher scores and created a perceived imbalance in the game .
Several proposals were made to prevent pad @-@ play . At a meeting of representatives of the main county cricket clubs in 1888 , one representative expressed the opinion that a " batsman who defended his wicket with his body instead of with his bat should be punished " . The representatives supported a motion to alter the law to state that the batsman would be out if he stopped a ball that would have hit the wicket ; in contrast to the existing wording , this took no account of where the ball pitched relative to the wickets . Further proposals included one in which the intent of the batsman was taken into account , but no laws were changed and the MCC merely issued a condemnation of the practice of using pads for defence . This reduced pad @-@ play for a short time , but when it increased again , a second pronouncement by the MCC had little effect .
Further discussion on altering the law took place in 1899 , when several prominent cricketers supported an amendment similar to the 1888 proposal : the batsman would be out if the ball would have hit the wicket , where it pitched was irrelevant . At a Special General Meeting of the MCC in 1902 , Alfred Lyttelton formally proposed this amendment ; the motion was supported by 259 votes to 188 , but failed to secure the two @-@ thirds majority required to change the laws . A. G. Steel was the principal opponent of the change , as he believed it would make the task of the umpires too difficult , but he later regretted his stance . Lyttelton 's brother , Robert , supported the alteration and campaigned for the rest of his life to have the lbw law altered . As evidence that pad @-@ play was increasing and needed to be curtailed , he cited the growing number of wickets which were falling lbw : the proportion rose from 2 % of dismissals in 1870 to 6 % in 1890 , and 12 % in 1923 . In 1902 , the proposed new law was tried in the Minor Counties Championship , but deemed a failure . An increase in the size of the stumps was one of several other rejected proposals at this time to reduce the dominance of batsmen over bowlers .
= = = Alteration to the law = = =
Between 1900 and the 1930s , the number of runs scored by batsmen , and the proportion of lbw dismissals , continued to rise . Bowlers grew increasingly frustrated with pad @-@ play and the extent to which batsmen refused to play shots at bowling directed outside the off stump , simply allowing it to pass by . The English fast bowler Harold Larwood responded by targeting leg stump , frequently hitting the batsman with the ball in the process . This developed into the controversial Bodyline tactics he used in Australia in 1932 – 33 . Some batsmen began to go further and preferred to kick away balls pitched outside off stump — reaching out to kick the ball instead of allowing it to hit their pads — if they presented any threat , knowing that they could not be dismissed lbw . The authorities believed these developments represented poor entertainment value . At the height of the Bodyline controversy in 1933 , Donald Bradman , the leading Australian batsman and primary target of the English bowlers , wrote to the MCC recommending an alteration of the lbw law to create more exciting games .
To address the problem , and redress the balance for bowlers , the MCC made some alterations to the laws . The size of the ball was reduced in 1927 , and that of the stumps increased in 1931 , but the changes had little effect . Between 1929 and 1933 , county authorities conducted a trial in which a batsman could be lbw if he had hit the ball onto his pads . Then , in 1935 , an experimental law was introduced in which the batsman could be dismissed lbw even if the ball pitched outside the line of off stump — in other words , a ball that turned or swung into the batsman but did not pitch in line with the wickets . However , the ball was still required to strike the batsman in line with the wickets . The umpire signalled to the scorers when he declared a batsman out under the new rule , and any such dismissal was designated " lbw ( n ) " on the scorecard .
Several leading batsmen opposed the new law , including the professional Herbert Sutcliffe , known as an exponent of pad @-@ play , and amateurs Errol Holmes and Bob Wyatt . Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack noted that these three improved their batting records during the 1935 season , but batsmen generally were less successful . There were also fewer drawn matches . There was an increase in the number of lbws — out of 1 @,@ 560 lbw dismissals in first @-@ class matches in 1935 , 483 were given under the amended law . Wisden judged the experiment a success and several of its opponents changed their mind by the end of the season ; batsmen soon became accustomed to the alteration . Although Australian authorities were less convinced , and did not immediately introduce the revision into domestic first @-@ class cricket , in 1937 the new rule became part of the Laws of Cricket .
According to Gerald Brodribb , in his survey and history of the Laws , the change produced more " enterprising " , exciting cricket but any alteration in outlook was halted by the Second World War . When the sport resumed in 1946 , batsmen were out of practice and the amended lbw law played into the hands of off spin and inswing bowlers , who began to dominate county cricket . The cricket historian Derek Birley notes that many of these bowlers imitated the methods of Alec Bedser , an inswing bowler who was successful immediately after the war , but that the resulting cricket was unexciting to watch . The revised lbw law , and other alterations in the game in favour of the bowler , further encouraged such bowling . The new law continued to provoke debate among writers and cricketers ; many former players claimed that the alteration had caused a deterioration in batting and reduced the number of shots played on the off side . A 1963 report in The Times blamed the law for reducing the variety of bowling styles : " the change has led to a steady increase in the amount of seam and off @-@ spin bowling . Whereas in the early thirties every county had a leg spinner and an orthodox left arm spinner , leg spinners , at any rate , are now few and far between . Walk on to any of the first @-@ class grounds at any time tomorrow and the chances are that you will see the wicketkeeper standing back and a medium pace bowler in action ... there is little doubt that the game , as a spectacle , is less attractive than it was . " Several critics , including Bob Wyatt , maintained that the lbw law should be returned to its pre @-@ 1935 wording ; he campaigned to do so until his death in 1995 . On the other hand , Bradman , in the 1950s , proposed extending the law so that batsmen could be lbw even if they were struck outside the line of off stump . An MCC study of the state of cricket , carried out in 1956 and 1957 , examined the prevalent and unpopular tactic involving off @-@ spin and inswing bowlers aiming at leg stump with fielders concentrated on the leg side . Rather than alter the lbw law to combat the problem , the MCC reduced the number of fielders allowed on the leg side .
= = = Playing no stroke = = =
In the 1950s and 1960s , the amount of pad @-@ play increased , owing to more difficult and unpredictable pitches that made batting much harder . Critics continued to regard this tactic as " negative and unfair " . In an effort to discourage pad @-@ play and encourage leg spin bowling , a new variant of the lbw law was introduced , initially in Australia and the West Indies in the 1969 – 70 season , then in England for 1970 . Under the re @-@ worded law , a batsman would be lbw if a ball destined to hit the stumps pitched in line with the wickets or " outside a batsman 's off stump and in the opinion of the umpire he made no genuine attempt to play the ball with his bat . " This revision omitted the requirement that the impact should be in line with the wickets , but meant that any batsman playing a shot could not be out if the ball pitched outside off stump , in contrast to the 1935 law . The editor of Wisden believed the change encouraged batsmen to take more risks , and had produced more attractive cricket . However , the proportion of wickets falling lbw sharply declined , and concerns were expressed in Australia . The Australian authorities proposed a reversion to the previous law . A batsman could once more be out to a ball that pitched outside off stump , but a provision was added that " if no stroke is offered to a ball pitching outside the off @-@ stump which in the opinion of the umpire would hit the stumps , but hits the batsman on any part of his person other than the hand , then the batsman is out , even if that part of the person hit is not in line between wicket and wicket . " The difference to the 1935 rule was that the batsman could now be out even if the ball struck outside the line of off @-@ stump . This wording was adopted throughout the world , although it was not yet part of the official Laws , from 1972 and the percentage of lbws sharply increased to beyond the levels preceding the 1970 change . The MCC added the revised wording to the Laws of Cricket in 1980 ; this version of the lbw law is still used as of 2013 .
= = = Effects of technology = = =
Since 1993 , the proportion of lbws in each English season has risen steadily . According to cricket historian Douglas Miller , the percentage of lbw dismissals increased after broadcasters incorporated ball @-@ tracking technology such as Hawk @-@ Eye into their television coverage of matches . Miller writes : " With the passage of time and the adoption of Hawkeye into other sports , together with presentations demonstrating its accuracy , cricket followers seem gradually to have accepted its predictions . Replay analyses have shown that a greater proportion of balls striking an outstretched leg go on to hit the wicket than had once been expected . " He also suggests that umpires have been influenced by such evidence ; their greater understanding of which deliveries are likely to hit the stumps has made them more likely to rule out batsmen who are standing further away from the stumps . This trend is replicated in international cricket , where the increasing use of technology in reviewing decisions has altered the attitude of umpires . Spin bowlers in particular win far more appeals for lbw . However , the use of on @-@ field technology has proved controversial ; some critics regard it as more reliable than human judgement , while others believe that the umpire is better placed to make the decision .
The International Cricket Council ( ICC ) , responsible for running the game worldwide , conducted a trial in 2002 where lbw appeals could be referred to a match official , the third umpire , to review on television replays . The third umpire could only use technology to determine where the ball had pitched and if the batsman hit the ball with his bat . The ICC judged the experiment unsuccessful and did not pursue it . More trials followed in 2006 , although ball @-@ tracking technology remained unavailable to match officials . After a further series of trials , in 2009 the Umpire Decision Review System ( DRS ) was brought into international cricket where teams could refer the on @-@ field decisions of umpires to a third umpire who had access to television replays and technology such as ball tracking . According to the ICC 's general manager , Dave Richardson , DRS increased the frequency with which umpires awarded lbw decisions . In a 2012 interview , he said : " Umpires may have realised that if they give someone out and DRS shows it was not out , then their decision can be rectified . So they might , I suppose , have the courage of their convictions a bit more and take a less conservative approach to giving the batsman out . I think if we 're totally honest , DRS has affected the game slightly more than we thought it would . "
Critics of the system suggest that rules for the use of DRS have created an inconsistency of approach to lbw decisions depending on the circumstances of the referral . Opponents also doubt that the ball @-@ tracking technology used in deciding lbws is reliable enough , but the ICC state that tests have shown the system to be 100 % accurate . The Board of Control for Cricket in India ( BCCI ) have consistently declined to use DRS in matches involving India owing to their concerns regarding the ball @-@ tracking technology . Early DRS trials were conducted during India matches , and several problems arose over lbws , particularly as the equipment was not as advanced as it later became . The BCCI believe the technology is unreliable and open to manipulation .
= = Trends and perception = =
A study in 2011 by Douglas Miller shows that in English county cricket , the proportion of wickets to fall lbw has increased steadily since the First World War . In the 1920s , around 11 % of wickets were lbw but this rose to 14 % in the 1930s . Between 1946 and 1970 , the proportion was approximately 11 % but subsequently increased until reaching almost 19 % in the decade before 2010 . Miller also states that captains of county teams were statistically more likely to receive the benefit of lbw decisions — less likely to be out lbw when batting and more likely to dismiss batsmen lbw when bowling . For many years , county captains submitted end @-@ of @-@ match reports on the umpires ; as umpires were professionals whose careers could be affected , captains consequently received leeway whether batting or bowling . Before 1963 , when the status was abolished in county cricket , umpires were also more lenient towards amateur cricketers . Amateurs administered English cricket , and offending one could end an umpire 's career . Elsewhere in the world , lbws are more statistically likely in matches taking place on the Indian subcontinent . However , batsmen from the subcontinent were less likely to be lbw wherever they played in the world .
Teams that toured other countries often became frustrated by lbws given against them ; there was often an assumption of national bias by home umpires against visiting teams . Several studies investigating this perception have suggested that home batsmen are sometimes less likely than visiting batsmen to be lbw . However , the data is based on lbw decisions awarded , not on the success @-@ rate of appeals to the umpire . Fraser points out that it is impossible to determine from these studies if any of the decisions were wrong , particularly as the lbw law can have different interpretations , or if other factors such as pitch conditions and technique were involved . A 2006 study examined the effect that neutral umpires had on the rate of lbws . Although the reasons were again ambiguous , it found that lbws increased slightly under neutral umpires regardless of team or location .
In his survey of cricket laws , Gerald Brodribb suggests that " no dismissal has produced so much argument as lbw ; it has caused trouble from its earliest days " . Among those who do not follow cricket , the law has the reputation of being extremely difficult to understand , of equivalent complexity to association football 's offside rule . Owing to the difficulty of its interpretation , lbw is regarded by critics as the most controversial of the laws but also a yardstick by which an umpire 's abilities are judged . In his book Cricket and the Law : The Man in White Is Always Right , David Fraser writes that umpires ' lbw decisions are frequently criticised and " arguments about bias and incompetence in adjudication inform almost every discussion about lbw decisions . " Problems arise because the umpire has not only to establish what has happened but also to speculate over what might have occurred . Controversial aspects of lbw decisions include the umpire having to determine whether the ball pitched outside leg stump , and in certain circumstances whether the batsman intended to hit the ball or leave it alone . Umpires are frequently criticised for their lbw decisions by players , commentators and spectators . Historically , trouble ranging from protests and arguments to crowd demonstrations occasionally arose from disputed decisions . For example , a prolonged crowd disturbance , in which items were thrown onto the playing field and the match was delayed , took place when Mohammad Azharuddin was adjudged lbw during a 1996 One Day International in India .
= The Family Jewels ( Marina and the Diamonds album ) =
The Family Jewels is the debut studio album recorded by Welsh singer Marina Diamandis , professionally known as Marina and the Diamonds . It was released on 15 February 2010 by 679 Recordings and Atlantic Records . Diamandis collaborated with several producers including Pascal Gabriel , Liam Howe , Greg Kurstin , Richard " Biff " Stannard , and Starsmith during its recording . She identifies the lyrical themes as " the seduction of commercialism , modern social values , family and female sexuality . "
Contemporary music critics gave The Family Jewels fairly positive reviews , with the vocal delivery dividing opinions . The record debuted at number five on the UK Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 27 @,@ 618 copies . The album was eventually certified Gold by the British Phonographic Industry and has sold 195 @,@ 358 units in the United Kingdom . The Family Jewels performed moderately on international record charts ; it peaked at number 138 on the Billboard 200 in the United States .
The Family Jewels was supported by five singles , all of which were supplemented by accompanying music videos . " Mowgli 's Road " was released on 13 November 2009 , although " Hollywood " became its first charting track after reaching number 12 on the UK Singles Chart . Follow @-@ up singles " I Am Not a Robot " , " Oh No ! " , and " Shampain " respectively peaked at numbers 26 , 38 , and 141 in the United Kingdom . The record was additionally promoted by Diamandis ' headlining The Family Jewels Tour , which visited Australia , Europe and North America from January 2010 through December 2011 .
= = Background = =
Born and raised in South East Wales , Diamandis moved to London at the age of 18 to study music , despite not having a musical background . After dropping out of four institutions and failing in auditions , she began composing her own music . After the success of her Myspace @-@ released debut EP Mermaid vs. Sailor in 2007 , she was signed by Neon Gold Records the following year and by 679 Artists in October 2008 . In 2009 , after playing at a variety of festivals including Glastonbury in the summer , she ranked in second place in the BBC 's Sound of 2010 and was one of the three nominees for the Critics ' Choice Award at the 2010 BRIT Awards .
In a 2012 interview with Pridesource , Diamandis said that the album 's title came from a slang term for testes , but she had been too coy to admit it before .
= = Composition = =
Diamandis explained that the album is " a body of work largely inspired by the seduction of commercialism , modern social values , family and female sexuality " , intended to be " enjoyed and consumed as a story and theory that encourages people to question themselves " .
In a review for Q , writer Hugh Montgomery noted genres such as disco ( " Shampain " ) , bubblegum punk ( " Girls " ) and cabaret ( " Hermit The Frog " ) . The opening track , " Are You Satisfied ? " , ponders the meaning of a fulfilling life ; a writer for The Line of Best Fit likened it to the thinking of Danish existentialist philosopher Søren Kierkegaard . In a January 2010 interview with The Daily Telegraph , Diamandis admitted that she " cringes " at the lyrics of the song " Girls " , which " could be seen as a bit misogynistic " , including the lines " Girls they never befriend me / ' Cause I fall asleep when they speak / Of all the calories they eat " ; she clarified that the lyrics concerned her own psychological problems with weight . A Neon Gold press release for a limited double A @-@ side of " Obsessions " and " Mowgli 's Road " described the former as a " bold and ambitious ... master work " and the latter as a " a high intensity , left field pop smash " .
Diamandis reportedly made producer Liam Howe take 486 vocal takes for " The Outsider " . " Hollywood " takes inspiration from Diamandis ' previous obsession with American celebrity culture , while in " I Am Not a Robot " , her favourite track from the album , she sings to tell herself to accept imperfection , with lines such as " you 've been acting awful tough lately , smoking a lot of cigarettes lately ... don 't be so pathetic " ; she expected audiences to be able to relate to the song . " Numb " reflects on the dedication and sacrifice needed during her early years in London ; " Oh No ! " and " Are You Satisfied ? " have similar lyrical themes . " Oh No ! " was a late addition to the track listing , causing some reviews of the album to not include it . The album had initially been scheduled for release in October 2009 , and was delayed by Diamandis ' self @-@ confessed perfectionism .
= = Release and promotion = =
= = = Music videos = = =
In 2008 , Diamandis filmed videos for the tracks " Seventeen " and " Obsessions " . The following year , photographer Rankin directed the accompaniment for " I Am Not a Robot " , which used much body glitter . The video for " Mowgli 's Road " featured Diamandis and two dancers , with puppeteers standing in front of them to give them the impression of having concertina limbs ; it was shot over 17 hours .
Polish artist Kinga Burza shot the " classic pop video " for " Hollywood " , with the aim to " make her audiences fall in love her even more , perhaps crave a little popcorn and feel inspired to dress up for fun " . Burza also filmed the video for " Oh No ! " , with an aesthetic based on " zany neon " MTV graphics and the fame @-@ hungry lyrics . The video to " Shampain " made an homage to Michael Jackson 's Thriller .
Dan Knight made a video for Chilly Gonzales ' " stripped @-@ down " remix of " Hollywood " that was intended to be the opposite of Burza 's official video . In the video , Gonzales and Diamandis perform on a 1980s Estonian music show complete with subtitles .
= = = Singles = = =
" Obsessions " was Diamandis ' first single , released on 14 February 2009 , and " Mowgli 's Road " followed on 13 November 2009 . She chose the song as an " uncommercial " taster due to its oddness , but it received attention after being shared by bloggers including Perez Hilton and Kanye West .
" Hollywood " was released as the album 's second single and Diamandis ' first major release on 1 February 2010 . It reached number 12 on the UK Singles Chart . It was followed on 26 April by " I Am Not a Robot " , which peaked at number 26 on the same listing . " Oh No ! " was released as the album 's fourth single on 2 August only in the UK and Ireland ; it charted at number 38 . " Shampain " was released as the album 's fifth and final single on 11 October , again only in the same region , and reached number 141 in the UK .
" I Am Not a Robot " was nominated for the 2010 Popjustice £ 20 Music Prize for best British single , eventually losing to " Kickstarts " by Example .
= = = Tour = = =
Diamandis went on her first headlining tour to promote the album , performing in Europe , North America and Australia . Dates included the Glastonbury Festival 2010 , South by Southwest and the Falls Festival . In parallel to headlining her own tour in the United States in mid @-@ 2011 , she was an opening act for Katy Perry 's California Dreams Tour , and finished by opening for Coldplay 's Mylo Xyloto Tour at the Manchester Arena that December .
After a performance at Manchester 's Deaf Institute on 21 February 2010 , Contactmusic.com writer Katy Ratican awarded Diamand
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pushed the Miami offense to the Tech 22 @-@ yard line . Young picked up 12 yards and a first down with a rush to the left , but Kelly was sacked for a loss of 13 yards , negating the gain . Unable to gain another first down or a touchdown , Miami was forced to settle for a field goal attempt . The 31 @-@ yard attempt was good , and Miami expanded its lead to 17 – 10 with 29 seconds remaining in the quarter .
Tech received Miami 's kickoff for a touchback , and the Hokies ' offense began work at the Tech 20 @-@ yard line . Lawrence ran for six yards , and time ran out in the quarter . With one quarter remaining , Miami held a 17 – 10 lead .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
Tech began the fourth quarter in possession of the ball and facing a second down at its 26 @-@ yard line . Despite needing just another four yards for a first down , Tech was unable to gain the needed yardage and was forced to punt . During the kick , Miami was penalized five yards , and began its first possession of the fourth quarter at its 18 @-@ yard line after the penalty . Kelly completed an 18 @-@ yard pass for a first down , but Miami was unable to gain another . After punting to Tech , the Hokies were likewise unable to gain a first down and went three and out after committing a delay of game penalty .
Tech 's punt was short , and Miami began a possession at the Tech 41 @-@ yard line . The Hurricanes picked up a first down with two rushes by Roan for a total of 14 yards . Despite further short gains by Roan , the Hurricanes were stopped short by the Tech defense and were unable to gain another . Miami sent in kicker Dan Miller , who kicked a 37 @-@ yard field goal to give Miami a 20 – 10 lead with 6 : 27 remaining in the game .
Tech received Miami 's post @-@ score kickoff needing to score quickly in order to have a chance to have a second opportunity on offense — needed because Tech was now two scores behind . Tech returned the kickoff to the 24 @-@ yard line but were penalized 12 yards for an illegal block . Casey passed for an eight @-@ yard gain and ran for three yards for a first down . After that gain , things went against the Hokies . Casey was penalized 15 yards for intentional grounding , and Tech was unable to gain another first down . The Hokies punted , and Miami took over on offense at its 46 @-@ yard line . In possession of the lead , Miami began to run out the clock , executing multiple rushing plays in succession in order to force the game clock to continue to count down . Tech 's defense forced a stop , but because Miami punted the ball with just 2 : 20 remaining in the game , there was little chance that Tech would be able to make up the needed two scores .
Tech received the ball at its 16 @-@ yard line , and Casey completed a quick 14 @-@ yard pass to Purdham for a first down . But Tech was unable to gain another first down , and after four plays were stopped short , Tech turned the ball over to Miami after Casey threw an incomplete pass on fourth down . Miami received the ball with 1 : 24 remaining and ran a series of inconsequential plays to draw down the clock and bring the game to an end . Miami earned the win , 20 – 10 .
= = Statistical summary = =
In recognition of their performances during the Peach Bowl , Miami quarterback Jim Kelly and nose guard Jim Burt were named the game 's offensive and defensive most valuable players of the game , respectively . Kelly finished the game having completed 11 of his 22 pass attempts for 179 yards , one touchdown , and one interception . Burt , the other MVP , accumulated nine tackles — the second @-@ most of any player in the game — including seven unassisted tackles and one tackle for loss .
Virginia Tech running back Cyrus Lawrence finished the game with 27 carries for 137 rushing yards and a touchdown . The 27 carries remain the most ever recorded by a single Virginia Tech player in a bowl game . Tech quarterback Steve Casey led the Hokies in passing yardage , completing nine of his 23 pass attempts for 119 yards and one interception .
The Hurricanes ' ground offense was led by Smokey Roan , who carried the ball 16 times for 86 yards . Second to Roan for Miami was Chris Hobbs , who contributed 66 yards and a touchdown on 10 carries . Hurricanes wide receiver Larry Brodsky finished with four catches for 80 yards and a touchdown . Miami turned the ball over four times during the course of the game . Tech 's 80 @-@ yard touchdown drive in the third quarter remains tied for the longest ever recorded by a Tech offense during a bowl game . Conversely , the 99 @-@ yard drive allowed to Miami remains the longest scoring drive Tech 's defense has ever allowed in a bowl game .
On defense , Virginia Tech linebacker Ashley Lee 's 15 tackles remains the most ever recorded by a Tech defender in a bowl game . Three Tech players were tied for second on the team with eight tackles . Behind defensive MVP Burt , Miami had one player with eight tackles and two with seven . Fred Marion , one of the Hurricanes with seven tackles , also intercepted a Tech pass and broke up another pass .
= = Postgame effects = =
In exchange for their participation , each team received $ 663 @,@ 389 . Miami 's win brought the Hurricanes to a final record of 9 – 3 for the 1980 college football season . Likewise , the loss dropped Virginia Tech to a final record of 8 – 4 . Miami 's win also was its first bowl @-@ game victory since a similar win over Tech in the 1966 Liberty Bowl .
The 1980 Peach Bowl victory is sometimes cited as the turning point in the Miami football program , as the Hurricanes went 9 – 2 and 7 – 4 over the next two season before participating in the 1984 Orange Bowl , the championship game of the 1983 college football season . Tech also participated in a 1984 bowl game ; the 1984 Independence Bowl , which followed the 1984 college football season . The Hokies did not win a bowl game until the 1986 Peach Bowl ; however , the game had lasting effects on Virginia Tech 's football recruiting efforts . Eventual star players Bruce Smith and Jesse Penn signed letters of intent with Virginia Tech following the game .
Miami had a handful of players selected in the 1981 NFL Draft : Cornerback John Swain was picked with the 101st overall selection , Jim Joiner with the 263rd pick , and Pat Walker with the 290th pick . Miami quarterback Jim Kelly , a sophomore during the 1981 Peach Bowl , was selected in the first round of the 1983 NFL Draft and went on to become a member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame in recognition of his performance during 10 seasons with the Buffalo Bills . In 2002 , Kelly was named to the Peach Bowl Hall of Fame in honor of his performance in the 1980 game .
= = Later aftermath = =
Miami and Virginia Tech would both be charter members of the Big East Conference 's football league in 1991 , and in 2004 , both schools moved to the Atlantic Coast Conference - which now has a tie @-@ in for what is now called the Chick @-@ Fil A Bowl .
= The Magdalen Reading =
The Magdalen Reading is one of three surviving fragments of a large mid @-@ 15th @-@ century oil on panel altarpiece by the Early Netherlandish painter Rogier van der Weyden . The panel , originally oak , was completed some time between 1435 and 1438 and has been in the National Gallery , London since 1860 . It shows a woman with the pale skin , high cheek bones and oval eyelids typical of the idealised portraits of noble women of the period . She is identifiable as the Magdalen from the jar of ointment placed in the foreground , which is her traditional attribute in Christian art . She is presented as completely absorbed in her reading , a model of the contemplative life , repentant and absolved of past sins . In Catholic tradition the Magdalen was conflated with both Mary of Bethany who anointed the feet of Jesus with oil and the unnamed " sinner " of Luke 7 : 36 – 50 . Iconography of the Magdalen commonly shows her with a book , in a moment of reflection , in tears , or with eyes averted . Van der Weyden pays close attention to detail in many passages , in particular the folds and cloth of the woman 's dress , the rock crystal of the rosary beads held by the figure standing over her , and the lushness of the exterior .
The background of the painting had been overpainted with a thick layer of brown paint . A cleaning between 1955 and 1956 revealed the figure standing behind the Magdalene and the kneeling figure with its bare foot protruding in front of her , with a landscape visible through a window . The two partially seen figures are both cut off at the edges of the London panel . The figure above her has been identified as belonging to a fragment in the Museu Calouste Gulbenkian , Lisbon , which shows the head of Saint Joseph , while another Lisbon fragment , showing what is believed to be Saint Catherine of Alexandria , is thought to be from the same larger work . The original altarpiece was a sacra conversazione , known only through a drawing , Virgin and Child with Saints , in Stockholm 's Nationalmuseum , which followed a partial copy of the painting that probably dated from the late 16th century . The drawing shows that The Magdalen occupied the lower right @-@ hand corner of the altarpiece . The Lisbon fragments are each a third of the size of The Magdalen , which measures 62 @.@ 2 cm × 54 @.@ 4 cm ( 24 @.@ 5 in × 21 @.@ 4 in ) .
Although internationally successful in his lifetime , van der Weyden fell from view during the 17th century , and was not rediscovered until the early 19th century . The Magdalen Reading can first be traced to an 1811 sale . After passing through the hands of a number of dealers in the Netherlands , the panel was purchased by the National Gallery , London , in 1860 from a collector in Paris . It is described by art historian Lorne Campbell as " one of the great masterpieces of 15th @-@ century art and among van der Weyden 's most important early works . "
= = Description = =
Mary Magdalene as depicted in early Renaissance painting is a composite of various biblical figures . Here , she is based on Mary of Bethany , who is identified as the Magdalene in the Roman Catholic tradition . Mary of Bethany sat at Jesus ' feet and " listened to His Word " , and thus is seen as a contemplative figure . The counterpoint is Mary 's sister Martha who , representative of the active life , wished that Mary would help her serve . Mary is shown by van der Weyden as youthful , sitting in quiet piety with her head tilted and eyes modestly averted from the viewer . She is absorbed in her reading of a holy book , the covers of which include a chemise of white cloth , a common form of protective binding . Four coloured cloth bookmarks are tied to a gold bar near the top of the spine . According to Lorne Campbell , the manuscript " looks rather like a 13th @-@ century French Bible " and is " clearly a devotional text " . It was rare for contemporary portraits to show women reading , and if the model herself could read then she was likely from a noble family .
Van der Weyden often linked form and meaning , and in this fragment the semicircular outline of the Magdalene reinforces her quiet detachment from her surroundings . She is seated on a red cushion and rests her back against a wooden sideboard . By her feet is her usual attribute of an alabaster jar ; in the Gospels she brought spices to the tomb of Jesus . The view through the window is of a distant canal , with an archer atop the garden wall and a figure walking on the other side of the water , whose reflection shows in the water .
Van der Weyden 's pose for the Magdalene is similar to a number of female religious figures painted by his master Robert Campin or his workshop . It closely resembles , in theme and tone , the figure of Saint Barbara in Campin 's Werl Altarpiece , and also the Virgin in an Annunciation attributed to Campin in Brussels . Typically for a van der Weyden , the Magdalen 's face has an almost sculpted look , and the elements of her clothes are conveyed in minute detail . She wears a green robe ; in medieval art the Magdalene is usually depicted naked ( sometimes clad only in her long hair ) or in richly coloured dress , typically red , blue or green , almost never in white . Her robe is tightly pulled below her bust by a blue sash , while the gold brocade of her underskirt is adorned by a jewelled hem . Art critic Charles Darwent observed that the Magdalen 's past as a " fallen woman " is hinted at by the nap in the fur lining of her dress and the few strands of hair loose from her veil . Darwent wrote , " Even her fingers , absent @-@ mindedly circled , suggest completeness . In her mix of purity and eroticism , van der Weyden 's Magdalen feels whole ; but she isn 't . " In the medieval period , fur symbolized female sexuality and was commonly associated with the Magdalene . Medieval historian Philip Crispin explains that artists such as Memling and Matsys often portrayed the Magdalen in furs and notes that she " is noticeably dressed in fur @-@ lined garments in The Magdalen Reading by Rogier van der Weyden " .
The level of detail used in portraying the Magdalene has been described by Campbell as " far exceed [ ing ] " van Eyck . Her lips are painted with a shades of vermilion , white and red which are mixed into each other to give a transparent look at the edges . The fur lining of her dress is painted in a range of greys running from almost pure white to pure black . Rogier gave the fur a textured look by painting stripes parallel to the line of the dress and then feathering the paint before it dried . The gold on the cloth is rendered with a variety of impasto , grid and dots of varying colour and size .
Many of the objects around her are also closely detailed , in particular the wooden floor and nails , the folds of the Magdalene 's dress , the costume of the figures in the exterior and the beads of Joseph 's rosary . The effect of falling light is closely studied ; Joseph 's crystal rosary beads have bright highlights , while subtle delineations of light and shade can be seen in the sideboard 's tracery and in the clasps of her book . Mary is absorbed in her reading and seemingly unaware of her surroundings . Van der Weyden has given her a quiet dignity although he is generally seen as the more emotional of the master Netherlandish painters of the era , in particular when contrasted with Jan van Eyck .
Lorne Campbell describes the tiny figure of the woman seen through the window and her reflection in the water as " small miracles of painting " , and says that " the attention to detail far exceeds that of Jan van Eyck and the skill of execution is astounding " . He notes that these tiny details would have been impossible for a viewer to observe when the altarpiece was in its intended position . Other areas of the panel , however , have been described as dull and uninspired . One critic wrote that the areas of the floor and most of the cupboard behind her seem unfinished and " much too narrow and papery in effect " . A number of objects placed on the cupboard are now barely visible save for their bases . The object on the right seated on legs alongside a box is likely a small pitcher , possibly a reliquary . A moulding to the left of the cupboard may represent a doorway .
= = Altarpiece fragment = =
Virgin and Child with Saints , a drawing in Stockholm 's Nationalmuseum , is believed to be a study of a portion of the original altarpiece by a follower of van der Weyden , who possibly may have been the Master of the Koberger Ründblatter . The drawing has a loosely sketched background and shows , from left to right : an unidentified bishop saint with mitre and crosier making a blessing gesture ; a narrow gap with a few wavy vertical lines suggesting a start at the outline of a further kneeling figure ; a barefoot bearded figure in a rough robe identified as Saint John the Baptist ; a seated Virgin holding on her lap the Christ Child who leans to the right , looking at a book ; and holding the book , a kneeling beardless male identified as John the Evangelist . The drawing stops at the end of John 's robe , at about the point on the London panel where Joseph 's walking stick meets John and the Magdalene 's robes . This suggests that the Magdalene panel was the first to be cut from the larger work .
At an unknown point before 1811 , the original altarpiece was broken into at least three pieces , possibly due to damage , although The Magdalen fragment is in good condition . The black overpaint was likely added after the early 17th century when Netherlandish painting had fallen from favour and was unfashionable . Campbell believes that after the removal of the background detail " it looked sufficiently like a genre piece to hang in a well @-@ known collection of Dutch seventeenth @-@ century paintings " . From the size of three surviving panels in relation to the drawing , it is estimated that the original was at least 1 m high by 1 @.@ 5 m wide ; the bishop and the Magdalene seem to clearly mark the horizontal extremities , but the extent of the picture above and below the surviving elements and the drawing cannot be judged . Such a size is comparable with smaller altarpieces of the period . The background was overpainted with a thick layer of black / brown pigment until it was cleaned in 1955 ; it was only after the layer 's removal that it was linked to the upper body and head of Joseph from the Lisbon piece . These two works were not recorded in inventory until 1907 , when they appear in the collection of Léo Lardus in Suresnes , France .
The London panel shows much of the clothing of two other figures from the original altarpiece . To the left of the Magdalene is the red robe of what appears to be a kneeling figure . The figure and robe , and less precisely the background , match a kneeling Saint John the Evangelist . Behind the Magdalen is a standing figure in blue and red robes , with linear rosary beads in one hand and a walking stick in the other . A panel at the Museu Calouste Gulbenkian in Lisbon shows the head of a figure believed to be the Saint Joseph ; the background and clothes match with those of the figure behind the Magdalen on the London panel .
There is a further small panel in Lisbon of a female head , richly or royally dressed , which first appeared in 1907 with the Joseph panel when it was recorded in the inventory of Leo Nardus at Suresnes . The figure may represent Saint Catherine of Alexandria , and from both the angle of her cloth and the fact that the river behind her would be parallel to that in the exterior of the London panel it can be assumed that she was kneeling . In the Stockholm drawing she is omitted , or only traces of her dress shown . The Joseph panel has a sliver of a view through a window to an exterior scene ; if the other female is presumed to be kneeling , the trees above the waterway aligns with those in the London panel . Some art historians , including Martin Davies and John Ward , have been slow to allow the Catherine panel as part of the altarpiece , though it is undoubtedly by van der Weyden or a near @-@ contemporary follower . Evidence against this link includes the fact that the moulding of the window to the left of the Gulbenkian female saint is plain , while that next to Saint Joseph is chamfered . Such an inconsistency in a single van der Weyden work is unusual . The panels are of equal thickness ( 1 @.@ 3 cm ) and of near @-@ identical size ; the Saint Catherine panel measures 18 @.@ 6 cm × 21 @.@ 7 cm ( 7 @.@ 3 in × 8 @.@ 5 in ) , the Saint Joseph 18 @.@ 2 cm × 21 cm ( 7 @.@ 2 in × 8 @.@ 3 in ) .
Lorne Campbell thinks that though the Catherine head is " obviously less well drawn and less successfully painted than the Magdalen " , it " seems likely " that all three fragments came from the same original work ; he points out that " about half way up the right edge of this fragment [ " Catherine " ] is a small triangle of red , outlined by a continuous underdrawn brushstroke ... It is likely that the red is part of the contour of the missing figure of the Baptist " . The small piece is on the outermost edge of the panel , and only visible when it was removed from the frame . Ward believes the piece corresponds directly with the folds of John 's robes .
The Stockholm drawing contains a narrow blank gap to the right of the bishop with a few indistinct lines that could represent the lower profile of the kneeling figure of Saint Catherine . Although none of the faces in the three surviving panels match any in the drawing , a 1971 reconstruction by art historian John Ward — which combined all of the works into a composition of a central Virgin and Child flanked by six saints — is widely accepted . The Stockholm drawing 's original location or history before the 19th century is unknown , except that the verso shows a surviving carving of the Virgin and Child attributed to a Brussels workshop from about 1440 . This carving is also now in Portugal .
= = Iconography = =
Van der Weyden 's depiction of the Magdalen is based on Mary of Bethany , identified by the time of Pope Gregory I as the repentant prostitute of Luke 7 : 36 – 50 . She then became associated with weeping and reading : Christ 's mercy causes the eyes of the sinner to be contrite or tearful . Early Renaissance artists often conveyed this idea by portraying contemplative eyes , associating tears with words , and in turn weeping with reading . Examples can be seen in 16th @-@ century works by Tintoretto and Titian which show the Magdalen reading , often with her eyes averted towards her book ( and presumably away from a male gaze ) , or looking up to the heavens or , sometimes , glancing coyly towards the viewer . Writing in " The Crying Face " , Mosche Barasch explains that in van der Weyden 's time the gesture of averting or concealing the eyes became a " pictorial formula for crying " .
By the medieval period , reading became synonymous with devotion , which involved withdrawal from public view . Van der Weyden 's placement of the Magdalen in an interior scene reflects the increasing literacy of domestic or laywomen in the mid @-@ 15th century . The increased production of devotional texts showed that noble women of the period routinely read texts such as a psalter or book of hours in the privacy of their homes . Whether the Magdalen herself was a reader , by the 17th century she was firmly established as such in the visual arts . Because the Magdalen was present at Christ 's death and subsequent resurrection , she was seen as the bearer of news — a witness — and hence directly associated with the text .
The Magdalen imagery further draws on the idea of Christ as the word , represented by a book , with the Magdalen as the reader learning of her own life story in a moment of reflection and repentance . Her devotion to reading reflects her traditional status as the piously repentant harlot , as well as a prophetess or seer . According to legend , the Magdalen lived the last 30 years of her life as a hermit in Sainte @-@ Baume and is often shown with a book , reading or writing , symbolizing her later years of contemplation and repentance . By the 13th century she acquired the imagery of a once @-@ shamed woman who , clothed in long hair , now hid her nakedness in exile and " borne by angels , floats between heaven and earth " .
The Magdalen 's ointment jar was common in the lexicon of art in van der Weyden 's period . Mary of Bethany may have used a jar when she repented of her sins at Christ 's feet in her home ; by the Renaissance , the image of the Magdalen was of the woman who bathed Christ 's feet with her tears and dried them with her hair . She signified the " sacrament of anointing ( Chrism and Unction ) " by pouring precious spikenard on Christ 's feet at his tomb .
= = Dating and provenance = =
The altarpiece 's date is uncertain but believed to be between 1435 and 1438 . Van der Weyden was made painter to the city of Brussels in 1435 , and it is believed to have been painted after this appointment . The National Gallery gives " before 1438 " . Art historian John Ward notes that the altarpiece was one of van der Weyden 's first masterpieces , created early in his career when he was still heavily influenced by Robert Campin . He proposes a c . 1437 date based on similarities to Campin 's Werl Altarpiece .
Because van der Weyden , like most of the early Netherlandish painters , was not rediscovered until the early 19th century , many of his works were wrongly attributed or dated , and major pieces such as the Berlin Miraflores Altarpiece continue to emerge . Conversely , when a number of pieces considered either by van der Weyden or assistants under his supervision were cleaned in the mid- to late 20th century , his hand or direct influence was disproved , or in the case of the Magdalen , associated with other images whose attribution had been uncertain .
The Magdalen Reading can first be traced to an 1811 sale of the estate of Cassino , a little @-@ known collector in Haarlem , when the work was already cut down . The painting is recorded in the inventory of Demoiselles Hoofman , also of Haarlem . After passing to the Nieuwenhuys brothers , who were leading dealers in art of the early Netherlandish period , it moved to the collector Edmond Beaucousin in Paris , whose " small but choice " collection of early Netherlandish paintings was purchased for the National Gallery , London by Charles Lock Eastlake in 1860 ; an acquisition that also included two Robert Campin portraits and panels by Simon Marmion ( 1425 – 1489 ) . This was during a period of acquisition intended to establish the international prestige of the gallery . Probably before 1811 , all the background except the red robe on the left and the alabaster jar and floorboards was overpainted in plain brown , which was not removed until the cleaning begun in 1955 . In general the " painted surface is in very good condition " , although better in the parts that were not overpainted , and there are a few small losses .
The Magdalen Reading was transferred from its original oak to a mahogany panel ( West Indian swietenia ) by unknown craftsmen sometime between 1828 and when the National Gallery acquired it in 1860 . Campbell states that the transfer was " Certainly after 1828 , probably after 1845 , and certainly before 1860 " , the year it was acquired by the National Gallery . Artificial ultramarine @-@ coloured paint found in the transfer ground indicates that the change of panel took place after 1830 . The heads in Lisbon are still on their original oak panels . The Stockholm drawing was discovered in a German inventory c . 1916 and is likely of Swedish origin . It was bequeathed by a Norwegian collector , Christian Langaad , to the Swedish National Museum of Fine Arts in 1918 .
= = Gallery = =
= Rosemary 's Baby ( 30 Rock ) =
" Rosemary 's Baby " is the fourth episode of the second season of 30 Rock , and the twenty @-@ fifth episode overall . It was written by Jack Burditt and was directed by Michael Engler . The episode first aired on October 25 , 2007 on the NBC network in the United States . Guest stars in this episode include Elijah Cook , Carrie Fisher , Marcella Roy , Paul Scheer , Megan Blake Stevenson , Jean Villepique and Stuart Zagnit .
The episode focuses on Liz Lemon 's ( Tina Fey ) escapade with her idol , Rosemary Howard ( Carrie Fisher ) ; Tracy Jordan 's ( Tracy Morgan ) family problems ; and Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) attempt to replace Kenneth Parcell 's ( Jack McBrayer ) burnt page jacket . The episode was praised by critics , with Alec Baldwin winning the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series .
= = Plotlines = =
Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) announces that Liz Lemon is the winner of the " G.E. Followship Award " , a prize awarded to the G.E. employee who best exemplifies a follower , which also includes $ 10 @,@ 000 . Liz takes Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) to a book signing to meet Rosemary Howard ( Carrie Fisher ) , her idol when she was a girl , and invites her to be a guest writer on " The Girlie Show " . Rosemary pitches several controversial ideas to Jack , who orders Liz to fire her , but when Liz refuses , Jack fires them both . Liz goes to Rosemary 's house , and once she realizes that Rosemary is crazy , she flees . Liz goes back to Jack 's office and begs for her job back , and he happily rehires her . Jack promises to help Liz invest her prize money , and she swears that she will send Rosemary $ 400 a month for the rest of her life .
When Tracy causes a stir at a public event , Jack assures him that as a movie star , he can do anything he wants , except for dog fighting . Jack finds Tracy disobeying his order , but Tracy shouts that Jack is not his dad . Jack and Tracy meet with an NBC shrink , and Jack role @-@ plays Tracy 's father , Tracy , and Tracy 's mom , among several other people from Tracy 's childhood , conveying the message that even though Tracy 's parents may have divorced , they still loved him . This comforts Tracy , and affirms that while he loves his family , they are crazy , and he needs to stay away from them . Tracy hugs Jack , and tells him that he is the only family he needs .
Jenna accidentally burns Kenneth 's page jacket on a hot plate , and Kenneth worries that head page Donny Lawson ( Paul Scheer ) will punish him . Jenna finds Donny backstage at the studio , who is ecstatic that he finally has a reason to send Kenneth to CNBC in New Jersey . Donny offers Kenneth a choice : go to New Jersey , or compete in a " page off " , a contest of physical stamina and NBC trivia ; Jenna agrees to the page off . Before the event starts , Pete comes in and yells at the pages to get back to work . He forces Donny to give Kenneth a new jacket , but Donny swears to Jenna and Kenneth that he will get back at them .
= = Production = =
" Rosemary 's Baby " was mainly filmed on September 11 , 2007 , while Fisher 's scenes were filmed the next day on September 12 , 2007 . Star Wars is frequently referenced in 30 Rock , beginning with the pilot episode where Tracy Jordan is seen shouting that he is a Jedi . Liz Lemon admits to being a huge fan of Star Wars , saying that she had watched it many times with Pete Hornberger , and dressed up as the Star Wars character Princess Leia during four recent Halloweens . Star Wars is also referenced when Tracy Jordan takes on the identity of the character Chewbacca . Fey , a fan of Star Wars herself , said that the weekly Star Wars joke or reference " started happening organically " when the crew realized that they had a Star Wars reference " in almost every show " . Fey said that from then on " it became a thing where [ they ] tried to keep it going " , and that even though they could not include one in every episode , they still had a " pretty high batting average " . Fey attributed most of the references to Robert Carlock , who she described as " the resident expert " . Prior to the airing of the episode , fans were " raving " about the much awaited guest appearance of Fisher . Fisher 's last line in the episode , " Help me , Liz Lemon ! You 're my only hope ! " , was a spoof of the line " Help me Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi , you 're my only hope ! " from her past role in the original Star Wars trilogy , in which she played Princess Leia .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen ratings system , " Rosemary 's Baby " was viewed by an average of 6 @.@ 5 million American viewers . The episode achieved a 3 @.@ 1 / 8 in key 18 – 49 demographic . The 3 @.@ 1 rating refers to 3 @.@ 1 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the U.S. , and the 8 share refers to 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . In the U.S. , " Rosemary 's Baby " was up by 19 % in the rating demographic compared to the previous episode , " The Collection , " receiving its highest result since the second season premiere episode , " SeinfeldVision , " on October 4 , 2007 .
" Rosemary 's Baby " was named as one of the " Top 11 TV Episodes of 2007 " by UGO , and ranked thirteenth on The Futon Critic 's list of " the 50 Best Episodes of 2007 " ; both citing the Baldwin and Morgan therapy scene as the reason . Matt Webb Mitovich of TV Guide declared it as " one of 30 Rock 's best episodes ever . " Webb Mitovich praised Carrie Fisher 's guest appearance , but felt that Baldwin 's role @-@ playing during Morgan 's therapy session stole the show . Bob Sassone of TV Squad felt that even though the plot was " insane " , the episode still managed " to have a heart at its core " . Sassone called the therapy scene " one of the funniest scenes ... on TV this season " . Robert Canning of IGN felt that the episode has " great storylines to great guest stars " , making it " one of the best the series has produced so far " . Canning called the therapy scene " the best moment of the episode " . Entertainment Weekly put it on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade , " best @-@ of " list , saying , " Between Carrie Fisher 's delightfully bonkers guest role and Jack Donaghy 's hijacking of Tracy Jordan 's therapy session , this 2007 episode was so wrong . And so good . "
Michael Engler , the director of this episode , was nominated for the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Comedy Series . This episode also earned Carrie Fisher a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series and earned Jack Burditt a nomination for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series .
= Polka Party ! =
Polka Party ! is the fourth studio album by " Weird Al " Yankovic , released in 1986 . The album is the fourth of Yankovic 's to be produced by former The McCoys guitarist Rick Derringer . Recorded between April 1986 and September 1986 , the album was Yankovic 's follow @-@ up to his successful 1985 release , Dare to Be Stupid . The album 's lead single was " Living With a Hernia " , although it was not a hit and did not chart .
The music on Polka Party ! is built around parodies and pastiches of pop and rock music of the mid @-@ 1980s , featuring jabs at James Brown , Mick Jagger , El DeBarge , and Robert Palmer . The album also features many " style parodies " , or musical imitations that come close to , but do not copy , existing artists . These style parodies include imitations of specific artists like the Talking Heads , as well as imitations of various musical genres like country music .
Peaking at only number 177 on the Billboard 200 , Polka Party ! was met with mixed reviews and was considered a commercial and critical failure . Despite this , the album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Comedy Recording in 1986 . Polka Party ! is one of Yankovic 's few studio albums not to be certified either Gold or Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and was later demoted to a budget release in 2009 .
= = Production = =
= = = Recording = = =
In April 1986 Yankovic entered the recording studio to begin the sessions to his follow @-@ up to 1985 's Dare to Be Stupid . To produce the album , Yankovic brought in former The McCoys guitarist Rick Derringer , who had also produced Yankovic 's previous albums . Backing Yankovic were Jon " Bermuda " Schwartz on drums , Steve Jay on bass , and Jim West on guitar . The album was recorded in roughly three sessions . The first session took place between April 22 and 23 , and yielded four originals : " Don 't Wear Those Shoes " , " One of Those Days " , " Dog Eat Dog " , and " Christmas at Ground Zero " . The second session , which spanned August 4 – 5 , produced three parodies : " Living with a Hernia " , " Addicted to Spuds " , and " Here 's Johnny " . The final session , which lasted from August 29 to September 1 produced the parody " Toothless People " , an original song named " Good Enough for Now " , and the album 's titular polka medley . Thematically , Yankovic described the record as " not a whole lot different than " the other albums he had recorded , calling the process " even a bit formulaic " .
= = = Originals = = =
On April 22 , 1986 , Yankovic began recording three new original songs for his next album : " Don 't Wear Those Shoes " , " One of Those Days " , and " Dog Eat Dog " . Although " Don 't Wear Those Shoes " is an original composition , Yankovic admitted that the intro was inspired by the style of The Kinks . Lyrically , the song is a plea by the singer to his wife not to not wear certain shoes which he cannot stand . " One of Those Days " is a song detailing horrible things as if they were everyday annoyances . Each horrible thing escalates up to global annihilation while more mundane annoyances pop up at different times .
" Dog Eat Dog " is a style parody of the Talking Heads . Described as a " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek look at office life " , the song was inspired by Yankovic 's past experience of working in the mailrooms as well as the traffic department at Westwood One radio station . He noted , " At first I thought [ the job ] was kinda cool that I had a phone and a desk and a little cubicle to call my own , but after a while I felt like my soul had been sucked out of me . " The song features a line directly parodying the Talking Heads song " Once In a Lifetime " : " Sometimes I tell myself , this is not my beautiful stapler / Sometimes I tell myself this is not my beautiful chair ! " This mirrors a similar line in the Talking Heads song : " You may tell yourself , this is not my beautiful house / You may tell yourself , this is not my beautiful wife " .
On April 23 , Yankovic recorded " Christmas at Ground Zero " . The song , " a cheery little tune about death , destruction and the end of the world " was the result of Scotti Brothers Records ' insistence that Yankovic record a Christmas record . After Yankovic presented the song to his label , they relented , because it was " a little different from what they were expecting . " After the song 's release , some radio stations banned the record , a move that Yankovic attributes to " most people [ not wanting ] to hear about nuclear annihilation during the holiday season . " Following the September 11 attacks , when the general term " ground zero " was co @-@ opted as a proper name for the World Trade Center site where two of those attacks took place , the disturbing lyrics caused this song to be banned largely from radio . Yankovic wanted the song to receive a video , but due to budget reasons , his label did not agree . Yankovic , however , directed one himself which was mostly made up of stock footage , with a live action finale that was filmed in an economically devastated part of the Bronx , New York that looked like a bomb had gone off . The final original that was recorded was " Good Enough for Now " , a country music pastiche about how the singer 's lover , who , while not the best , will do for now .
= = = Parodies and polka = = =
On August 4 , Yankovic began recording parodies starting with " Living With a Hernia " . The song , a spoof of " Living in America " by James Brown — which was also the theme to the 1985 film Rocky IV — is about hernias . When it came time to pick a song to parody as the lead single for Polka Party ! Scotti Brothers Records " had some very strong ideas " and wished to have Yankovic parody a musician who was signed on the same label . After " Living in America " became a hit , the record label insisted that Yankovic parody the song , to which Yankovic obliged . In order to accurately write the song , Yankovic researched the various types of hernias . Yankovic noted that " it was a real thrill to do James Brown . I 'm a total non @-@ dancer , never went to any dances in high school , but if I analytically dissect a dance routine I can figure it out . " A choreographer named Chester Whitmore was hired to accurately create the dance scenes featured in the video , which was shot on the concert set actually used in the movie Rocky IV . The second parody recorded was " Addicted to Spuds " , a pastiche of " Addicted to Love " by Robert Palmer , about a man 's obsession for potatoes and potato @-@ based dishes . A music video for the song was never made to the song because there was a strict budget for videos for the album , and Yankovic felt that the video would be one big joke and not really worth its own video . A parody of Palmer 's video , however , was later inserted into Al 's " UHF " video .
On August 5 , Yankovic recorded " Here 's Johnny " , a parody of " Who 's Johnny " by El DeBarge . The song , a loving ode to The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson announcer Ed McMahon , features John Roarke of the television series Fridays fame doing an impression of McMahon 's voice . According to Yankovic , Peter Wolf , the man who wrote " Who 's Johnny " , enjoyed the parody idea so much that he personally brought the floppy disc program that had all the synthesizer parts for the original song into the studio when Yankovic was recording his parody . The final parody recorded for the album was " Toothless People " , a play on Mick Jagger 's " Ruthless People " , which was recorded on August 29 , 1986 . The song , about elderly people who are missing their teeth , was written after Yankovic heard it would be the theme to the 1986 film Ruthless People . Assuming the song would be a hit , Yankovic requested and received permission from Jagger to record a parody version . When Jagger 's song failed to crack the Top 40 , Yankovic considered not recording his version , but because Jagger had " authorized " the parody , he decided failing to produce it would be an insult to the artist . Therefore , he recorded the spoof anyway .
The album 's polka medley , the titular " Polka Party ! " , was recorded on the same day as " Here 's Johnny " . This was Yankovic 's third polka medley , and his only medley to bear the same name as an album . Like his other medleys , the song is a conglomeration of then @-@ popular songs in music .
= = Reception = =
= = = Promotion = = =
To promote the album 's release , Scotti Brothers Records purchased full @-@ page ads in Billboard magazine that advertised the release as Yankovic 's " biggest bash yet " . Unlike previous albums , Yankovic did not undertake a tour to promote Polka Party ! Instead , he opened for the American rock band The Monkees ; Yankovic later joked that the Monkees merely " closed for me " . Yankovic explained that while it " was a fun tour " and that the crowds were very enthusiastic , the tension between the Monkees was obvious ; on his website , he wrote that while the band members " are all terrific people individually " , they " didn 't seem to get along all that great when they weren 't on stage . "
= = = Critical response = = =
Polka Party ! received mixed to negative reviews from critics . Allmusic reviewer Eugene Chadbourne gave the album three stars and wrote that " just about anyone could feel let down by this album . " Chadbourne was largely critical of the parody choices , noting that many of the original versions would be forgotten in " fifteen years " . Christopher Thelen from The Daily Vault gave Polka Party ! an F and described it as an album that " seemed like it could well have been the ' last call ' for Yankovic . " Thelen heavily criticized the record , writing that both the parodies and originals were not good and that " Yankovic [ was ] going through the motions " . Rolling Stone awarded the album three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars , tying it with the 1992 album Off the Deep End and the 1999 release Running with Scissors as Yankovic 's best @-@ rated album . Although it was not a critical success , the album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Comedy Recording in 1987 , but lost to Bill Cosby 's Those of You with or Without Children , You 'll Understand .
Despite the album 's lackluster reception , many of the songs on the album , such as " Dog Eat Dog " , " Addicted to Spuds " , and " Christmas at Ground Zero " , went on to become fan favorites and live staples . Two of the album 's tracks , " Living with a Hernia " and " Addicted to Spuds " , appeared on Yankovic 's first greatest hits album ( 1988 ) , " Christmas at Ground Zero " appeared on the second volume ( 1994 ) . In addition , the 1994 box set Permanent Record : Al in the Box contained five of the album 's songs : " Addicted to Spuds " , " Dog Eat Dog " , " Here 's Johnny " , " Living with a Hernia " , and " Christmas at Ground Zero " . Only " Dog Eat Dog " , however , appeared on Yankovic 's 2009 Essential collection , although the 3 @.@ 0 version contained " Living with a Hernia " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Polka Party ! was released October 21 , 1986 . After it was released , the album peaked at number 177 on the Billboard 200 . Compared to Yankovic 's previous albums — Dare to Be Stupid peaked at number 50 and In 3 @-@ D peaked at number 17 — Polka Party ! was a major commercial disappointment for the comedian . The album was the lowest @-@ charting studio album released by Yankovic and is one of his few studio albums not to be certified either Gold or Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The others include the soundtrack to his film UHF ( 1989 ) and Poodle Hat ( 2003 ) . Due to low sales the album was demoted to a budget release along with various other Yankovic albums in August 2009 .
Yankovic was dismayed by the album 's lackluster reception . He noted that he " thought it was the end of [ his ] career " . Yankovic explained that " I figured I 'd peaked with ' Eat It ' and ' Like a Surgeon ' and now people were slowly forgetting about me and I was well on my way to obscurity . " However , Yankovic 's next album , Even Worse , would resurrect his career and become his best @-@ selling album at the time ; the experience led Yankovic to realize that " careers have peaks and valleys , and whenever I go through the rough times , another peak might be right around the corner . "
= = Track listing = =
The following is adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Charts = = =
= Trees ( poem ) =
" Trees " is a lyric poem by American poet Joyce Kilmer . Written in February 1913 , it was first published in Poetry : A Magazine of Verse that August and included in Kilmer 's 1914 collection Trees and Other Poems . The poem , in twelve lines of rhyming couplets of iambic tetrameter verse , describes what Kilmer perceives as the inability of art created by humankind to replicate the beauty achieved by nature .
Kilmer is most remembered for " Trees " , which has been the subject of frequent parodies and references in popular culture . Kilmer 's work is often disparaged by critics and dismissed by scholars as being too simple and overly sentimental , and that his style was far too traditional and even archaic . Despite this , the popular appeal of " Trees " has contributed to its endurance . Literary critic Guy Davenport considers it " the one poem known by practically everybody . " " Trees " is frequently included in poetry anthologies and has been set to music several times — including a popular rendition by Oscar Rasbach , performed by singers Nelson Eddy , Robert Merrill , and Paul Robeson .
The location for a specific tree as the possible inspiration for the poem has been claimed by several places and institutions connected to Kilmer 's life — among these are Rutgers University , the University of Notre Dame , and towns across the country that Kilmer visited . However , Kilmer 's eldest son , Kenton , declares that the poem does not apply to any one tree — that it could apply equally to any . " Trees " was written in an upstairs bedroom at the family 's home in Mahwah , New Jersey that " looked out down a hill , on our well @-@ wooded lawn . " Ironically , Kenton Kilmer stated that while his father was " widely known for his affection for trees , his affection was certainly not sentimental — the most distinguished feature of Kilmer 's property was a colossal woodpile outside his home . "
= = Writing = =
= = = Mahwah : February 1913 = = =
According to Kilmer 's oldest son , Kenton , " Trees " was written on 2 February 1913 , when the family resided in Mahwah , New Jersey in the northwestern corner of Bergen County . The Kilmers lived on the southwest corner of the intersection of Airmount Road and Armour Road in Mahwah for five years and the house overlooked the Ramapo Valley .
It was written in the afternoon in the intervals of some other writing . The desk was in an upstairs room , by a window looking down a wooded hill . It was written in a little notebook in which his father and mother wrote out copies of several of their poems , and , in most cases , added the date of composition . On one page the first two lines of ' Trees ' appear , with the date , February 2 , 1913 , and on another page , further on in the book , is the full text of the poem . It was dedicated to his wife 's mother , Mrs. Henry Mills Alden , who was endeared to all her family .
In 2013 , the notebook alluded to by Kilmer 's son was uncovered by journalist and Kilmer researcher Alex Michelini in Georgetown University 's Lauinger Library in a collection of family papers donated to the university by Kilmer 's granddaughter , Miriam Kilmer . The " Mrs. Henry Mills Alden " to whom the poem was dedicated was Ada Foster Murray Alden ( 1866 – 1936 ) , the mother of Kilmer 's wife , Aline Murray Kilmer ( 1888 – 1941 ) . Alden , a writer , had married Harper 's Magazine editor Henry Mills Alden in 1900 .
= = = Kilmer 's inspiration = = =
Kilmer 's poetry was influenced by " his strong religious faith and dedication to the natural beauty of the world . "
Although several communities across the United States claim to have inspired " Trees " , nothing can be established specifically regarding Kilmer 's inspiration except that he wrote the poem while residing in Mahwah . Both Kilmer 's widow , Aline , and his son , Kenton , refuted these claims in their correspondence with researchers and by Kenton in his memoir . Kenton wrote to University of Notre Dame researcher Dorothy Colson :
Mother and I agreed , when we talked about it , that Dad never meant his poem to apply to one particular tree , or to the trees of any special region . Just any trees or all trees that might be rained on or snowed on , and that would be suitable nesting places for robins . I guess they 'd have to have upward @-@ reaching branches , too , for the line about ' lifting leafy arms to pray . ' Rule out weeping willows .
According to Kenton Kilmer , the upstairs room in which the poem was written looked down the hill over the family 's " well @-@ wooded lawn " that contained " trees of many kinds , from mature trees to thin saplings : oaks , maples , black and white birches , and I do not know what else . " A published interview with Joyce Kilmer in 1915 mentioned the poet 's large woodpile at the family 's Mahwah home :
... while Kilmer might be widely known for his affection for trees , his affection was certainly not sentimental — the most distinguished feature of Kilmer 's property was a colossal woodpile outside his home . The house stood in the middle of a forest and what lawn it possessed was obtained only after Kilmer had spent months of weekend toil in chopping down trees , pulling up stumps , and splitting logs . Kilmer 's neighbors had difficulty in believing that a man who could do that could also be a poet .
= = Scansion and analysis = =
" Trees " is a poem of twelve lines in strict iambic tetrameter . All but one of the lines has the full eight syllables of iambic tetrameter . The eleventh , or penultimate , line begins on the stressed syllable of the iambic foot and drops the unstressed syllable — an acephalous ( or " headless " ) catalectic line — that results in a truncated seven @-@ syllable iambic tetrameter line . Making the meter of a line catalectic can change the feeling of the poem , and is often used to achieve a certain effect as a way of changing tone or announcing a conclusion . The poem 's rhyme scheme is rhyming couplets rendered aa bb cc dd ee aa .
Despite its deceptive simplicity in rhyme and meter , " Trees " is notable for its use of personification and anthropomorphic imagery : the tree of the poem , which Kilmer depicts as female , is depicted as pressing its mouth to the Earth 's breast , looking at God , and raising its " leafy arms " to pray . The tree of the poem also has human physical attributes — it has a " hungry mouth " , arms , hair ( in which robins nest ) , and a bosom .
Rutgers @-@ Newark English professor and poet Rachel Hadas described the poem as being " rather slight " although it " is free of irony and self consciousness , except that little reference to fools like me at the end , which I find kind of charming . " Scholar Mark Royden Winchell points out that Kilmer 's depiction of the tree indicates the possibility that he had several different people in mind because of the variety of anthropomorphic descriptions . Winchell posits that if the tree described were to be a single human being it would be " an anatomically deformed one . "
" In the second stanza , the tree is a sucking babe drawing nourishment from Mother Earth ; in the third it is a supplicant reaching its leafy arms to the sky in prayer ... In the fourth stanza , the tree is a girl with jewels ( a nest of robins ) in her hair ; and in the fifth , it is a chaste woman living alone with nature and with God . There is no warrant in the poem to say that it is different trees that remind the poet of these different types of people . "
However , Winchell observes that this " series of fanciful analogies ... could be presented in any order without damaging the overall structure of his poem . "
= = Publication and reception = =
= = = Publication = = =
" Trees " was first published in the August 1913 issue of Poetry : A Magazine of Verse . The magazine , which had begun publishing the year before in Chicago , Illinois , quickly became the " principal organ for modern poetry of the English @-@ speaking world " publishing the early works of poets who became the major influences on the development of twentieth @-@ century literature ( including T.S. Eliot , Ezra Pound , H.D. , Wallace Stevens , Robert Frost and Edna St. Vincent Millay ) . Poetry paid Kilmer six dollars to print the poem , which was immediately successful . The following year , Kilmer included " Trees " in his collection Trees and Other Poems published by the George H. Doran Company .
Joyce Kilmer 's reputation as a poet is staked largely on the widespread popularity of this one poem . " Trees " was liked immediately on first publication in Poetry : A Magazine of Verse ; when Trees and Other Poems was published the following year , the review in Poetry focused on the " nursery rhyme " directness and simplicity of the poems , finding a particular childlike naivety in " Trees " , which gave it " an unusual , haunting poignancy " . However , the same review criticized the rest of the book , stating " much of the verse in this volume is very slight indeed . "
Despite the enduring popular appeal of " Trees " , most of Joyce Kilmer 's works are largely unknown and have fallen into obscurity . A select few of his poems , including " Trees " , are published frequently in anthologies . " Trees " began appearing in anthologies shortly after Kilmer 's 1918 death , the first inclusion being Louis Untermeyer 's Modern American Poetry ( 1919 ) . Journalist and author Mark Forsyth , ranks the first two lines of " Trees " as 26th out of 50 lines in an assessment of the " most quoted lines of poetry " as measured by Google hits .
= = = Popular appeal = = =
With " Trees " , Kilmer was said to have " rediscovered simplicity " , and the simplicity of its message and delivery is a source of its appeal . In 1962 , English professor Barbara Garlitz recounted that her undergraduate students considered the poem as " one of the finest poems ever written , or at least a very good one " — even after its technical flaws were discussed — because of its simple message and that it " paints such lovely pictures " . The students pointed to " how true the poem is " , and it appealed to both her students ' " romantic attitude towards nature " and their appreciation of life , nature , solace , and beauty because of its message that " the works of God completely overshadow our own feeble attempts at creation . " Considering this sentiment , the enduring popularity of " Trees " is evinced by its association with annual Arbor Day observances and the planting of memorial trees as well as the several parks named in honor of Kilmer , including the Joyce Kilmer @-@ Slickrock Wilderness and Joyce Kilmer Memorial Forest tracts within the Nantahala National Forest in Graham County , North Carolina .
" Trees " has been described by literary critic Guy Davenport as " the one poem known by practically everybody . " According to journalist Rick Hampson , " Trees " was " memorized and recited by generations of students ... It comforted troops in the trenches of World War I. It was set to music and set in stone , declaimed in opera houses and vaudeville theaters , intoned at ceremonies each April on Arbor Day . " According to Robert Holliday , Kilmer 's friend and editor , " Trees " speaks " with authentic song to the simplest of hearts . " Holliday added that this " exquisite title poem now so universally known made his reputation more than all the rest he had written put together " and was " made for immediate widespread popularity . "
= = = Critical reception = = =
Several critics — including both Kilmer 's contemporaries and modern scholars — have disparaged Kilmer 's work as being too religious , simple , overly sentimental , and suggested that his style was far too traditional , even archaic . Poet Conrad Aiken , a contemporary of Kilmer , lambasted his work as being unoriginal — merely " imitative with a sentimental bias " and " trotting out of the same faint passions , the same old heartbreaks and love songs , ghostly distillations of fragrances all too familiar . " Aiken characterized Kilmer as a " dabbler in the pretty and sweet " and " pale @-@ mouthed clingers to the artificial and archaic . "
Kilmer is considered among the last of the Romantic era poets because his verse is conservative and traditional in style and does not break any of the formal rules of poetics — a style often criticized today for being too sentimental to be taken seriously . The entire corpus of Kilmer 's work was produced between 1909 and 1918 when Romanticism and sentimental lyric poetry fell out of favor and Modernism took root — especially with the influence of the Lost Generation . In the years after Kilmer 's death , poetry went in drastically different directions , as is seen in the work of T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound , and academic criticism grew with it to eschew the more sentimental and straightforward verse .
The poem was criticized by Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren in their textbook Understanding Poetry first published in 1938 . Brooks and Warren were two of the major contributors to the New Criticism movement , where its supporters opposed using literature as a surrogate for religion . New Criticism proponents analyzed poetry on its aesthetic formulae and excluded reader 's response , the author 's intention , historical and cultural contexts , and moralistic bias from their analysis . They attributed the popularity of Trees largely to its religious appeal and believed it was a " stock response that has nothing to do , as such , with poetry , " adding :
" It praises God and appeals to a religious sentiment . Therefore , people who do not stop to look at the poem itself or to study the images in the poem and think about what the poem really says , are inclined to accept the poem because of the pious sentiment , the prettified little pictures ( which in themselves appeal to stock responses ) , and the mechanical rhythm . "
Literary critic Mark Royden Winchell believed that Brooks and Warren 's criticism of Kilmer 's poem was chiefly to demonstrate that " it is sometimes possible to learn as much about poetry from bad poems as from good ones . "
= = Refuted claims regarding inspiration = =
Due to the enduring popular appeal of " Trees " , several local communities and organizations across the United States have staked their claim to the genesis of the poem . While the accounts of family members and of documents firmly establish Mahwah being the place where Kilmer wrote the poem , several towns throughout the country have claimed that Kilmer wrote " Trees " while staying there or that a specific tree in their town inspired Kilmer 's writing . Local tradition in Swanzey , New Hampshire asserts without proof that Kilmer wrote the poem while summering in the town . Montague , Massachusetts claims that either " a sprawling maple dominated the grounds near a hospital where Kilmer once was treated " or " a spreading maple in the yard of an old mansion , " inspired the poem .
In New Brunswick , New Jersey , Kilmer 's hometown , the claim involved a large white oak on the Cook College campus ( now the School of Environmental and Biological Sciences ) , at Rutgers University . This tree , the " Kilmer Oak " , was estimated to be over 300 years old . Because it had been weakened by age and disease , the Kilmer Oak was removed in 1963 , and in reporting by The New York Times and other newspapers the local tradition was repeated with the claim that " Rutgers said it could not prove that Kilmer had been inspired by the oak . " Currently , saplings from acorns of the historic tree are being grown at the site , throughout the Middlesex County and central New Jersey , as well as in major arboretums around the United States . The remains of the original Kilmer Oak are presently kept in storage at Rutgers University .
Because of Kilmer 's close identification with Roman Catholicism and his correspondence with many priests and theologians , a tree located near a grotto dedicated to the Virgin Mary at the University of Notre Dame in South Bend , Indiana has been asserted as the inspiration for the poem . According to Dorothy Corson , the claim was first made by a priest named Henry Kemper . There are several accounts that Kilmer visited the campus of Notre Dame to lecture and to visit friends , but none of these accounts or occasions date before 1914 .
In his 1997 book of essays entitled The Geography of the Imagination , American writer Guy Davenport suggests a different inspiration for Kilmer 's poem .
" Trees were favorite symbols for Yeats , Frost , and even the young Pound . ... But Kilmer had been reading about trees in another context [ , ] the movement to stop child labor and set up nursery schools in slums . ... Margaret McMillan ... had the happy idea that a breath of fresh air and an intimate acquaintance with grass and trees were worth all the pencils and desks in the whole school system . ... The English word for gymnasium equipment is ' apparatus . ' And in her book Labour and Childhood ( 1907 ) you will find this sentence : ' Apparatus can be made by fools , but only God can make a tree.'
It appears that Davenport must have loosely and erroneously paraphrased the sentiments expressed by McMillan , as this exact quote does not appear in her text . Instead , McMillan is expressing the observation that several nineteenth @-@ century writers , including William Rankin , William Morris and Thomas Carlyle , opposed the effects of machinery on society and craftsmanship and thus eschewed machine @-@ made items . Davenport 's observation likely was derived in some way from McMillan 's examination and quotation of Carlyle :
" He ( Carlyle ) often makes comparisons between men and machines , and even trees and machines , greatly to the disadvantage of the latter . For example , ' O , that we could displace the machine god and put a man god in his place ! ' and ' I find no similitude of life so true as this of a tree ! Beautiful ! Machine of the universe ! '
= = Adaptations and parodies = =
= = = Musical adaptations = = =
Several of Kilmer 's poems , including " Trees " , were set to music and published in England by Kilmer 's mother , Annie Kilburn Kilmer , who was a writer and amateur composer . The more popular musical setting of Kilmer 's poem was composed in 1922 by American pianist and composer Oscar Rasbach . This setting had been performed and recorded frequently in twentieth century , including Ernestine Schumann @-@ Heink , John Charles Thomas , Nelson Eddy , Robert Merrill , Perry Como , and Paul Robeson . Rasbach 's song appeared on popular network television shows , including All in the Family , performed by the puppets Wayne and Wanda in The Muppet Show , and as an animated feature segment featuring Fred Waring and the Pennsylvanians performing the song in the 1948 animated film Melody Time , the last of the short @-@ film anthology features produced by Walt Disney .
Rasbach 's setting has also been lampooned , most notably in the Our Gang short film " Arbor Day " ( 1936 ) , directed by Fred C. Newmeyer , in which Alfalfa ( played by Carl Switzer ) , sings the song in a whiny , strained voice after a " woodsman , spare that tree " dialogue with Spanky ( George McFarland ) , sings " Trees . " Film critic Leonard Maltin has called this " the poem 's all @-@ time worst rendition . " In his album Caught in the Act , Victor Borge , when playing requests , responds to a member of the audience : " Sorry I don 't know that ' Doggie in the Window ' . I know one that comes pretty close to it , " and proceeds to play the Rasbach setting of " Trees . "
Dutch composer Henk van der Vliet , included a setting of " Trees " as the third in a set of five songs written in 1977 , which included texts by poets Christina Rossetti , Percy Bysshe Shelley , Kilmer , Matthew Prior , and Sir John Suckling .
= = = Parodies = = =
Because of the varied reception to Kilmer 's poem and its simple rhyme and meter , it has been the model for several parodies written by humorists and poets alike . While keeping with Kilmer 's iambic tetrameter rhythm and its couplet rhyme scheme , and references to the original poem 's thematic material , such parodies are often immediately recognizable , as is seen in " Song of the Open Road " written by poet and humorist Ogden Nash : " I think that I shall never see / A billboard lovely as a tree . / Indeed , unless the billboards fall , / I 'll never see a tree at all . "
A similar sentiment was expressed in a 1968 episode of the animated series Wacky Races titled " The Wrong Lumber Race " , where the villainous Dick Dastardly chops down a tree and uses it as a roadblock against the other racers , declaring proudly : " I think that I shall never see / A roadblock lovely as a tree . "
Further , Trappist monk , poet and spiritual writer Thomas Merton used Kilmer 's poem as a model for a parody called " Chee $ e " — with a dollar sign purposefully substituted for the letter " s " — in which Merton ridiculed the lucrative sale of homemade cheese by his monastery , the Abbey of Gethsemani in Kentucky . This poem was not published during Merton 's lifetime . Merton often criticized the " commodification of monastic life and business for a profit " , claiming that it affected the well @-@ being of the spirit . In his poem , Merton attributed his parody to " Joyce Killer @-@ Diller . "
Like Kilmer , Merton was a graduate of Columbia University and a member of its literary society , the Philolexian Society , which has hosted the annual Joyce Kilmer Memorial Bad Poetry Contest since 1986 . " Trees " is read at the conclusion of each year 's event .
Kilmer 's poem was recited in the 1980 film Superman II , as well as its 2006 director 's cut . In the scene , villain Lex Luthor ( played by Gene Hackman ) and others enter Superman 's Fortress of Solitude and comes across a video of an elder ( John Hollis ) from planet Krypton reciting " Trees " as an example of " poetry from Earth literature " . Luthor ridicules the poem .
= Zygoballus sexpunctatus =
Zygoballus sexpunctatus is a species of jumping spider which occurs in the southeastern United States where it can be found in a variety of grassy habitats . Adult spiders measure between 3 and 4 @.@ 5 mm in length . The cephalothorax and abdomen are bronze to black in color , with reddish brown or yellowish legs . The male has distinctive enlarged chelicerae ( the mouthparts used for grasping prey ) and front femora ( the third , and typically largest , leg segments ) . Like many jumping spiders , Z. sexpunctatus males exhibit ritualized courtship and agonistic behavior .
= = Etymology = =
The specific name is derived from the Latin sex meaning " six " and punctum meaning " spot " . This is a reference to the six spots typically occurring on the abdomen of the male .
= = History and taxonomy = =
The species was first described by entomologist Nicholas Marcellus Hentz in 1845 in the Boston Journal of Natural History . Hentz named the species Attus sexpunctatus and described it as follows :
" Black ; cephalothorax with the two posterior eyes near the base , which is wide and suddenly inclined at nearly a right angle with the upper surface , cheliceres with a strong inner tooth , and a long , curved fang ; abdomen with six dots , and a line in front , white ; feet , 1 . 4 . 2 . 3 . , first pair with enlarged thighs and quite long . "
Hentz classified A. sexpunctatus in the subgeneric group Pugnatoriae , which consisted of jumping spiders whose first pair of legs were the longest , followed by the fourth pair . Later entomologists abandoned this classification , which Hentz himself admitted was " somewhat artificial " . In 1888 , with the recognition of Zygoballus as an independent
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about every Mario mainstay imaginable " . Many of its new elements did not recur later in the series , making Super Mario Land strange compared to the rest of the series , or what IGN 's Thomas described as a " singular oddball " . IGN 's Marc Nix felt retrospectively that Super Mario Land was the only uninspired Mario game , with " funky voids of white " and UFOs instead of the " strikingly original " Mushroom Kingdom . Mean Machines was also put off by the alien theme , easy difficulty , and dot matrix screen blur . IGN 's Travis Fahs wrote that the game was comparatively not as " ambitious " as Super Mario Bros. 3 . Mean Machines felt as if it was not " a true Mario game " , not worth its originally high review score , and " in retrospect , not really a classic " .
Eurogamer 's Schilling wrote that Mario felt different — lighter , with more friction — and that the game felt " radical and distinctive " for the risks it took . IGN 's Thomas cited " out of place " gameplay elements like the shooter levels , exploding Koopa shells , non @-@ extinguishing fireballs , and non @-@ Princess Peach plot as departures from the series . Thomas attributed this to Mario creator Miyamoto 's lack of involvement in the game 's development , which he described as " famously hands @-@ off " . Schilling of Eurogamer instead blamed the Game Boy 's technical limitations . But he too was perplexed by the new sphinx , seahorse , and Moai head enemies , and considered the exploding Koopa shells a " cruel trick " disdainful of the series ' core gameplay . Super Mario Land 's shooter levels , new to the series , were not revisited in subsequent series games . And subsequent series games such as Super Mario Land 2 both dropped the original 's tiny scale and chose the classic fire flower fireballs over the first installment 's bouncing balls .
The game was included in multiple rankings of top Game Boy games , and Official Nintendo Magazine listed it at 73 in its top 100 Nintendo games . After her debut in Super Mario Land , Princess Daisy reaffiliated as Luigi 's girlfriend and appears in later Mario series sports and racing games .
= Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! =
Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! ( ストップ ! ! ひばりくん ! , Sutoppu ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! ) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Hisashi Eguchi . It was serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump from October 1981 to November 1983 , and the chapters were published in four tankōbon volumes by Shueisha from November 1982 to January 1984 . The series was adapted into a 35 @-@ episode anime television series by Toei Animation that aired on Fuji Television from May 1983 to January 1984 . The story focuses on Kōsaku Sakamoto , a high school student who goes to live with yakuza boss Ibari Ōzora and his four children — Tsugumi , Tsubame , Hibari and Suzume — after the death of his mother . Kōsaku is shocked to learn that Hibari , who looks and behaves as a girl , was assigned male at birth .
Eguchi wanted to create a romantic comedy manga where the main female character is a cross @-@ dressing boy so as to poke fun at the genre . He took more time to draw the chapters compared to his earlier manga , and as the serialization continued , he found it increasingly difficult to keep up a weekly pace for the chapters . He eventually abandoned the series after the editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Weekly Shōnen Jump refused his request to release the chapters every other week . From July 2009 to February 2010 , Shogakukan published a three @-@ volume Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! Complete Edition omnibus collection , which features various revisions to the originally published chapters in addition to newly drawn cover art .
Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! has been described as achieving a dizzying reality with Hibari by contrasting a girlish exterior with a male interior . The series has been praised for its overall light and pop literary style , and the delicate touch in how Hibari is drawn has been described as so attractive that it makes the reader forget that it is a gag manga . However , the jokes surrounding the yakuza characters have been criticized as extreme and no longer humorous in modern times . The series has been described as having had a hand in paving the way for the J @-@ pop phenomenon .
= = Plot = =
Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! follows Kōsaku Sakamoto , a high school student whose mother tells him on her deathbed to live with her friend and yakuza boss Ibari Ōzora and his family in Tokyo after she dies . Although Kōsaku is initially unsure about his situation , he is relieved when he meets Ibari 's four children : Tsugumi , Tsubame , Hibari and Suzume . Kōsaku is attracted to Hibari from the start , but he is shocked to learn that Hibari , who looks and behaves as a girl , was assigned male at birth — something only known within the Ōzora Group and Hibari 's family . A group of four girls led by Kaori Hanazono begin to suspect that Hibari may be a guy , but Tsubame takes Hibari 's place during a health checkup , effectively quelling any suspicions . Hibari begins to show an immediate interest in Kōsaku , so in an effort to distance himself from Hibari , Kōsaku joins the Wakaba Academy boxing club . Also in the club is Makoto Shiina , who is attracted to Hibari , and Rie Kawai , the club manager who Kōsaku likes . Hibari soon joins the club as its second manager shortly before they go on a training camp in Kujūkuri at the end of the year .
At the start of the new school year , Hibari is scouted to join the girl 's volleyball team after the captain , Jun Ōtori , witnesses Hibari 's athletic prowess . Although Hibari refuses , Jun continues to pursue Hibari until Jun is overwhelmed by Hibari 's superhuman ability to spike the ball . After Kaori and her friends try to embarrass Hibari during swim class , they once again suspect that Hibari may be a guy , but Hibari prevents them from getting any proof during the school sponsored summer camp . After Hibari refuses several advances from a popular guy at school named Takuto Honda , Hibari starts openly flirting with Kōsaku at school . Shiina becomes enraged at Kōsaku for earning Hibari 's affection , but Shiina and Kōsaku grow closer as friends after they fight it out and Kōsaku reassures him that there is nothing going on between him and Hibari .
When Kōsaku is out jogging one day , he helps out a girl named Sayuri Kōenji who was being harassed by three guys from the Kokuryū High School boxing club , although Hibari deals with them before Kōsaku can do anything . Despite this , Sayuri is instantly enamored by Kōsaku and hires a detective to find out more about him , leading her to discover Hibari 's secret . Hibari has another run @-@ in with the Kokuryū boxing club members after they harass Tsubame at a festival . The Kokuryū boxing club challenges the Wakaba boxing club to some inter @-@ school matches , but this turns out to be a ruse to get a chance to gang up on Hibari . However , the Ōzora Group intercedes , allowing Hibari to knock out the Kokuryū boxing club 's leader . Sayuri transfers into Kōsaku 's class , and she blackmails him into going on a date with her in exchange for not revealing Hibari 's secret . During the school festival , Kōsaku 's class acts out a Sleeping Beauty play with Kōsaku as the prince and Hibari as the princess , culminating in Hibari giving Kōsaku a French kiss on stage . Ibari agrees to look after Gekijirō Taiga , the son of one of his close friends , who Kōsaku is surprised to learn is a trans man .
= = = Characters = = =
Kōsaku Sakamoto ( 坂本 耕作 , Sakamoto Kōsaku ) is the protagonist of Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! ! and is originally from Kumamoto.Ch. 33 He is a pure @-@ hearted high school student who constantly refuses Hibari 's advances toward him , Ch . 2 , 3 , 10 , 17 but as time goes on , he becomes increasingly concerned that he is being influenced by Hibari.Ch. 8 , 22 , 35 , 38 Kōsaku treats Hibari kindly , and helps to maintain Hibari 's secret.Ch. 25 , 50 , 51 Initially unskilled at fighting , Ch . 3 he joins the Wakaba Academy boxing club in an effort to get stronger because of Hibari 's inherent strength , Ch . 8 which he achieves as the series progresses.Ch. 38 Kōsaku is voiced by Tōru Furuya .
Hibari Ōzora ( 大空 ひばり , Ōzora Hibari ) is the titular character of Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! ! . Hibari is a high school student assigned male at birth who looks and behaves as a girl , much to Ibari 's dismay.Ch. 2 , 4 , 8 Hibari prefers being referred to as Ibari 's daughter , Ch . 6 , 8 , 15 and has expressed an interest in having breasts.Ch. 6 According to Suzume , Hibari becomes more feminine after Kōsaku starts living at the Ōzora household.Ch. 8 Hibari show an interest in Kōsaku early on , Ch . 9 and continues to make advances toward him throughout the series.Ch. 17 , 22 , 35 Hibari gets bolder as the series progresses , including openly flirting with Kōsaku at school , Ch . 37 and kissing him.Ch. 18 , 48 , 51 Hibari is extremely athletic and intelligent , in addition to being physically strong despite Hibari 's relatively small body frame.Ch. 5 , 7 , 8 , 22 Hibari is voiced by Satomi Majima .
Ibari Ōzora ( 大空 いばり , Ōzora Ibari ) is the boss of the Ōzora Group , a yakuza organization.Ch. 1 As the father of Tsugumi , Tsubame , Hibari and Suzume , he wants the Ōzora Group to be family @-@ oriented.Ch. 4 Ibari is extremely distressed by Hibari 's usual behavior , partly because Hibari is his only choice to inherit the Ōzora Group.Ch. 2 He has a weak heart and frequently gets attacks whenever he is overly excited or shocked by something.Ch. 2 , 4 , 8 , 28 Ibari had been in love with Kōsaku 's mother , but she ended up marrying a Matagi hunter.Ch. 19 Ibari is voiced by Jōji Yanami .
Tsugumi Ōzora ( 大空 つぐみ , Ōzora Tsugumi ) is the eldest daughter who has acted as a motherly figure to her family after their mother died . She dropped out of art school in her second year and became a professional illustrator.Ch. 31 Tsugumi is voiced by Fumi Hirano .
Tsubame Ōzora ( 大空 つばめ , Ōzora Tsubame ) is the second daughter and is two years older than Hibari . Like her father , Tsubame is against Hibari acting as a girl , Ch . 5 , 7 and constantly gets mad at Hibari for wearing her clothes , Ch . 4 , 23 , 44 although Tsubame sometimes wears Hibari 's clothes , too.Ch. 6 Tsubame and Hibari are nearly identical except for their hair and eye color , and they impersonate each other on certain occasions.Ch. 7 , 13 , 18 Tsubame is voiced by Kyōko Irokawa .
Suzume Ōzora ( 大空 すずめ , Ōzora Suzume ) is the youngest daughter and is a precocious elementary school student.Ch. 14 , 19 , 48 She is scared of flat @-@ faced men.Ch. 4 , 28 Suzume is voiced by Tomiko Suzuki .
Sabu ( サブ ) is a member of the Ōzora Group . He is in love with Tsugumi.Ch. 32 Sabu is voiced by Norio Wakamoto .
Seiji ( 政二 ) is a member of the Ōzora Group . He looks scary , but he has a timid personality.Ch. 2 , 4 , 18 He scares Kōsaku awake in the mornings.Ch. 6 , 9 , 20 Seiji is voiced by Toku Nishio .
Makoto Shiina ( 椎名 まこと , Shiina Makoto ) is Kōsaku 's classmate who likes Hibari.Ch. 3 , 12 He is a member of the boxing club , and initially hates Kōsaku for earning Hibari 's affection , Ch . 8 but as the series progresses , the two become friends.Ch. 38 Shiina is voiced by Katsuji Mori .
Rie Kawai ( 可愛 理絵 , Kawai Rie ) is a normal girl with a gentle personality who is attracted to Shiina.Ch. 12 She joined the boxing club as a manager because of him.Ch. 17 She leaves the boxing club when she learns Shiina likes Hibari , Ch . 30 but she rejoins the club after she gets over him.Ch. 50 Rie is voiced by Hiromi Tsuru .
Mitsuo Kaji ( 梶 みつを , Kaji Mitsuwo ) is one of Tsubame 's classmates and is the boxing club captain.Ch. 10 , 13 He is an overbearing guy and is very pushy towards Tsubame whom he likes.Ch. 13 , 18 His family members have the same face as him.Ch. 18 He is voiced by Kōzō Shioya .
Kaori Hanazono ( 花園 かおり , Hanzono Kaori ) is Kōsaku 's classmate.Ch. 23 She is jealous of Hibari 's popularity at school , Ch . 6 and takes pride in her devious personality.Ch. 7 , 27 Along with her three friends , they try to embarrass Hibari.Ch. 24 , 27 Kaori is voiced by Seiko Nakano .
Sayuri Kōenji ( 高円寺 さゆり , Kōenji Sayuri ) is a rich girl one year younger than Kōsaku.Ch. 50 She falls in love easily and will do anything she can to bring her love to fruition . When something surprises her , she composes a haiku.Ch. 43 Sayuri is voiced by Yuriko Yamamoto .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! is written and illustrated by Hisashi Eguchi . Following the conclusion of his manga Hinomaru Gekijō ( ひのまる劇場 ) in 1981 , Eguchi wanted to go against the notion at the time that there was currently a golden age of romantic comedy manga in shōnen manga magazines . In response , Eguchi thought of creating a romantic comedy manga where the main female character is a cross @-@ dressing boy , and in doing so , poke fun at the genre by developing it as the antithesis of a romantic comedy . Eguchi drew up the storyboard for the first chapter in about 30 minutes in a cafe , and came up with the title Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! as a reference to Hisashi Sekiya 's manga Stop ! Nii @-@ chan ( ストップ ! にいちゃん ) . In wanting to highlight the comedy of having a character like Hibari , Eguchi realized that the cuter he could draw Hibari , the more effective the jokes would be , so he tried to draw Hibari as cute as he could .
Eguchi had often rushed when drawing his earlier manga Susume ! ! Pirates ( すすめ ! ! パイレーツ ) , but starting with Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! , he raised the standards he held for his art and had to began taking more time to draw the chapters . In addition , Eguchi was very particular about the appearance of his manuscripts , so he never used white @-@ out to correct any drawing errors because he disliked how it looked . As the serialization continued , Eguchi found it increasingly difficult to keep up a weekly pace for the chapters , leading him to take frequent hiatuses and later say that " drawing weekly isn 't something humans can do . " Furthermore , the editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Weekly Shōnen Jump at the time , Shigeo Nishimura , refused his request to release the chapters every other week . When it came time to draw what would end up being the last serialized chapter , Eguchi completed the chapter 's storyboard , but ultimately submitted only about two @-@ thirds of the chapter , leaving out the last five pages . After he submitted the chapter 's manuscript , Eguchi fled to a hotel and secluded himself for a day , only coming out after Nishimura called him to say that he could not deal with him anymore on a weekly basis . As a result , Eguchi abandoned the serialization and the editorial department decided to discontinue the series .
Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! was serialized in the manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from the October 19 , 1981 issue to the November 28 , 1983 issue . The individual chapters were collected and published in four tankōbon volumes by Shueisha from November 1982 to January 1984 . Inspired by Katsuhiro Otomo , Eguchi fought against the established design format for the volumes that at the time was " set in stone " for series serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump . Futabasha later published it in three volumes in July 1991 , and again in two volumes in February 1995 . Shueisha republished it in four volumes from May to June 2001 . Home @-@ sha published it in two volumes in January 2004 . In an interview in 2007 , Eguchi expressed a desire to continue some of his older series , but stated that a continuation of Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! would be difficult .
Starting in 2009 , Eguchi began working with Shogakukan on releasing a Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! Complete Edition omnibus collection , which features various revisions to the originally published chapters in addition to newly drawn cover art . Not wanting to end the Complete Edition with an abrupt conclusion like he had done before , Eguchi found the storyboard for the final chapter and used it as a basis to newly draw the last five pages he had omitted 27 years earlier . Shogakukan published the Complete Edition in three volumes from July 2009 to February 2010 ; Shogakukan later republished the series in another three volumes from May to July 2012 . In 2010 , Eguchi did not rule out the possibility of someday drawing a continuation of the series , but he said it probably would not be a story under the title Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! .
= = = Anime = = =
A 35 @-@ episode anime television series adaptation , produced by Toei Animation and directed by Takashi Hisaoka . It aired from May 20 , 1983 to January 27 , 1984 on Fuji Television . The screenplay was written by : Shigeru Yanagawa , Tokio Tsuchiya , Hiroshi Toda , Tomomi Tsutsui , Takeshi Shudo and Yumi Asano . The character design used in the anime was provided by Yoshinori Kanemori , and the music was composed by Kōji Nishimura . The series was later released by Universal J to two DVD compilation volumes from February to March 2003 . A DVD box set was released by TC Entertainment in September 2014 . The opening theme is " Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! " ( ストップ ! ! ひばりくん ! ) sung by Yuki Yukino and the ending theme is " Kongara Connection " ( コンガラ ・ コネクション ) sung by Ai Hoshino .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Psychologist Tamaki Saitō described Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! as achieving a " dizzying reality " with Hibari " by contrasting a girlish exterior with a male interior " , and went on to say that the series could be seen as a " continuation of the sartorial perversion lineage " of cross @-@ dressing characters . Manga critic Haruyuki Nakano has called Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! a unique and outstanding gag manga for its juxtaposition of Hibari being a boy and the heir to a yakuza organization . Nakano largely attributes this successful combination to Eguchi 's ability to draw girls that are not only cute , but also have good taste and sex appeal . The delicate touch in how Hibari is drawn has been described as so attractive that it makes the reader forget that it is a gag manga .
In writing for the magazine Cyzo , manga critic Jyamao wrote that because of its overall light and pop literary style , none of the indecency or immorality cross @-@ dressing may engender comes through , which he surmises is why the anime was able to air during prime time . Jyamao notes the more extreme nature of the jokes surrounding the yakuza characters in comparison to the jokes involving cross @-@ dressing , and that some jokes such as those involving drugs would not be humorous today . Manga commentator Nobunaga Minami lauded Eguchi for being a pioneer in drawing characters with a high fashion sense in Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! , which he says effectively changed fashion in shōnen manga from being seen as a " symbol " to now being treated as an " accessory " . Eguchi 's attention to detail is also praised , such as drawing Kōsaku wearing Chuck Taylor All @-@ Stars in one chapter .
The series has been called effervescent and having had a hand in paving the way for the J @-@ pop phenomenon . When Tegami Bachi author Hiroyuki Asada read Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! in junior high school , he admired its novel sensibility , and Eguchi 's art also influenced him . According to Eguchi , some people who read Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! were influenced to start cross @-@ dressing .
= Guitar Hero =
The Guitar Hero series ( sometimes referred to as the Hero series ) is a series of music rhythm games first published in 2005 by RedOctane and Harmonix , and distributed by Activision , in which players use a guitar @-@ shaped game controller to simulate playing lead , bass guitar , and rhythm guitar across numerous rock music songs . Players match notes that scroll on @-@ screen to colored fret buttons on the controller , strumming the controller in time to the music in order to score points , and keep the virtual audience excited . The games attempt to mimic many features of playing a real guitar , including the use of fast @-@ fingering hammer @-@ ons and pull @-@ offs and the use of the whammy bar to alter the pitch of notes . Most games support single player modes , typically a Career mode to play through all the songs in the game , and both competitive and cooperative multiplayer modes . With the introduction of Guitar Hero World Tour in 2008 , the game includes support for a four @-@ player band including vocals and drums . The series initially used mostly cover versions of songs created by WaveGroup Sound , but most recent titles feature soundtracks that are fully master recordings , and in some cases , special re @-@ recordings , of the songs . Later titles in the series feature support for downloadable content in the form of new songs .
In 2005 , RedOctane , a company specializing in the manufacture of unique game controllers , was inspired to create Guitar Hero based on RedOctane 's experience creating hardware for Konami 's Guitar Freaks arcade game . They enlisted Harmonix , who previously developed several music video games , for development assistance . The first game in the series was made on a budget of $ 1 million . The series became extremely successful , leading to the acquisition of RedOctane by Activision in 2007 . Harmonix was acquired by MTV Games and went on to create the Rock Band series of music games in the same vein as Guitar Hero . Activision brought Neversoft ( primarily known for their Tony Hawk series of skateboarding games ) on board for future development duties . Additional companies , such as Budcat Creations and Vicarious Visions have assisted in the adaptation of the games for other systems .
The series currently has eight major releases ( six Guitar Hero games , two DJ Hero games and Band Hero ) and five expansions on gaming consoles . There are spin @-@ offs for Windows and Macintosh systems , mobile phones , the Nintendo DS ( the Guitar Hero : On Tour series ) , and an arcade game . The Guitar Hero franchise was a primary brand during the emergence of the popularity of rhythm games as a cultural phenomenon in North America . Such games have been utilized as a learning and development tool for medical purposes . The first game in the series was considered by several journalists to be one of the most influential video games of the first decade of the 21st century . The series has sold more than 25 million units worldwide , earning US $ 2 billion at retail , claimed by Activision to be the 3rd largest game franchise after the Mario and Madden NFL franchises ; the third main title of the series , Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock is also claimed by Activision to be the first single video game title to exceed $ 1 billion in sales .
Despite early success , the series , along with the overall rhythm game genre , suffered from poor sales starting in 2009 . Activision had stated in early 2011 that the series was on hiatus for 2011 , while a seventh main title in the series was under development ; this title was later cancelled due to the poor quality of the emerging product . Activision later shut down sales of the series ' downloadable content , although users who purchased material from it previously may still play what they bought .
In 2015 , Activision announced the first new title to the series in 5 years , Guitar Hero Live , released in October 2015 . The title is considered a reboot of the series , with development being performed by FreeStyleGames , who had developed the DJ Hero games previously .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and development at Harmonix ( 2005 @-@ 2006 ) = = =
Guitar Hero was created from a partnership between RedOctane , then their own company that produced specialized video game controllers , and Harmonix , a music video game development company who had previously produced Frequency , Amplitude and Karaoke Revolution . RedOctane was seeking to bring in a Guitar Freaks @-@ like game , highly popular in Japan at the time , into Western markets , and approached Harmonix about helping them to develop a music game involving a guitar controller . Both companies agreed to it , and went on to produce Guitar Hero in 2005 . The title was highly successful , leading to the development of its successful sequel Guitar Hero II in 2006 . While the original controllers for the first Guitar Hero game were designed by Ryan Lesser , Rob Kay , Greg LoPiccolo and Alex Rigopulous of Harmonix and built by the Honeybee Corporation of China , subsequent iterations and future controllers were developed inhouse at RedOctane , with development led primarily by Jack McCauley .
= = = Sale to Activision and development by Neversoft ( 2006 @-@ 2009 ) = = =
Both RedOctane and Harmonix experienced changes in 2006 . RedOctane was bought by Activision in June — who spent US $ 100 million to acquire the Guitar Hero franchise — while it was announced in October that Harmonix would be purchased by MTV Networks . As a result of the two purchases , Harmonix would no longer develop future games in the Guitar Hero series . Instead , that responsibility would go to Neversoft , a subsidiary of Activision known for developing the Tony Hawk 's series of skateboarding games . Neversoft was chosen to helm the Guitar Hero series after Neversoft founder , Joel Jewett , admitted to the RedOctane founders , Kai and Charles Huang , that his development team for Tony Hawk 's Project 8 went to work on weekends just to play Guitar Hero . Activision CEO Bobby Kotick believed that Neversoft would help them bring great games to the series , but on reflection , stated that had Activision explored Harmonix further as a continued developer for the series , things " may have turned out differently " . In addition , Activision began seeking other markets for the game ; a Nintendo DS version of the series was developed by Vicarious Visions , while a Guitar Hero Mobile series was created for mobile phones . The company also began considering the expansion of the series to band @-@ specific titles with Guitar Hero : Aerosmith . Later , in November 2008 , Activision acquired Budcat Creations , another development studio that had helped with the PlayStation 2 versions of Guitar Hero III and World Tour , announcing that they would be helping to develop another game in the Guitar Hero series .
In 2007 , Harmonix and MTV Games released a new music title through rival publisher Electronic Arts , called Rock Band . It expanded upon the gameplay popularized by the Guitar Hero series by adding drum and microphone instruments , allowing players to simulate playing songs as bands . Activision followed suit with the release of Guitar Hero World Tour in 2008 , which supported multiple instruments . In 2009 , Activision tripled its Guitar Hero offerings , and in addition to further continuation of the existing main series with Guitar Hero 5 and expansions , they introduced the titles Band Hero , geared towards more family @-@ friendly pop music , and DJ Hero , a game based on turntablism and featuring a number of mixes . With the release of Guitar Hero 5 , Activision considered the series to have moved away from its heavy metal basis into a broader selection of music . Guitar Hero 5 is the first game in the series to use a new version of the series ' logo ; previous games used a logo in a font with sharper " points " on the letters , which was considered " idiosyncratic with a vengeance " to match the games ' emphasis on heavy metal music . Activision used the services of the Pentagram design studio to refashion the game 's logo . Pentagram developed a new font , removing some of the " aggressive odd " features to make the typeface more suitable and amendable to design feature incorporation to other games such as Band Hero and DJ Hero .
= = = Decline and hiatus ( 2009 @-@ 2015 ) = = =
The results of the expanded offerings did not contribute well to the series , alongside the late @-@ 2000s recession ; sales of most rhythm games including Guitar Hero and DJ Hero did not meet expectations , falling about 50 % short of projected targets . Activision announced it would be cutting back to only 10 SKUs within 2010 instead of the 25 in 2009 . Though RedOctane and Neversoft continued to develop the 6th main game , Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock , until its completion , both studios were later shuttered by Activision , moving key personnel into Activision directly for future game development , and in the case of Neversoft , closing its Guitar Hero division , while transferring future development duties for the series to Vicarious Visions , another Activision studio which had been fundamental in building the Wii and Nintendo DS versions of the games . In November 2010 , Activision also closed Budcat Creations , the arm of the publisher that was primarily responsible for porting the Guitar Hero games to the PlayStation 2 .
Ahead of Activision 's 2010 fourth quarter financial report in February 2011 , Activision disbanded its Guitar Hero business unit and announced that it would cease development of the planned 2011 Guitar Hero game . Activision cited " continued declines in the music genre " to explain its decision . The closure also affected the DJ Hero series , as Activision stated that there were no plans to publish a music game during 2011 . Activision 's vice president Dan Winters later clarified that the company was " just putting Guitar Hero on hiatus " and that they were " just not making a new game for next year , that 's all " .
In a July 2011 interview with Forbes , Kotick stated that while the publisher was " going to stop selling Guitar Hero altogether " , they were " going to go back to the studios and we ’ re going to use new studios and reinvent " the series , but a former teammember of Vicarious Visions has stated that as of 2012 , all development of Guitar Hero has come to an end within Activision . Another source close to Vicarious Visions had reported to Kotaku that while Guitar Hero 7 was in development under an Activision studio , the game was considered a " disaster " . The cancelled game omitted the additional instruments and used only a guitar peripheral , redesigning the unit to include a 6 @-@ button mechanism replacing the strum bar ; the resulting unit was considered too expensive to manufacture and purchase . The developers had also started the game development from scratch to try to create new characters and venues that would be more reactive to the actual songs being played to give the feel of a music video , but ultimately this proved too much of a challenge and had to be scrapped . Further , with a limited budget , the song selection was limited to " low @-@ budget " hits of the 1990s , or at times reusing songs that had previously been included in Guitar Hero games . Though the team had a two @-@ year development cycle , it was closed down after Activision president Eric Hirshber had seen the current state of the project at the one @-@ year point .
Another potential Guitar Hero project was discovered by the archival site Unseen64 for a game titled Hero World , a massively multiplayer online game that would link the Guitar Hero and DJ Hero games . The game had been developed by FreeStyle Games , sometime after the release of DJ Hero 2 , with the main development duties passed to Virtual Fairground , using their platform The Ride , an Adobe Flash @-@ based platform that would let the game be played in a web browser . The game was cancelled in 2011 along with other pending Guitar Hero projects .
No further downloadable content for either Guitar Hero or DJ Hero was made after February 2011 , though Activision committed to releasing content that was already in development by that time due to fan response ; later , in a move described by Game Informer as " the final nail in [ the series ' ] coffins " , Activision announced it would discontinue all DLC sales for the series ( although customers can still play tracks they have already bought ) as of March 31 , 2014 . Though Activision had moved away from the Guitar Hero series , the lessons learned helped them and developer Toys for Bob to handle the manufacturing and outsourcing issues that came with the highly successful Skylanders toy and video game franchise .
= = = Guitar Hero Live = = =
In April 2015 , Activision announced a new entry in the series , titled Guitar Hero Live . The title was developed by Activision 's internal studio FreeStyleGames , who previously had worked on the DJ Hero spinoff titles . FreeStyleGames were given free reign to reboot the Guitar Hero series for next @-@ generation consoles . One of their first innovations was to drop the standard five @-@ button guitar controller , ultimately designing a six @-@ button guitar controller , with two rows of three buttons each , allowing them to mimic actual guitar fingering . Guitar Hero Live was released with both career and an online mode . The career mode used full @-@ motion video taken from the perspective of a lead guitarist underneath the note highway , to create an immersive experience to the player . The online mode , called GHTV , discarded the previous downloadable content approach and used a music video channel approach to stream playable songs to players , adding new songs to the catalog on a weekly basis . The game was released in October 2015 .
Though the game was praised as a reinvention of the Guitar Hero series , the game did not sell as well as Activision expected ; due to lowered forecasts , Activision let go of a significant fraction of FreeStyleGames ' developers .
= = Games = =
= = = Main titles = = =
The original Guitar Hero was released on the PlayStation 2 in November 2005 . Guitar Hero is notable because it comes packaged with a controller peripheral modeled after a black Gibson SG guitar . Rather than a typical gamepad , this guitar controller is the primary input for the game . Playing the game with the guitar controller simulates playing an actual guitar , except it uses five colored " fret buttons " and a " strum bar " instead of frets and strings . The development of Guitar Hero was inspired by Konami 's Guitar Freaks video game , which at the time , had not seen much exposure in the North American market ; RedOctane , already selling guitar @-@ shaped controllers for imported copies of GuitarFreaks , approached Harmonix about creating a game to use an entirely new Guitar controller . The concept was to have the gameplay of Amplitude with the visuals of Karaoke Revolution , both of which had been developed by Harmonix . The game was met with critical acclaim and received numerous awards for its innovative guitar peripheral and its soundtrack , which comprised 47 playable rock songs ( most of which were cover versions of popular songs from artists and bands from the 1960s through modern rock ) . Guitar Hero has sold nearly 1 @.@ 5 million copies to date .
The popularity of the series increased dramatically with the release of Guitar Hero II for the PlayStation 2 in 2006 . Featuring improved multiplayer gameplay , an improved note @-@ recognizing system , and 64 songs , it became the fifth best @-@ selling video game of 2006 . The PlayStation 2 version of the game was offered both separately and in a bundle with a cherry red Gibson SG guitar controller . Guitar Hero II was later released for the Xbox 360 in April 2007 with an exclusive Gibson Explorer guitar controller and an additional 10 songs , among other features . About 3 million units of Guitar Hero II have sold on the PlayStation 2 and Xbox 360 .
Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock was released in late 2007 for the PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , Wii , Microsoft Windows , and Mac OS X platforms . The title is the first installment of the series to include wireless guitars bundled with the game and also the first to release a special bundle with two guitars . The game includes Slash and Tom Morello as playable characters in addition to the existing fictional avatars ; both guitarists performed motion capture to be used for their characters ' animation in the game .
Guitar Hero World Tour , previously named Guitar Hero IV , is the fourth full game in the series and was released on October 26 , 2008 for PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , and Wii . Analysts had expected that future Guitar Hero games in 2008 would include additional instrument peripherals to compete against Rock Band ; Guitar Hero World Tour was confirmed as in development following the announcement of the merger between Activision and Vivendi Games in December 2007 . Activision 's CEO Bobby Kotick announced on April 21 , 2008 that Guitar Hero World Tour will branch out into other instruments including vocals . Guitar Hero World Tour includes drums and vocals , and can be bought packaged with a new drum set controller , a microphone , and the standard guitar controller . A larger number of real @-@ world musicians appear as playable characters , including Jimi Hendrix , Billy Corgan , Hayley Williams , Zakk Wylde , Ted Nugent , Travis Barker , Sting , and Ozzy Osbourne . Guitar Hero World Tour also features custom song creation that can be shared with others .
Guitar Hero 5 , the fifth main entry in the series , was confirmed in December 2008 . It was released on September 1 , 2009 , and includes 85 songs from 83 different artists . The game includes new game modes and features , including its ' Party Mode , ' which gives players the ability to drop @-@ in and out and change difficulties in the middle of a song . Artists including Johnny Cash , Matt Bellamy , Carlos Santana , Kurt Cobain and Shirley Manson appear as playable characters in the game .
Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock , the sixth main console game in the series , was released on September 28 , 2010 . It is the last game in the series developed by Neversoft 's Guitar Hero division prior to its dissolution , with Vicarious Visions assisting on the Wii version with added Nintendo DS functionality . The game has been described as returning to the roots of the Guitar Hero series ; while it still allows for full band play , the soundtrack 's focus is on rock and roll music and an emphasis on guitar " shredding " . The game introduced a career @-@ based " Quest Mode " , narrated by Gene Simmons , that guides the players to complete songs to unlock " warriors of rock " to join them in saving " demigod of rock " and his guitar from his imprisonment by " the Beast " .
Following a five @-@ year hiatus , as described below , Activision announced Guitar Hero Live for release in late 2015 on most seventh @-@ generation and eighth @-@ generation consoles . Live was developed to rebuild the game from the ground up , and while the gameplay remains similar to the earlier titles , focusing primarily on the lead guitar , it uses a 3 @-@ button guitar controller with each button having " up " and " down " positions , making for more complex tabulators . The game using live footage of a rock concert , taken from the perspective of the lead guitarist , as to provide a more immersive experience .
= = = Series expansions = = =
Guitar Hero Encore : Rocks the 80s for the PlayStation 2 , which was released in July 2007 , was the final game developed by Harmonix for the series . Though it was produced after Harmonix were purchased by MTV Games , it was part of their contractual obligation to complete the game . The game , as suggested by its name , features tracks primarily from the 1980s .
Guitar Hero : Aerosmith was the first band @-@ centric game for the series . On September 4 , 2007 , Billboard announced that the band Aerosmith was " working closely with the makers of Guitar Hero IV , which will be dedicated to the group 's music . " On February 15 , 2008 , Activision announced that Guitar Hero : Aerosmith would be released on June 29 , 2008 . Guitar Hero : Aerosmith is developed by Neversoft for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions , while the Wii version of the game is developed by Vicarious Visions and the PlayStation 2 version is developed by Budcat Creations . The game features a track selection composed of 60 % of Aerosmith songs , with other songs from Joe Perry 's solo work or artists that have inspired or performed with Aerosmith , including Run D.M.C ..
The series ' next band @-@ centric title , Guitar Hero : Metallica , was released on March 29 , 2009 . Guitar Hero : Metallica is based on the full band experience of World Tour while offering similar features on Metal
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lica 's history and music as found in Guitar Hero : Aerosmith . In addition , Metallica 's album , Death Magnetic , was available as downloadable content for Guitar Hero III simultaneously with the release of the album , with the content being forward @-@ compatible with Guitar Hero World Tour and Guitar Hero : Metallica . Since the PlayStation 2 version does not support downloading , three extra songs were included from Death Magnetic and are as follows : " Broken , Beat , and Scarred " , " Cyanide " , and " My Apocalypse " . A new feature in the game , where the drummer can access a mode called Expert + , has also been added . Expert + mode was implemented to allow faster bass pedal beats , fast to the point where it would normally be out of the playable range of a single bass pedal , and was intended for a dual bass pedal .
Guitar Hero Smash Hits ( titled Guitar Hero : Greatest Hits in Europe and Australia ) was released in June 2009 . It features full @-@ band versions of 48 songs from earlier Guitar Hero games that only used the guitar controller . Unlike the previous versions , each of the songs is based on a master recording that includes some live tracks . The game follows a similar model as Guitar Hero : Metallica , and was developed by Neversoft and Beenox Studios for the PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , PlayStation 2 , and Wii .
Guitar Hero : Van Halen was released on December 22 , 2009 , though customers that purchased Guitar Hero 5 under a special promotion received a copy of the game early . Like the other band @-@ centric games , Guitar Hero : Van Halen includes 25 songs from the band Van Halen , including 3 guitar solos by Eddie Van Halen , in addition to 19 guest acts such as Queen , Weezer , Blink @-@ 182 , Foo Fighters , The Offspring and Queens of the Stone Age .
Another new title to the series , Band Hero , was announced in May 2009 . Band Hero features Top 40 hits aimed at family audiences , and include the full band play style of Guitar Hero 5 . The game was developed for the Nintendo DS , using the Guitar Hero On Tour Guitar Grip , a new " drum skin " to fit the DS Lite , and the DS 's microphone to support the full band experience . Musician Taylor Swift appears as a playable character in the game , as do the members of No Doubt .
DJ Hero was announced by Activision in May 2009 . Prior to the announcement , the company had purchased FreeStyleGames , a small developer of music games , to help produce localized downloadable content for Guitar Hero games and a then @-@ unannounced music game , later revealed to be DJ Hero . DJ Hero uses a special turntable @-@ based controller for players to perform with on various song mixes in the game . The game also incorporates the use of a Guitar Hero controller on ten specially arranged tracks ; Bright has suggested that future Guitar Hero games after Guitar Hero 5 may include the use of the turntable control .
A sequel , DJ Hero 2 , was officially announced in June 2010 for release in the last quarter of 2010 , featuring more than 70 mashups from over 85 artists . The game includes several new gameplay modes , including an " Empire " career mode , head @-@ to @-@ head DJ battles , social multiplayer modes , and a jump @-@ in and out Party Play mode similar to Guitar Hero 5 . The game also includes more vocal options for singing and rapping to songs , and a freestyle mode for players .
= = = Portable versions = = =
Guitar Hero : On Tour was released on the Nintendo DS hand @-@ held system on June 22 , 2008 . The game includes a peripheral , dubbed the " Guitar Grip " , a rectangular device that fits into the second slot of the Nintendo DS or DS Lite . The peripheral only features the first four fret buttons and a strap so the Nintendo DS can be held sideways comfortably for play . The game also includes a guitar pick shaped stylus for use with strumming in the game , which players move across the touchscreen . Guitar Hero : On Tour was developed by Vicarious Visions , who also ported the Guitar Hero games to Nintendo 's Wii console .
A sequel , Guitar Hero On Tour : Decades , was released in November 2008 , featuring music spanning four decades . A third title in the series , Guitar Hero On Tour : Modern Hits , was announced following various rumors of its existence , and was released in June 2009 , featuring songs recorded since the year 2000 . Both games use the " Guitar Grip " controller , and allow two players to compete against each other using any version of the On Tour series , with songs being shared between versions .
Band Hero was also ported to the Nintendo DS by Vicarious Visions , expanding the play to include vocals ( through the DS microphone ) and drumming . The drumming uses a special " drum skin " adapter designed for the Nintendo DS Lite to map the unit 's face buttons to four drum pads . However , the peripheral is not compatible with the original Nintendo DS model or the Nintendo DSi . However , since the drum skin is not electronic but a rubber cover switch that duplicates certain buttons on the DS Lite , a player can simply press the buttons in time to play the drums . The game includes four @-@ player local wireless play in a similar manner as Guitar Hero 5 allowing any combination of instruments to be used . The game has a set of 30 songs ; some are from Band Hero and others are from several Guitar Hero games ' set lists .
Guitar Hero : On Tour does not work on the Nintendo DSi and Nintendo 3DS because unlike the Nintendo DS , they do not have Game Boy Advance slots . Band Hero is limited to vocals and drums on the two consoles for the same reason .
= = = Mobile phone versions = = =
Guitar Hero III Mobile was released for mobile phones in 2007 and 2008 , and was developed by MachineWorks Northwest LLC . The base version of the game includes 15 songs from both Guitar Hero II and Guitar Hero III , and has released a three @-@ song add @-@ on pack every month since January 2008 . The title has been downloaded by users one million times , with both Verizon and Hands @-@ On Mobile claiming that over 250 @,@ 000 songs are played a day on the platform . The two companies produced two other mobile @-@ based Guitar Hero games ; Guitar Hero III : Backstage Pass , released in July 2008 , adds role @-@ playing elements to manage the band 's success in addition to the core rhythm game , while the mobile version of Guitar Hero World Tour , released in December 2008 , expands each included track for play on both lead guitar and drums , mimicking the expansion of the console series to the full band .
Glu Mobile developed the mobile version of Guitar Hero 5 , released in the last quarter of 2009 .
= = = Other games = = =
Activision and RedOctane also worked with Basic Fun , Inc. to produce Guitar Hero Carabiner , a handheld electronic game that features 30 and 60 @-@ second clips of ten of the songs from Guitar Hero and Guitar Hero II .
Activision and Konami , who had previously worked together to make sure that the Guitar Hero series meets with Konami 's patents on music games , developed an arcade console version of the game , titled Guitar Hero Arcade , distributed to arcades in early 2009 . The game is completely based on the Guitar Hero III gameplay , but reducing some of the features such as the use of the Whammy bar , Star Power Button ( Star Power may only be activated by lifting the Guitar ) and Practice Modes , but keeping the ability to download new songs for the cabinet from the Internet . The arcade game has come under some scrutiny by the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) , who believe the use of the game in arcades is equivalent to " public performances " and seek additional fees to be paid by operators of the game .
= = = Planned games = = =
No more Guitar Hero games were released on the PlayStation 2 after 2009 , with the double release of Guitar Hero 5 and Band Hero . It was expected that the 2010 entry for Guitar Hero , Warriors of Rock , would be the final entry developed by Neversoft , based on claims that Neversoft would be letting go of its Guitar Hero division , with Vicarious Visions likely poised to take over future development . Further industry rumors pointed at the closure of RedOctane Studios and Underground Development ( the development studio for Guitar Hero : Van Halen ) as further results from the scaling @-@ back ; Activision moved the controller hardware development within their own division to continue to support the series , with RedOctane founders Kai and Charles Huang remaining with Activision . A week prior to these announcements , the Guitar Hero division CEO at Activision , Dan Rosensweig , left the company , leading to some speculation on whether Rosensweig 's departure influenced these changes . Activision and RedOctane had trademarked the titles " Guitar Villain " , " Drum Villain " , " Keyboard Hero " and " Sing Hero " . RedOctane originally trademarked the titles " Drum Hero " and " Band Hero " , but the work performed towards the Drum Hero title was eventually folded into the gameplay for Guitar Hero World Tour , and Band Hero became its own game . Later , as of October 2009 , Activision reapplied for a Drum Hero trademark . Pi Studios , which had previously helped to port Rock Band to the Wii , had started work on the karaoke title Sing Hero before Activision cancelled its development .
Dave Mustaine , frontman for Megadeth , stated he had been in talks with Activision and Neversoft for a Guitar Hero @-@ related product . It was later revealed that Dave Mustaine was working with Activision for music in Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock , including an original track ( " Sudden Death " ) recorded specifically for the game .
Two Guitar Hero products that were announced but never released were a Red Hot Chili Peppers @-@ themed title and a PlayStation Portable title that would have featured a drum component .
= = Gameplay = =
The core gameplay of the Guitar Hero games is a rhythm game similar to Konami 's Guitar Freaks and to a lesser extent Harmonix 's previous music games such as Frequency and Amplitude . The guitar controller is recommended for play , although a standard console controller can be used instead . However , the guitar controller has been required for play ever since the inclusion of drum and vocal parts in the series . The game supports toggling the handedness of the guitar , allowing both left @-@ handed and right @-@ handed players to utilize the guitar controller .
While playing the game , an extended guitar neck is shown vertically on the screen ( the frets horizontal ) , often called the " note highway " , and as the song progresses , colored markers or " gems " indicating notes travel down the screen in time with the music ; the note colors and positions match those of the five fret keys on the guitar controller . Once the note ( s ) reach the bottom , the player must play the indicated note ( s ) by holding down the correct fret button ( s ) and hitting the strumming bar in order to score points . Success or failure will cause the on @-@ screen Rock Meter to change , showing how well the player is playing ( denoted by red , yellow , and green sections ) . Should the Rock Meter drop below the red section , the song will automatically end , with the player booed off the stage by the audience . Successful note hits will add to the player 's score , and by hitting a long series of consecutive successful note hits , the player can increase their score multiplier . There is a window of time for hitting each note , similar to other rhythm games such as Dance Dance Revolution , but unlike these games , scoring in Guitar Hero is not affected by accuracy ; as long as the note is hit within that window , the player receives the same number of points .
Selected special segments of the song will have glowing notes outlined by stars : successfully hitting all notes in this series will fill the " Star Power Meter " . The Star Power Meter can also be filled by using the whammy bar during sustained notes within these segments . Once the Star Power Meter is at least half full , the player can activate " Star Power " by pressing the select button or momentarily lifting the guitar into a vertical position . When Star Power is activated , the scoring multiplier is doubled until Star Power is depleted . The Rock Meter also increases more dramatically when Star Power is activated , making it easier for the player to make the Rock Meter stay at a high level . Thus , Star Power can be used strategically to play difficult sections of a song that otherwise might cause the player to fail . In the earlier entries of the series ( up until Guitar Hero : Aerosmith ) , activating Star Power meant that players could not accrue more Star Power until the Star Power meter was fully drained and the effect ended . Starting with Guitar Hero : World Tour , more Star Power can be collected even if the effect is active by completing more Star Power phrases , extending the Star Power 's duration by doing so . When playing in cooperative play ( with a bassist / rhythm guitarist in Guitar Hero II through Guitar Hero : Aerosmith or as a band in Guitar Hero : World Tour ) , Star Power is shared between all the players and activation of Star Power is dependent on all players simultaneously activating it .
Notes can be a single note , or composed of two to five notes that make a chord . Both single notes and chords can also be sustained , indicated by a colored line following the note marker ; the player can hold the sustained note ( s ) keys down for the entire length for additional points . During a sustained note , a player may use the whammy bar on the guitar to alter the tone of the note . Also , regardless of whether sustains are hit early or late , if the fret is held for the full duration of the hold , the game will always award the same amount of score increase for the note . In addition , the games support virtual implementations of " hammer @-@ ons " and " pull @-@ offs " , guitar @-@ playing techniques that are used to successfully play a fast series of notes by only changing the fingering on the fret buttons without having to strum each note . Sequences where strumming is not required are indicated on @-@ screen by notes with a white outline at the top of the marker instead of the usual black one , with Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock adding a white @-@ glowing effect to make these notes clearer . Guitar Hero World Tour features transparent notes that are connected by a purple outline ; players may either simply tap the correct fret for these notes without strumming or utilize a touchpad on World Tour 's guitar controller to mimic the slide technique . In addition , notes can now be played while a sustained note is being played . World Tour also adds an open string note for bass players , represented by a line across the fret instead of any note gems , that is played by strumming without holding down any fret buttons ( the sixth installment , Warriors of Rock , features an open note sustain for bass instruments as well ) .
Guitar Hero World Tour introduced drums and vocal tracks in addition to lead and bass guitar . Drum tracks are played similar to guitar tracks ; the player must strike the appropriate drum head or step down on the bass drum pedal on the controller when the note gems pass the indicated line . Certain note gems , when using a drum controller that is velocity @-@ sensitive , are " armored " , requiring the player to hit the indicated drum pad harder to score more points . Vocal tracks are played similar to games such as Karaoke Revolution where the player must match the pitch and the pacing of the lyrics to score points . Guitar Hero 5 allows players to create a band of up to four players using any combination of instruments .
While the song is playing , the background visuals feature the players ' chosen avatar , along with the rest of the band performing in one of several real and fictional venues . The reaction of the audience is based on the performance of the player judged by the Rock Meter . Guitar Hero II added special lighting and other stage effects that were synchronized to the music to provide a more complete concert experience . The games developed by Neversoft feature a simple storyline , usually about a band 's quest for fame , which is told through animations played throughout the game . These animations were created by Chris Prynoski and his studio , Titmouse , Inc . , who have also done animations for the animated show Metalocalypse .
= = = Game modes = = =
The main mode of play in the Guitar Hero games is Career Mode , where the player and in @-@ game band travel between various fictional performance arenas and perform sets of four to six songs . It is by completing songs in this mode that the songs are unlocked for play across the rest of the game . Players can choose their on @-@ stage character , their guitar of choice , and the venue in which they wish to play . In this mode , the player can earn money from his / her performances that is redeemable at the in @-@ game store , where bonus songs , additional guitars and finishes , your characters clothing and bonus content can be unlocked . Quick Play mode is a quicker method of playing songs , as it allows the player to select a track and difficulty , selecting the character , venue , and guitar and guitar skin for the player based on the song chosen . After successfully completing a song , the player is given a score , a percentage of how many notes they hit and a rating from three to five stars , and two in rare cases depending on his / her final score on the song , with money being awarded in Guitar Hero World Tour .
The games have also added multiplayer modes . Cooperative modes allow two players to play lead and either bass or rhythm guitar on the same song , working together towards the same score . A competitive Face @-@ Off mode allows two players to play against each other at different difficulty levels , each attempting to earn the best score on a song . Each player plays different portions of the song . There is also a Pro Face @-@ Off mode , where two players battle at the same difficulty level . Unlike standard Face @-@ off , each player attempts to play all of the notes in a song , while still trying to earn the highest score . In Guitar Hero World Tour this was advanced on , as players could play a Pro Face @-@ Off game against each other on any difficulty level , the lower your difficulty , the more points were awarded so a player on a low difficulty could potentially beat a player on a more challenging difficulty . Guitar Hero III introduced Boss Battles , in which two players face off against each other , attempt to collect " distractions " to throw at their opponent , trying to make them fail . With Guitar Hero World Tour , up to four players can play cooperatively on lead and bass guitar , drums , and vocals , while a total of eight players can compete in a Battle of the Bands . The Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , and Wii versions of the games support multiplayer modes over their respective network services .
The four difficulty levels for each song afford the player a learning curve in order to help him / her progress in skill . The first difficulty level , Easy , only focuses on the first three fret buttons while displaying a significantly reduced amount of notes for the player to play . Medium introduces the fourth ( blue ) fret button , and Hard includes the final fret button while adding additional notes . The addition of the orange fret button forces players to move their fingers up and down the neck . Expert does not introduce any other frets to learn , but adds more notes in a manner designed to challenge the player and to simulate the player 's hands to move in a sequence similar to a real guitar . A difficulty added in World Tour is Beginner , which only requires the player to strum to the basic rhythm ; holding the fret buttons becomes unnecessary . Another new difficulty only for drums was added to Metallica known as Expert + , which uses the double bass pedal .
Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock is the sixth installment in the franchise and introduced a new take on the Career mode of previous games . Rather than being a quest for fame and glory with the band travelling through different venues , Warriors of Rock features the " Quest Mode " as the primary campaign mode . Quest Mode tells the story of an ancient warrior who was defeated by a powerful monster and his mystical guitar was lost . The player must amass a team of rockers to help recover this guitar and defeat the monster ( called " The Beast " ) . As the player progresses through the mode , the rockers joining them will transform based on the number of stars earned from songs played . These transformations will empower the player with extra abilities in a song such as constant score multipliers or Star Power bonuses . These abilities are each unique to the individual rockers and by using them effectively , it is possible now to earn up to forty stars for a single song .
= = = Characters and customization = = =
When playing through Career mode or in other parts of the Guitar Hero games , the player has the option to select one of several pre @-@ created avatar characters , who will be shown performing on stage as the player attempts a song , but otherwise has no effect on the gameplay . A certain number of characters are available at the start of the game , but the player must spend in @-@ game money earned by successful performances to unlock other characters . Many of the characters reappear throughout the series , with the character roster changing as new characters are added or removed . Standby characters that have appeared in nearly all the games include the metalhead Axel Steel , extreme / Viking / thrash metalhead Lars Ümlaut , punk rocker Johnny Napalm , alternative rocker Judy Nails , and hard rocker Casey Lynch . The developers utilized these characters in more detail within Warriors of Rock , where each was given a unique setlist and venue based on their musical style , as well as a unique power within the game 's Quest mode .
Several games in the series feature caricatures of celebrity artists , such as Slash , Tom Morello and Bret Michaels in Guitar Hero III , Ozzy Osbourne and Jimi Hendrix in World Tour , Kurt Cobain in Guitar Hero 5 , and Taylor Swift and the band No Doubt in Band Hero . The band @-@ specific games , Aerosmith , Metallica , and Van Halen also feature the members of the respective bands . However , in late 2009 , both Courtney Love and the members of No Doubt sought legal action against Activision for the misuse of their in @-@ game characters singing or performing songs by other artists , which the musicians believe fell outside of their contract .
The ability for the players to create their own avatars was added in Guitar Hero World Tour , and was based on Neversoft 's existing character creation tools from the Tony Hawk series . Later games on the Xbox 360 and Wii allowed players to use the respective console 's avatars as members of the band . In addition to unlocking characters , in @-@ game money can be used to buy clothing , accessories and instruments that they are seen playing with . The guitars can also be customized with special finishes purchasable through the in @-@ game store . Guitar Hero World Tour includes the ability to fully customize any component of the guitar . The in @-@ game store in the series is also used to unlock bonus songs or special videos with interviews about the game or with the artists involved .
= = = Soundtracks = = =
Most of the games in the Guitar Hero series feature a selection of songs ranging from the 1960s to present day rock music from both highly successful artists and bands and independent groups . Guitar Hero Encore : Rocks the 80s features songs primarily from the 1980s , while Guitar Hero : Aerosmith , Metallica , and Van Halen feature music from the respective bands and groups that inspired or worked with the bands . Songs with profanities have been censored .
Many of the Guitar Hero games developed for the recent generation of consoles ( Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , and Wii ) support downloadable content , allowing players to purchase new songs to play in the respective titles . Songs each cost approximately $ 2 through the various online stores for the console 's platform . Prior to Guitar Hero 5 , downloadable content for earlier games will not work in other games in the series , save for songs from Metallica 's Death Magnetic , which were available for Guitar Hero III , World Tour , and Metallica . Existing World Tour downloadable content for World Tour will be forward @-@ compatible with Guitar Hero 5 , Band Hero and Guitar Hero Warriors of Rock , and for a small fee , some songs from both Guitar Hero World Tour and Guitar Hero Smash Hits can be exported to both Guitar Hero 5 and Band Hero , limited by music licensing . Activision has also stated that they are considering a monthly subscription service to deliver downloadable content to user for future games . Guitar Hero World Tour introduced a music creation mode that will allow players to create and share songs ( excluding vocals ) via the " GHTunes " service , which was also used in all other Guitar Hero games and Band Hero since its inclusion . The creation tools were improved with Guitar Hero 5 and Band Hero to allow longer songs and other means of generating songs in real @-@ time .
In the first two games and the 2007 expansion Guitar Hero Encore : Rocks the 80s , the majority of the songs on the main career mode set lists are covers of the original song ; for example , a song may be presented as " Free Bird as made famous by Lynyrd Skynyrd " . Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock introduces a much larger range of original recordings , and World Tour featured a setlist that contained all master recordings . The covers throughout the games are mostly recreated by WaveGroup Sound who has worked before to create songs for Beatmania , Dance Dance Revolution , and Karaoke Revolution , making small changes to the guitar portions to make them more adaptable for gameplay . Almost all of the unlockable bonus songs are songs performed by the original artist for the game ( the only exception is the song " She Bangs the Drums " by The Stone Roses , which is featured in Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock ) .
Prior to the release of Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock , Activision worked with the iTunes Store to provide more than 1300 tracks of Guitar Hero @-@ related music across more than 20 compilations , including most of the tracks from the games in the series , called " Guitar Hero Essentials " . These compilations , such as " Killer Guitar Solos " and " Guitar Anthems of the ' 80s " , include songs related to but not contained within the Guitar Hero series . Dusty Welch of RedOctane stated , " Where there ’ s music , there ’ s Guitar Hero , and with iTunes , we are able to provide fans with a central location for downloading their favorite rock anthems . " Following the merger of Activision and Blizzard , the new company announced that it planned on creating an alternative to iTunes based on the Guitar Hero brand that would allow for downloading songs and their associated note tracks for the Guitar Hero games .
= = Reception and sales = =
Games in the Guitar Hero series have been generally well received by critics . The initial games were highly praised by reviewers . Neversoft 's first entry to the series , Guitar Hero III , was considered to be too difficult , with many difficult songs presenting players with " walls of notes " ; the developers later acknowledged this . Subsequent efforts in Guitar Hero : Aerosmith and Guitar Hero World Tour were seen to have some improvements , with Guitar Hero : Metallica considered to be a well @-@ polished title and , at that time , the best Guitar Hero title Neversoft has produced . Guitar Hero 5 's improvements toward social gameplay were complemented by reviewers and considered a further improvement upon the series . Entertainment Weekly put it on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade , " best @-@ of " list , saying , " An addictive videogame provides the illusion of musical mastery for even the least gifted : . How do you get to Carnegie Hall ? Tap , tap , tap . "
Upon release , the first game was seen as an unexpected hit , earning over US $ 45 million with about 1 @.@ 5 million copies sold . Guitar Hero II was significantly more financially successful , with over 1 @.@ 3 million copies sold and sales over US $ 200 million . Guitar Hero III , according to Activision , was the first single video game to sell more than US $ 1 billion at retail , with nearly 3 @.@ 5 million copies sold during the first seven months of 2008 . World Tour continued the series ' high sales records with 3 @.@ 4 million units sold in the United States during 2008 . More than 60 million downloadable tracks have been purchased across the series as of February 2010 . Both Guitar Hero III and World Tour were listed on a March 2011 list from the NPD Group of top grossing games in unadjusted sales in the United States since 1995 ; Guitar Hero III tops the list with total sales of $ 830 @.@ 9 million .
Overall , the Guitar Hero series has sold more than 25 million units worldwide , earning US $ 2 billion at retail . Activision claimed the series to be the 3rd largest game franchise in 2009 after the Mario and Madden NFL franchises .
= = Cultural impact = =
The Guitar Hero series has made a significant cultural impact , becoming a " cultural phenomenon " . The series has helped to rekindle music education in children , influenced changes in both the video game and music industry , has found use in health and treatment of recovering patients , and has become part of the popular culture vernacular . Several journalists , including 1UP.com , Wired , G4TV , the San Jose Mercury News , Inc . , The Guardian , and Advertising Age , considered Guitar Hero to be one of the most influential products of the first decade of the 21st century , attributing it as the spark leading to the growth of the rhythm game market , for boosting music sales for both new and old artists , for introducing more social gaming concepts to the video game market , and , in conjunction with the Wii , for improving interactivity with gaming consoles .
= = Legal and practical issues = =
= = = PlayStation 3 incompatibility = = =
Sony 's PlayStation 3 console has no compatibility with the PlayStation 2 Guitar Hero controller on the system . While Guitar Hero and Guitar Hero II are fully backward @-@ compatible through the hardware PlayStation 2 emulation in the initial North American release of the console , it was impossible at launch to use the guitar controller to play either game . Kai Huang , of RedOctane , states that they are " working on that with Sony right now – looking at how we can get all the PlayStation 2 guitars that are out there , and all the owners of them , to use them on the PlayStation 3 . " Nyko , an accessories company , was poised to make a special PlayStation 2 controller adapter for the PlayStation 3 , but put the product on hold due to technical difficulties . Tac , another accessories company , also made a PlayStation 2 controller adapter for a PlayStation 3 game console so players could use their Guitar Hero guitar controllers that were made for the PlayStation 2 with a PlayStation 3 . However , the May 2007 PlayStation 3 V1.80 system update has made the guitar controller compatible with generic PlayStation 2 controller to USB adapters when playing Guitar Hero and Guitar Hero II . In addition , Pelican Accessories has released a special controller adapter that supports both games , including the ability to switch the handedness of the guitar .
= = = Patent litigation = = =
Gibson Guitar Corporation , whose guitar likenesses have appeared in the Guitar Hero series from the first game to Guitar Hero Aerosmith , informed Activision on January 7 , 2008 , that it believed the games infringe its U.S. Patent 5 @,@ 990 @,@ 405 . Gibson claimed that this covers technology that simulates a concert performance via pre @-@ recorded audio and a musical instrument . In response , Activision filed a suit seeking a declaration that it was not in violation of the Gibson patent ; Activision also asserted that Gibson had given an implied license by waiting to assert the patent and that the patent was invalid . On March 17 , 2008 , Gibson sued six retailers ( GameStop , Amazon.com , Wal @-@ Mart , Target , Toys " R " Us and Kmart ) for selling Guitar Hero products . Subsequently , on March 21 , 2008 , Gibson also filed a lawsuit against EA , MTV , and Harmonix over their game Rock Band also for violation of its patent , to which a Harmonix spokesperson stated that Gibson 's claims are " completely without merit " . Activision lawyer Mary Tuck stated in their legal filings that they believe that Gibson initiated the lawsuit due to the fact that " Activision was not [ interested ] in renewing the License and Marketing Support Agreement " with Gibson Guitars . In February 2009 , the United States District Court for the Central District of California ruled against Gibson in their case against Activision , stating that the controllers are not musical instruments but " toys that represent other items " , and that Gibson 's patent only covers instruments that send out analog signals . Activision and Gibson settled the suit following this ruling .
Activision , through John Devecka , owns all of Devecka Enterprises ' US and international patents that deal with music games . All patents issued by the USPTO are presumed valid .
In February 2010 , Activision was sued by the Patent Compliance Group ( PCG ) for releasing Guitar Hero products with false patent claims , with the PCG asserting that games like Guitar Hero 5 and Band Hero were marked with up to 10 patents that are not used within the games along with several other improper patent pending claims . PCG claims that " Acts of false marketing deter innovation and stifle competition in the marketplace . " PCG 's qui tam lawsuit is seeking up to $ 500 per unit sold if Activision is found liable .
= = = Oversaturation = = =
Many critics believed that the number of releases of Guitar Hero games was " milking " the brand name and oversaturating the market . PaRappa the Rapper creator Masaya Matsuura stated that the video game market was growing stale and needed to move beyond games that simply challenge the player to mimic the playing of licensed music . Ryan Geddes of IGN stated that he " hit the wall with play @-@ along music games " , and challenged the game makers to explore other ways to combine music and video games . Analysts stated that such games must continue to innovate instead of just providing more songs in order to prevent " genre fatigue " . Jesse Divnich of Electronic Entertainment and Design Research commented that , much like Dance Dance Revolution , Guitar Hero and other music games explosively grew initially due to significant new features from other games but have become stagnant due to focusing on content over features , and suggested that for the genre to continue to grow , they must look to incremental changes as done with the first @-@ person shooter genre . Former CEO for RedOctane , Kelly Sumner , believed that Activision " abused " the series , as " they tried to get too much out of the franchise too quickly " .
The series has also been criticized for its release model in contrast to the Rock Band series , causing some players to hold contempt towards Activision . Harmonix considered the Rock Band series as a " music platform " , and supported it with downloadable content and the ability to import songs from its games and expansions into most other games of the series . Critics argued that Guitar Hero should have been doing the same , either through releasing expansions that could be incorporated into the main games of the series , or by issuing the songs as downloadable content . The release of Guitar Hero : Smash Hits , reworking older songs from the series to full four @-@ instrument band support but otherwise adding no additional material , was called " the definition of ' milking ' " by reviewers , with no observable technical limitation as to why the songs could not be added as downloadable content . Ars Technica recognized that licensing issues might have limited when songs from one single game could be played in others of the series ( such as the case for The Beatles : Rock Band ) , but that such cross @-@ compatibility should have been a high priority for rhythm games . Furthermore , some expansions were praised for the additional content beyond the note @-@ matching gameplay ; Guitar Hero : Metallica is considered to be one of the series ' best works to be developed by Neversoft in part due to the care that the developers took with imaging the band and the available extras for the game . Activision later revealed that both Guitar Hero 5 and Band Hero would support playing songs from both Guitar Hero World Tour ( both on @-@ disc and downloadable content ) and Guitar Hero Smash Hits , with music licensing being the only limiting factor on which songs could be made forward @-@ compatible .
The large number of Guitar Hero and Rock Band titles on the market is considered to be partially responsible for the sharp decline of music game sales in the latter half of 2009 , along with the effects of the late @-@ 2000s recession . The market for rhythm games was $ 1 @.@ 4 billion in 2008 , but dropped to $ 700 million in 2009 even though more titles were available that year . Former Neversoft project director Brian Bright noted that at one point in 2009 , they were responsible for the release of three games that year ( Guitar Hero 5 , Metallica , and Band Hero ) and supporting other studios for the development of two additional games , causing the studio to lose focus both in development and marketing efforts . According to Bright , sales of all the Guitar Hero games released in 2009 totaled the number of sales of the 2008 title World Tour , demonstrating the dilution of the marketing . Though Activision had originally planned on tripling the offerings of the Guitar Hero series in 2010 , the company readjusted their plans , reducing the number of offerings and focusing more on selling digital downloadable content for the series . Only two titles , Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock and DJ Hero 2 were released in 2010 , both scheduled for the " back half of 2010 " . Analysts believe that the market will evolve to support a smaller number of titles each year , averaging at a " healthy " value $ 500 – 600 million in revenues annually . Kotick believed that part of the downfall of Guitar Hero was due to Activision 's introduction of DJ Hero , which they gave too much focus and left the core Guitar Hero games without the " nourishment and care " needed to continue to innovate in the series .
Activision Publishing chief executive Mike Griffith , in response to questions about Activision 's approach to the Guitar Hero market , noted that Guitar Hero continues to outsell the Rock Band series in both number of sales and revenue , with consumers continuing to buy the separate games on the market , and considered the market acceptance of the multiple games as validation for their model . Regardless , after releasing 25 different SKUs ( between games and bundle packages ) in 2009 , Activision opted to reduce that number to 10 in 2010 , recognizing the music game genre was not as profitable as it once was . Activision later opted to put future development of the series on hold in early 2011 citing weak sales in the rhythm game genre , a move that many journalists attributed to Activision 's earlier oversaturation .
= = List of games = =
All games are published by Activision , except the first Guitar Hero and the PS2 version of Guitar Hero II , which were published by RedOctane .
= Fieldfare =
The fieldfare ( Turdus pilaris ) is a member of the thrush family Turdidae . It breeds in woodland and scrub in northern Europe and Asia . It is strongly migratory , with many northern birds moving south during the winter . It is a very rare breeder in the British Isles , but winters in large numbers in the United Kingdom , Southern Europe , North Africa and the Middle East . It is omnivorous , eating a wide range of molluscs , insects and earthworms in the summer , and berries , grain and seeds in the winter .
Fieldfares often nest in small colonies , possibly for protection from predators . The nest is built in a tree where five or six eggs are laid . The chicks are fed by both parents and leave the nest after a fortnight . There may be two broods in southern parts of the range but only one further north . Migrating birds and wintering birds often form large flocks , often in the company of Redwings .
The fieldfare is 25 cm ( 10 in ) long , with a grey crown , neck and rump , a plain brown back , dark wings and tail and white underwings . The breast and flanks are heavily spotted . The breast has a reddish wash and the rest of the underparts are white . The sexes are similar in appearance but the females are slightly more brown . The male has a simple chattering song and the birds have various guttural flight and alarm calls .
= = Etymology = =
The English common name fieldfare dates back to at least the eleventh century . The Anglo @-@ Saxon word feldefare perhaps meant traveller through the fields .
The species was described by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae ( 1758 ) under its current scientific name . The name Turdus pilaris comes from two separate Latin words for thrush . No subspecies are recognised .
= = Description = =
The fieldfare is easily recognisable with its slate @-@ grey head , nape and rump , dark brown back , blackish tail and boldly speckled breast . In flight , its white under wing @-@ coverts and axillaries are conspicuous . The harsh flight call " tsak tsak " is also distinctive .
The forehead and crown of the male are bluish @-@ grey and each feather has a central brownish @-@ black band . The lores and under @-@ eye regions are black and there are faint , pale streaks above the eyes . The ear coverts , nape , hind neck and rump are bluish @-@ grey , usually with a white streak near the shaft of each rump feather . The scapulars and mantle feathers are dark chestnut @-@ brown with dark central streaks and pale tips . There are fourteen tail feathers each with a pointed tip , the outer two slightly shorter than the others giving a rounded tail . They are brownish @-@ black , with inconspicuous darker bars visible in some lights . The outer edge of each tail feather is fringed with grey near the base and the outer pair of feathers have a narrow white border on the inner edge . The chin , throat and upper breast are creamy @-@ buff with bold streaks and speckles of brownish @-@ black . The lower breast is creamy @-@ white with a diminishing buff tinge and fewer speckles and the belly is similarly creamy @-@ white , with the speckles restricted to the uppermost parts . The primaries are brownish @-@ black with the leading edge fringed grey and the inner edge of the outer feathers grey near the base whereas the inner feathers are fringed with brown near the base . The secondaries are similar but fringed with chestnut @-@ brown on the leading edge . The upper wing @-@ coverts are brownish @-@ black and similar to the outer primaries in their margin colouration . The axillaries and under wing @-@ coverts are white and the under tail @-@ coverts have dark greyish @-@ brown bases and margins and white centres and tips . The beak is strong , with a slight curve and a notch near the tip . It is orange @-@ yellow in winter , with the upper mandible somewhat brownish and both mandible tips brownish @-@ black . In the summer both mandibles of the male 's beak are yellow . The irises are dark brown and the legs and feet are brown . The average adult length is 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) , the winglength is 14 @.@ 5 cm ( 5 @.@ 7 in ) and the tarsal length 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) .
The female is very similar to the male but the upper parts are somewhat more brownish and the feathers on the crown have narrower black central stripes . The throat and breast are paler with fewer , smaller markings . The beak is similar to the male 's winter beak . The juvenile are a duller colour than the adults with pale coloured streaks on the feathers that have dark streaks in the adult . The young assume their adult plumage after their first moult in the autumn .
The call is mostly uttered in flight and is a harsh " tsak tsak tsuk " . The same sound , but softer , is made more conversationally when individuals gather in trees . When angry or alarmed they emit various warning sounds reminiscent of the mistle thrush ( Turdus viscivorous ) . The male has a rather feeble song that he sings in the breeding season . It is a mixture of a few phrases like those of the common blackbird ( Turdus merula ) interspersed with whistles , guttural squeaks and call notes . This is sung on the wing and also from a tree and a subdued version of this song with more warbling notes is sung by a group of birds at communal roosts .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The fieldfare is a migratory species with a palearctic distribution . It breeds in northern Norway , northern Sweden , Finland , Belgium , Germany , Switzerland , Austria , the Czech Republic , Slovakia , Hungary , Poland and Siberia as far east as Transbaikal , the Aldan River and the Tian Shan Mountains in North West China . Its winter range extends through West and South Europe to North Africa , though it is uncommon in the Mediterranean region . Eastern populations migrate to Anatolia , Israel , Iran and Northwest India , and occasionally Northeast India . It is a vagrant to Iceland , Greenland , Spitsbergen , the Canary Islands , the Balearic Islands , Madeira , Corsica , Sardinia , Sicily , Malta and Cyprus .
In the summer the fieldfare frequents mixed woodland of birch , alder , pine , spruce and fir , often near marshes , moorland or other open ground . It does not avoid the vicinity of humans and can be seen in cultivated areas , orchards , parks and gardens . It also inhabits open tundra and the slopes of hills above the tree line . In the winter , groups of fieldfares are chiefly found in open country , agricultural land , orchards and open woodland . They are nomadic , wandering wherever there is an abundance of berries and insects . Later in the year they move on to pastureland and cultivated fields .
= = Behaviour = =
The flight of the fieldfare is slow and direct . It takes several strong beats then closes its wings briefly before flapping on . It is highly gregarious , quite shy and easily scared in the winter and bold and noisy in the breeding season . When a group is in a tree they all tend to face in the same direction , keeping up a constant chatter . When foraging on the ground , often in association with redwings , the group works its way up wind , each bird pausing every so often to stand erect and gaze around before resuming feeding . When alarmed they fly off down wind and the feeding group reforms elsewhere . In woodland they do not skulk in the undergrowth as do blackbirds or song thrushes , instead they perch in the open on bushes and high branches . They roost socially , sometimes in overgrown hedges and shrubberies but usually on the ground . Common sites are in rough grass among bushes or clumps of rushes , in young plantations , on stubble and in the furrows of ploughed fields .
Migration southwards from the breeding range starts in October but the bulk of birds arrive in the United Kingdom in November . Some of these are still on passage and carry on into continental Europe but others remain . The passage @-@ migrants return in April and they and the resident migrants depart from the United Kingdom mostly by early May .
The fieldfare is omnivorous . Animal food in the diet includes snails and slugs , earthworms , spiders and insects such as beetles and their larvae , flies and grasshoppers . When berries ripen in the autumn these are taken in great number . Hawthorn , holly , rowan , yew , juniper , dog rose , Cotoneaster , Pyracantha and Berberis are all relished . Later in the winter windfall apples are eaten , swedes attacked in the field and grain and seeds eaten . When these are exhausted , or in particularly harsh weather , the birds may move to marshes or even the foreshore where molluscs are to be found .
= = Breeding = =
The breeding season starts in May in Poland but further north in Scandinavia may not start until early July . The female fieldfare builds a cup @-@ shaped nest with no attempt at concealment . The location is often in woodland but may be in a hedgerow , garden , among rocks , in a pile of logs , in a hut or on the ground . Fieldfares usually nest in close proximity to others of the same species . The adults will defend the nest aggressively and nesting gregariously may offer protection from predators . The nest is built of dried grasses and weeds with a few twigs and a little moss , with a lining of mud and an inner lining of fine grasses . There are usually five to six eggs in a clutch , but occasionally three , four , seven or eight eggs are laid . The eggs vary in size from 28 @.@ 8 by 20 @.@ 9 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 13 in × 0 @.@ 82 in ) to 33 @.@ 5 by 23 @.@ 4 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 32 in × 0 @.@ 92 in ) and are variable in colour . Many are pale blue speckled with fine brown dots and resemble those of the common blackbird . Others are bright blue , with or without larger red @-@ brown splotches . Incubation starts before all the eggs are laid and lasts for thirteen to fourteen days . The female does all or most of the incubation . The chicks are altricial and both parents bring food to them . They are usually ready to leave the nest after fourteen to sixteen days and there may be two broods in the season , especially in the southern parts of the breeding range .
= = Status and conservation = =
The fieldfare has an extensive range , estimated at 10 million square kilometres ( 3 @.@ 8 million square miles ) , and a large population , including an estimated forty two to seventy two million individuals in Europe . There are thought to be up to twenty thousand individuals in Russia and the global population is estimated to be between forty four and ninety six million individuals . The population size appears to be stable and the bird is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criteria of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species ( i.e. , declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) , and is therefore evaluated as being of " Least Concern " .
In the United Kingdom , at the extreme edge of the fieldfare 's breeding range , only a handful of pairs breed . It is therefore classified by the RSPB as a Red List species as of January 2013 .
= Type 94 Nambu pistol =
The Type 94 Nambu 8 mm Pistol ( Type 94 Handgun , Japanese : 九四式拳銃 Kyūyon @-@ Shiki Kenjū ) is a semiautomatic pistol developed by Kijirō Nambu and his associates for the Imperial Japanese Army . Development of the Type 94 pistol began in 1929 , and after several redesigns the final prototype was tested and officially adopted by the Japanese Army in late 1934 ( Japanese calendar , 2594 ) . The Type 94 pistol entered production in 1935 . Approximately 71 @,@ 000 pistols were manufactured before production ended in 1945 .
The Type 94 pistol was designed for , and popular among , Japanese tank and aircraft crews who preferred a smaller , lightweight design . Japanese weapons experts have subsequently criticized some design elements of the Type 94 ; in particular the pistol could be fired unintentionally before the breech was fully locked if the sear bar on the side of the receiver was jarred loose and the pistol was improperly handled . Additionally , the process to disassemble the pistol is overly complex and awkward . The build quality of the Type 94 pistol declined over its production run ; " last ditch " pistols made in 1945 were crudely manufactured .
= = History = =
The Type 94 Nambu pistol was designed by Kojiro Nambu after he retired from the Japanese Army and founded the Nambu Rifle Manufacturing Company . Design for the Type 94 Nambu pistol commenced in 1929 with the goal of reducing the bulk and price of previous Nambu designs . The Imperial Japanese Army felt a smaller pistol of domestic design that could accommodate the standard 8 × 22mm Nambu cartridge was needed to substitute the larger , heavier , and only official military pistol , the Type 14 Nambu . The demand for officer 's handguns had increased as a result of Japan 's invasion of Manchuria during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . A new design was also wanted by the Japanese Army to include a magazine safety , to prevent unintentional discharges during cleaning that were common among Japanese personnel . Naming of the Type 94 pistol reflects the change in Japanese nomenclature with the 94 reckoning back to the mythical foundation of Japan in 660 BC therefore year 2594 instead of the traditional emperor reign period used to name the Type 26 revolver or Type 14 Nambu pistol . The final prototype for the Type 94 was officially adopted by the Japanese Army in late 1934 after several redesigns . Production began under the supervision of the Nagoya Army Arsenal at the Nambu Rifle Manufacturing Company and later its successor , Chuo Kogyo Company , Ltd . An estimated 71 @,@ 000 pistols were produced for the military but the exact quantity is unknown because of the production of unserialized pistols and undated pistols . During World War II the pistol became a preferred weapon for tank crews and paratroopers who required a smaller , more convenient pistol . The Type 94 was never officially adopted by the Imperial Japanese Navy but was available to officers through the Japanese officer 's union .
= = Design = =
The Type 94 pistol is operated by a different mechanism than previous Japanese sidearms . Unlike previously designed Nambu pistols , the Type 94 operates with a concealed hammer and with a firing pin rather than a hammer . According to authors , Harry L. Derby and James D. Brown , the firing pin is inherently weak and is prone to breakage because of a recess cut provided for the crossbolt and is prone to breaking at this point . The sturdier hammer firing mechanism was developed and included in the Type 94 to replace the poor striker on the Type 14 Nambu . The locking system is a rising @-@ block type which floats independently between the lugs underneath the chamber end of the barrel . The single coil mainspring is positioned around the barrel around the barrel instead of to the rear of the barrel as found on other Nambu pistols . The grip is smaller than other Japanese pistols and is finished with smooth wood but according to author Jeff Kinard , are more comfortable for use by men with smaller hands . The magazine holds a maximum of six rounds because of the smaller grip and it is considered difficult to reload the weapon , with pressure from the bolt holding it inside the pistol . The magazine catch protrudes far enough to occasionally disengage when the pistol is placed on its left side on a hard surface . The magazine could also disengage if squeezed into or jarred in a holster . The manual safety lever is located on the left rear of the frame and has the kanji for fire and safe stamped onto the frame . The front blade sight on the muzzle of the Type 94 pistol and the rear fixed V were occasionally inaccurately positioned making them useless when the weapon is being aimed . The rear sight was reduced from a U @-@ shape to a simple notch in 1944 with the front blade being left unchanged but less attention to detail being applied as World War II progressed .
= = = Final production = = =
The quality of Type 94 Nambu pistols decreased towards the end of World War II as the Japanese faced bombing raids from allied forces and material shortages increased . This drastic change in quality from late March 1945 , onwards with all quality standards appearing to disappear towards the end of June 1945 . The smooth wooden finished grip was replaced by a bakelite checkered pattern . Many pistols were not serialized and no pistols have been reported that bear July 1945 manufacture date . Only four unserialized and undated pistols are known to exist and include mismatch parts with no inspection marks , lanyard loops , and extractors . A small number of pistols made during the final production stages include earlier production dates and appear to have been salvaged from previously discarded pistols that had minor or cosmetic defects .
= = Disassembly = =
Disassembly of the Type 94 Nambu pistol is considered difficult and can lead to damage to the pistol if done carelessly . After clearing the Type 94 , the operator must draw the slide against the magazine follower to hold the bolt to the rear of the pistol . This will allow the crossbolt to be released after the firing pin is depressed . Removal of the crossbolt without depressing the firing pin will damage both the firing pin and the crossbolt . Removing the crossbolt is further complicated as the disassemblers hands are both holding the pistol and depressing the firing pin .
= = Holster = =
Holsters for the Type 94 pistol were generally made from either pigskin or cowhide leather and ranged in color from tan to dark reddish brown . Holsters faced the same degradation in quality as the Type 94 pistol . As supplies of leather were exhausted in Japan , holsters manufactured in 1944 became fabricated from olive drab fabric . The Type 94 pistol holster is distinguishable from other Japanese holsters having a pointed closure flap and a vertically positioned magazine pouch . The pouch tow has a narrow extension to accommodate a cleaning rod . The majority of holsters were made in civilian owned tanneries with some ink stamped with arsenal and inspection marks . A belt loop and two shoulder strap " D " rings are provided on the rear of the holster and are made from brass , galvanized steel , or nickel plating .
= = Unintentional firing = =
The poor design of the breech allowed the Type 94 Nambu to be fired unintentionally . The sear bar on the Type 94 Nambu converts the forward pull of the trigger into a lateral movement that frees the hammer . Because the sear bar is on the outside of the pistol , it could be jarred loose during engagement if the pistol was cocked and handled carelessly . The forward end of the sear bar would need to be depressed approximately 2mm to cause the weapon to fire . The ability to fire the Type 94 without pulling the trigger gave rise to war stories of Japanese soldiers surrendering , only to fire the pistol , earning the pistol monikers such as the " suicide special " and the " surrender pistol " . These stories are widely discredited because of the difficulty to fire the weapon by squeezing the sear bar . If the safety is engaged on the Type 94 it is impossible for the weapon to discharge unintentionally .
= Jifna =
Jifna ( Arabic : جفنا , Jifnâ ) is a Palestinian village in the Ramallah and al @-@ Bireh Governorate in the central West Bank , Palestine , located 8 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) north of Ramallah and 23 kilometers ( 14 mi ) north of Jerusalem . A village of about 1 @,@ 400 people , Jifna has retained a Christian majority since the 6th century CE . Its total land area consists of 6 @,@ 015 dunams , of which 420 are designated as built @-@ up areas , most of the remainder being covered with olive , fig and apricot groves . Jifna is governed by a village council , led ( 2008 ) by chairman Jabi Na 'im Kamil .
Jifna was known as Gophnah ( In Hebrew גופנה ) at the time of the First Jewish @-@ Roman War , and after its conquest became a Roman regional capital . Later the town grew less significant politically , but nevertheless prospered under Byzantine and Arab rule due to its location on a trade route . St. George 's Church in Jifna was built in the 6th century CE , but fell into disrepair and was not rebuilt until the arrival of the Crusaders
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the 1953 – 54 season , and Lawton resigned as manager after the Griffin Park crowd began to mock the forward line by singing Dear Old Pals .
= = = Arsenal = = =
In November 1953 , Lawton was traded to First Division champions Arsenal for £ 7 @,@ 500 plus James Robertson ( valued at £ 2 @,@ 500 ) . He was signed by manager Tom Whittaker , who had previously found success in bringing in veterans such as Ronnie Rooke and Joe Mercer . However Lawton was limited to ten appearances in the 1953 – 54 campaign after picking up an injury on his debut . He also played in the 1953 Charity Shield , scoring one goal as Arsenal beat Blackpool 3 – 1 . He scored seven goals in 20 appearances throughout the 1954 – 55 season , including winning goals against Chelsea and Cardiff City . He scored a hat @-@ trick past Cardiff City on the opening day of the 1955 – 56 season , before he announced his decision to leave Arsenal to pursue a career in management eight games into the campaign .
" More than 20 years of soccer . What glorious years . Years that all the money in the world couldn 't buy . I have been lucky . I have played with great clubs ; I have escaped serious injury ; I have played for my country ; I have even captained my country ; I have won many of the game 's top honours . Soccer has been good to me and I hope that I have repaid the game in some small way . I have had great experiences . I have met some wonderful people . I have memories that nobody can take away from me . If I could turn the clock back 20 years , I would still go into the game as a full @-@ time professional and I can say to any lad who is contemplating a career in football : Go ahead son ... providing you are willing to work and work hard and providing you are willing to learn the craft thoroughly . You will meet some of the grandest fellows you could ever wish to meet and you will have a pleasant , healthy life and be quite well paid for it .
= = International career = =
Lawton was called up to play for The Football League XI against a League of Ireland XI at Windsor Park on 21 September 1938 , and scored four goals in what finished as an 8 – 2 win . A month later he went on to win his first cap for England on 22 October , England 's first game of the 1938 – 39 British Home Championship , a 4 – 2 defeat to Wales at Ninian Park , and converted a penalty kick to mark his first England appearance with a goal . This made him the youngest player to score on his England debut , a record which lasted until Marcus Rashford broke it in 2016 . Four days after Lawton 's debut , he scored again for England at Highbury in a 3 – 0 win over ' The Rest of Europe ' , a team of players selected from Italy , Germany , France , Belgium , Hungary and Norway . Later in the year he also scored in victories over Norway and Ireland . He played in all four games of 1939 , scoring against Scotland and Italy ; the goal against Scotland secured a 2 – 1 win in front of 149 @,@ 269 spectators at Hampden Park .
Newly appointed England manager Walter Winterbottom played Lawton in England 's first official match in seven years on 28 September 1946 , a 7 – 2 win over Ireland . He played the remaining three fixtures of 1946 , and scored four goals in a 8 – 2 victory over the Netherlands at Leeds Road on 27 November . On 10 May 1947 , he scored two goals playing for the Great Britain XI in a 6 – 1 victory over a Rest of Europe XI that was billed as the ' Match of the Century ' . Five days later he scored four goals in a 10 – 0 victory over Portugal at Lisbon 's Estádio Nacional . On 21 September , he scored after just 12 seconds in a 5 – 2 win over Belgium at Heysel Stadium .
He retained his place in the England team following his club move to Notts County , and in doing so became the first Third Division footballer to represent England when he scored from the penalty spot in a 4 – 2 win over Sweden on 19 November . However he only won three further caps in 1948 , his final appearance coming in a 0 – 0 draw with Denmark in Copenhagen on 26 September . He had become increasingly disillusioned with the England set @-@ up , and told Walterbottom that " if you think you can teach Stanley Matthews to play on the wing and me how to score goals , you 've got another think coming ! " Walterbottom was also frustrated by Lawton 's smoking habit , and preferred Jackie Milburn ahead of Lawton . Hopes of any future comeback were ended by the emergence of powerful centre @-@ forward Nat Lofthouse , who made his England debut in November 1950 .
= = Style of play = =
Lawton was widely regarded as the finest centre @-@ forward of his generation . He boasted a strong physique and good ball control skills , as well as a great passing range and a powerful shot . He was naturally right @-@ footed , though worked to improve his left foot to a good enough standard to be considered a two @-@ footed player . His greatest strength though was his ability to head the ball , as he possessed muscular legs to give himself a strong jump and long hang @-@ time , and was also able to time his jumps to perfection . Stanley Matthews surmised that " Quite simply , Tommy was the greatest header of the ball I ever saw . " Lawton was never booked throughout his career .
= = Coaching career and later life = =
An Arsenal director helped Lawton to find employment as player @-@ manager at Southern League side Kettering Town on wages of £ 1 @,@ 500 a year . He signed a number of players from Football League clubs , including Jim Standen ( Arsenal ) , Amos Moore ( Aston Villa ) , Jack Wheeler ( Huddersfield Town ) , Jack Goodwin ( Brentford ) , Bob Thomas ( Fulham ) , Norman Plummer ( Leicester City ) , Harry McDonald ( Crystal Palace ) and Geoff Toseland ( Sunderland ) . Kettering were ten points clear at the top of the table by Christmas . In January 1956 he turned down an approach from Notts County to return as manager . Kettering won the league title in 1956 – 57 , finishing eight points ahead of Bedford Town , with Lawton scoring 15 of Kettering 's 106 league goals .
He was appointed as Notts County manager in May 1957 , controversially replacing caretaker @-@ manager Frank Broome , who had steered the club away from the Second Division relegation zone ; Broome was installed as his assistant . He was unable to make new signings as he was unable to move on any of the club 's 33 playing staff . He did though take on forwards Jeff Astle and Tony Hateley as apprentices , who would both go on to have long careers in the First Division . Lawton agreed to go without his wages for six months so as to improve the club 's finances . County were relegated at the end of the 1957 – 58 season , finishing one point short of safety , and Lawton was sacked . He received a total of just three months pay for his time at the club , having only a verbal offer of a three @-@ year contract to fall back on , and nothing in writing .
After being sacked as Notts County manager , Lawton ran the Magna Charta public house in Lowdham from October 1958 . An employee stole £ 2 @,@ 500 from the business and Lawton decided to leave the pub trade after four years . He then took up a job selling insurance . He returned to football management with Kettering Town for the 1963 – 64 season as a caretaker following the resignation of Wally Akers , but the season ended with Kettering being relegated from the Southern League Premier Division . He was offered the job on a permanent basis , but turned it down so as to concentrate on his job as an insurance salesman . He lost his job in insurance in 1967 , and then opened a sporting goods shop that bore his name after going into partnership with a friend , but was forced to close the business after just two months due to poor sales . After a period on unemployment benefits he found work at a betting company in Nottingham .
He returned to Notts County to work as a coach and chief scout from 1968 to 1970 . He was sacked after new manager Jimmy Sirrel decided to appoint his own backroom staff , and Lawton returned to unemployment . In May 1970 , he wrote to Chelsea chairman Richard Attenborough asking for a loan of £ 250 and for possible employment ; Attenborough lent him £ 100 . He was interviewed by Eamonn Andrews on ITV 's Today programme on his fall from England star to the unemployment line . After his financial troubles became public knowledge he was offered a lucrative job as director of his own subsidiary furniture company by a large furnishing company on Tottenham Court Road , however the company went into liquidation the following year . He continued to write cheques in the company 's name , and in June 1972 pleaded Guilty to seven charges of obtaining goods and cash by deception . He was sentenced to three years probation , and ordered to pay £ 240 compensation and £ 100 in costs .
In 1972 a testimonial match was organised by Everton on Lawton 's behalf to help him pay off his debts of around £ 6 @,@ 000 . However his financial situation was still bleak , and on two occasions he narrowly avoided a prison sentence for failing to pay his rates after an Arsenal supporters club and later an anonymous former co @-@ worker stepped in to pay the bill for him . In August 1974 , he was again found Guilty of obtaining goods by deception after failing to repay a £ 10 debt to a publican , and was sentenced to 200 hours of Community service and ordered to pay £ 40 costs . In 1984 he began writing a column for the Nottingham Evening Post . Brentford also organised a testimonial match for him in May 1985 .
Lawton 's health deteriorated in his old age and he died in November 1996 , aged 77 , as a result of pneumonia . His ashes were donated to the National Football Museum . He was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2003 .
= = Personal life = =
Lawton married Rosaleen May Kavanagh in January 1941 ; the marriage bore one child , Amanda . Rosaleen never watched Lawton play football during their ten @-@ year marriage . Divorce was granted with a decree nisi in March 1951 after Rosaleen was found to have committed adultery with Notts County director Adrian Van Geffen ; Lawton never saw Amanda again and was not required to pay child support . He would not hear from his daughter until she was convicted of stealing from playwright George Axelrod in 1968 , by which time Rosaleen was on her fourth marriage and living in Jamaica . Lawton married second wife Gladys Rose in September 1952 , who bore him a son , Thomas Junior . Gladys was also divorced , and her ex @-@ husband cited Lawton as a co @-@ respondent in the divorce proceedings as the pair had begun their relationship whilst Gladys was still married ; her family were staunch Catholics , and Gladys was ostracised by her family following her divorce . Gladys had a daughter , Carol , from her previous marriage , who Lawton raised as his own . Thomas Junior went on to play rugby union for Leicester Tigers .
He starred alongside Thora Hird and Diana Dors in 1953 film The Great Game , playing himself in a cameo role . Throughout the 1950s he went on to appear on What 's My Line ? amongst other radio and television programmes . He published a total of four books : Tommy Lawton 's all star football book ( 1950 ) , Soccer the Lawton way ( 1954 ) , My Twenty Years of Soccer ( 1955 ) , and When the Cheering Stopped ( 1973 ) .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club playing statistics = = =
Sourced from Tommy Lawton profile at the English National Football Archive ( subscription required )
= = = International playing statistics = = =
Sourced from Tommy Lawton profile at the England Football Online website
= = = Managerial statistics = = =
Sourced from Tommy Lawton profile at the English National Football Archive ( subscription required )
Notes
Statistics at Kettering Town not recorded .
= = Honours = =
England
British Home Championship winner : 1938 – 39 ( shared ) , 1946 – 47 , 1947 – 48
Everton
Football League First Division champion : 1938 – 39
Notts County
Football League Third Division South champion : 1949 – 50
Arsenal
Charity Shield winner : 1953
Kettering Town
Southern Football League champion : 1956 – 57
= = = Specific = = =
= = = General = = =
= Trials and Tribble @-@ ations =
" Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " is the 104th episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , the sixth episode of the fifth season . It was written as a tribute to the original series of Star Trek , in the 30th anniversary year of the show ; sister series Voyager produced a similar episode , " Flashback " . The idea for the episode was suggested by René Echevarria , and Ronald D. Moore suggested the link to " The Trouble with Tribbles " . The pair were credited for their work on the teleplay , with the story credit going to Ira Steven Behr , Hans Beimler and Robert Hewitt Wolfe .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures on Deep Space Nine , a space station located near a stable wormhole between the Alpha and Gamma quadrants of the Milky Way Galaxy . In this episode , Captain Benjamin Sisko ( Avery Brooks ) and the crew travel back in time to prevent the assassination of Captain James T. Kirk ( William Shatner ) of the USS Enterprise by a Klingon using a booby @-@ trapped tribble .
Moore had originally suggested re @-@ visiting the planet seen in The Original Series episode " A Piece of the Action " but was convinced by Echevarria that the digitally inserted shots previously seen in Forrest Gump ( 1994 ) could be done on a small budget . After a test shot was completed , the rest of the production team were also convinced that it could be achieved . The budget was set at $ 3 million , with extensive work completed on matching the film techniques used during The Original Series .
Some original costumes were found for the Klingons while others were made from patterns created by Robert Blackman . Greg Jein created new models of the Enterprise as well as Deep Space Station K7 and the Klingon cruiser , while 1 @,@ 400 tribbles were purchased from a company owned by Majel Barrett . Charlie Brill returned to Star Trek to appear once more as Arne Darvin , and Deidre L. Imershein was cast in part due to her being friends with one of the production crew members . Walter Koenig , who portrayed Ensign Pavel Chekov in The Original Series , showed the Deep Space Nine cast how to work the consoles on the Enterprise sets .
" Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " was warmly received by critics with praise directed at the nostalgia and level of detail seen on screen . It was the most watched episode of the fifth season . " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " was nominated in three Primetime Emmy Award categories and for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation but did not win any awards . It was released on VHS initially alongside " The Trouble with Tribbles " , and later as part of the normal release schedule . It was subsequently released as part of the season five DVD set .
= = Plot = =
On board Deep Space Nine , Captain Benjamin Sisko ( Avery Brooks ) is being queried by Department of Temporal Investigations agents Dulmer ( Jack Blessing ) and Lucsly ( James W. Jansen ) . The Captain explains that he was on the USS Defiant , returning from Cardassian space with the Bajoran Orb of Time . They had picked up a hitchhiker on the way , a human called Barry Waddle . Suddenly the ship found itself some 200 light years away from its previous location and a hundred years in the past , near Deep Space Station K7 and found the USS Enterprise in orbit . They discover that the hitch @-@ hiker was Arne Darvin ( Charlie Brill ) , a Klingon agent who had previously been caught by Captain James T. Kirk ( William Shatner ) on K7 whilst trying to poison a shipment of grain .
Fearing that Darvin may be attempting to assassinate Kirk , the crew dress in period uniforms and investigate the Enterprise . They attempt to interact with history as little as possible whilst investigating Darvin . The crew does not initially recognize the Klingons of the time period , and when Worf ( Michael Dorn ) is asked about the difference in appearance , he replies that the matter is not discussed with outsiders ( this is further expanded on in the Star Trek : Enterprise episodes " Affliction " and " Divergence " ) . Doctor Julian Bashir ( Alexander Siddig ) and Chief Miles O 'Brien ( Colm Meaney ) get involved in a bar brawl between the Enterprise crew and a number of Klingons on shore leave . Captain Kirk disciplines them on the Enterprise alongside Chief Engineer Montgomery Scott ( James Doohan ) and Ensign Pavel Chekov ( Walter Koenig ) . Bashir and O 'Brien notice that the ship is covered with tribbles . Lieutenant Commander Worf ( Michael Dorn ) and Odo ( René Auberjonois ) trail Darvin as he returns to the Defiant . There , Darvin admits that he planted a bomb in a tribble to kill Kirk .
Sisko and Lieutenant Jadzia Dax ( Terry Farrell ) board the Enterprise but can find no trace of a bomb . They travel to K7 , and scans indicate that the bomb is in the grain storage compartments . They enter the compartments and discover that the poisoned grain has all been eaten by tribbles , who are now all dead . Suddenly Captain Kirk opens the compartment and is covered in falling tribbles . Dax and Sisko find the bomb before it can kill Kirk and the Defiant transports it into space where it explodes . The crew of the Defiant use the Bajoran Orb to travel back to the present time , and Sisko finishes explaining the situation to the Temporal Agents . The episode ends with Quark ( Armin Shimerman ) in his bar on Deep Space Nine 's promenade , with numerous tribbles around him .
= = Production = =
= = = Premise and writing = = =
As the 30th anniversary of Star Trek was approaching , a number of plans were being put into place . The film Star Trek : First Contact was entering production , a television special was planned to celebrate the franchise and George Takei had been cast to appear in the Star Trek : Voyager episode " Flashback " . Producer Ira Steven Behr later recalled that he thought that Deep Space Nine might end up being missed out as he considered it to be the " middle child " of the franchise . However , Rick Berman contacted Behr and asked him if he would be interested in doing something to celebrate the anniversary . Behr agreed to discuss it with the staff writers . Initially , there was concern that if the proposed episode aired during the actual anniversary week ( around September 8 ) , that it would have to serve as the season opener , pre @-@ empting the already planned opener .
The writers discussed potential ideas . Ronald D. Moore had previously brought back Montgomery Scott for the Star Trek : The Next Generation episode " Relics " and since Takei was appearing in Voyager , they felt that having a member of the main cast from The Original Series return would be repetitive . Some consideration was given by Moore to sending the DS9 crew to the gangster @-@ type planet visited by Kirk in the episode " A Piece of the Action " . It was René Echevarria who suggested a time @-@ travel episode , which was seen as an expensive proposition . Echevarria , however , pressed for the idea . Moore suggested inserting the DS9 crew into " The Trouble with Tribbles " , suggesting it could resolve the question of why a constant stream of tribbles kept hitting Kirk in the head .
When the discussion came to inserting the DS9 crew into the bar @-@ brawl scene , Berman liked the idea but was unsure if it could actually be done . Visual effects supervisor Gary Hutzel created test footage and screened it for Behr and Moore , who thought that it was simply footage from the original episode . Once Hutzel revealed that an additional security officer had been seamlessly added to the sequence , the episode was green @-@ lit . During the scripting process , " The Trouble with Tribbles " was regularly consulted , so the writers could decide where to insert characters . The Temporal Agents , Dulmer and Lucsly , were so named as they were anagrams of Mulder and Scully from The X @-@ Files .
Original " Tribbles " creator David Gerrold was contacted by The New York Times , who wanted to interview him about the anniversary and the rumored " tribbles " episode . When he questioned Berman about the episode , Berman initially denied it . Gerrold responded that he didn 't want to embarrass anyone , but would like to be able to endorse the project . Berman asked what the endorsement would cost , to which Gerrold requested public acknowledgement of his work and to be cast as an extra in the episode . Berman agreed . Gerrold compared inserting new footage into an existing episode to Back to the Future Part II ( 1989 ) and later said that he would have gone in a different direction had he written the story . Nonetheless , he felt the final product ended up being better than anything he would have created .
= = = Directing , cinematography and music = = =
A number of directors were considered for the episode , with Jonathan West being given the job . West had previously been the cinematographer on staff for both Deep Space Nine and The Next Generation , as well as directing several episodes of the franchise . He had nine days of preparation time before shooting began . He sought to match the same production values as The Original Series but found that lighting style and color saturation to film had changed in the intervening years . Visual effects supervisor Dan Curry directed some of the second @-@ unit sequences , and together with West and cinematographer Kris Krossgrove worked to rectify these issues . This was achieved by switching to a finer grain of film , by utilizing different lenses as well as by shooting from specific angles . With Gerrold on set as an extra , West used him as an unofficial advisor on matching the scenes from " The Trouble with Tribbles " .
The actual digital insertion of actors was conducted in the same manner as seen in the film Forrest Gump ( 1994 ) . The original footage was remastered , and was seen as such an improvement that it inspired the subsequent clean @-@ up and re @-@ release of all of " Original Series " episodes . This remaster was conducted by Hutzel and was the first transfer since 1983 , when a version was created for VHS and laser disc release . Hutzel identified 19 scenes from " The Trouble with Tribbles " which were matched in " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " . The scene matching between the new footage and the old took nine weeks to complete with a budget of $ 3 million . It involved both two @-@ dimensional and three @-@ dimensional tracking shots as well as insertion of matte shots and the use of both blue and green screens for the actors . Not all shots seen in the episode were actually taken from " The Trouble with Tribbles " . The scene where Sisko meets Kirk on the bridge towards the end of the episode was instead taken from the episode " Mirror , Mirror " .
Due in part to the special effects , the costuming , the set re @-@ constructions and the residual payments to The Original Series cast , Behr later described " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " as " probably the most expensive hour of episodic TV ever produced " . The only member of The Original Series cast who was spoken to directly by the producers was Leonard Nimoy , who was enthusiastic about the idea and was surprised that it had taken them so long to come up with the idea . The remaining cast members were each contacted through Paramount 's legal department . Dennis McCarthy wanted to re @-@ work the Jerry Fielding score previously used on " The Trouble with Tribbles " . He said that he intended to use the production equipment and orchestra available to bring the score up to the same scale previously seen on Deep Space Nine . However , the producers wanted a new score and so McCarthy explained that he composed it in a Fielding @-@ inspired mindset . The only piece that was directly re @-@ recorded by McCarthy was the Alexander Courage " Theme from Star Trek " , which involved a 45 piece orchestra .
= = = Design and makeup = = =
Art director Randy McIlvain led the set re @-@ creation for the Enterprise and K7 , describing the excitement over working on the episode as " contagious " . McIlvain spent a fair amount of time getting the window angles correct on the sets . Mike Okuda re @-@ created the graphics seen on the Enterprise sets using a computer , whilst others were re @-@ drawn by artist Doug Drexler . Some sets were not re @-@ created in full , such as the bridge , which required parts of it to be later added digitally . The captain 's chair from the bridge re @-@ creation was later one of the Star Trek items to be auctioned by Christie 's . Set designer Laura Richarz watched " The Trouble with Tribbles " carefully looking for small details to replicate on the new sets , such as the legs of benches in the bar on K7 . However , she said her biggest challenge was tracking down the chairs seen on the space station . She contacted John M. Dwyer , who had worked on the original episode . He explained to her that the company which created the original chairs had gone out of business . After searching shops selling retro furniture , the production team found a single chair that matched those seen in the original episode . It was purchased and a mold was made to create more chairs . The actors were impressed when they saw the resulting sets , with Terry Farrell exclaiming " Wow , we 're on the Enterprise ! "
Greg Jein had already been working on a new model of the USS Excelsior for the " Flashback " episode of Voyager when he saw the test footage for " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " . He promised to make a new model of the Enterprise too , but warned that he didn 't know when he would have time to do it . He actually started work on it immediately , and together with his colleagues he not only built a 5 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) long model of the Enterprise , but created a new model of Deep Space Station K7 and the Klingon cruiser as well . The Enterprise model was the first to be built of the original Star Trek starship in more than 30 years . Other props were also recreated , with around 1 @,@ 400 tribbles created for the various scenes . They were purchased from Lincoln Enterprises , a company set up by Majel Barrett , widow of Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry . The rest of the era @-@ specific props were newly created , and were made by Steve Horsch .
Costume designer Robert Blackman was concerned over the re @-@ creation of the Klingon uniforms seen in The Original Series as he thought that the metallic material used would be nearly impossible to create accurately . He was subsequently relieved to have found four original costumes and an additional shirt in the costume archives , calling them a " godsend " . His team created patterns from other costumes to remake them . Make @-@ up supervisor Michael Westmore had previously worked on a television series during the 1960s and recalled what type of make @-@ up was available at the time . He had the team restrict themselves to techniques of that era to ensure that the DS9 crew blended properly into the scenes . The hairstyles of the crew were also meant to be reminiscent of The Original Series , with Alexander Siddig sporting a style previously seen on James Doohan . René Auberjonois said that his new hairstyle reminded him of Jerry Lee Lewis .
= = = Filming and casting = = =
The cast and crew were enthusiastic on set , with editor Steve Tucker calling it a " giddy party " . Behr said of the cast and crew in the episode that " They all were having fun . Just sitting on those sets , being on that bridge , it was a hoot , a real hoot . " Deidre L. Imershein was brought in at the last minute to play Lt. Watley , as she was a friend of one of the production crew and had previously appeared as a Risan pleasure girl in The Next Generation episode " Captain 's Holiday " . She was brought in because none of the actresses the producers had seen during the casting process could say the role 's one line ( " Deck 15 " ) convincingly enough . Her involvement led to the role 's being expanded into a second scene where she was revealed to be Bashir 's great @-@ grandmother .
Charlie Brill returned to film new scenes as Klingon agent Arne Darvin , while original series writer Gerrold was allowed to appear as an extra in two scenes as a crewman from the Enterprise . In one of those scenes he was holding an original tribble from " The Trouble with Tribbles " . Walter Koenig was on hand as well during the filming of the episode to teach the DS9 actors how the consoles were operated on the Enterprise . Koenig later commented that he was paid eight times as much for this and the residual payment as he had been for the original episode . A string of other visitors came to the set during filming , including Majel Barrett and former The Next Generation producer ( and TOS co @-@ producer ) Bob Justman .
= = Reception = =
Before the episode was shown , a half @-@ hour special was shown on the Sci Fi Channel about the making of " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " on November 2 , 1996 . Paramount also promoted the episode by arranging the placement of around 250 @,@ 000 tribbles in subways and buses across the United States . It received Nielsen ratings of 7 @.@ 7 % , placing it in sixth place in the timeslot . This meant that it had been watched by 7 @.@ 7 % of all households . It was the most watched episode of the fifth season during its initial broadcast . The last time the series had received similar ratings was nearly a year earlier with season four 's " Little Green Men " .
Two reviewers watched the episode for Tor.com. Torie Atkinson described " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " as a " perfect episode " , and " one of the best Star Trek episodes ever made , in any series . " She praised the humour and the references , and found Dax in her role as a stand @-@ in for fans of The Original Series . She gave the episode a score of six out of six . Eugene Myers wasn 't disappointed following the hype about the episode , saying that it was " steeped in nostalgia " . He thought that the bomb @-@ in @-@ a @-@ tribble plot was ingenious and allowed the episode to step outside of merely being good due to the success of " The Trouble with Tribbles " . His favourite scene was the constant stream of tribbles hitting Kirk in the head because Sisko and Dax were throwing them out of the grain compartment while looking for the bomb . He also gave the episode a score of six out of six .
Zack Handlen in his review for The A.V. Club , called the episode a " delight " and a " lark " . He thought that having Brill film new scenes showed some continuity between the old and the new , and thought that the special effects worked well enough . He summed it up by saying , " It 's not tightly plotted , and once the initial rush of nostalgia fades , there isn 't a lot of depth or suspense to replace it . But there are laughs , more than enough to justify the experiment , and the nostalgia never fades away entirely . " In the book Deep Space and Sacred Time : Star Trek in the American Mythos , Jon Wagner and Jan Lundeen compared the temporal agents seen in " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " to the police detectives seen in the television series Dragnet . Gem Wheeler , in her list of the best episodes of Deep Space Nine for website Den of Geek , listed " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " as the sixth best . In a list of the top 100 episodes of the Star Trek franchise , " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " was placed in 32nd place by Charlie Jane Anders at io9 .
" Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " was nominated for three Creative Arts Emmy Awards in the Outstanding Art Direction for a Series , Outstanding Hairstyling for a Series and Outstanding Special Visual Effects . However , it was not successful in any of those categories . It was also nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , as " The Trouble with Tribbles " had been in 1968 .
= = Home media release = =
The tie @-@ in novelization of " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " was written by Diane Carey and published by Pocket Books . In 1998 , a " Talking Tribble Gift Set " was released which contained both " The Trouble with Tribbles " and " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " on VHS . " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " was first released in the normal run of VHS issues as part of a two episode cassette alongside " The Assignment " in the United Kingdom on October 1 , 1999 . A single episode release followed in the United States and Canada on July 10 , 2001 . It was released on DVD as part of the season five box set on October 7 , 2003 .
= Tintin in the Congo =
Tintin in the Congo ( French : Tintin au Congo ; French pronunciation : [ tɛ ̃ tɛn o kɔ ̃ go ] ) is the second volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . Commissioned by the conservative Belgian newspaper Le Vingtième Siècle for its children 's supplement Le Petit Vingtième , it was serialised weekly from May 1930 to June 1931 before being published in a collected volume by Éditions de Petit Vingtième in 1931 . The story tells of young Belgian reporter Tintin and his dog Snowy , who are sent to the Belgian Congo to report on events in the country . Amid various encounters with the native Congolese people and wild animals , Tintin unearths a criminal diamond smuggling operation run by the American gangster Al Capone .
Following on from Tintin in the Land of the Soviets and bolstered by publicity stunts , Tintin in the Congo was a commercial success within Belgium and was also serialised in France . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with Tintin in America in 1932 , and the series subsequently became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . In 1946 , Hergé re @-@ drew and coloured Tintin in the Congo in his distinctive ligne @-@ claire style for republication by Casterman , with further alterations made at the request of his Scandinavian publisher for a 1975 edition . In the late 20th century , Tintin in the Congo came under criticism for both its perceived racist colonial attitude toward the Congolese and for its glorification of big @-@ game hunting ; accordingly , attempts were made in Belgium , Sweden , the United Kingdom , and the United States to either ban the work or restrict its availability to children . Critical reception of the work has been largely negative , with commentators on The Adventures of Tintin describing it as one of Hergé 's weakest works .
= = Synopsis = =
Belgian reporter Tintin and his dog Snowy travel to the Belgian Congo , where a cheering crowd of native Congolese greet them . Tintin hires a native boy , Coco , to assist him in his travels , and shortly after , Tintin rescues Snowy from a crocodile . A criminal stowaway attempts to kill Tintin , but monkeys throw coconuts at the stowaway that knock him unconscious . A monkey kidnaps Snowy , but Tintin saves him .
The next morning , Tintin , Snowy , and Coco crash their car into a train , which the reporter fixes and tows to the village of the Babaorum tribe . He meets the king , who accompanies him on a hunt the next day . A lion knocks Tintin unconscious , but Snowy rescues him by biting off its tail . Tintin gains the admiration of the natives , making the Babaorum witch @-@ doctor Muganga jealous . When he cures a man using quinine , he is hailed as a Boula Matari ( " Breaker of rocks " ) . With the help of the criminal stowaway , Muganga accuses Tintin of destroying the tribe 's sacred idol . The enraged villagers imprison Tintin , but then turn against Muganga when Coco shows them footage Tintin had made of the witch @-@ doctor and the stowaway conspiring to destroy the idol . Tintin becomes a hero in the village , and a local woman bows down to him , saying , " White man very great ! Has good spirits ... White mister is big juju man ! "
Angered , Muganga starts a war between the Babaorum and their neighbours , the M 'Hatuvu , whose king leads an attack on the Babaorum village . Tintin outwits them , and the M 'Hatuvu cease hostilities and come to idolise Tintin . Muganga and the stowaway plot to kill Tintin and make it look like a leopard attack , but Tintin survives and saves Muganga from a boa constrictor ; Muganga pleads mercy and ends his hostilities . The stowaway attempts to capture Tintin again and eventually succeeds disguised as a Catholic missionary . They fight across a waterfall , and the stowaway is eaten by crocodiles . After reading a letter from the stowaway 's pocket , Tintin finds that someone called " A.C. " has ordered his elimination . Tintin captures a criminal who tried to rendezvous with the stowaway and learns that " A.C. " is the American gangster Al Capone , who is trying to gain control of African diamond production . Tintin and the colonial police arrest the rest of the diamond smuggling gang and Tintin and Snowy return to Belgium .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Georges Remi — best known under the pen name Hergé — was employed as editor and illustrator of Le Petit Vingtième ( " The Little Twentieth " ) , a children 's supplement to Le Vingtième Siècle ( " The Twentieth Century " ) , a staunchly Roman Catholic , conservative Belgian newspaper based in Hergé 's native Brussels . Run by the Abbé Norbert Wallez , the paper described itself as a " Catholic Newspaper for Doctrine and Information " and disseminated a far @-@ right , fascist viewpoint . According to Harry Thompson , such political ideas were common in Belgium at the time , and Hergé 's milieu was permeated with conservative ideas revolving around " patriotism , Catholicism , strict morality , discipline , and naivety " .
In 1929 , Hergé began The Adventures of Tintin comic strip for Le Petit Vingtième , a series about the exploits of a fictional Belgian reporter named Tintin . Following the success of Tintin in the Land of the Soviets , serialised weekly in Le Petit Vingtième from January 1929 to May 1930 , Hergé wanted to send Tintin to the United States . Wallez insisted he write a story set in the Belgian Congo , then a Belgian colony and today the Democratic Republic of the Congo . Belgian children learned about the Congo in school , and Wallez hoped to encourage colonialist and missionary zeal in his readership . He believed that the Belgian colonial administration needed promotion at a time when memories " were still fairly fresh " of the 1928 visit to the colony by the Belgian King Albert and Queen Elisabeth . He also hoped that some of his readers would be inspired to work in the Congo .
Hergé characterised Wallez 's instructions in a sarcastic manner , saying Wallez referred to the Congo as " our beautiful colony which has great need of us , tarantara , tarantaraboom " . He already had some experience in illustrating Congolese scenes ; three years previously , Hergé had provided two illustrations for the newspaper that appeared in an article celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of Henry Morton Stanley 's expedition to the Congo . In one of these , Hergé depicted a native Congolese bowing before a European , a scene that he repeated in Tintin in the Congo .
As in Land of the Soviets , where Hergé had based his information about the Soviet Union almost entirely on a single source , in Tintin in the Congo he used limited source material to learn about the country and its people . He based the story largely on literature written by missionaries , with the only added element being that of the diamond smugglers , possibly adopted from the " Jungle Jim @-@ type serials " . Hergé visited the Colonial Museum of Tervuren , examining their ethnographic collections of Congolese artefacts , including costumes of the Leopard Men . He adopted hunting scenes from André Maurois 's novel The Silence of Colonel Bramble , while his animal drawings were inspired by Benjamin Rabier 's prints . He also listened to tales of the colony from some of his colleagues who had been there , but disliked their stories , later claiming : " I didn 't like the colonists , who came back bragging about their exploits . But I couldn 't prevent myself from seeing the Blacks as big children , either . "
= = = Original publication , 1930 – 31 = = =
Tintin in the Congo was serialised under the French title of Tintin au Congo in Le Petit Vingtième from 5 May 1930 to 11 June 1931 ; it was syndicated to the French Catholic newspaper Cœurs Vaillants . Drawn in black and white , it followed the same formula employed in Land of the Soviets , remaining " essentially plotless " according to Michael Farr , and consisting of largely unrelated events that Hergé improvised each week . Hergé later commented on the process of writing these early adventures , stating , " The Petit Vingtième came out on Wednesday evening , and I often didn 't have a clue on Wednesday morning how I was going to get Tintin out of the predicament I had put him in the previous week . " The strip 's visual style was similar to that of Land of the Soviets . In the first instalment of Tintin in the Congo , Hergé featured Quick and Flupke , two young boys from Brussels whom he had recently introduced in another Le Petit Vingtième comic strip , in the crowd of people saying goodbye to Tintin .
Like Land of the Soviets , Tintin in the Congo was popular in Belgium . On the afternoon of 9 July 1931 , Wallez repeated the publicity stunt he had used when Soviets ended by having a young actor , Henry de Doncker , dress up as Tintin in colonial gear and appear in Brussels and then Liège , accompanied by 10 African bearers and an assortment of exotic animals hired from a zoo . Co @-@ organised with the Bon Marché department store , the event attracted 5 @,@ 000 spectators in Brussels . In 1931 , Brussels @-@ based Éditions de Petit Vingtième collected the story together into a single volume , and Casterman published a second edition in 1937 . By 1944 the book had been reprinted seven times , and had outsold each of the other seven books in the series . The series ' success led Wallez to renegotiate Hergé 's contract , giving him a higher salary and the right to work from home .
= = = Second version , 1946 = = =
In the 1940s , after Hergé 's popularity increased , he redrew many of the original black @-@ and @-@ white Tintin stories in colour using the ligne claire ( " clear line " ) drawing style he had developed , so that they fitted in visually with the newer Adventures of Tintin that he had produced . Hergé first made some changes in this direction in 1940 , when the story was serialised in the Flemish @-@ language Het Laatste Nieuws .
At Casterman 's prompting , Tintin in the Congo was subsequently fully re @-@ drawn , and the new version was published in 1946 . As a part of this modification , Hergé cut the page length from 110 plates to the standard 62 pages , as suggested by the publisher Casterman . He also made several changes to the story , cutting many of the references to Belgium and colonial rule . For example , in the scene where Tintin teaches Congolese school children about geography , he states in the 1930 – 31 version , " My dear friends , today I 'm going to talk to you about your country : Belgium ! " whereas in the 1946 version , he instead gives them a mathematics lesson . Hergé also changed the character of Jimmy MacDuff , the owner of the leopard that attacks Tintin , from a black manager of the Great American Circus into a white " supplier of the biggest zoos in Europe . "
In the 1946 colour version , Hergé added a cameo appearance from Thomson and Thompson , the two detectives that he had introduced in the fourth Tintin story , Cigars of the Pharaoh ( 1932 – 34 ) , which was chronologically set after the Congolese adventure . Adding them to the first page , Hergé featured them in the backdrop , watching a crowd surrounding Tintin as he boards a train and commenting that it " Seems to be a young reporter going to Africa ... " In the same frame , Hergé inserted depictions of himself and his friend Edgar P. Jacobs ( the book 's colourist ) into the crowd seeing Tintin off .
= = = Later alterations and releases = = =
When Tintin in the Congo was first released by the series ' Scandinavian publishers in 1975 , they objected to page 56 , where Tintin drills a hole into a live rhinoceros , fills it with dynamite , and blows it up . They asked Hergé to replace this page with a less violent scene , which they believed would be more suitable for children . Hergé agreed , as he regretted the scenes of big @-@ game hunting in the work soon after producing it . The altered page involved the rhinoceros running away unharmed after accidentally knocking down and triggering Tintin 's gun .
Although publishers worldwide had made it available for many years , English publishers refused to publish Tintin in the Congo because of its racist content . In the late 1980s , Nick Rodwell , then agent of Studios Hergé in the United Kingdom , told reporters of his intention to finally publish it in English and stated his belief that publishing the original 1931 black and white edition would cause less controversy than releasing the 1946 colour version . After more delay , in 1991 — sixty years after its original 1931 publication — it was the last of The Adventures of Tintin to see publication in English . The 1946 colour version appeared in English in 2005 , published by Egmont .
= = Critical analysis = =
Hergé biographer Pierre Assouline believed that Hergé 's drawing became more assured throughout the first version of the story without losing any of its spontaneity . He thought that the story began in " the most inoffensive way " , and that throughout the story Tintin was portrayed as a Boy Scout , something he argued reflected Hergé 's " moral debt " to Wallez . Biographer Benoît Peeters opined that Tintin in the Congo was " nothing spectacular " , with some " incredibly cumbersome " monologues , but he thought the illustrations " a bit more polished " than those in Land of the Soviets . Believing the plot to be " extremely simple " , he thought that Tintin 's character was like a child manipulating a world populated by toy animals and lead figurines . Michael Farr felt that , unlike the previous Tintin adventure , some sense of a plot emerges at the end of the story with the introduction of the American diamond @-@ smuggling racket . Philippe Goddin thought the work to be " more exciting " than Land of the Soviets and argued that Hergé 's depiction of the native Congolese was not mocking but a parody of past European militaries . By contrast , Harry Thompson believed that " Congo is almost a regression from Soviets " , in his opinion having no plot or characterisation ; he described it as " probably the most childish of all the Tintin books . " Simon Kuper of the Financial Times criticised both Land of the Soviets and Tintin in the Congo as the " worst " of the Adventures , opining that they were " poorly drawn " and " largely plot @-@ free " .
Farr saw the 1946 colour version as poorer than the black and white original ; he said it had lost its " vibrancy " and " atmosphere " , and that the new depiction of the Congolese landscape was unconvincing and more like a European zoo than the " parched , dusty expanses of reality " . Peeters took a more positive attitude towards the 1946 version , commenting that it contained " aesthetic improvements " and " clarity of composition " because of Hergé 's personal development in draughtsmanship , as well as an enhancement in the dialogue , which had become " more lively and fluid . "
In his psychoanalytical study of the series , Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès highlighted that in the Congolese adventure , Tintin represented progress and the Belgian state was a model for the natives to imitate . In doing so , he argued , they could become more European and thus civilised from the perspective of Belgian society , but that instead they ended up appearing as parodies . Opining that Tintin was imposing his own view of Africa onto the Congolese , Apostolidès remarked that Tintin appeared as a god @-@ figure , with evangelical overtones in the final scene . Literary critic Tom McCarthy concurred that Tintin represented the Belgian state , but also suggested that he acted as a Christian missionary , even being " a kind of god " akin to the character of Kurtz in Joseph Conrad 's Heart of Darkness ( 1899 ) . McCarthy compared the scene where Tintin exposes Muganga as a fraud to that in which the character of Prospero exposes the magician in William Shakespeare 's The Tempest .
= = Criticism = =
= = = Racism = = =
In the late 20th and early 21st centuries , several campaigners and writers characterised Tintin in the Congo as racist due to its portrayal of the Congolese as infantile and stupid . According to Tom McCarthy , Hergé depicted the Congolese as " good at heart but backwards and lazy , in need of European mastery . " There had been no such controversy when originally published , because it was only following the Wind of Change and decolonisation , which occurred during the 1950s and 1960s , that Western attitudes towards indigenous Africans shifted . Harry Thompson argued that one must view Tintin in the Congo in the context of European society in the 1930s and 1940s , and that Hergé had not written the book to be " deliberately racist " . He argued that it reflected the average Belgian view of Congolese people at the time , one that was more " patronising " than malevolent . Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès supported this idea , as did biographer Benoît Peeters , who asserted , " Hergé was no more racist than the next man . " After meeting Hergé in the 1980s , Farr commented , " You couldn 't have met someone who was more open and less racist . "
Contrastingly , biographer Pierre Assouline stated that in 1930s Belgium , Hergé would have had access to literature by the likes of André Gide and Albert Londres that was critical of the colonial regime . Assouline claimed that Hergé instead chose not to read such reports because they conflicted with the views of his conservative milieu . Laurence Grove — President of the International Bande Dessinée Society and an academic at the University of Glasgow — concurred , remarking that Hergé adhered to prevailing societal trends in his work , and that " [ w ] hen it was fashionable to be a colonial racist , that 's what he was . " Comic book historian Mark McKinney noted that other Franco @-@ Belgian comic artists of the same period had chosen to depict the native Africans in a more favourable light , citing the examples of Jijé 's 1939 work Blondin et Cirage ( Blondy and Shoe @-@ Black ) , in which the protagonists are adopted brothers , one white , the other black , and Tif et Tondu , which was serialised in Spirou from 1939 to 1940 and in which the Congolese aid the Belgians against their American antagonists .
Farr and McCarthy stated that Tintin in the Congo was the most popular Tintin adventure in Francophone Africa . According to Thompson , the book remained hugely popular in the Congo even after the country achieved independence in 1960 . Nevertheless , government figures in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( DRC ) have criticised the book . In 2004 , after the Belgian Minister of Foreign Affairs Karel De Gucht described President Joseph Kabila 's provisional DRC government as incompetent , Congolese Information Minister Henri Mova Sakanyi accused him of " racism and nostalgia for colonialism " , remarking that it was like " Tintin in the Congo all over again . " De Gucht refused to retract his statement .
In July 2007 , British human rights lawyer David Enright complained to the United Kingdom 's Commission for Racial Equality ( CRE ) that he came across the book in the children 's section of Borders bookshop while shopping with his wife and two sons . The CRE called on bookshops to remove the comic , stating that it contained " hideous racial prejudice " by depicting Congolese who " look like monkeys and talk like imbeciles . " Responding that it was committed to letting its " customers make the choice " , Borders moved the book to an area reserved for adult graphic novels . UK bookseller Waterstone 's followed suit . Another British retailer , WHSmith , said that the book was sold on its website , but with a label that recommended it for readers aged 16 and over . The CRE 's attempt to ban the book was criticised by Conservative Party politician Ann Widdecombe , who remarked that the organisation had more important things to do than regulate the availability of historical children 's books . The media controversy increased interest in the book , and Borders reported that its sales of Tintin in the Congo had been boosted 4 @,@ 000 % , while it also rose to eighth on the Amazon.com bestseller list . Publisher Egmont UK also responded to racism concerns by placing a protective band around the book with a warning about its content and writing an introduction describing its historical context .
Tintin in the Congo also came under criticism in the United States ; in October 2007 , in response to a complaint by a patron , the Brooklyn Public Library in New York City placed the graphic novel in a locked back room , only permitting access by appointment . Tintin in the Congo became part of a drawn @-@ out media debate in Sweden after national newspaper Dagens Nyheter reported the removal of Tinin in the Congo from a children 's library in Kulturhuset in Stockholm in September 2011 . The incident , nicknamed " Tintin @-@ gate " , led to heated discussions in mainstream and social media concerning accusations of racism and censorship .
In August 2007 , Congolese student Bienvenu Mbutu Mondondo filed a complaint in Brussels , claiming that the book was an insult to the Congolese people and required banning . Public prosecutors investigated and initiated a criminal case . The matter was eventually transferred to a civil court in April 2010 . Mondondo 's lawyers argued that Tintin in the Congo amounted to " a justification of colonisation and of white supremacy " , and Mondondo called it " racist and xenophobic " . Alain Berenboom , lawyer for both Moulinsart , the company which controls Hergé 's estate , and Casterman , the book 's publisher , argued that the cartoonist 's depiction of the Congolese " wasn 't racism but kind paternalism " . He said that banning it would set a dangerous precedent for the availability of works by other historical authors , such as Charles Dickens or Jules Verne , which contain similar stereotypes of non @-@ white ethnicities . The court ruled in February 2012 that the book would not be banned , deciding that it was " clear that neither the story , nor the fact that it has been put on sale , has a goal to ... create an intimidating , hostile , degrading , or humiliating environment " , and that it therefore did not break Belgian law . Belgium 's Centre for Equal Opportunities warned against " over @-@ reaction and hyper political correctness " . Shortly after , Swedish @-@ Belgian Jean @-@ Dadaou Monyas filed a similar complaint , which was supported by Afrosvenskarna , an interest group for Swedes of African descent . The complaint to the Chancellor of Justice was turned down as violations of hate speech restrictions in the Swedish Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression must be filed within one year of publication , and the latest Swedish edition of Tintin in the Congo appeared in 2005 .
The South African comics writer Anton Kannemeyer has parodied the perceived racist nature of the book to highlight what he sees as the continuing racist undertones of South African society . In his Pappa in Afrika ( 2010 ) , a satire of Tintin in the Congo , he portrays Tintin as an Afrikaner with racist views of indigenous Africans .
= = = Hunting and animal cruelty = = =
Tintin in the Congo shows Tintin taking part in what Michael Farr described as " the wholesale and gratuitous slaughter " of animals ; over the course of the Adventure , Tintin shoots several antelope , kills an ape to wear its skin , rams a rifle vertically into a crocodile 's open mouth , injures an elephant for ivory , stones a buffalo , and ( in earlier editions ) drills a hole into a rhinoceros before planting dynamite in its body , blowing it up from the inside . Such scenes reflect the popularity of big @-@ game hunting among whites and affluent visitors in Sub @-@ Saharan Africa during the 1930s . Hergé later felt guilty about his portrayal of animals in Tintin in the Congo and became an opponent of blood sports ; when he wrote Cigars of the Pharaoh ( 1934 ) , he had Tintin befriend a herd of elephants living in the Indian jungle .
Philippe Goddin stated that the scene in which Tintin shoots a herd of antelope was " enough to upset even the least ecological reader " in the 21st century . When India Book House first published the book in India in 2006 , that nation 's branch of the People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals issued a public criticism , and chief functionary Anuradha Sawhney stated that the book was " replete with instances that send a message to young minds that it is acceptable to be cruel to animals . "
= Andrew Johnston ( singer ) =
Andrew Johnston ( born 23 September 1994 ) is a British singer who rose to fame when he appeared as a boy soprano on the second series of the UK television talent show Britain 's Got Talent in 2008 . Although he did not win the competition , he received a contract to record with Syco Music , a label owned by the Britain 's Got Talent judge Simon Cowell . Johnston 's debut album , One Voice , was released in September of the same year , and reached number four on the UK Albums Chart . Although Johnston originally performed as a treble , his voice has since matured to baritone , and he is now a member of the National Youth Choir .
Johnston was born in Dumfries , Scotland , and his parents separated when he was an infant . He and his mother moved to Carlisle , where they lived in " poverty " . He became head chorister at Carlisle Cathedral , and was bullied at school because of his love of classical music . While some journalists have argued Britain 's Got Talent producers took advantage of Johnston 's background , others have hailed his story as inspirational . In 2009 , he graduated from Trinity School . Johnston now studies full @-@ time at the Royal Northern College of Music .
= = History = =
= = = Early life and Carlisle Cathedral Choir = = =
Johnston was born on 23 September 1994 in Dumfries , Scotland , the son of Andrew Johnston and Morag Brannock . He was given the extensive name Andrew Aaron Lewis Patrick Brannock John Grieve Michael Robert Oscar Schmidt Johnston . Johnston 's parents separated when he was eight months old , and from that time he lived with his mother and three older siblings in Carlisle , Cumbria , in the north of England , where he attended Trinity School . Johnston tried out for Carlisle Cathedral Choir at the age of six at the recommendation of Kim Harris , a teacher at his primary school . He was auditioned by the choirmaster Jeremy Suter and accepted into the choir at the age of seven . Johnston 's mother , who had no previous association with the cathedral , described her feelings of being overwhelmed by emotion at having her boy singing in such a " stunning building among those extraordinary voices " . His mother also described Johnston 's busy regimen of practice four times a week and all day Sundays , saying that it took up all of their spare time . However , she said that the cathedral staff became like a family to her son , and that " it was such a lovely , safe , close feeling for him " . Johnston , who attended Trinity School , was subject to abuse and threats from bullies which drove him to contemplate quitting the choir , but he was helped through the ordeal by his choirmaster and the dean and canons of the cathedral . By the time of his participation in Britain 's Got Talent , Johnston was head chorister .
In September 2008 , after his appearance on Britain 's Got Talent but before the release of his first album , Johnston embarked on a tour of Norway with the choir , performing at Stavanger Cathedral and Utstein Abbey , among other places . The tour was conceived because the Diocese of Stavanger is connected with the Diocese of Carlisle through the Partnership for World Mission . This was Johnston 's last tour with the choir . Johnston features as head chorister on one of the choir 's albums , The Choral Music of F.W Wadely , released in November 2008 .
= = = Britain 's Got Talent = = =
Johnston was entered as a competitor in the second series of Britain 's Got Talent by his mother . He passed the first public audition , singing " Pie Jesu " from Andrew Lloyd Webber 's Requiem . Amanda Holden , one of the competition 's judges , was brought to tears , and the audience offered Johnston a standing ovation . Johnston was tipped as the favourite to win the competition . Later , Johnston described his initial audition as daunting , saying that " it was scary singing in front of 2 @,@ 500 people . I had never sang on stage before – then there was also Simon , Amanda and Piers " . He won his semi @-@ final heat on 27 May 2008 , receiving the most public votes on the night and thereby qualifying for the final . He sang " Tears in Heaven " by Eric Clapton ; judge Holden told him he had " a gift from God in [ his ] voice " . At the final on 30 May , he again sang " Pie Jesu " . He finished in third place , behind the winner , the street dancer George Sampson and runners @-@ up , the dance group Signature . Johnston left the stage in tears , later saying that he " was upset . But when you see the talent that was there , it was an honour just to be in the final " . The day after the final , Cowell 's publicist Max Clifford said that it was " quite possible " that Cowell would be offering record contracts to some of the finalists , including Johnston . Johnston and other contestants then embarked on a national arena tour .
During his initial audition , Johnston claimed that he was bullied and victimised from the age of six because of his singing . When asked how he dealt with the issue , he stated " I carry on singing . " There were claims in the Daily Mail , a UK @-@ based tabloid newspaper , that the programme 's producers had deliberately overstated the extent of Johnston 's bullying as a " sob story " , suggesting that sympathy rather than his singing got him many of the votes . However , in The Times , Johnston 's success story was described as " the stuff of fairytales " , as he was successful despite having been raised in " poverty " . Johnston said he did not talk about being bullied because he was told to do so by producers , but " because I believed it would help people who were going through what I had gone through be stronger " . Johnston has subsequently visited schools and elsewhere to help other victims of bullying . He said " I want to use my experience of bullies to help other kids "
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= = = One Voice = = =
On 12 June 2008 , while Johnston was travelling with the Britain 's Got Talent Live Tour , it was announced that Johnston had signed a record deal with Syco Music , a division of Sony BMG , and that his first album would be produced after the tour . The deal was reportedly for £ 1 million . After signing with Syco , Johnston made public appearances , including performing at Andrew Lloyd Webber 's birthday celebrations on 14 September , and at Carlisle United 's Brunton Park .
Johnston 's debut album , One Voice , was released on 29 September 2008 . It includes a cover of " Walking in the Air " , performed with Faryl Smith . The album was recorded over a six @-@ week period in London , and the track listing was chosen by Cowell . Johnston described the recording process as " brilliant " , and that it was " really good – just to be in a recording studio and meet the different people " . The album debuted in the British charts at number five , and finished the week at number four . The album was later certified gold , having sold 100 @,@ 000 copies , and Johnston was presented a gold disc by daytime television presenter Penny Smith . Critics responded positively to the album , with Kate Leaver , writing for the Korea JoongAng Daily , saying Johnston " has truer talent than hordes of his musical elders " and that " the vulnerability " of Johnston 's performance on the album " makes for a haunting musical experience " . In Music Week , the album was described as " highly @-@ anticipated " , and Johnston was called " exceptionally @-@ talented " .
After the album 's release , Johnston became involved in the Sing Up campaign , appearing in schools around the country to encourage other young people to join choirs . In December 2008 , Johnston made a guest appearance at Whitehaven 's Christmas fair , and performed at a carol service in Bradford . Johnston was also invited to turn on the Carlisle Christmas lights and perform at the celebrations . Mike Mitchelson , of Carlisle City Council , described Johnston as " one of our local heroes " .
= = = Hiatus and 2010s = = =
In September 2009 , Johnston announced that he would be taking a year off from singing as his voice had broken , changing him to a tenor . He had previously performed as a treble . He said " the tutors at [ the Royal Northern College of Music ] said they 'll be able to train my voice up again . It 's the same as it ever was , just deeper " . Johnston 's voice then changed from a tenor to a baritone . After remaining out of the spotlight for two years , he joined the National Youth Choir , saying " I 'm just another lad in there – no one focuses on Britain 's Got Talent and I 'm happy about that " . In 2011 , he was awarded a Royal School of Church Music Gold medal ; public performances that year included a charitable concert , alongside organists John Bromley and Tony Green , at St Paul 's Church , Helsby in November .
In September 2013 , Johnston began to study for a Bachelor of Music degree at the Royal Northern College of Music , under the tutelage of Jeff Lawton , who had previously tutored him at the Junior College . He immediately joined the college 's Chamber Choir and the Manchester Cathedral choir , but said that he intended to still sing with the Carlisle Cathedral choir where possible . While a student , Johnston 's singing was adversely affected by a broken nose , the result of an unprovoked attack in a Carlisle nightclub on New Year 's Day , 2014 .
= = Personal life = =
Johnston 's family home is in Stanwix , Carlisle . His mother , Morag Brannock , worked for the Office for National Statistics before giving up her job to support her son 's career . Prior to his Britain 's Got Talent appearances , he attended Trinity School , and later received tuition from a personal tutor . Johnston said that he " had a lot of support from local people when ... taking part in Britain 's Got Talent " , and was given a civic award for outstanding achievement by Carlisle City Council in March 2009 .
Johnston 's interests include jujitsu , in which he has a black belt . The Carlisle newspaper News and Star reported in September 2012 that Johnston had become the youngest person in the world to be granted a licence to teach the sport .
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
= Illinois ( Sufjan Stevens album ) =
Illinois ( styled Sufjan Stevens Invites You To : Come On Feel the Illinoise on the cover ; sometimes written as Illinoise ) is a 2005 concept album by American indie folk songwriter Sufjan Stevens . It is his fifth studio album , and features songs referencing places , events , and persons related to the U.S. state of Illinois . Illinois is Stevens ' second based on a U.S. state — part of a planned series of fifty that began with the 2003 album Michigan that Stevens has since acknowledged was a gag .
Stevens recorded and produced the album at multiple venues in New York City using low @-@ fidelity studio equipment and a variety of instruments between late 2004 and early 2005 . The artwork and lyrics explore the history , culture , art , and geography of the state — Stevens developed them after analyzing criminal , literary , and historical documents . Following a July 4 , 2005 release date , Stevens promoted Illinois with a world tour .
Critics praised the album for its well @-@ written lyrics and complex orchestrations ; in particular , reviewers noted Stevens ' progress as a songwriter since the release of Michigan . Illinois was named the best @-@ reviewed album of 2005 by review aggregator Metacritic , and was included on several reviewers ' " best of the decade " lists — including those of Paste , NPR , and Rolling Stone . The album amounted to Stevens ' greatest public success to date : it was his first to place on the Billboard 200 , and it topped the Billboard list of " Heatseekers Albums " . The varied instrumentation and experimental songwriting on the album invoked comparisons to work by Steve Reich , Neil Young , and The Cure . Besides numerous references to Illinois history , geography , and attractions , Stevens continued a theme of his songwriting career by including multiple references to his Christian faith .
= = Background , recording , and tour = =
Stevens launched his 50 @-@ state project in 2003 with the album Michigan and chose to focus on Illinois with this recording because " it wasn 't a great leap " , and he liked the state because he considered it the " center of gravity " for the American Midwest . Before creating the album , Stevens read literature by Illinois authors Saul Bellow and Carl Sandburg , and studied immigration records and history books for the state — he made the deliberate decision to avoid current events and focused on historical themes . He also took trips through several locations in Illinois and asked friends and members of Internet chat rooms for anecdotes about their experiences in the state . Although he began work in 2004 on Oregon @-@ themed songs and briefly considered releasing a Rhode Island 7 " , Stevens has since not released another album focused on a state , saying in a November 2009 interview with Paste that " the whole premise was such a joke , " and telling Andrew Purcell of The Guardian in October 2009 " I have no qualms about admitting [ the fifty states project ] was a promotional gimmick . " An Arkansas @-@ related song was released through NPR as " The Lord God Bird " and material intended for New Jersey and New York became The BQE .
All of the songs on Illinois were written , recorded , engineered , and produced by Stevens , with most of the material being recorded at The Buddy Project studio in Astoria , Queens , and in Stevens ' Brooklyn apartment . As with his previous albums , Stevens recorded in various locations , with additional piano recorded in St. Paul 's Church in Brooklyn ; strings and vocals performed in collaborators ' apartments ; electronic organ recorded in the New Jerusalem Recreational Room in Clarksboro , New Jersey ; and vibraphone played at Carroll Music Studios in New York City . Stevens mostly created the album without collaboration , focusing on the writing , performance , and technical creation of the album by himself : " I was pretty nearsighted in the construction of Illinois . I spent a lot of time alone , a few months in isolation working on my own and in the studio . I let things germinate and cultivate independently , without thinking about an audience or a live show at all . "
Stevens employed low @-@ fidelity recording equipment , which allowed him to retain creative control and keep costs low on recording Illinois . Typically , his process involved recording to 32 kHz 8 @-@ track tape using inexpensive microphones such as the Shure SM57 and AKG C1000 . He then employed Pro Tools for mixing and other production tasks .
After consulting with Michael Kaufmann and Lowell Brams of Asthmatic Kitty about the amount of material he had recorded , Stevens decided against a double album , saying that would be " arrogant " . In 2006 , several tracks recorded during these sessions were sent to Seattle @-@ based musician and producer James McAllister for additional instrumentation and production , and were released in 2006 on the follow @-@ up album The Avalanche : Outtakes and Extras from the Illinois Album . Among these outtakes are three separate recordings of the song " Chicago " — including the " Multiple Personality Disorder Version " , which was produced during a subsequent tour . The " Adult Contemporary Easy Listening Version " of the song was supposed to appear on the Illinois album , but was changed at the last minute .
Illinois was released on July 4 , 2005 , through Rough Trade Records in Europe and was distributed domestically by Asthmatic Kitty Records starting July 5 , 2005 . Although he initially had no plans to perform this material live , less than two weeks after the release of Illinois , Stevens embarked on a North American tour to promote the album , performing with a string section of eight to ten members named the Illinoisemakers . He deliberately chose to avoid television as a promotional tool and focused on the tour performances themselves . He was supported on some dates by opening acts Liz Janes ( who is also signed to Asthmatic Kitty ) and Laura Veirs as well as Illinois collaborator Shara Nova 's solo project My Brightest Diamond . He toured in support of the album again from September through November 2006 , this time including dates in several European cities . During the 2006 dates , Stevens and his band transitioned from wearing University of Illinois @-@ themed outfits to butterfly suits and bird wings .
= = Musical style and thematic elements = =
Reviewers have noted similarities between this album and those of musicians and composers in several musical genres — from pop to contemporary classical , even show tunes and jazz @-@ based time signatures . The lyrics and their rich thematic elements have been noted for their literary quality , earning comparisons to Ralph Waldo Emerson , Henry David Thoreau , William Carlos Williams , and Walt Whitman .
= = = Musical style = = =
Reviewers of Illinois have compared Stevens ' style to Steve Reich , Vince Guaraldi , the Danielson Famile , Neil Young , Nick Drake , and Death Cab for Cutie . Stevens ' use of large orchestral arrangements in his music — much of it played by himself through the use of multi @-@ track recording — has been noted by several reviewers . Rolling Stone summarized the musical influences of Illinois , saying " the music draws from high school marching bands , show tunes and ambient electronics ; we can suspect Steve Reich 's Music for 18 Musicians is an oft @-@ played record in the Stevens household , since he loves to echo it in his long instrumental passages . " A review in The A.V. Club referred to some of the vocal work as " regressively twee communalism " , but found Stevens ' music overall to be " highly developed " . The song " Come On ! Feel the Illinoise ! " uses a saxophone part from " Close to Me " by The Cure .
The creation of Illinois marked a shift in Stevens ' emphasis on songwriting and studio work toward live performance and more abstract concepts of motion and sound — subsequent tours and albums emphasized electronic music and modern dance over the indie folk material on Michigan and Illinois . He has ceased writing songs about individual characters with straightforward narratives or concept albums and briefly considered quitting the music business entirely after creating and promoting this album . He also found that the way in which he listened to music had changed after producing Illinois :
I think now I listen more as a technician and a researcher . I 'm always hearing music in terms of what I can take out of it , and I think I 've always listened like that . I have a hard time just listening for pleasure . I 'm much less about instinct , and more of a utilitarian listener . Like , what is the use of this song ? What is the usefulness of this melody for this theme or statement ? What are they doing that 's unusual sounding , and how can I learn from that ?
Stevens is a classically trained oboist and his knowledge of classical and baroque music influenced many of his arrangements . Stevens himself has noted the influence of composers Igor Stravinsky , Sergei Rachmaninoff , and Edvard Grieg ; along with contemporary composers Terry Riley , Steve Reich , and Philip Glass . The music on this album was written to be grandiose , to match the history of the territory . Stevens used time signature changes in the composition of Illinois for dynamic effect — for instance , " Come On ! Feel the Illinoise ! " begins with a 5 / 4 time signature and then changes to a standard 4 / 4 later in the song .
= = = Illinois themes = = =
Many of the lyrics in Illinois make references to persons , places , and events related to the state of the same name . " Concerning the UFO Sighting Near Highland , Illinois " is about a UFO sighting by police officers near Highland , Illinois , where several persons reported seeing a large triangular object with three lights flying at night . " Come on ! Feel the Illinoise ! " makes reference to the World 's Columbian Exposition , which took place in Chicago in 1893 .
" John Wayne Gacy , Jr . " documents the story of the 1970s Chicago @-@ based serial killer of the same name . Several lyrics make explicit references to events in his life : " [ w ] hen the swingset hit his head " refers to an event in Gacy 's childhood , when a swing hit his head and caused a blood clot in his brain ; " He dressed up like a clown for them / with his face paint white and red " alludes to the nickname given to Gacy — the " Killer Clown " ; and " He put a cloth on their lips / Quiet hands , quiet kiss on the mouth " references Gacy 's use of chloroform to subdue and molest his victims . The song ends with the narrator turning inward with the lyrics : " And in my best behavior , I am really just like him / Look beneath the floorboards for the secrets I have hid . " Stevens stated in a 2009 interview with Paste that " we 're all capable of what [ Gacy ] did . "
" Casimir Pulaski Day " interweaves a personal story with the state holiday Casimir Pulaski Day . " The Man of Metropolis Steals Our Hearts " makes references to Superman , whose fictional hometown of Metropolis was partially modeled after Chicago ( the town of Metropolis , Illinois has also capitalized on this association ) . Jessica Hopper of the Chicago Reader noted that Ray Middleton — who was the first actor to play the comic book superhero — was also born in Chicago . " They Are Night Zombies ! ! They Are Neighbors ! ! They Have Come Back from the Dead ! ! Ahhhh ! " makes references to ghost towns of Illinois . Stevens relates experiences from a summer camp he went to as a child in Michigan for " The Predatory Wasp of the Palisades Is Out to Get Us ! " , but moved the locale to Illinois for the sake of the album . The track " Decatur , or , Round of Applause for Your Stepmother ! " includes references to Decatur , Illinois , but Stevens stated the track also acted as " an exercise in rhyme schemes " . Some references to Decatur included in the song were alligator sightings in the area , the equipment manufacturer Caterpillar , and a flood that exhumed a graveyard of soldiers from the Civil War .
Other allusions to the state 's people , places , and events include the Black Hawk War , author Carl Sandburg , Stephen A. Douglas , Abraham Lincoln , the Sangamon River , the Chicago Cubs , the Sears Tower dubbed " Seer 's Tower " ( now called Willis Tower ) , and the localities of Jacksonville , Peoria , Metropolis , Savanna Caledonia , Secor , Magnolia , Kankakee , Evansville , and the several locations named Centerville , Illinois . During the tour following the release of Illinois , Stevens ' band wore cheerleader outfits based on those of the University of Illinois .
= = = Christianity = = =
Although Illinois is a concept album about the U.S. state , Stevens also explored themes related to Christianity and the Bible . As a Christian , he has written and recorded music about spiritual themes throughout his career — particularly on the 2004 album Seven Swans — and prefers to talk about religious topics through song rather than directly in interviews or public statements . The song " Decatur , or , Round of Applause for Your Stepmother ! " includes the line " It 's the great I Am " — taken from the response God gave when Moses asked for his name in the Book of Exodus ( Exodus 3 : 14 ) . " Casimir Pulaski Day " describes the death of a girlfriend due to bone cancer , and the narrator questions God in the process . More abstract allusions appear in " The Man of Metropolis Steals Our Hearts " , which utilizes Superman as a Christ figure and " The Seer 's Tower " , which references the Book of Revelation and the Second Coming of Christ . Songs which were not written with an explicit theological focus — such as " John Wayne Gacy , Jr . " — also feature religious themes such as sin and redemption .
= = Artwork = =
Divya Srinivasan created the album artwork , depicting a variety of Illinois @-@ related themes , including Abraham and Mary Todd Lincoln , the Sears Tower , and Black Hawk . The album cover reads , " Sufjan Stevens Invites You To : Come On Feel the Illinoise ! " as a wordplay on the common mispronunciation of the state 's name as " ill @-@ i @-@ NOYZ " and a reference to the Slade song " Cum On Feel the Noize " made famous in the United States by the metal band Quiet Riot . The text on the cover caused some confusion over the actual title of the album — it is officially titled Illinois , as opposed to Come on Feel the Illinoise or Illinoise . Paste listed Illinois as having the seventh best album art of the decade 2000 – 2009 . The album also won the PLUG Independent Music Award for Album Art / Packaging of the Year in 2006 .
Shortly after the release of the album , reports arose that DC Comics had issued a cease and desist letter to Asthmatic Kitty because of the depiction of Superman on the cover . However , on October 4 , 2005 , Asthmatic Kitty announced that there had been no cease and desist letter ; the record company 's own lawyers had warned about the copyright infringement . On June 30 , 2005 , Asthmatic Kitty 's distributor Secretly Canadian asked its retailers not to sell the album ; however , it was not recalled . On July 5 , the distributor told its retailers to go ahead and sell their copies , as DC Comics agreed to allow Asthmatic Kitty to sell the copies of the album that were already manufactured , but the image was removed from subsequent pressings . Soon after it was made public that the cover would be changed , copies of the album featuring Superman were sold for as high as $ 75 on eBay . On the vinyl edition released on November 22 , 2005 , Superman 's image is covered by a balloon sticker . The image of the balloon sticker was also used on the cover of the Compact Disc and later printings of the double vinyl release . Stevens himself was surprised by the development and also had to pay a fee for referencing lyrics from Woody Guthrie 's folk anthem " This Land Is Your Land " in the track " No Man 's Land " , which was later released on The Avalanche .
The 10th anniversary vinyl reissue of Illinois features the Marvel character Blue Marvel , who hails from Chicago , in place of Superman . Asthmatic Kitty obtained permission from Marvel to use the character 's likeness .
= = Reception = =
Illinois was Sufjan Stevens ' greatest commercial and critical success to date . For the first time , his work charted on the Billboard 200 and received several awards from critics .
= = = Sales figures and chart performance = = =
In its first week of sales , Illinois sold 9 @,@ 000 copies , 20 % coming from online sales . Overall , the album sold more than 100 @,@ 000 copies by November 2005 and over 300 @,@ 000 by the end of 2009 . It was the first Sufjan Stevens release to place on the Billboard 200 , reaching No. 121 within eight weeks on the chart . It also placed number one on Billboard 's " Heatseekers Albums " list and number four on the " Independent Albums " list , remaining on them for 32 and 39 weeks respectively .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical reception of Illinois was overwhelmingly positive . Review aggregator Metacritic compiled 40 critic reviews of Illinois and gave the album a 90 out of 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " , designating it the best @-@ reviewed album of 2005 . Andy Battaglia of The A.V. Club said that Stevens " has grown into one of the best song @-@ makers in indie rock " with the album . Tim Jonze of NME called Illinois " a brainy little fucker " and described Stevens as " prolific , intelligent and — most importantly — brimming with heart @-@ wrenching melodies . " Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone responded favorably to the album , praising the " over @-@ the @-@ top arrangements " and Stevens ' " breathy , gentle voice " . Sheffield criticized " John Wayne Gacy , Jr . " , stating that it " symbolizes nothing about American life except the existence of creative @-@ writing workshops " , but elsewhere praised the personal nature of songs such as " Chicago " and " Casimir Pulaski Day " . Michael Metivier of PopMatters described " John Wayne Gacy , Jr . " as " horrifying , tragic , and deeply sad without proselytizing . " Amanda Petrusich of Pitchfork Media described Illinois as " strange and lush , as excessive and challenging as its giant , gushing song titles . " Dave Simpson of The Guardian echoed this sentiment by saying that the music sounds like " The Polyphonic Spree produced by Brian Eno . " The diversity in instrumentation also received a positive review from Entertainment Weekly 's Kristina Feliciano .
Jesse Jarnow of Paste praised the playful nature of Illinois , commenting that it had " sing @-@ song " melodies and " jaunty " orchestrations . Jarnow also noted ironic lyrics , citing a line from " The Predatory Wasp of the Palisades is Out to Get Us ! " : " I can 't explain the state I 'm in ... " after a section of the song that references many Illinois landmarks . Q called Illinois a " sizeable step forward " from Michigan , and said Stevens ' love for the state of Illinois is infectious . Uncut 's Andy Gill dubbed the album " an extraordinary achievement " . Catherine Lewis of The Washington Post responded favorably to the album , stating that it has well @-@ written lyrics , comparing Stevens ' rhyming to that of Stephin Merritt . Lewis cited " Casimir Pulaski Day " as one of the most memorable songs of the album .
= = = Accolades = = =
Illinois achieved lasting fame with inclusion on numerous reviewers ' " best of the year " and " best of the decade " lists . In particular , the album topped the best of the decade list appearing in the November 2009 issue of Paste and NPR named Illinois on their list of " The Decade 's 50 Most Important Recordings " . Pitchfork Media called Illinois the sixteenth best album of the decade , with Stevens ' previous album — Michigan — placing 70 on that same list . The album also won the 2005 New Pantheon Award — a type of Shortlist Music Prize . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . Finally , Paste listed Stevens as one of their " 100 Best Living Songwriters " in 2006 , primarily due to the writing on Michigan and Illinois .
= = Track listing = =
Note that the titles of the songs vary slightly from the Compact Disc , digital , and vinyl releases . Full titles come directly from the vinyl album and have been adapted to the English capitalization standards .
All songs written and composed by Sufjan Stevens and published by New Jerusalem Music , ASCAP .
= = Personnel = =
Sufjan Stevens – acoustic guitar ; piano ; Wurlitzer ; bass guitar ; drums ; electric guitar ; oboe ; alto saxophone ; flute ; banjo ; glockenspiel ; accordion ; vibraphone ; alto , sopranino , soprano , and tenor recorders ; Casiotone MT @-@ 70 ; sleigh bells ; shaker ; tambourine ; triangle ; electronic organ ; vocals ; arrangement ; engineering ; recording ; production
Julianne Carney – violin
Alan Douches – mastering at West West Side Music , Tenafly , New Jersey
Jon Galloway – remixing on " Chicago " ( To String Remix )
Marla Hansen – viola
The Illinoisemaker Choir – backing vocals and clapping on " The Black Hawk War , or , How to Demolish an Entire Civilization and Still Feel Good About Yourself in the Morning , or , We Apologize for the Inconvenience but You 're Going to Have to Leave Now , or , ' I Have Fought the Big Knives and Will Continue to Fight Them Until They Are Off Our Lands ! ' " , " Chicago " , " The Man of Metropolis Steals Our Hearts " , " They Are Night Zombies ! ! They Are Neighbors ! ! They Have Come Back from the Dead ! ! Ahhhh ! " , and " The Tallest Man , the Broadest Shoulders "
Tom Eaton
Jennifer Hoover
Katrina Kerns
Beccy Lock
Tara McDonnell
Maria Bella Jeffers – cello
Katrina Kerns – backing vocals on " Concerning the UFO Sighting Near Highland , Illinois " , " Come On ! Feel the Illinoise ! " , " Jacksonville " , " Prairie Fire That Wanders About " , " The Predatory Wasp of the Palisades Is Out to Get Us ! " , " The Seer 's Tower " , " The Tallest Man , the Broadest Shoulders " , and " The Avalanche "
James McAlister – drums , drum engineering
Craig Montoro – trumpet , backing vocals on " They Are Night Zombies ! ! They Are Neighbors ! ! They Have Come Back from the Dead ! ! Ahhhh ! "
Rob Moose – violin
Matt Morgan – backing vocals on " Decatur , or , Round of Applause for Your Stepmother ! "
Daniel and Elin Smith – backing vocals and clapping on " Decatur , or , Round of Applause for Your Stepmother ! "
Divya Srinivasan – artwork
Shara Worden – backing vocals on " Concerning the UFO Sighting Near Highland , Illinois " , " Come On ! Feel the Illinoise ! " , " John Wayne Gacy , Jr . " , " Casimir Pulaski Day " , " Prairie Fire That Wanders About " , " The Predatory Wasp of the Palisades Is Out to Get Us ! " , " The Seer 's Tower " , " The Tallest Man , the Broadest Shoulders " , and " The Avalanche "
= Mycena galericulata =
Mycena galericulata is a mushroom species commonly known as the common bonnet , the toque mycena , or the rosy @-@ gill fairy helmet . The type species of the genus Mycena was first described scientifically in 1772 , but was not considered a Mycena until 1821 . It is quite variable in color , size , and shape , which makes it somewhat difficult to reliably identify in the field . The mushrooms have caps with distinct radial grooves , particularly at the margin . The cap 's color varies from grayish @-@ brown to dark brown and the shape ranges from bell @-@ like to bluntly conical to flattened with an umbo . The stem is hollow , white , tough and thin , without a ring and often roots deeply into the wood on which it grows . The gills are white to grayish or even pinkish when mature and are connected by distinct cross @-@ veins . The caps can reach 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter , and have a mealy odor and taste . The spore print is white and the gills are pink at maturity , which can lead to possible confusion with species of the Pluteus genus . M. galericulata mushrooms grow mostly in clusters on the well @-@ decayed stumps of deciduous and coniferous trees from spring to autumn . The species can generally be considered inedible . It is common and widespread in the entire temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere , but it has also been reported from Africa .
= = Taxonomy , classification , and naming = =
The fungus was first described scientifically as Agaricus galericulatus by Italian mycologist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 1772 , and sanctioned under this name by Elias Magnus Fries in his 1821 Systema Mycologicum . That same year , Samuel Frederick Gray transferred the species to the genus Mycena . Synonyms for the species include Agaricus conicus named by William Hudson in 1778 , Agaricus crispus described by August Johann Georg Karl Batsch in 1893 , Stereopodium galericulatum by Franklin Sumner Earle in 1909 , and Prunulus galericulatus by William Alphonso Murrill in 1916 .
Mycena galericulata is the type species of the genus Mycena . It is classified in section Mycena of Mycena in the infrageneric scheme of Rudolph Arnold Maas Geesteranus . In the older ( 1947 ) classification of Alexander H. Smith , he placed it in the subgenus Eumycena , section Typicae — " a most monotonous series of blackish , brown , gray , bluish @-@ gray , or brownish @-@ gray species mostly with ascending gills and generally large to moderate stature . "
The specific epithet galericulata is derived from the Latin galer , and means " with a small hat " . Gray called it the " helmetted high @-@ stool " . It is commonly known as the " common bonnet " , the " toque mycena " , or the " rosy @-@ gill fairy helmet " .
= = Description = =
The cap of M. galericulata is roughly conical when young , and eventually becomes broadly bell @-@ shaped or with a broad umbo that can reach diameters of 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) . The cap margin is initially somewhat curved inward , but soon evens out or even becomes uplifted , and often splits radially in age . The surface has radial grooves that extend nearly to the center , and feels greasy but not sticky . The color is somewhat buff @-@ brown on the margin , and fades gradually to pale dirty tan to dirty cinnamon @-@ brown . The flesh is thick in the center of the cap and tapers evenly to the margin , and is watery gray , with a cartilage @-@ like texture . The odor and taste are mildly to strongly farinaceous ( similar to the smell of freshly ground flour ) , to radish @-@ like .
The gills are narrowly attached ( adnexed ) to broadly attached or sinuate . The gill spacing ranges from close to somewhat distantly spaced , with 26 – 36 gills reaching the stem ; there are additionally three or four tiers of lamellulae ( short gills that do not extend completely from the cap margin to the stem ) . The gills are strongly intervenose ( possessing cross @-@ veins ) , moderately broad ( 5 – 7 mm ) , white or grayish white , soon flushed with pale pink , with even edges . The stem is 5 – 9 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) long , 2 – 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 – 0 @.@ 16 in ) thick , equal in width throughout , and with a cartilaginous texture . It is hollow , not hairy , either smooth or twisted with longitudinal striations , often with a long pseudorrhiza ( a subterranean elongation of the stem ) at the base . The stem color is pale grayish @-@ white on the upper portion , and pale grayish @-@ black below ; the base becomes somewhat dirty brown in age , but does not develop reddish stains .
Mycena galericulata produces a white spore print . The spores are ellipsoid , 8 – 10 by 5 @.@ 5 – 7 μm , and amyloid — which means they will turn blue @-@ black to black when stained with Melzer 's reagent . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) have stout sterigmata , and measure 34 – 40 by 7 – 9 μm . They may be either two @-@ spored or four @-@ spored . There are numerous club @-@ shaped to rounded cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) , that measure 32 – 40 by 8 – 12 μm ; their apices or the entire enlarged portion bear rodlike projections that become increasingly elongated and branched in age . There are no pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) . The gill tissue has a very thin cuticle , under which is a narrow hypoderm , while the remainder of the tissue comprises densely matted tufts of mycelia , and stains deep vinaceous @-@ brown in iodine . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae of the four @-@ spored forms .
= = = Edibility = = =
Opinions on the edibility of the mushroom vary . One source considers them to have a " delicate flavor and texture " , and suggests that they are good when " stewed gently in their own juice and then seasoned with salt , pepper and butter . " Others list the species as inedible , and notes that they have a " mildly rancid " smell , and with a taste ranging from rancid to farinaceous . Another says " unknown , but not recommended . " At any rate , the species falls into the general category of brownish Mycenas that are generally unappetizing as food due to their small size and delicate consistency .
= = = Similar species = = =
The winter bonnet ( M. tintinnabulum ) is a northern European species that is much smaller ( cap diameter up to 2 @.@ 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) across ) and has a brown cap , and has ragged hairs at the base . It generally appears in late autumn to early winter on the stumps of deciduous trees , especially beech . It has pip @-@ shaped spores that are smaller than M. galericulata , around 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 by 2 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 8 µm . M. maculata develops pink stains on its gills as it matures ; its spores are 7 – 9 by 4 – 5 μm . Another similar species is M. inclinata , which can be distinguished by gills bearing reddish spots , which may become entirely red with age . It also has whitish , slender , threadlike flecks on the stalk . M. parabolica is thinner , and more fragile . Another Mycena that grows in clusters on decaying hardwoods is M. haematopus , but this species has a vinaceous @-@ brown cap with a scalloped margin , and a stem that bleeds reddish @-@ brown juice when injured . M. excisa closely resembles M. galericulata , but can be distinguished microscopically by the presence of both smooth and roughened cystidia ( bearing finger @-@ like projections ) .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
Mycena galericulata is saprobic , and grows on decaying hardwood and softwood sticks , chips , logs , and stumps . It can also grow from submerged wood , which may give it a terrestrial appearance . It typically grows in small clusters or sometimes singly . The fungus fruits from late spring to early winter . A study of litter @-@ decomposing fungi in a coniferous forest in Finland showed that M. galericulata produces extracellular hydrolytic enzymes in the humus and eluvial soil , including β @-@ glucosidase , β @-@ xylosidase , α @-@ glucosidase , butyrate esterase and sulphatase . The enzymes form complexes with inorganic and organic particles in the soil and break down ( depolymerize ) biopolymers such as cellulose , hemicellulose , and starch , which contributes to the cycling of carbon and nutrients . The presence of lead contamination in the soil decreases both the growth and the extracellular hydrolytic enzyme activity of M. galericulata .
Mycena galericulata is a very common and widely distributed species , found throughout the entire temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere . In the United States , it occurs throughout eastern North America and also along the Pacific Coast . It has also been collected in Edo State , Nigeria . Although the mushroom has occasionally been reported from Australia , these collections are probably based on misidentifications , and " Australian records of Mycena galericulata are best regarded as erroneous " .
= = = Cited literature = = =
Smith AH . ( 1947 ) . North American species of Mycena . Ann Arbor , Michigan : University of Michigan Press .
= Crash Boom Bang ! =
For the Roxette album with a similar name , see Crash ! Boom ! Bang !
Crash Boom Bang ! ( known in Japan as Crash Bandicoot Festival ) ( クラッシュ ・ バンディクー フェスティバル , Kurasshu Bandikū Fesutibaru ) is a party game developed by Dimps and published by Vivendi Universal Games in Japan and by Sierra Entertainment internationally for the Nintendo DS . It was released in Japan on July 20 , 2006 , in North America on October 10 , 2006 , in Europe on October 27 , 2006 , and in Australia on November 2 , 2006 . It is the only game in the Crash Bandicoot series to be developed by a Japanese company and the first to be released in Japan before North America . It was also the final game in the series to be released in Japan .
Crash Boom Bang ! is the first game to be released exclusively for the Nintendo DS , and the second party game of the series , after Crash Bash . The game 's story centers on a multi @-@ millionaire who uses the characters of the series to unearth a powerful object dubbed the " Super Big Power Crystal " . The game has received largely negative reception from reviewers , who criticized it for having unoriginal , dull gameplay and poor controls .
= = Gameplay = =
Crash Boom Bang ! ' s stages resemble board games , as each play area is split into a number of squares . The game takes place among four players , with the computer assigned to spare players . All players simultaneously roll dice . The number each player rolls is the amount of squares they move forward . Depending on the type of square that the player lands on , Wumpa Fruit ( which is used as points during the race ) can be won or lost , an item can be obtained , a special event might be triggered , or a mini @-@ game might commence . If a player lands on a fork in the road , the player will have to select the desired direction with either the stylus or the control pad .
In the Adventure Mode , the characters compete in a race for the Super Big Power Crystal . This race is made up of six stages , each containing smaller sub @-@ maps . The host of the race , the Viscount , sets a task for each stage . This task must be completed before the player can continue to another map . The player with the most points is the winner of the stage . The overall winner of all the stages is the winner of the Viscount 's race . In the Festival Mode , the gameplay is fundamentally the same as in the Adventure Mode , with the exception of the ability to select stages to play freely . In the My Room mode , the player 's character has his or her own private room in which he or she can either play minigames that have been collected in Adventure Mode , view a collection of items obtained in Adventure Mode , or create a Motion Panel , a unique in @-@ game communication tool can allow customized messages to be sent mid @-@ game to help friends or distract other players ' gameplay . The decorations in My Room is different for each character .
Crash Boom Bang ! features forty mini @-@ games that can be played alone or remotely against friends . Balance , timing , and intelligence are required to win these mini @-@ games . When a player is not taking part in a mini @-@ game , he or she can bet Wumpa Fruit on the winner . The player can help players that have been bet on or obstruct players that have not been bet on by using the Motion Panel . If the player has a special item , the player can access the Shop screen from the Bet screen and buy or sell items .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
A number of characters from past Crash Bandicoot games return in Crash Boom Bang ! , though only eight are playable . The playable characters include Crash Bandicoot , Coco Bandicoot , Crunch Bandicoot , Pura , Doctor Neo Cortex , Tawna , Pinstripe Potoroo , and Fake Crash . All of the characters physically appear as they do in official Japanese Crash Bandicoot artwork and promotions ( which was the only Sierra Entertainment video game to be introduced the official Japanese Crash Bandicoot artwork and promotions ) , though Crash 's model was altered for the non @-@ Japanese releases to closer resemble his Crash Twinsanity model . The host of the party , the Viscount , is an original character designed specifically for the game . His name in the original Japanese version is " Viscount Devil " , a reference to the Tasmanian devil native to Australia . Other past characters make cameos in the game at one point or another , such as the Lab Assistants , Doctor N. Gin , Tiny Tiger , Doctor Nefarious Tropy and Polar . Aku Aku serves as the player 's tutor , while Uka Uka makes a cameo appearance as a purchaseable item in the shop .
= = = Story = = =
While developing a resort in Tasmania , the Viscount finds a map of an ancient city containing the fabled Super Big Power Crystal . He attempts to find it himself , but due to the large amount of puzzles , he fails miserably . In the resort , the Viscount decides to gather up the world 's cleverest and strongest bunch of characters and con them into finding the Crystal for him . He sends an invitation to Coco Bandicoot , inviting her and Crash to the World Cannonball Race , where the winner earns $ 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
The race starts in Port Town , with the winners traveling in a boat to a large desert . Legend has it that four stone tablets are buried somewhere in the desert , and the contestants are sent out to dig for them and bring them to the Viscount . According to the stone tablets , the actual location of the Crystal is hidden somewhere on the ancient map . Before he can investigate the matter further , Doctor Neo Cortex swoops in and snatches the map . As the two struggle for the map , the map is torn to shreds .
Cortex sends his loyal Lab Assistants to find the pieces of the map scattered throughout the big City and bring them to him . Now that the contestants know about the map , the Viscount decides to reveal his true intentions : the Super Big Power Crystal can grant a single wish who whoever obtains it , and the Viscount is willing to give a large sum of money to those who help him find it . Finding the Power Crystal is impossible without the Final Key , so the Viscount boards his plane to travel to the North Atlantic Ocean in search for the Final Key . But the plane is full , and only a select number of the contestants are able to board . Propelled to the skies by an explosive volcano , the contestants are able to board the Viscount 's plane .
On the Viscount 's ship , the Viscount tells the group the story of an explorer who found the Final Key , but was unable to find the Power Crystal . That explorer was the Viscount 's grandfather . As the explorer sailed back to his homeland to recollect his thoughts , his ship crashed into an iceberg and sank , taking the Viscount 's grandfather to a watery grave . " Sounds like a movie " , remarks one of the attendees . The Viscount tells them to dive to the sunken ship and retrieve the Final Key , much to their shock , considering the near @-@ freezing temperatures . Despite this , the group is able to find the Final Key before freezing to death . With all the pieces of the puzzle at hand , the Viscount victoriously enters the Tower , where the Super Big Power Crystal awaits its owner . Just as the Viscount is about to make his wish , Crash steps forward and makes his wish of a large pile of Wumpa Fruit , much to the Viscount 's grief . " May peace prevail on Earth " , says Coco .
= = Development = =
On developing the mobile phone version of Crash Boom Bang ! , producer Elodie Larre described adapting a party game for the mobile phone as a " big challenge " . Not wanting to make " another multiplayer game where the players just pass the phone to each other " and hoping to attract both old and new fans of the series , the development team decided to integrate the mobile phone itself into the minigames , creating such minigame gimmicks as playing with one hand behind the back , with one eye closed , playing with the chin , etc . The biggest challenge for the team was keeping the minigames inside the phone 's memory , which was cited as slightly inferior to the first PlayStation console . The WarioWare series was described as an influence in making the game .
Crash Boom Bang ! is the first game in the series to exclusively feature the Japanese voice cast in all regional versions of the game . The voice cast includes Makoto Ishii in the dual role of Crash and Fake Crash , Risa Tsubaki as Coco , Yōsuke Akimoto as Doctor Cortex , Shinya Fukumatsu as Crunch , Akiko Toda as Tawna , Asuka Tanii as Pura , and Takahiro Yoshino as Pinstripe .
= = Reception = =
Crash Boom Bang ! received mostly negative reviews , with the game receiving an average ranking of 42 @.@ 45 % at Game Rankings , and a score of 37 out of 100 based on fourteen reviews at Metacritic . Frank Provo of GameSpot criticized the game for its dull minigames and purely cosmetic Crash license , citing that " apart from the way the characters look and the way the Nitro boxes explode , [ ... ] there isn 't a whole lot that 's Crash @-@ like about Crash Boom Bang ! " . Nintendo Power recommended the game only to die @-@ hard Crash fans and advised others to wait for Crash 's next outing . Lesley Smith of Eurogamer criticized the game for a number or reasons , including bad stylus recognition , boring gameplay , terrible graphics and rigged , repetitive mini @-@ games . IGN 's review was one of the most scathing , dubbing Crash Boom Bang ! " a terrible , terrible game with poor organization " and " easily one of the worst games on the system " . More middling reviews have come in from Official Nintendo Magazine , who felt the game was hampered by dodgy controls and a testing user interface , and Pocket Gamer 's Jon Jordan , who dismissed the game 's collection of minigames as " distinctly average and oddly passionless " . Despite the negative reception , Crash Boom Bang ! was the seventh best @-@ selling game in Australia on the week of June 4 to June 10 , 2007 .
= Grade I listed buildings in Somerset =
The Grade I listed buildings in Somerset , England , demonstrate the history and diversity of its architecture . The ceremonial county of Somerset consists of a non @-@ metropolitan county , administered by Somerset County Council , which is divided into five districts , and two unitary authorities . The districts of Somerset are West Somerset , South Somerset , Taunton Deane , Mendip and Sedgemoor . The two administratively independent unitary authorities , which were established on 1 April 1996 following the breakup of the county of Avon , are North Somerset and Bath and North East Somerset . These unitary authorities include areas that were once part of Somerset before the creation of Avon in 1974 .
In the United Kingdom , the term listed building refers to a building or other structure officially designated as being of special architectural , historical , or cultural significance ; Grade I structures are those considered to be " buildings of exceptional interest " . Listing was begun by a provision in the Town and Country Planning Act 1947 . Once listed , strict limitations are imposed on the modifications allowed to a building 's structure or fittings . In England , the authority for listing under the Planning ( Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas ) Act 1990 rests with English Heritage , a non @-@ departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Culture , Media and Sport ; local authorities have a responsibility to regulate and enforce the planning regulations .
Each of the districts include Norman- or medieval @-@ era churches , many of which are included in the Somerset towers , a collection of distinctive , mostly spireless Gothic architecture church towers . The prolific construction of the towers — some started before 1360 — was typically accomplished by a master mason and a small team of itinerant masons , supplemented by local parish labourers , according to Poyntz Wright . But other authors reject this model , suggesting instead that leading architects designed the parish church towers based on early examples of Perpendicular design and ornamentation developed for cathedrals — their most important commissions . Contract builders carried out the plans , adding a distinctive mix of innovative details and decorations as new designs emerged over the years . These are included in the List of towers in Somerset .
Apart from the churches , each area has its own characteristics . Most of Bath 's Grade I listed buildings are made from the local golden @-@ coloured Bath Stone , and date from the 18th and 19th centuries . Their dominant architectural style is Georgian . In the Mendip district , the greatest concentrations of these cluster around the cathedral and abbey in Wells and in Glastonbury . North Somerset features bridges and piers along with a selection of Manor houses . The Sedgemoor district has many buildings related to trade and commerce centered on Bridgwater ; while in South Somerset abbeys , priories and farmhouses predominate . Taunton Deane includes the defensive Taunton Castle , similarly Dunster Castle and related buildings in Dunster feature in West Somerset .
= = Bath and North East Somerset = =
Bath and North East Somerset ( commonly referred to as BANES or B & NES ) is a unitary authority created on 1 April 1996 , following the abolition of the County of Avon . Bath and North East Somerset occupies an area of 220 square miles ( 570 km2 ) , two @-@ thirds of which is green belt . BANES stretches from the outskirts of Bristol , south into the Mendip Hills and east to the southern Cotswold Hills and Wiltshire border . The city of Bath is the principal settlement in the district , but BANES also covers Keynsham , Midsomer Norton , Radstock and the Chew Valley . BANES has a population of 170 @,@ 000 , about half of whom live in Bath , making it 12 times more densely populated than the rest of the district .
Bath and North East Somerset has 663 Grade I listed buildings , one of the highest concentrations in the country , covered by about 100 English Heritage listings . The oldest sites within Bath are the Roman Baths , for which the foundation piles and an irregular stone chamber lined with lead were built during the Roman occupation of Britain , although the current building is from the 18th century . Bath Abbey was a Norman church built on earlier foundations , although the present building dates from the early 16th century and shows a late Perpendicular style with flying buttresses and crocketed pinnacles decorating a crenellated and pierced parapet . The medieval era is represented by the remains of the city walls in Upper Borough Walls .
Most of Bath 's Grade I listed buildings are made from the local golden @-@ coloured Bath Stone , and date from the 18th and 19th centuries . Their dominant architectural style is Georgian , which evolved from the Palladian revival style that became popular during the early 18th century . This led to the entire city 's designation as a World Heritage Site .
Much of the development , and many of the buildings , were the vision of John Wood , the Elder . The Circus is seen as the pinnacle of Wood 's work . It consists of three long , curved terraces that form a circular space or theatre intended for civic functions and games . The games give a clue to the design , the inspiration for which was the Colosseum in Rome . The best known of Bath 's terraces is the Royal Crescent , built between 1767 and 1774 and designed by Wood 's son , John Wood , the Younger . Around 1770 the neoclassical architect Robert Adam designed Pulteney Bridge , a three @-@ arched bridge spanning the Avon . He used as his prototype an original , but unused , design by Palladio for the Rialto Bridge in Venice . The heart of the Georgian city was the Pump Room , which together with its associated Lower Assembly Rooms was designed by Thomas Baldwin , a local builder responsible for many other buildings in the city , including the terraces in Argyle Street . Great Pulteney Street , where Baldwin eventually lived , is another of his works : this wide boulevard , constructed c . 1789 and over 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 305 m ) long and 100 feet ( 30 m ) wide , is lined on both sides by Georgian terraces .
Outside the city of Bath most of the Grade I listed buildings are Norman- or medieval @-@ era churches . Manor houses such as Claverton Manor , which now houses the American Museum in Britain , and the 18th @-@ century Newton Park , which has a landscape garden designed by Capability Brown , also appear in the list ; Newton Park now forms part of the Bath Spa University . The most recent building is the agricultural Eastwood Manor Farm Steading , completed in 1860 .
= = Mendip = =
Mendip is a local government district which covers a largely rural area of 285 square miles ( 738 km2 ) ranging from the Mendip Hills through on to the Somerset Levels . It has a population of approximately 11 @,@ 000 . The administrative centre of the district is Shepton Mallet .
There are 90 Grade I listed buildings in the Mendip district . There are churches in the various towns and villages , however the greatest concentrations of Grade I listed buildings are in Wells and Glastonbury . In Wells these are clustered around the 10th @-@ century Cathedral Church of St Andrew , better known as Wells Cathedral , and the 13th @-@ century Bishop 's Palace . Glastonbury is the site of the Abbey , where construction started in the 7th century , and its associated buildings . The ruined St Michael 's church , damaged in an earthquake of 1275 , stands on Glastonbury Tor , where the site shows evidence of occupation from Neolithic times and the Dark Ages . The Chalice Well has been in use since Pre @-@ Christian times . Glastonbury Abbey had a wider influence outside the town : tithe barns were built at Pilton and West Bradley to hold tithes , and a Fish House was built at Meare along with a summer residence for the Abbot ( now Manor Farmhouse ) .
Medieval structures include Farleigh Hungerford Castle , fortified around 1370 , and The George Inn at Norton St Philip , used as an army headquarters during the Monmouth Rebellion in 1685 , and then as a courtroom to try the rebels in the Bloody Assizes . Manor houses such as the 15th @-@ century Seymours Court Farmhouse at Beckington and The Old Manor at Croscombe . Mells Manor followed in the 16th century and in the 17th century Southill House in Cranmore was built . Ston Easton Park and Ammerdown House in Kilmersdon were both completed in the 18th century . The most recent buildings included in the list are churches : the Church of St Peter at Hornblotton , built in 1872 – 74 by Sir Thomas Graham Jackson to replace a medieval church on the same site , and Downside Abbey at Stratton @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Fosse , more formally known as " The Basilica of St Gregory the Great at Downside " , a Roman Catholic Benedictine monastery and the Senior House of the English Benedictine Congregation . The current buildings were started in the 19th century and are still unfinished .
= = North Somerset = =
North Somerset is a unitary authority which is administered independently of the non @-@ metropolitan county of Somerset . Its administrative headquarters are located in the town hall of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , and has a resident population of 193 @,@ 000 living in 85 @,@ 000 households .
There are 37 Grade I listed buildings in North Somerset , including the Clifton Suspension Bridge , which joins North Somerset to Bristol and Clevedon Pier which was built between the 1860s and 1890s . It was removed following damage in 1970 and restored , before being rebuilt and reopened to the public in 1998 . Of the listed buildings , manor houses are well represented . They include Clevedon Court , built in the 14th century , and from the 15th century , Ashton Court and Nailsea Court . North Somerset has many religious structures ; the largest number are from the Norman or medieval eras . The oldest is the Church of St. Quiricus and St. Julietta in Tickenham which dates from the 11th century , and there are 8 others from the 12th century .
The most recent Grade I building in North Somerset is Tyntesfield , a Victorian Gothic Revival estate near Wraxall . It was acquired by the National Trust in June 2002 after a fund raising campaign to prevent it being sold to private interests and ensure it be opened to the public . The appeal by the National Trust collected £ 8 @.@ 2 million from the public in just 100 days and the Trust also received the largest single grant ever by the National Heritage Memorial Fund ( at £ 17 @.@ 4 million ) , which caused some controversy . The house is built of Bath stone , and is highly picturesque , bristling with turrets and possessing an elaborate roof .
= = Sedgemoor = =
Sedgemoor district is a low @-@ lying area of land close to sea level between the Quantock and Mendip hills , historically largely marsh ( or moor ) . It contains the bulk of the area also known as the Somerset Levels , including Europe 's oldest known engineered roadway , the Sweet Track .
There are 53 Grade I listed buildings in Sedgemoor , 14 of which are in Castle Street , Bridgwater . In 1834 , Castle Street was built on the site of the demolished Bridgwater Castle , as homes for the merchants trading in the town 's port . Outside the town of Bridgwater , the largest concentration of Grade I listed buildings are in the village of Cannington , where the 12th @-@ century Cannington Court and 14th @-@ century Church of St Mary were both associated with a Benedictine nunnery . Cannington is also the site of the 13th @-@ century Gurney Manor and Blackmoor Farmhouse , which was built around 1480 with its own chapel . Although 11th @-@ century churches such as the Church of St Michael at Brent Knoll and the Church of St Mary at Charlynch near Spaxton are still standing only blue lias rubble walling standing on a conical earthwork with a ditch approximately 820 feet ( 250 m ) in circumference are the only remains of Stowey Castle which was destroyed in the 15th century , which may have been as a penalty for the local Lord Audley 's involvement in the Second Cornish Uprising of 1497 led by Perkin Warbeck .
Many of the more recent structures in the list are manor houses such as Halswell House , where the south range was built in the 16th @-@ century for Sir Nicholas Halswell and the main north range in 1689 for Sir Halswell Tynte . The most recently constructed building in the list is the Corn Exchange in Bridgwater , built in 1834 .
= = South Somerset = =
The South Somerset district occupies an area of 370 square miles ( 958 km2 ) , stretching from its borders with Devon and Dorset to the edge of the Somerset Levels . The district has a population of about 158 @,@ 000 , and has Yeovil as its administrative centre .
There are 94 Grade I listed buildings in South Somerset . Most are Norman- or medieval @-@ era churches , but there are other religious buildings as well . Muchelney Abbey consists of the remains and foundations of a medieval Benedictine Abbey and an early Tudor house dating from the 16th century , formerly the lodgings of the resident abbot . Stavordale Priory was built as a priory church in the 13th century and was converted into a private residence in 1533 . The Hamstone Stoke sub Hamdon Priory is a 14th @-@ century former priest 's house of the chantry chapel of St Nicholas , which after 1518 become a farm known as Parsonage Farmhouse . It remained a farm until about 1960 , and has been owned by the National Trust since 1946 .
Since the Reformation the 13th @-@ century Hanging Chapel in Langport has been a town hall , courthouse , grammar school , museum , and armoury before becoming a masonic hall in 1891 . The house known as The Abbey in Charlton Mackrell takes its name from the site on which it was built , the Chantry Chapel of the Holy Spirit , founded in 1237 . Naish Priory , built around 1400 in East Coker , was never a priory , and similarly the Abbey Farm House and Abbey Barn in Yeovil which date from around 1420 , have always been in lay @-@ ownership ; " abbey " was added to their names in the 19th century . The 140 @-@ foot ( 43 m ) Burton Pynsent Monument was designed in 1757 , by Capability Brown for William Pitt , as a monument to Sir William Pynsent . King Alfred 's Tower , a 161 feet ( 49 m ) high , triangular edifice , stands near Egbert 's stone , where it is believed that Alfred the Great , King of Wessex , rallied the Saxons in May 878 before the Battle of Ethandun . The towers funder , Henry Hoare , planned for it to commemorate the end of the Seven Years ' War against France and the accession of King George III . The other Grade I listed buildings in South Somerset are manor houses , built over long periods by local Lords of the Manor . The Tudor Barrington Court was the first country house acquired by the National Trust , in 1907 , on the recommendation of the antiquarian Canon Hardwicke Rawnsley . Newton Surmaville was built between 1608 and 1612 for Robert Harbin , a Yeovil merchant , on the site of an earlier building , but was extensively altered and enhanced in the 1870s . Lytes Cary and its associated chapel and gardens have parts dating to as early as the 14th century . The architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner praised it , saying " Yet all parts blend to perfection with one another and with the gentle sunny landscape that surrounds them . " The 17th @-@ century house at Tintinhull is surrounded by a small 20th @-@ century Arts and Crafts garden . Ven House , which stands on an artificially raised terrace , has a rectangular plan of seven bays by five bays , and is built of red brick in Flemish bond , with local Hamstone dressings ; its north and south fronts are divided by two giant Corinthian pilasters . The small William and Mary style house was completed sometime between 1698 and 1700 . It was enlarged between 1725 and 1730 by Decimus Burton , who provided a new drawing @-@ room for Sir W. Medleycott and also an orangery attached to the house . Brympton d 'Evercy , built in stages between about 1220 and the 18th century , has been described , by Auberon Waugh , as " the most beautiful house in England " .
= = Taunton Deane = =
Taunton Deane has borough status . The district of Taunton Deane covers a population of approximately 100 @,@ 000 in an area of 462 square kilometres ( 178 sq mi ) . It is centered on the town of Taunton , where around 60 @,@ 000 of the population live and the council are based , and includes surrounding suburbs and villages .
There are 38 Grade I listed buildings in Taunton Deane . The oldest buildings are churches built before the end of the 12th century , and the Castle Bow , which has been incorporated into the Castle Hotel in Taunton but was originally a gateway into Taunton Castle . The castle was created between 1107 and 1129 , when William Giffard , the Chancellor of King Henry I , fortified the bishop 's hall . It was his successor , Henry of Blois , who transformed the manor @-@ house into a castle in 1138 , during the Civil War that raged during the reign of his brother , King Stephen . Taunton is also the site of Gray 's Alsmhouses , which dates from 1635 , and two buildings in Fore Street from the 16th century . Many of the more recent structures in the list are manor houses such as Cothay Manor and Greenham Barton which were built in Stawley in the 15th century . Poundisford Park and Cothelstone Manor were both built in the 16th century and Hatch Court in 1755 .
The most recent building included in the list is in the Quantock Hills . The original 16th century Hestercombe House , was rebuilt in 1909 . In addition to being a listed building the estate is designated Grade I on the English Heritage Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England . The house was used as the headquarters of the British 8th Corps in the Second World War , and has been owned by Somerset County Council since 1951 . It is used as an administrative centre and is the current base for the Devon and Somerset Fire and Rescue Service .
= = West Somerset = =
The West Somerset local government district covers a largely rural area , including parts of Exmoor , with a population , according to the 2001 census , of 35 @,@ 075 in an area of 740 square kilometres ( 290 sq mi ) . The largest centres of population are the coastal towns of Minehead and Watchet . The council 's administrative headquarters are in the village of Williton .
There are 33 Grade I listed buildings in West Somerset . The oldest is either Culbone Church , one of the smallest churches in England , and pre @-@ Norman in origin , or Tarr Steps , which may originate in the Bronze Age , although other sources date them from around 1400 . Dunster has the greatest concentration of Grade I listed buildings , including Dunster Castle , which was built in 1617 on a site which had supported a castle for the previous 600 years ; the Yarn Market , which was built in 1609 ; Gallox Bridge , which dates from the 15th century and the Priory Church of St George which is predominately from the 15th century but includes part of the earlier church on the same site . Other sites include manor houses such as the medieval buildings at Nettlecombe Court and Orchard Wyndham .
= Gertrude Barrows Bennett =
Gertrude Barrows Bennett ( 1883 – 1948 ) was the first major female writer of fantasy and science fiction in the United States , publishing her stories under the pseudonym Francis Stevens . Bennett wrote a number of highly acclaimed fantasies between 1917 and 1923 and has been called " the woman who invented dark fantasy " .
Her most famous books include Claimed ( which Augustus T. Swift , in a letter to The Argosy called " One of the strangest and most compelling science fantasy novels you will ever read " ) and the lost world novel The Citadel of Fear .
Bennett also wrote an early dystopian novel , The Heads of Cerberus ( 1919 ) .
= = Life = =
Gertrude Mabel Barrows was born in Minneapolis in 1883 . She completed school through the eighth grade , then attended night school in hopes of becoming an illustrator ( a goal she never achieved ) . Instead , she began working as a stenographer , a job she held on and off for the rest of her life .
In 1909 Barrows married Stewart Bennett , a British journalist and explorer , and moved to Philadelphia . A year later her husband died while on an expedition . With a new @-@ born daughter to raise , Bennett
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1 , ending 68 years outside the top flight .
They secured their top division status a year later to become founder members of the new Premier League , but were relegated after two seasons despite reaching that year 's FA Cup semi @-@ finals . They are currently playing in Football League One , the third tier of the English league . Darren Kelly was appointed as Manager in May 2015
Oldham Boro Football Club was established in 1964 as Oldham Dew FC , and after many years playing under the name of Oldham Town changed its name to Oldham Boro in 2009 , finally becoming known as Oldham Borough just months before it folded . The team played in the North West Counties Football League before going out of existence in 2015 , just over 50 years after it was founded .
Renamed in 1997 to Oldham Roughyeds , Oldham Rugby League Club has received several club honours during its history , winning the Rugby Football League Championship five times and Challenge Cup three times . They played at Watersheddings for years before joining Oldham Athletic at Boundary Park until 2010 when they moved to Oldham Borough 's previous ground , Whitebank Stadium . Oldham has league cricket teams with a number of semi @-@ professional league clubs including Oldham CC , and Werneth CC in the Central Lancashire League .
Oldham also has a Fencing Club , Marshall Fencing Club is a Competitive Fencing Club with most of its members competing on the national stage . They train three times a week at the old South Chadderton High School .
= = Education = =
Oldham produced someone who is considered to be one of the greatest benefactors of education for the nation , Hugh Oldham , who in 1504 was appointed as Bishop of Exeter , and later went on to found what is now Manchester Grammar School .
Almost every part of Oldham is served by a school of some kind , some with religious affiliations . According to the Office for Standards in Education , schools within the town perform at mixed levels . Hulme Grammar School and the Blue Coat School are consistently Oldham 's top performing secondary schools and each have sixth form colleges of further education .
University Campus Oldham is a centre for higher education and a sister campus of the University of Huddersfield . It was opened in May 2005 by actor Patrick Stewart , the centre 's Chancellor . The University Campus Oldham presented actress Shobna Gulati and artist , Brian Clarke ( both born in Oldham ) with an Honorary Doctorate of Letters at the Graduation Ceremony of November 2006 , for their achievements and contributions to Oldham and its community .
= = Public services = =
Home Office policing in Oldham is provided by the Greater Manchester Police . The force 's " ( Q ) Division " have their headquarters for policing the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham at central Oldham . Public transport is co @-@ ordinated by the Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive . Statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service , which has two stations in Oldham ; at Hollins on Hollins Road , and at Clarksfield on Lees Road .
The Royal Oldham Hospital , at Oldham 's northern boundary with Royton , is a large NHS hospital administrated by Pennine Acute Hospitals NHS Trust . It was opened under its existing name on 1 December 1989 . Formerly known as Oldham District and General , and occupying the site of the town 's former workhouse ( named Oldham Union Workhouse in 1851 ) , the hospital is notable for being the birthplace of Louise Joy Brown – the world 's first successful In vitro fertilised " test tube baby " , on 25 July 1978 . The North West Ambulance Service provides emergency patient transport . See also Healthcare in Greater Manchester .
Waste management is co @-@ ordinated by the local authority via the Greater Manchester Waste Disposal Authority . Locally produced inert waste for disposal is sent to landfill at the Beal Valley . Oldham 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is United Utilities ; there are no power stations in the town . United Utilities also manages Oldham 's drinking and waste water ; water supplies being sourced from several local reservoirs , including Dovestones and Chew . There is a water treatment works at Waterhead .
= = Culture = =
Oldham , though lacking in leisure and cultural amenities , is historically notable for its theatrical culture . Once having a peak of six " fine " theatres in 1908 , Oldham is home to the Oldham Coliseum Theatre and the Oldham Theatre Workshop , which have facilitated the early careers of notable actors and writers , including Eric Sykes , Bernard Cribbins and Anne Kirkbride , daughter of acclaimed cartoonist Jack Kirkbride who worked for the Oldham Evening Chronicle . Oldham Coliseum Theatre is one of Britain 's last remaining repertory theatres ; Charlie Chaplin and Stan Laurel performed there in the early 20th century , and contemporary actors such as Ralph Fiennes and Minnie Driver , among others , have appeared more recently .
During the 19th century the circus was a popular entertainment in Oldham ; Pablo Fanque 's circus was a regular visitor , filling a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ seat amphitheatre on Tommyfield in 1869 . Criticised for its lack of a cinema , there are plans to develop an " Oldham West End " . Oldham has a thriving bar and night club culture , attracting a significant number of young people into the town centre . Oldham 's " hard binge drinking culture " has been criticised however for conveying a negative regional image of the town .
= = = Communal facilities = = =
The Lyceum is a Grade II listed building opened in 1856 at a cost of £ 6 @,@ 500 as a " mutual improvement " centre for the working men of Oldham . The facilities provided to members included a library , a newsroom and a series of lectures on geology , geography and education , microscopy and chemistry , female education and botany . Instrumental music was introduced and there were soon sixteen violinists and three cellists . Eventually the building was extended to include a school of science and art . Music had always been important in the life of the Lyceum , and in 1892 a school of music was opened , with 39 students enrolled for the " theory and practice of music " .
The Lyceum continued throughout the 20th century as a centre for the arts in Oldham , and in 1986 the local authority was invited by its directors and trustees to accept the building as a gift . The acceptance of the Lyceum building by the Education Committee provided the opportunity to move the music centre and " further enhance the cultural activities of the town " . In 1989 the Oldham Metropolitan Borough Music Centre moved into the Lyceum building , which is now the home of the Oldham Lyceum School of Music .
Oldham ’ s museum and gallery service dates back to 1883 . Since then it has established itself as a cultural focus for Oldham and has developed one of the largest and most varied permanent collections in North West England . The current collection includes over 12 @,@ 000 social and industrial history items , more than 2 @,@ 000 works of art , about 1 @,@ 000 items of decorative art , more than 80 @,@ 000 natural history specimens , over 1 @,@ 000 geological specimens , about 3 @,@ 000 archaeological artefacts , 15 @,@ 000 photographs and a large number of books , pamphlets and documents .
Oldham is now home to a newly built state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art art gallery , Gallery Oldham , which was completed in February 2002 as the first phase of the Oldham Cultural Quarter . Later phases of the development saw the opening of an extended Oldham Library , a lifelong learning centre and there are plans to include a performing arts centre .
= = = Carnival = = =
The annual Oldham Carnival started around 1900 , although the tradition of carnivals in the town goes back much further , providing a " welcomed respite from the tedium of everyday life " . The carnival parade was always held in mid @-@ to @-@ late summer , with the primary aim of raising money for charities . It often featured local dignitaries or popular entertainers , in addition to brass , military and jazz bands , the Carnival Queen , people in fancy dress , dancers and decorated floats from local churches and businesses . Whenever possible , local people who had attained national celebrity status were invited to join the cavalcade . The carnival 's route began in the town centre , wound its way along King Street , and ended with a party in Alexandra Park .
The carnival fell out of favour in the late 1990s but was resurrected by community volunteers in 2006 and rebranded the Peoples ' Carnival . The parade was moved into Alexandra Park in 2011 . The event hosts live stages and other activities alongside a parade in the park . In 2016 will be 10 years since the carnival was reinstated by volunteers . The main organiser is Paul Davies who runs the carnival with a number of committee members and loads of volunteers
= = Britain in Bloom = =
In 2012 and 2014 Oldham was named as Culture Town in the annual " Britain in Bloom " competition as winners
= = Notable people = =
People from Oldham are called Oldhamers , though " Roughyed " is a nickname from the 18th century when rough felt was used in Oldham to make hats .
Edward Potts was a renowned architect who moved to Oldham from Bury . He was the architect for fourteen mills in the Oldham area .
Other notable persons with Oldham connections include the composer Sir William Walton , former British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill , and Louise Brown , the world 's first baby to be conceived by in vitro fertilisation .
Notable media personalities from Oldham include presenter Nick Grimshaw , actors Eric Sykes and Bernard Cribbins , TV host Phillip Schofield , actress Shobna Gulati , physicist and science educator Brian Cox , and comedy double act Tommy Cannon and Bobby Ball .
Notable musicians from Oldham include the Inspiral Carpets and Mark Owen of boyband Take That .
= 1981 European Cup Final =
The 1981 European Cup Final was an association football match between Liverpool of England and Real Madrid of Spain on 27 May 1981 at the Parc des Princes , Paris , France . It was the final match of the 1980 – 81 season of Europe 's premier cup competition , the European Cup . Liverpool were appearing in their third final , after two appearances in 1977 and 1978 . Real Madrid were appearing in their ninth final , they had previously won the competition six times and lost twice .
Each club needed to progress through four rounds to reach the final . Matches were contested over two legs , with a match at each team 's home ground . All but one of Liverpool 's ties were comfortable victories , they beat Bayern Munich on the away goals rule , while they won all their other ties by at least five goals . Real Madrid 's matches ranged from close affairs to comfortable victories . In the first round they beat Limerick 7 – 2 on aggregate , but their final two ties were won by at least two goals .
Watched by a crowd of 48 @,@ 360 , the first half was goalless . Liverpool took the lead in the second half when Alan Kennedy scored . They held this lead to win the match 1 – 0 , securing Liverpool 's third European Cup and a fifth consecutive victory by an English team . Liverpool manager Bob Paisley became the first manager to win the competition three times .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Liverpool = = =
Liverpool gained entry to the competition by winning the 1979 – 80 Football League , entering as English champions . Their opponents in the first round were Finnish champions Oulun Palloseura . The first leg in Finland at the Raatti Stadion was drawn 1 – 1 . The second leg at Liverpool 's home ground Anfield resulted in a comprehensive 10 – 0 victory for Liverpool . Two of their players , Graeme Souness and Terry McDermott , scored a hat @-@ trick . Liverpool won the tie 11 – 1 on aggregate .
In the second round Liverpool were drawn against Scottish champions Aberdeen , managed by Alex Ferguson . The first leg was at Aberdeen 's home ground , Pittodrie , a McDermott goal in the fifth minute ensured a 1 – 0 victory for Liverpool . The second leg at Anfield was won 4 – 0 by Liverpool , thus they won the tie 5 – 0 on aggregate . Liverpool 's opponents in the quarter @-@ finals were Bulgarian champions CSKA Sofia . The first leg was held in England , another hat @-@ trick from Souness and goals from McDermott and Sammy Lee gave Liverpool a 5 – 1 victory . They won the second leg at the Vasil Levski National Stadium 1 – 0 to progress to the semi @-@ finals courtesy of a 6 – 1 aggregate victory .
They faced German champions Bayern Munich in the semi @-@ finals . The first leg in England ended in a 0 – 0 draw . Liverpool needed to score in the second leg to advance to the final . Their cause was not helped when striker Kenny Dalglish had to be replaced in the early minutes of the match by the inexperienced Howard Gayle . However , Gayle rose to the occasion , unsettling the Bayern defence with his attacking threat . With seven minutes of normal time left , Ray Kennedy scored to give Liverpool a 1 – 0 lead . Bayern responded soon afterwards when Karl @-@ Heinz Rummenigge scored , however they needed to score another goal due to the away goals rule . They were unable to do so and Liverpool progressed to their third final in five seasons .
= = = Real Madrid = = =
Real Madrid gained entry to the competition as champions , after they won the 1979 – 80 La Liga . Their opponents in the first round were Irish champions Limerick . Limerick took the lead in the first leg at Lansdowne Road , but Real scored twice to win the first leg 2 – 1 . The second leg at Real 's home ground the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium , ended in a 5 – 1 victory for Real , they won the tie 7 – 2 on aggregate .
Their opponents in the second round were Hungarian champions Honvéd . A goal from Santillana ensured Real won the first leg 1 – 0 in Spain . Two goals from Laurie Cunningham and Francisco García Hernández secured a 2 – 0 victory in the second leg at Honvéd 's home ground the Bozsik Stadion , thus , winning the tie 3 – 0 on aggregate .
In the quarter @-@ finals Real faced Soviet champions Spartak Moscow . A 0 – 0 at the Dynamo Lenin Stadium in the Soviet Union left the tie finely balanced heading into the second leg in Spain . Two goals from Isidro in the second half secured a 2 – 0 victory in the match and over aggregate .
Real 's opponents in the semi @-@ finals were Italian champions Internazionale . Real won the first leg 2 – 0 in Spain after goals from Santillana and Juanito . Internazionale needed to score twice to force the tie into extra @-@ time , however they were only able to score once . They won the second leg 1 – 0 , but Real won the tie 2 – 1 on aggregate to progress to their ninth final .
= = Match = =
= = = Background = = =
Liverpool were appearing in their third European Cup Final . They had won their two previous appearances in 1977 and 1978 . Real Madrid were appearing in their ninth final , they had won the competition six times , including a record five successive victories from 1956 to 1960 . Their sixth victory was in 1966 , while their two losses were in 1962 and 1964 .
Liverpool had finished fifth during the 1980 – 81 Football League , thus they needed to win the final to ensure that they would compete in the European Cup the following season . Despite this , Liverpool had won the Football League Cup for the first time earlier in the season , defeating West Ham United 2 – 1 in a replay after the final finished 1 – 1 . Real Madrid had finished second in the 1980 – 81 La Liga , they had qualified for the UEFA Cup as a result , but victory would enable them to compete in the European Cup the following season .
Both sides had injury concerns before the match . Liverpool had doubts over a number of players . Kenny Dalglish had not trained for several weeks , while Alan Kennedy had been sidelined for six weeks with a broken wrist . Real had concerns over striker Laurie Cunningham who had been sidelined since November .
= = = Summary = = =
Liverpool controlled the opening passages of the game . Their first goalscoring chance came in the 11th minute when Alan Kennedy 's 30 yard shot was saved by Real goalkeeper Agustín Rodríguez . Further chances were created , but neither Terry McDermott or Dalglish were able to score . Real started to exert more of an influence after this , midfielder Juanito started to cause Liverpool problems with his passing . One pass found José Antonio Camacho who beat Liverpool defender Alan Hansen but put his shot wide of the Liverpool goal . Despite their scoring opportunity , one problem Real had was to get the best out of their winger Cunningham . Not fully fit , he was tightly marked and made little impact in the match .
Liverpool had a chance to take the lead before half @-@ time . Phil Neal advanced down the right hand side of the pitch and found Dalglish who passed to Graeme Souness , who ran late through the Real defence . His subsequent shot was not held by Agustín Rodríguez , but Souness was unable to get to the rebounded ball . Real had the first chance of the second half . Liverpool 's defence had stopped as they thought Cunningham was offside , however he was not and Camacho advanced towards Ray Clemence in the Liverpool goal . Clemence came off his line and ran towards the Real midfielder , Camacho attempted to lob the ball over the keeper , but his shot went over the goal .
The tactical approach of the two sides were cancelling each other out . Real 's slow pace interspersed with high speed bursts , while Liverpool preferred a more deliberate approach , keeping possession and making use of their wingers . Their various forms of marking also negated each other , Real man marked Liverpool 's best players such as Dalglish and Souness , while Liverpool were content for the nearest defender to mark the man on the ball .
Despite the tactical battle Liverpool were able to score in the 81st minute . A throw @-@ in from Ray Kennedy found Alan Kennedy , whose run up the left hand side of the pitch caught Real off @-@ guard . Kennedy went past Real defender Rafael García Cortés into the Real box , his subsequent shot beat the Real goalkeeper to give Liverpool the lead . Soon afterwards Liverpool replaced Dalglish with midfielder Jimmy Case in an attempt to see out the match . Although Liverpool had chances to extend their lead as Real went all out to score , Real keeper Agustín Rodríguez made a number of saves to keep his team in the game . The match remained 1 – 0 and Liverpool won their third European Cup , the first British club to do so . Liverpool 's victory meant that Bob Paisley became the first manager to win the European Cup three times .
= = = Details = = =
= Carre 's Grammar School =
Carre 's Grammar School is a selective secondary school for boys in Sleaford , a market town in Lincolnshire , England . Founded on 1 September 1604 by an indenture of Robert Carre , the school was funded by rents from farmland and run by a group of trustees . The indenture restricted the endowment to £ 20 without accounting for inflation , causing the school to decline during the 18th century and effectively close in 1816 . Revived by a decree from the Court of Chancery in 1830 , new buildings were constructed at its present site and the school re @-@ opened in 1835 . Faced with competition from cheaper commercial schools and declining rolls , Carre 's eventually added technical and artistic instruction to its Classical curriculum by affiliating with Kesteven County Council in 1895 . Following the Education Act 1944 , school fees were abolished and Carre 's became Voluntary Aided . New buildings were completed in 1966 to house the rising number of students . After plans for comprehensive education in Sleaford came to nothing in the 1970s and 1980s , Carre 's converted to grant @-@ maintained status in 1990 . Foundation status followed and the school became an Academy in 2011 ; a multi @-@ Academy trust with Kesteven and Sleaford High School was formed in 2015 .
Admission to Carre 's is through the eleven @-@ plus examination and entry is limited to boys in the lower school , although the Sixth Form is co @-@ educational . The total number of pupils on roll in 2013 was 817 , of which 240 were in the Sixth Form . Teaching follows the National Curriculum and pupils generally sit examinations for ten or eleven General Certificate of Secondary Education ( GCSE ) qualifications in Year Eleven ( aged 15 – 16 ) . They have a choice of three or four A @-@ levels in the sixth form , which is part of the Sleaford Joint Sixth Form consortium between Carre 's and St George 's Academy . Of the 2013 cohort , 100 % of pupils achieved at least five GCSEs at grade A * -C and 96 % achieved that including English and Maths GCSEs , the eighth highest percentage in Lincolnshire . An Office for Standards in Education , Children 's Services and Skills ( Ofsted ) inspection in 2013 graded Carre 's " good " overall with " outstanding " features .
= = History = =
= = = The first school = = =
Carre 's Grammar School was founded on 1 September 1604 by way of an indenture between Robert Carre , a member of the Carr or Carre family , and several local gentlemen . Carre granted 100 acres of agricultural land in Gedney to these men , who held the land in trust as feoffees . The lands were estimated to be worth £ 40 per annum and the indenture stipulated that £ 20 of this would be paid to the school master , while the remainder would be for the benefit of the town 's poor . The indenture stated that the school was to provide for " the better education of the Youth and Children born or inhabiting with their parents within New Sleaford , Old Sleaford , Aswarby , and Holdingham ... and in Quarrington , North Rauceby , South Rauceby , Anwick , Kirkby La Thorpe and Evedon . " It is not known whether there was any other school in the town prior to the foundation of Carre 's , although the indenture appointed Anthony Brown , already a schoolmaster , as the master ; it thus seems likely that Carre already operated a school and his indenture codified pre @-@ existing arrangements .
Throughout the 1620s the trustees reported problems receiving rents from the tenants in Gedney . Although the school received a bequest from a local gentleman , Robert Cammock , in 1631 , which provided an additional income of £ 4 per annum , no more followed ; the English Civil War also disrupted funding : rents were not collected between 1644 and 1646 . These financial problems were compounded by the nature of the land itself : it was agricultural and not urban , thus it did not increase in value significantly in the 17th century . Carre 's lagged behind other schools and its buildings fell into disrepair as the fixed endowment failed to keep up with inflation ( despite the Gedney lands increasing in value to £ 180 by the early 19th century ) . In 1783 , the foeffees ( by then , often called trustees ) spent £ 50 on improvements , but by 1794 , the adjacent Carre 's Hospital agreed that part of its building be pulled down to make way for a new schoolhouse . This did not materialise and pupils were taught in the vestry at St Denys ' Church by the early 19th century . In 1816 , the trustees discontinued the master 's salary because there were " no duties to perform " at the school .
= = = Revival , stagnation and modernisation = = =
The trustees met in 1821 and agreed that " much good " could come from reviving the school . In 1828 they petitioned the Court of Chancery for a scheme , which was approved in 1830 , providing the master with a salary of £ 80 per annum . Four years later , the Chancery agreed to fund the rebuilding of the school at a site on Northgate . With the buildings complete , the school reopened on 1 August 1835 .
Carre 's maintained roughly 20 pupils on roll throughout the 1840s , but by 1858 , this had fallen to two free scholars and two boarders . When the charity commissioners inspected the school the following year , they recommended that an usher be appointed to teach " commercial education " to supplement the Classics . In 1869 the Schools Enquiry Commission reported a " general dissatisfaction in the town " towards the school , finding " indifferent " discipline along with poor spelling , an inability to decline simple Latin nouns , and a low @-@ level of arithmetic . According to the report , the " general wish in the town is for a commercial school " . Competition soon arose in the form of Mr Boyer 's academy and later E. R. Dibben 's commercial school at Mount Pleasant , Sleaford . Although the trustees were reorganised in 1876 , Britain 's agriculture suffered from foreign competition in the 1880s , which contributed to a decline in the rolls ; a subsequent reduction of fees in 1889 proved ineffective and only twelve boys were in attendance the following year .
The Commissioner of Inquiries suggested that Kesteven County Council could support the teaching of art , modern languages and technical and scientific subjects through the Local Taxation Act 1890 . In 1895 the governors agreed to affiliate with the Council , which granted them £ 35 . The headmaster , Samuel Brown , appointed an assistant master and his wife was employed to teach art . The numbers rose so that in 1897 there were 33 pupils on roll , and the Committee granted a further £ 400 to pay for new accommodation and resources . The Governors , however , applied for £ 1 @,@ 500 to build a new school entirely but the Council wanted it to be coeducational , which caused a lengthy stalemate . The demand for a coeducational school disappeared in 1902 when Sleaford and Kesteven High School for Girls opened as a private venture and so in 1904 a new building opened at Carre 's , financed in part by the sale of the Gedney lands , while boarding accommodation followed in 1906 . Following the Education Act 1902 , Carre 's received an allocation of £ 200 per pupil from the Board of Education , plus local authority assistance made in return for admitting pupils from local elementary schools . From 1919 , elementary school pupils sat the entrance exam each term and those who passed were allocated the places which remained after fee @-@ paying students had enrolled .
= = = Post @-@ war expansion and the comprehensive debate = = =
The Education Act 1944 made secondary education available to all children up to the age of 15 and abolished fees for state @-@ schooling ; a ' tripartite system ' of secondary schools was established to provide curricula based on aptitude and ability : grammar schools for " academic " pupils , secondary moderns for practical studies , and technical schools for science and engineering . Pupils were allocated to them depending on their score in the eleven @-@ plus examination . Carre 's became a Voluntary Controlled Grammar School ; from 1945 all entry was by the County Selection Examination . By 1955 , the school had 330 pupils on roll and the need for new accommodation was met in the 1950s and 1960s by a major building programme at the Northgate site ; completed in 1966 , this added dedicated classroom blocks , a canteen and hall .
The educational opportunities for secondary modern pupils were limited compared to those at grammar schools , prompting criticism of the Tripartite system . In 1965 , the Labour Government issued Circular 10 / 65 requesting Local Education Authorities implement comprehensive schooling . In 1971 Sleaford parents voted in favour of comprehensive education , but rejected the Council 's proposals . A new plan which envisaged Carre 's becoming a sixth form college was supported by parents in a vote ( 1 @,@ 199 to 628 ) , albeit with a 50 % turnout ; the County Council approved it but allowed governors a veto . Following negotiations with governors at Carre 's , the scheme was revised so that Carre 's would be an 11 – 18 school and adsorb Sleaford Secondary Modern 's Church Lane site . Despite support from most staff and all three headteachers , Lincolnshire County Council voted to return the scheme for consultation in 1975 . A new system was proposed which retained all three schools , and when the Government ordered the Council to choose a comprehensive scheme in 1977 it submitted that proposal , which had become popular with parents . The next year the government dismissed it on grounds that the Sixth Forms would be too small , but the council voted against the two @-@ school system once more .
= = = Grant @-@ maintained status and Academy conversion = = =
The 1979 general election brought a Conservative government to power and allowed the Council to shift its focus towards retaining Grammar Schools where they still existed and improving schools where work had been put on hold during the comprehensive debate ; despite 90 % of English councils adopting comprehensive education , Lincolnshire had retained its grammar schools . Although the County Council began discussing the abolition of them again in 1985 , opposition from parents at a public consultation in 1987 resulted in the plans being dropped . With the question of its future resolved , Carre 's applied for grant @-@ maintained status in 1989 ; the Education Secretary approved the proposals and formally granted the status in September 1990 . When grant @-@ maintained status was abolished in 1999 , Carre 's became a Foundation School . Following a successful bid to the DfES , submitted in October 2002 , the school was granted specialist Sports College status in 2003 . An all @-@ weather pitch was laid out in 2007 , and a new technology building with a fitness suite opened in 2011 . In 2009 , Carre 's became a specialist Science College and a lead school for gifted and talented students . The school converted to Academy status in August 2011 . In 2014 , the governors announced their intention to bid for conversion to a multi @-@ Academy trust and become a coeducational , selective school on a new site ; in February 2015 , Kesteven and Sleaford High School announced its intention to join the proposed trust , a moved welcomed by Carre 's . Carre 's officially became part of the Robert Carre Multi @-@ Academy Trust on 1 September 2015 ; the schools continue to operate on their sites , sharing staff and facilities .
= = School structure = =
Carre 's is a state @-@ run selective grammar school . It converted to an Academy and reopened on 1 August 2011 ; it is governed by Carre 's Grammar School Academy Trust and converted without sponsorship . As of 2015 , the student body is made up of 815 pupils aged 11 – 18 . The school admits boys on a selective basis for years 7 – 11 and has a co @-@ educational Sixth Form ; there are 60 girls on roll as of 2015 . The majority of pupils come from White British backgrounds and very few pupils speak English as an additional language . The number of pupils supported through allowances , including those eligible for free school meals ( 2 @.@ 3 % ) , is below average , as is the number of students with learning disabilities . Pupils are allocated into houses based on their forms . The first house system at Carre 's consisted of four sets : scarlet , maroon , green and blue . They became houses in 1933 as Carre , Bristol , Lafford and Welby , named respectively after its founder , the Earls of Bristol , an old name for Sleaford , and Richard Welby , who owned the Gedney lands purchased by Carre .
Admission to the school is through the eleven @-@ plus examination , taken in year 6 . Pupils must obtain a minimum score before their application will be considered and places will be awarded based on whether the child is in public care , whether he lives in the catchment area and attends a partnered primary school , and whether they have siblings attending the school or parents working there . In the event of a tie , places will be allocated based on proximity to the school . The school has a maximum annual intake of 116 at the start of year 7 ( aged 11 ) ; pupils are arranged into forms of no more than 30 , where registration takes place . Their form tutors provide access to pastoral support , overseen by their Key Stage Manager . In 2013 the lower school had approximately 577 pupils on roll . The school uniform consists of a black blazer with the school badge embroidered on the breast pocket and a red braid on each pocket . Charcoal or black trousers are worn along with a white shirt and school tie .
The vast majority of pupils at Carre 's continue on to the Sixth Form , and there were 240 students on roll in 2013 . Along with St George 's Academy , Carre 's is part of the Sleaford Joint Sixth Form , which was founded in 1983 and included Kesteven and Sleaford High School until it withdrew in 2010 . It provides a common timetable across both sites and allows for pupils to choose from A @-@ Level options offered at both schools . Pupils may apply to be based at either school , where their pastoral and tutorial activities take place . There are entry requirements based on GCSE attainment . Sixth Formers can be selected to be prefects , who have responsibilities around the school under the supervision of staff ; they are headed by a Head Boy and Girl . The students are required to wear business @-@ dress ; for males , this consists of a dark suit , a " non @-@ vivid " shirt and the school 's sixth form tie ; females must dress in " smart business wear " .
= = Curriculum = =
The curriculum during the 17th and 18th centuries is not known for certain . In 1714 the trustees agreed that the pupils should attend church services at St Denys ' Church six days a week ; whether this was adhered to is not clear . Religious practice was a stipulation in the 1835 decree , which required pupils to pray at the start and end of each day and engage in daily readings of holy scriptures . However , the emphasis was always on classical education , which likely required instruction in Latin from the earliest times ; in 1835 , learning the classics was enshrined as the school 's primary purpose . In the mid @-@ 19th century , Carre 's offered this classical education for free , but arithmetic , geometry and algebra were taught as extras at a rate of two guineas per term . Students were enrolled from the age of eight , and were expected to be able to read , write , recite the Lord 's Prayer , the Apostles ' Creed and the Ten Commandments , and " be qualified to begin Latin grammar " . Students had to supply their own equipment , except pens and ink , which were covered by a 10 shilling payment made each term to the school . The school 's inspection in 1865 mentions geography and history teaching , although the general standard of attainment was low .
In 1876 , the curriculum was widened so that it comprised reading , writing , arithmetic , English , mathematics , history , geography , Latin , a foreign language , music , natural science and drawing , with Greek as an optional extra . The County Council supported technical and commercial subjects in the late 19th century , but after 1904 it was empowered to support secondary education in general , allowing Latin and other classical components of the curriculum to remain intact . After World War I , sixth form courses were developed allowing students to commence advanced studies in the arts and sciences . By the 1950s , a wide range were available : English language and literature , mathematics , French , German , Latin , Greek , art , history , geography , physics , chemistry and woodwork ; biology was taught at Kesteven and Sleaford High School .
= = = Key Stages 3 and 4 = = =
As of 2014 , the school follows the National Curriculum in years 7 – 11 and offers a range of GCSEs ( national exams taken by students aged 14 – 16 ) and A @-@ levels ( national exams taken by pupils aged 16 – 18 ) .
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s Supporters ' Trust to take over the running of the club , and manager Gary Bellamy was sacked after just six months in the job . Former Everton goalkeeper Neville Southall took over but was dismissed just three months later , with Clive Walker taking over in March 2002 with the club rooted to the foot of the table . The club finished the season bottom of the Conference and was relegated back to the Southern League Premier Division . The club 's ongoing financial problems led to it entering a Company Voluntary Arrangement ( CVA ) , a process by which insolvent companies offset their debts against future profits , due to debts that were now estimated at £ 400 @,@ 000 .
In Dover 's first season back in the Southern League Premier Division the Whites finished in third place , albeit 17 points adrift of Tamworth , who claimed the one promotion place available that season . A poor start to the following season saw Walker replaced by Richard Langley . Dover finished the season in 19th place , before being switched to the Isthmian League Premier Division in the summer of 2004 following a re @-@ organisation of the English football league system . The new season started with six successive defeats , which saw Langley sacked , and the financial problems continued , with the club coming within two months of being closed down . Dover were relegated to the Isthmian League Division One at the end of the season , but were saved from possible extinction in January 2005 when former director Jim Parmenter returned to head up a consortium that took over the club . Parmenter quickly sacked manager Steve Browne and convinced Clive Walker to return to the club to replace him , and also arranged for the club 's outstanding CVA debts to be cleared , putting the club on a firm financial footing for the first time in many years .
Dover Athletic narrowly missed out on an immediate return to the Premier Division in the 2005 – 06 season , reaching the play @-@ offs for promotion but losing out to Tonbridge Angels . The following season Dover again reached the play @-@ offs but lost in the semi @-@ final to Hastings United , after which Walker did not have his contract renewed and was replaced by former Gillingham manager Andy Hessenthaler . In his first season in charge he led the club to the Division One South championship and promotion to the Isthmian League Premier Division . The following season Dover won a second consecutive championship and thus gained promotion to Conference South . In the 2009 – 10 season , Dover reached the play @-@ offs for promotion to the Conference National , but lost at the semi @-@ final stage to Woking . The following season the club reached the third round of the FA Cup for the first time after wins over Kent rivals Gillingham in the first round and another League Two club , Aldershot Town , in the second round . In the 2012 – 13 season the club again reached the play @-@ offs , but this time lost in the final to Salisbury City . The following season the team reached the second round of the FA Cup , losing 1 – 0 to Milton Keynes Dons , The last 16 of the FA Trophy , narrowly losing 3 – 2 to Eastleigh and made the play @-@ offs once more . A 4 – 1 aggregate victory over Sutton United in the semi @-@ final set up a match with fellow Kent team Ebbsfleet United in the final . On 10 May 2014 , Dover beat Ebbsfleet 1 – 0 at Stonebridge Road with a goal from Nathan Elder enough to seal the club 's return to the top flight of non @-@ league football for the first time since 2002 . In the 2014 – 15 season Dover went on another FA Cup run , beating Morecambe 1 – 0 in the first round , then Cheltenham Town 1 – 0 in the second round to reach the third round proper for only the second time ever , but lost 4 – 0 at home to Premier League side Crystal Palace . The following season the team qualified for the play @-@ offs for promotion to League Two .
= = Colours and crest = =
Dover Athletic 's traditional colours are white and black , which were also the colours worn by the earlier Dover club . Away colours worn by the club have included red , yellow & green , pink and blue . The club 's crest contains a stylised representation of the town 's two most famous landmarks , Dover Castle and the white cliffs , enclosed in a circle bearing the club 's name . The club 's shirts have been sponsored by companies including Criccieth Homes , Paul Brown of Dover , Jenkins and Pain , cross @-@ channel ferry operators Hoverspeed and SeaFrance , local car dealership Perry 's and are now sponsored by produce suppliers Gomez , the company owned by Dover Athletic chairman Jim Parmenter .
= = Stadium = =
Dover Athletic 's home ground since the club 's foundation has been the Crabble Athletic Ground , which was also the home of the former Dover club . The word Crabble , which is also found in the name of a local corn mill , may derive from the Old English crabba hol , meaning a hole in which crabs are found . The stadium , commonly known simply as " Crabble " or , imprecisely , as " The Crabble " , forms part of a larger council @-@ owned complex , and the earlier Dover club originally shared the lower pitch with a rugby club , but moved to the upper pitch in the 1950s , adding a grandstand in 1951 , followed soon after by terracing and floodlights .
Dover Athletic continued to make improvements to the ground , although not in time to allow the club to take its place in the Football Conference in 1990 . Subsequently new turnstiles were installed and two new terraces and a second grandstand added . These improvements meant that the club was able to gain promotion after its second Southern League title in 1993 . The stadium 's modern capacity is 5 @,@ 745 with 1 @,@ 010 seats and 3 @,@ 642 spectators under cover .
In 2007 the club announced that under the new sponsorship deal with SeaFrance the stadium would be known officially as the SeaFrance Crabble Stadium , but a year later it was announced that the deal would not be renewed due to the ferry operator 's financial constraints . On 1 July 2008 local car dealership Perry 's was announced as the club 's new main sponsor and the stadium rebranded as the Perry 's Crabble Stadium , an arrangement which lasted until 2012 . Between 2003 and 2004 it was known as the Hoverspeed Stadium under the terms of another such agreement . Margate played their home matches at Crabble for two seasons from 2002 until 2004 , while their own Hartsdown Park ground was being redeveloped .
= = Supporters = =
In the club 's early days Athletic struggled to attract crowds of over 150 , but by the time the club reached the Conference , crowds at Crabble were averaging around 1 @,@ 000 . After the club 's relegation to the Isthmian League Division One South , the average attendance fell to just over 800 , but when the club returned to the Premier Division for the 2008 – 09 season , the average attendance at Crabble was 1 @,@ 293 , the highest in the division . The highest home attendance in the club 's history was 5 @,@ 645 for the match against Crystal Palace in the third round of the FA Cup on 4 January 2015 . Although Athletic 's improved monetary position means that the Supporters ' Trust is no longer required to financially support the club , it remains active as a fundraising organisation .
= = Statistics and records = =
Dover Athletic 's highest finish in the English football league system was in the 1999 – 2000 season , in which the team finished in sixth place in the Football Conference , the highest level of non @-@ league football and the fifth level overall . The Whites have made 13 appearances in the final qualifying round of the FA Cup , but have only progressed to the first round proper three times . In the 2010 – 11 season , Dover reached the third round for the first time , defeating Football League Two teams Gillingham and Aldershot Town in the first two rounds before losing to Huddersfield Town of Football League One . In the 1997 – 98 season the Whites reached the semi @-@ finals of the FA Trophy but missed out on an appearance at Wembley , losing to Cheltenham Town . The largest number of points the team has accrued is 102 in the 1989 – 90 season , and the highest total number of goals scored in a season is 89 , scored in 40 matches in the 1985 – 86 season . The team 's biggest ever win was an 8 – 0 defeat of East Preston in September 2009 , and the heaviest defeat was a 7 – 1 loss to Poole Town in April 1984 .
The holder of the record for most appearances for Dover Athletic is Jason Bartlett , who played in 539 matches , and the all @-@ time top goalscorer is Lennie Lee , with 160 goals . The club 's record signing is Dave Leworthy , who joined the club from Farnborough Town in 1993 for £ 50 @,@ 000 , which at the time was the highest transfer fee ever paid between non @-@ league clubs . The highest confirmed fee received by the club was also £ 50 @,@ 000 , paid by Brentford in 1997 for Ricky Reina .
= = Players = =
As of 16th July 2016
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Former players = = =
For a list of former Dover Athletic players with Wikipedia articles , see Category : Dover Athletic F.C. players .
= = Managers = =
Dover Athletic have had 17 permanent managers ( excluding caretaker managers ) in the club 's 25 @-@ year history , with Chris Kinnear 's 10 @-@ year stint being the longest . The shortest stay was Ian Hendon who was announced as manager on 28 May 2010 and resigned only 18 days later to join Andy Hessenthaler at Gillingham .
= = Honours = =
Southern League
Premier Division champions 1989 – 90 , 1992 – 93
Southern Division champions 1987 – 88
Isthmian League
Premier Division champions 2008 – 09
Division One South champions 2007 – 08
Kent Senior Cup
Winners 1990 – 91
Conference South
Play @-@ off winners 2013 – 14
= = Rivalries = =
Dover Athletic 's main rivalry is with nearby Folkestone Invicta . A meeting between the two teams in 2004 was watched by a crowd of 2 @,@ 278 , a record attendance for a league match at Invicta 's ground . The club also has a rivalry with Margate . In the 2001 – 02 season , when both teams were in the Football Conference , the two games between Margate and Dover were watched by a combined total of more than 6 @,@ 000 spectators . The game played at Margate 's Hartsdown Park stadium drew a crowd of 3 @,@ 676 , and 2 @,@ 325 were in attendance for the game at Dover .
= Plum cake =
Plum cake refers to a wide range of cakes made with either dried fruit ( such as grapes , currants , raisins or prunes ) or with fresh fruit . There is a wide range of popular plum cakes and puddings . Since the meaning of the word " plum " has changed over time , many items referred to as plum cakes and popular in England since at least the eighteenth century have now become known as fruitcake . The English variety of plum cake also exists on the European mainland , but may vary in ingredients and consistency . Settlers in British colonies brought the dried fruit variety of cake with them , so that for example , in India it was served around the time of the Christmas holiday season and in the American colonies , where it became associated with elections , one version came to be called " election cake " .
Plum cakes made with fresh plums came with other migrants from other traditions in which plum cake is prepared using plum as a primary ingredient . In some versions , the plums may become jam @-@ like inside the cake after cooking , or be prepared using plum jam . Plum cake prepared with plums is also a part of Ashkenazi Jewish cuisine , and is referred to as Pflaumenkuchen or Zwetschgenkuchen . Other plum @-@ based cakes are found in French , Italian and Polish cooking .
= = Terms = =
The term " plum cake " and " fruit cake " have become interchangeable . Since dried fruit is used as a sweetening agent and any dried fruit used to be described as " plums " , many plum cakes and plum puddings do not contain the plum fruit now known by that name . ( Plum pudding is a similar , richer dish prepared with similar ingredients , cooked by steaming the mixture rather than baking it . ) The term " plum " originally referred to prunes , raisins or grapes . Thus the so @-@ called plums from which English plum puddings are made " were always raisins , not the plump juicy fruits that the name suggests today . "
In Old English , the term plūme was " from medieval Latin pruna , from Latin prunum , " which equated to " prune " . Prune in modern French means plum , so plum tarts have names such as tarte aux prunes . In English , prunes are dried plums , and when modern cakes use them as a primary ingredient , they may be referred to as a plum cake or type of plum cake .
= = By region = =
= = = Britain = = =
Plum cake has historically referred to an early type and style of fruitcake in England since around 1700 . Raisins and currants were used , which in the English language were referred to as plums since around 1660 . The various types of dried fruit ( grapes , currants and raisins ) were familiar to English kitchens through trade with The Levant and Mediterranean but before they became available through " trouble @-@ free " imports from Australia , South Africa and California , preparing them required " an immense amount of labour ... on account of the rough and ready methods by which the fruit was picked , dried , packed and exported " .
In 1881 Colonel Henry @-@ Herbert said that " a good English plum cake ... is a national institution " . At times , Thomas Carlyle was one among many who ate a light style of plum cake with tea , into which he would dip the cake , which he described as bun @-@ like with currants " dotted here and there " . Elizabeth David wrote that " Christmas mincemeat and Christmas plum pudding and cake are all such typical examples of the English fondness for spiced fruit mixtures that it seems almost unnecessary to include recipes for them ... "
Plum cakes were raised by whipping air into the cake batter , rather than by the use of yeast . A range of plum cakes and puddings were published in the popular Book of Household Management ( published 1859 @-@ 1861 ) by Isabella Beeton . Mrs Beeton included recipes for " A Common Plum Cake " and " A Nice Plum Cake " as well as " Baked Plum @-@ Pudding " , " An Unrivalled Plum @-@ Pudding " , " A Plain Christmas Pudding for Children " , " Plum @-@ Pudding of Fresh Fruit " , " Plum Tart " , " Christmas Plum @-@ Pudding " , " A Pound Plum Pudding " and " Christmas Cake " . The comment in an Indian Household Management book is indicative both of the reach of Mrs Beeton 's book as well as the range of interpretations of plum cake and plum pudding . The author says , " Mrs Beeton ’ s recipe is by far the best if modified a little : 12 units of manukka raisins ... "
Up to World War I , cakes , including plum cakes , were baked along with loaves of bread . " A smaller cake or pasty might be slipped in or pulled out after the baking had begun , but a raised pie with well @-@ protected sides , or a large plum cake , would take at least the same time as the loaves , and experienced housewives made them in sizes to do so . "
= = = Europe = = =
The English variety of plum cake also exists on the European mainland , although " plum cake " there more usually refers to baked cakes made with fresh , rather than dried fruit .
In French cooking , plums are an ingredients in a significant tradition of cake making : " ... throughout the districts of the Loire , the Dordogne , the Lot and the Périgord , there [ was ] hardly a celebration , a wedding feast or celebration at which the dessert [ did ] not include some sort of plum or mirabelle tart , made with fresh or dried plums or jam according to the season . " The Mirabelle plum is a specific cultivar used to make Tarte aux mirabelles ( plum tart ) . A Galette aux fruits is a type of galette made with yeast dough and covered with previously cooked fruit in season , such as plums ( or quinces , apples , apricots ) . The fruit in these open tarts or flans is cut into suitably sized pieces and the cake is glazed : red glaze is recommended for red plum and rhubarb flans , whereas apricot glaze is recommended in yellow plum and apricot flans .
The German plum cake , known as Zwetschkenkuchen , can be found all over the country , although its home is Bavaria . In chef Robert Carrier 's recipe for it , the base is made from yeast pastry rather than often used shortcrust pastry , because the yeast pastry " soaks up the juice form the plums without becoming soggy " .
In Italy , plum cake is known by the English name , baked in an oven using dried fruit and often yoghurt .
The Polish version of plum cake , which also uses fresh fruit , is known as Placek z Sliwkami .
= = = India = = =
In India plum cake has been served around the time of the Christmas holiday season , and may have additional ingredients such as rum or brandy added .
= = = United States = = =
Plum cake in the United States originated with the English settlers and was prepared in the English style in sizes ranging from small , such as for parties in celebration of Twelfth Night and Christmas , to large , such as for weddings . This original fruitcake version of plum cake in the United States has been referred to as a reigning " standard American celebration cake through the time of the civil war " .
During colonial times , one version of plum cake was called " election cake " , and was prepared with currants , raisins , molasses and spices , with the addition of brandy in the recipe occurring later . Election cakes were typically leavened with yeast . In New England , large election cakes weighing around 12 pounds ( 5 @.@ 4 kg ) would traditionally be served while people waited for election results . It has been stated that the first published election cake recipe appeared in 1796 in American Cookery .
Plum cake recipes in the fruitcake style appeared in early cookbooks in the Southern United States , and did not actually call for plums . After 1830 plum cake was often referred to as fruit cake or black cake . In 1885 , in a description of plum cake that sounds like plum pudding , it was described as " mucilaginous " - a solid , dark @-@ colored , thick cake with copious amounts of plums , gritty notes from raisins .
= Kedok Ketawa =
Kedok Ketawa ( [ kəˈdɔʔ kəˈtawa ] ; Indonesian for The Laughing Mask , also known by the Dutch title Het Lachende Masker ) is a 1940 action film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) . Union Films ' first production , it was directed by Jo An Djan . Starring Basoeki Resobowo , Fatimah , and Oedjang , the film follows a young couple who fight off criminals with the help of a masked man .
Advertised as an " Indonesian cocktail of violent actions ... and sweet romance " , Kedok Ketawa received positive reviews , particularly for its cinematography . Following the success of the film , Union produced another six works before being shut down in early 1942 during the Japanese occupation . The film , screened until at least August 1944 , may be lost .
= = Plot = =
In Cibodas , Banten , a young woman named Minarsih ( Fatimah ) is rescued from four thugs by the painter Basuki ( Basoeki Resobowo ) . They fall in love and begin planning their life together . However , a rich man interested in taking Minarsih to be his wife sends a gang to kidnap her . Basuki is unable to repel them , but is soon joined by a masked vigilante known only as the " The Laughing Mask " ( Oedjang ) , who has almost supernatural fighting abilities . After two battles with the gang , Basuki and The Laughing Mask are victorious . Basuki and Minarsih can live together in peace .
= = Production = =
Kedok Ketawa was the first film produced by Union Films , one of four new production houses established after the success of Albert Balink 's Terang Boelan revived the ailing film industry of the Dutch East Indies . Union was headquartered in Prinsenlaan , Batavia ( now Mangga Besar , Jakarta ) and funded by the ethnic Chinese businessman Ang Hock Liem , although Tjoa Ma Tjoen was in charge of day @-@ to @-@ day operations . The film was shot on @-@ location in Cibodas , and featured fighting , comedy , and singing .
The film was directed by Jo An Djan and starred Oedjang , Fatimah , and Basoeki Resobowo . Other members of the cast included S Poniman and Eddy Kock . Oedjang had been a stage actor before appearing in the film , while Fatimah and Basoeki were nobles with a formal education . The Indonesian film historian Misbach Yusa Biran writes that this is evidence the film was targeted at intellectual audiences , a manifestation of Union 's stated goal of " improv [ ing ] the quality of Indonesian art " .
Following the success of Terang Boelan ( 1937 ; based on The Jungle Princess ) , the domestic film industry began to model their productions after Hollywood works , as this was expected to ensure financial success . The Indonesian film scholars Ekky Imanjaya and Said Salim write that Kedok Ketawa was influenced by Bram Stoker 's 1897 novel Dracula through its Hollywood adaptations . Neither writer gives comparisons to illustrate this influence .
Kedok Ketawa was not the first contemporary film featuring a masked hero . Tan 's Film had released Gagak Item ( The Black Crow ) , with Rd Mochtar as the masked Black Crow , in 1939 , and later productions , including Java Industrial Film 's Srigala Item ( The Black Wolf ; 1941 ) , continued the trend . As was common for contemporary productions , the soundtrack for Kedok Ketawa – performed by Poniman – consisted of kroncong songs .
= = Release and reception = =
Kedok Ketawa was released in Batavia in July 1940 , with a press screening on 20 July . By September it was being shown in Surabaya . In some newspaper advertisements , such as in Pemandangan , it was referred to as Pendekar dari Preanger ( Warrior from Preanger ) , while in others it was advertised with the Dutch title Het Lachende Masker . It was marketed as an " Indonesian cocktail of violent actions ... and sweet romance " and rated for all ages .
The critic and screenwriter Saeroen , writing for Pemandangan , praised Kedok Ketawa , especially its cinematography and the beauty of its scenery ; he compared the film to imported Hollywood films . An anonymous review in Bataviaasch Nieuwsblad found that the film was a mix of native and European sensibilities and lauded its cinematography . According to the review , the film surpassed expectations , but it was evident that this was a first production . Another review , in Soerabaijasch Handelsblad , considered the film among the best local productions , emphasising the quality of its cinematography and acting .
= = Legacy = =
Soon after the success of Kedok Ketawa , Saeroen joined Union Films and wrote four films for the company . These were not directed by Jo An Djan , who left Union for the competitor Populair 's Film , but by the newly hired R Hu and Rd Ariffien . Union Film ultimately produced a total of seven films in 1940 and 1941 before being closed following the Japanese invasion in early 1942 . Of the film 's main cast , only Fatimah and Oedjang are recorded as continuing their acting career , both appearing in several further Union productions . However , in the 1950s Resobowo continued his career behind the screen , serving as art director of such films as Darah dan Doa ( The Long March ; 1950 ) .
Kedok Ketawa was screened as late as August 1944 , but may now be lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . While the American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider suggests that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost , J.B. Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and Biran writes that some Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= My Boo ( Usher and Alicia Keys song ) =
" My Boo " is a duet between American R & B singers Usher and Alicia Keys , written by Usher , Keys , Jermaine Dupri , Adonis Shropshire , and Manuel Seal , Jr .. The song was released as the album 's fourth single in 2004 . Set over a hip hop @-@ style track , it was produced by Dupri and No I.D. It was included on the re @-@ release of Usher 's fourth studio album , Confessions ( 2004 ) .
The song received positive reviews from critics , and has garnered awards . The single stayed on top of the Billboard Hot 100 for six weeks , making it the third most @-@ successful single from the album after " Yeah ! " and " Burn " , respectively . It was also ranked as the 36th biggest song of the 2000 – 2009 decade in the US .
= = Background = =
Usher and Alicia Keys had previously collaborated with the remix of Keys ' 2004 single " If I Ain 't Got You " , which was released in the United Kingdom . During the production of Usher 's fourth studio album , Confessions , they thought of various female singers to pair him with on the song . Usher and Kortney Kaycee Leveringston 's rare demo version can be found floating on the Internet . Although it was and still is widely believed that it was Beyoncé . However , Jermaine Dupri , who co @-@ wrote the song including Usher 's number @-@ one hits " Yeah ! " , " Burn " , and " Confessions Part II " , felt that he had established good relationship with Keys since she had worked with him and Usher .
The song is written from the perspectives of Keys and Usher , who play the role of an ex @-@ couple . For him , Usher and Keys " talk about how they used to be in love and how those feelings are still lingering despite the two not being involved anymore . " For Keys , " The song is talking about the first person you ever really had feelings for . Even though you move on and meet new people , you always remember that first person . "
= = Release = =
" My Boo " was among the songs that were not included in the final track listing of Confessions , including " Red Light " and songs recorded Usher recorded with P. Diddy and The Neptunes . " My Boo " and " Red Light " were leaked to the internet , along with other records that were not included during the first release . The song was included in the expanded version of Confessions , alongside " Red Light " and " Sweet Lies " which were only released in the UK version of the album . Dupri thought of releasing " My Boo " as the fourth single from Confessions once " Confessions Part II " would be leaving the charts . LaFace Records sent " My Boo " to US contemporary hit radio on August 29 , 2004 and to US urban contemporary radio on August 30 , 2004 . The single was released in the United States as a 12 " single on September 21 , 2004 . It was a double A @-@ side with " Confessions Part II " when it was released in the United Kingdom on December 28 , 2004 . " My Boo " was re @-@ released in the United Kingdom on January 18 , 2005 .
= = Composition and reception = =
" My Boo " is a hip hop @-@ tinged R & B song with a mid @-@ tempo melody . It is composed in the key of D minor , in common time . The lyrics are constructed in verse @-@ chorus @-@ chorus form . Usher starts the intro , and Keys followed her rap @-@ intro , with background vocals from Usher . He proceeds to the first verse and chorus , leading to Keys singing another chorus , altering some of the lyrics of the original chorus to create a dialogue . Keys sings the second verse and Usher for the chorus , with background vocals from Keys . Keys repeats her version for the chorus . The song breaks with Usher and Keys singing " My oh , My oh , My oh , My oh , My Boo " , one after the other . Usher repeats the chorus again , and they sing the intro of Keys .
The song received mixed reviews from critics . Azeem Ahmad of OMH Media proposed to ban " My Boo " because he felt that the collaboration was a competition among Usher and Alicia Keys " over the hip @-@ pop like beat " . Jon Caramanica of Rolling Stone found the duet sentimental . At the 2005 Grammy Awards , it was nominated for Best R & B Song and Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals ; to which it won the latter and the former was awarded to Alicia Keys ' song , " You Don 't Know My Name " . Usher and Keys won for Best R & B / Soul Single by a Duo or Group during the 2005 Soul Train Music Awards . In 2011 , Billboard ranked the song seventh on a special The 40 Biggest Duets of All Time listing .
= = Chart performance = =
" My Boo " was successful in the United States , living up to the chart performances of " Yeah ! " , " Burn " and " Confessions Part II " . The single debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 twenty @-@ nine , the highest U.S. entry among all singles released from the album . It entered the top ten , two weeks after , and peaked at number one during its eighth @-@ week stay on the chart . The single remained on the top for six weeks , beating its predecessor " Confessions Part II " , which charted at number one for two weeks . However , it failed to match the success of " Yeah ! " and " Burn " for twelve- and eight @-@ week run on the top , respectively . It stayed on the top ten for nineteen weeks , leaving the chart after twenty @-@ six weeks . The single was successful on Billboard component charts , topping the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and Hot Ringtones . In Europe , the single had divided responses . The single reached the top five in United Kingdom , Germany , the Netherlands , Norway and Switzerland . It entered the top twenty in France , Finland and Switzerland , and top thirty in Austria .
= = Music video = =
Directed by both Usher and music video director Chris Robinson , " My Boo " clip was filmed in New York City . The storyline of the video is a reflection of the song 's lyrics . The footage starts with Usher in a living room watching a video for " Bad Girl " , a song from Confessions . The " Bad Girl " intro features Usher singing the song in a club setting while admiring a scantily @-@ dressed woman . He turns the set off and slumps down on the sofa before laying on it with his foot propped up . After a moment of silent , nostalgic reflection , he begins to sing the intro of " My Boo " . The video then shows him and Alicia Keys in their separate quarters , preparing to head out , while singing their part of the song . Usher eventually steps out on streets of New York ; likewise , Keys is out in her car . She leaves the car and walks down the street , and the couple meet up in the middle of Times Square , cuddling each other and on the brink of kissing . The music video debuted on MTV 's Total Request Live at number nine on September 16 , 2004 . It remained on the countdown for twenty @-@ seven days , becoming the only Confession video to chart .
Usher recorded " My Boo " aside from Keys with various female artists . He collaborated with fellow R & B singer Brandy Norwood and Usher recorded their own version as well , which appeared on her fourth album Afrodisiac . Brandy changed some of the lyrics , singing like having a conversation . However , neither of the two was included in the album . A remix of " My Boo " was also produced , featuring guest vocals from Nelly ; however , Keys ' part was omitted .
= = Track listing = =
UK CD 1
" Confessions Part II "
" My Boo " ( Duet with Alicia Keys )
UK CD 2
" Confessions Part II "
" My Boo " ( Duet with Alicia Keys )
" Confessions Part II " ( Remix ) ( featuring Shyne , Kanye West & Twista )
" Confessions Part II " ( Music Video )
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Rio de Janeiro bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics =
The Rio de Janeiro bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics was a successful bid to host the Games of the XXXI Olympiad and the XV Paralympic Games , respectively . It was submitted on September 7 , 2007 , and recognized as an Applicant city by the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) one week after . On June 4 , 2008 , the IOC Executive Board shortlisted Rio de Janeiro with three of the six other Applicant cities — Chicago , Madrid and Tokyo ; over Baku , Doha and Prague — becoming a Candidate city during the 2008 SportAccord Convention in Athens , Greece .
Rio de Janeiro was shortlisted receiving a 6 @.@ 4 score , according to a study of its Application File delivered to the IOC Working Group on January 14 , 2008 . As a Candidate city , Rio de Janeiro submitted its Candidature File to the IOC on February 11 , 2009 . The dossier was analyzed by the IOC Evaluation Commission , which arrived in the city on April 27 , 2009 , to assess the quality of the bid . Between April 29 and May 2 , the Commission attended technical presentations and made inspections in all the existing venues across the city , giving a favorable assessment in its final report .
The Brazilian Olympic Committee ( COB ) chose Rio de Janeiro as its bidding city to host the 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics , during its Annual Assembly on September 1 , 2006 . This was the city 's first bid that proceeded to the Candidature phase , after three failed attempts to host the Games in 1936 , 2004 and 2012 . The lengthy and intensive bidding process was concluded with the election of Rio de Janeiro as the host city during the 121st IOC Session , held in Copenhagen , Denmark , on October 2 , 2009 . It will be the first city in South America to host the Games .
Rio de Janeiro planned to organize the Games at a cost of USD 14 @.@ 4 billion , being able to hold all sport events ( excepting football ) inside the city . There will be 30 competition venues in four Olympic zones — Barra , Copacabana , Deodoro , and Maracanã — apart from venues for golf and rugby union , which were added to the Olympic program after the election . Football matches will be held in the cities of Belo Horizonte , Brasília , Salvador and São Paulo . The proposed dates range from August 5 to 21 for the Olympic Games , and September 7 to 18 for the Paralympic Games .
= = Bid process = =
Rio de Janeiro 's bidding process began on July 28 , 2006 , when the Executive Council of the Brazilian Olympic Committee ( COB in the Portuguese acronym ) met to consider the possibility of nominating a Brazilian city to host the 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics . This meeting was prompted by the fact that several cities in the world demonstrated interest around the election , some having already announced their bidding intention . Then a technical analysis was commissioned by COB to evaluate the conditions of the city , unveiled on August 25 , 2006 . A week later , on September 1 , 2006 , the COB 's Annual Assembly decided by acclamation that Rio de Janeiro would be the Brazilian representative seeking to host the Olympic and Paralympic Games in 2016 . The Assembly felt it was the only city in Brazil and South America which would possess Olympic @-@ level facilities ready for an Olympic and Paralympic bid , a legacy of its upcoming hosting of the XV Pan American Games in 2007 , later considered to be the best in history . Another positive aspect was that Rio de Janeiro could host all Olympic sports within the city limits , although the Olympic football tournament is hosted by multiple cities . The Brazilian government immediately expressed its support to the bid . Carlos Arthur Nuzman , president of COB , and César Maia , then Mayor of Rio de Janeiro , approved the decision , thus making the bid official .
The International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) officially launched the bid process for the 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics on May 16 , 2007 . All then 203 National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) were invited to submit the name of a city within their jurisdiction until September 13 , 2007 . On September 14 , the IOC recognized seven cities — Baku , Chicago , Doha , Madrid , Prague , Rio de Janeiro and Tokyo — which had been put forward by their respective NOCs to bid . On October 1 , 2007 , the Rio de Janeiro bid committee paid the required fee of USD 150 @,@ 000 to the IOC and signed the Candidature Acceptance Procedure . Soon after , from October 15 to 19 , Rio officials attended the 2016 Applicant cities ' Seminar organized by the IOC at the Olympic Museum in Lausanne , Switzerland , where they learnt more about technical areas that would be analyzed throughout the application process . On January 14 , 2008 , the seven Applicant cities returned documents , known as the Application Files , containing the answers and guarantees requested by the 2016 Candidature Acceptance Procedure , which provided to the IOC an overview of each city 's project . The responses were studied by the IOC Working Group for months and served as the basis to the shortlist of Chicago , Tokyo , Rio de Janeiro and Madrid on June 4 , 2008 , becoming Candidate cities during a meeting of the IOC Executive Board at the 2008 SportAccord Convention in Athens , Greece .
Rio de Janeiro bid to host the 1936 , 2004 and the 2012 Games , but failed on every occasion ; missing the shortlist in the two latest attempts , while the bidding process for 1936 did not follow the current standards . For the first time in the Candidature phase , the official bid flag was raised during a ceremony held at the Palácio da Cidade ( English : City 's Palace ) on June 23 , 2008 , celebrating the Olympic Day . On July 3 , 2008 , the Rio de Janeiro bid committee paid a fee of USD 500 @,@ 000 to the IOC and signed the Candidature Procedure , reconfirming its acceptance of the rules . Then , Rio officials participated in the Olympic Games Observers Program from August 8 to 24 , during the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China ; and attended the IOC Official Debriefing of the Beijing Games from November 24 to 27 , in London , United Kingdom . On February 11 , 2009 , the Rio de Janeiro bid committee delivered its Candidature File to the IOC in Lausanne and , eight days later , to the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) in Bonn , Germany ; containing the responses to the 2016 Candidature Procedure and Questionnaire , as well as guarantees and undertakings . The Candidature File had three volumes containing 568 pages of detailed answers to 300 technical questions , divided into 17 themes . Finally , on June 17 , 2009 , the IOC organized the 2016 Candidate Cities Briefing to 93 of its members at the Olympic Museum , being the first such meeting in its history and the most important before the election . Rio officials came out stronger after a presentation of 45 minutes , considered to be exceptional , followed by a session of 16 questions .
Throughout the campaign , the Rio de Janeiro bid committee introduced its plans to the General Assemblies of all Associations of National Olympic Committees ( ANOC ) , making the bid 's first official presentation on October 11 , 2008 , to the Pan American Sports Organization ( PASO ) , in Acapulco , Mexico . On October 21 , the vision was presented to the Olympic Council of Asia ( OCA ) in Bali , Indonesia , followed by the European Olympic Committees ( EOC ) on November 21 , in Istanbul , Turkey . On March 26 , 2009 , Rio officials made a praised presentation during the 2009 SportAccord Convention in Denver , United States . For the first time , a world map of the past Olympic host cities was displayed , subsequently becoming an icon of Rio 's campaign due to the void in South America . On March 31 , 2009 , the Rio de Janeiro bid committee made its plea to the Oceania National Olympic Committees ( ONOC ) in Queenstown , New Zealand ; and on July 7 , to the Association of National Olympic Committees of Africa ( ANOCA ) in Abuja , Nigeria . The bid committee also attended many sporting events , such as the Australian and European Youth Olympic Festivals , the Commonwealth Youth Games , the Asian Youth Games and the Mediterranean Games , as well as the Aquatics , Athletics , Rowing and Judo World Championships . The three @-@ year campaign culminated with the beginning of the 13th Olympic Congress in Copenhagen , Denmark , which was officially opened in a ceremony held at the city 's Opera House , and after a lunch offered by Margrethe II , Queen of Denmark , to the heads of state of the four Candidate cities at the Amalienborg Palace .
= = = Evaluation = = =
Rio de Janeiro was primarily evaluated during the Applicant phase , accurately on March 14 , 2008 , when the IOC Working Group released its report after four days of meetings , giving a weighted @-@ average score of 6 @.@ 4 to the bid . It was based on a thorough technical analysis of the projects presented on the Application File , which was developed by the Rio de Janeiro bid committee after having access to the Olympic Games Knowledge Management database as well as the official IOC Technical Manuals . The Working Group composed of several experts assessed the city 's potential for staging successful Olympic Games according to eleven criteria presented in the Application File . Rio de Janeiro 's highest score came from Government support , legal issues and public opinion due to the strong government commitment , and its lowest from Safety and security due to the city 's chronic problems of violence . Experience in major events also yielded good scores , while a shortage in the number of required hotel rooms undermined the accommodation theme . The Working Group also gave an 8 @.@ 3 score to Tokyo , 8 @.@ 1 to Madrid , 7 @.@ 0 to Chicago , 6 @.@ 9 to Doha , 5 @.@ 3 to Prague and 4 @.@ 3 to Baku ; being the basis for the selection to the Candidature phase . On September 18 , 2008 , after the shortlist which concluded the Application phase , the IOC announced the composition of its Evaluation Commission . The commission inspected the four Candidate cities under the leadership of Nawal El Moutawakel , who also chaired the Evaluation Commission for the bid process of the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics .
The IOC Evaluation Commission arrived in Rio de Janeiro on April 27 , 2009 , to assess the quality of the bid , stating that the welcoming activities prepared by the city had been the best . Unlike the first evaluation , the committee did not assign scores , but analyzed the probability of execution of the plans . During the first two days of the visit , the Evaluation Commission held internal meetings at Copacabana Palace , the host hotel . Between April 29 and 30 , the Commission attended technical presentations in a large ballroom equipped with lighting and multi @-@ media resources , where it participated in question @-@ and @-@ answer sessions about each of the seventeen themes presented in the Candidature File . May Day was marked by the inspectors ' visits to all existing venues across the city . On May 2 , 2009 , the Evaluation Commission made a press conference to highlight the main points of the visit . According to El Moutawakel , the Commission was very impressed with the unity of government support , the quality of the presentations and the level of integration of the Games in the country 's long @-@ term development plan . After seven days of inspections involving 300 professionals , the thirteen members of the IOC Evaluation Commission left Rio de Janeiro on May 3 , 2009 , on the way to Madrid . One month before the election , on September 2 , 2009 , Rio officials welcomed the released of the 2016 Evaluation Commission Report . It gave a very positive assessment to the city and described the documents submitted by Rio de Janeiro as " of a very high quality " .
= = = Election = = =
The election of the host city took place at Bella Center on October 2 , 2009 , in Copenhagen , during the 121st IOC Session . Rio de Janeiro was the third city to present plans to the IOC members , entering the Hall A of Bella Center at 12 : 05 ( CEST ) with a delegation of 60 people , among bid leaders , government authorities and athletes . João Havelange made the opening speech and invited everyone to celebrate his centenary in Rio de Janeiro in 2016 . Carlos Arthur Nuzman was the next speaker , talking about experiences of the Olympic movement , and who introduced the iconic map of past Olympic host cities . Governor Sérgio Cabral then spoke about projects related to security and transportation , followed by Henrique Meirelles , who explained the economic situation of Brazil . Mayor Eduardo Paes was responsible for presenting the venues plan alongside Carlos Roberto Osório , while they were complemented by Olympic sailor Isabel Swan , who stated that the project had been made thinking on athletes . Swan cited the other athletes present in the plenary : former football player Pelé , Paralympic swimmer Daniel Dias and junior athlete Bárbara Leôncio . After that , President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva made a plea to bring the Games for the first time to South America , saying that was " time to light the Olympic cauldron in a tropical country " . Nuzman returned and concluded the presentation , which included a short film ( called UnityA ) by Academy Award nominated director Fernando Meirelles , and a music video ( called CelebrationB ) with an English version of " Aquele Abraço " by Gilberto Gil .
After the presentation , the session was opened for questions . Nuzman clarified doubts by Arne Ljungqvist about doping legislation ; Osório and Cabral answered two questions by Prince Albert of Monaco about accommodation and the project 's legacy , respectively ; and the President of Brazil himself responded to a question by Austin Sealy about organization risks . Following the presentations by the four Candidate cities , Nawal El Moutawakel presented the report of the Evaluation Commission to the Session . From a total of 106 eligible IOC members , 95 were available to vote in the first round . Members from the four bidding countries were not allowed to vote until their city was eliminated . Alpha Ibrahim Diallo , Kun Hee Lee , Saku Koivu and the IOC president were eligible members who did not vote . Chicago fell in the first round with 18 votes , while Tokyo received 22 , Rio 26 , and Madrid 28 . In the second round , Tokyo was eliminated with 20 votes , while Madrid received 29 and Rio 46 . Rio de Janeiro was elected in the final round with 66 votes over 32 for Madrid . The winning city was revealed by Jacques Rogge at 6 : 30 ( CEST ) during an announcement ceremony hosted by Lillian Gjerulf Kretz and Jonathan Edwards . Nearly 100 @,@ 000 people celebrated the victory on Copacabana beach while watching the live broadcast . Following the announcement , Richard Carrión , Rogge , Nuzman and Paes signed the Host City Contract and officialized Rio de Janeiro as the host of the 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games .
= = Bid concept = =
According to the Rio de Janeiro bid committee , the bid 's concept was based on four principles — technical excellence , experience of a lifetime , transformation , and supporting the Olympic and Paralympic Movements — highlighting the city 's celebration lifestyle , as seen on its promotional video ( called PassionC ) . The 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics will embed the Games in society as a catalyst for social integration , through programs for job generation , education , community outreach , volunteerism , training and up @-@ skilling initiatives . The campaign also focused on youth and the fact that South America never hosted the Olympic Games , considering it to be a " self affirmation " of the Brazilian people . Rio de Janeiro integrated economic , environmental and social elements into its " Green Games for a Blue Planet " vision and planted 2386 seedlings to offset 716 tons of carbon emitted over the two years of campaign . Athletes and spectators will enjoy good climatic conditions in Rio de Janeiro , where mild southern hemisphere winter with absence of heavy rainfall provides favorable atmosphere for athletic performance . Average midday temperature of 24 @.@ 2 ° C ( 75 @.@ 6 ° F ) is predicted during the proposed dates for the Games , with temperatures ranging from 18 @.@ 9 ° C ( 66 @.@ 0 ° F ) to 28 @.@ 1 ° C ( 82 @.@ 6 ° F ) and humidity levels of 66 @.@ 4 % .
The visual identity of the candidature consisted of a logo and a slogan , which were applied in marketing moves during the campaign . Designed by Ana Soter and selected among four finalists by a special jury , the logo was unveiled during the 2007 Brazilian Olympic Awards , held at the Municipal Theater of Rio de Janeiro , on December 17 , 2007 . The Sugarloaf Mountain was chosen to be the symbol as one of the city 's most famous landmarks . According to the Rio de Janeiro bid committee , the design as a whole conveys a heart shape , representing Brazilian passion and enthusiasm for sports . First with only the inscription " Applicant city " , the logo received the Olympic rings and the label " Candidate city " after being shortlisted . At midnight on January 1 , 2009 , the bid 's slogan " Live your passion " was launched as part of the New Year 's celebrations , which was attended by nearly two million people . According to the Rio de Janeiro bid committee , the slogan reflected the Brazilian 's way of getting passionately involved in whatever they do . It was projected onto the Rio de Janeiro 2016 @-@ themed Ferris wheel after the countdown to the beginning of 2009 . The structure erected on Copacabana beach to promote the candidature was 36 m ( 118 ft 1 in ) high , weighed 80 tonnes ( 180 @,@ 000 lb ) and had 24 gondolas for 144 people .
Rio de Janeiro previously hosted major sporting , business and cultural events . On the sporting front , these events included World Cups and World Championships in many Olympic sports , as well as regional championships . From July 13 to July 29 , 2007 , the city successfully staged the 15th and largest ever edition of the Pan American Games ( over 5 @,@ 650 athletes competing in 34 sports ) and the accompanying Parapan American Games ( over 1 @,@ 150 athletes competing in 10 sports ) . Rio de Janeiro hosted the 1950 FIFA World Cup and recently hosted the 2014 FIFA World Cup , just two years before the 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games , which includes upgrades to security , telecommunications and tourism infrastructure . The 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup will also be organised by Brazil and used as a test event for the 2014 FIFA World Cup . The proposed competition schedule spreads medals across the entire program with two peaks at the weekends , being similar to the 2008 Summer Olympics program . The period proposed by the Rio de Janeiro bid committee to stage the 2016 Summer Olympics is from Friday , August 5 , to Sunday , August 21 , 2016 . It is also proposed that the 2016 Summer Paralympics begin on the Independence Day of Brazil , Wednesday , September 7 , and last until Sunday , September 18 .
= = = Politics = = =
The Rio de Janeiro bid committee was an incorporated non @-@ profit entity under the leadership of an Honorary Council and an Executive Board , both chaired by Carlos Arthur Nuzman . At the highest level , the Honorary Council comprised the President of the Federative Republic of Brazil Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , the Governor of the State
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of Rio de Janeiro Sérgio Cabral , the Mayor of the Municipality of Rio de Janeiro Eduardo Paes , and the two Brazilian IOC members : Nuzman and João Havelange . At the executive level , the Executive Board was divided in four departments — Government Coordination Commission , Business Council , Legacy Committee and Athletes ' Commission — being responsible for the main operations of the campaign . The Board also included representations from the three levels of Government with the specific authority to make commitments on behalf of their respective Governments . Technical aspects of the bid were supported by various Councils and Committees composed of a professionals staff , and supplemented by a team of domestic and international experts ; which were coordinated by Carlos Roberto Osório , Secretary General of the bid committee . Mike Lee , former Director of Communications and Public Affairs for the London bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics , was the lead advisor to the bid of Rio de Janeiro . His company , Vero Campaigning Communications , was responsible for planning the bid 's advertising campaign strategy , presentation scripts , visual support development and international media relations , as well as international press conferences .
Rio de Janeiro had full political backing from the three levels of the Government of Brazil — Federal , State and City — providing all guarantees and covenants required by the IOC , as well as some additional undertakings . All levels government , as well as all major political parties in the country , pledged complete support for the bid and endorsed the conduct of the Olympic and Paralympic Games in Brazil . On June 23 , 2008 , the Brazilian president formed the Government Action Management Committee , under the patronage of the Minister of Sport Orlando Silva , which coordinated Federal government actions during the bid process . Another act created the Olympic Development Authority ( ODA ) on January 17 , 2009 , to coordinate public services and infrastructure delivery for eventual Games in Rio de Janeiro , based in the pioneer model developed by Sydney for the 2000 Summer Olympics and Paralympics . Under legal aspects , the Organising Committee for the Olympic Games ( OCOG ) would be the entity responsible for planning and staging the 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games . According to the IOC , the existing legislation was sufficient to enable the organization of the Games and would be amended or modified to suit the Olympic Charter if needed . The Ministry of External Relations and the Ministry of Labor guaranteed the entry , exit and working arrangements for Games personnel . People in possession of a valid passport and an Olympic or Paralympic Identity and Accreditation Card , in lieu of a visa , will be able to enter the Brazilian territory .
= = = Controversies = = =
The IOC 's decision to shorlist Rio de Janeiro over Doha generated criticism , as the Doha bid committee accused the IOC of " closing the door on the Arab world " and of making a political decision rather than judging on technical grounds . Doha outperformed Rio de Janeiro in the majority of the categories assessed , but according to the IOC , Doha 's desire to stage the Olympics in October because of high temperatures was the reason the bid was rejected . On May 3 , 2009 , the Rio de Janeiro bid committee accused the Madrid bid committee of sending a spy to Rio de Janeiro during the visit of the Evaluation Commission , and considered filing a formal ethics complaint with the IOC . Simon Walsh , who claimed to be a reporter working for EFE , omitted the fact that he was a paid consultant of the Madrid bid committee and was stripped of his media accreditation . Madrid officials denied the accusations . On June 14 , 2009 , the American television network NBC aired the episode " The Glory That Was ... " from the series Law & Order : Criminal Intent , in which a security company , interested in millionaire contracts with the possibility of hosting the 2016 Summer Olympics in Brazil , bought votes of members of the " Olympic Site Selection Committee " for Rio de Janeiro and murdered a member of the Belgian Olympic Committee . When aired by AXN in Brazil on September 3 , 2009 , the episode received much criticism . Eduardo Paes called the show " ridiculous and pathetic " , while the Rio de Janeiro bid committee condemned the " irresponsible and reckless use " of the city 's image .
Ahead of the election , the Rio de Janeiro bid committee lodged an official complaint against Madrid with the IOC Ethics Commission about comments made on September 30 , 2009 , by José Maria Odriozola , vice president of the Spanish Olympic Committee ( SOC ) ; and considered doing it against Chicago due to comments by Richard M. Daley , Mayor of Chicago , on September 21 , 2009 . Odriozola called Rio de Janeiro " the worst of the four candidates " , while Rio officials believe that Daley implied that the city was incapable of hosting the Olympics when he said it was " not the same as hosting the [ 2014 ] FIFA World Cup " . Mercedes Coghen apologised for Odriozola 's comments on behalf of the Madrid bid committee . According to the IOC rules , rival cities are not allowed to directly criticise other bidders . After the conclusion of the bid process , Shintarō Ishihara , Governor of Tokyo , blamed " invisible dynamics " and political deals for Tokyo 's failure . Rio officials repudiated " the inappropriate statements " and sent a formal notification to the IOC on October 6 , 2009 . On November 30 , 2009 , the Hollywood actor Robin Williams caused embarrassment due to humorous comments made in an interview with David Letterman . During the Late Show with David Letterman , broadcast by CBS , Williams said that Rio de Janeiro was elected as host city because it sent " 50 strippers and a pound of blow " to compete with Michelle Obama and Oprah Winfrey , from Chicago . The comments were widely criticized by the Brazilian media and government authorities .
= = Bid project = =
Rio de Janeiro proposed to hold all sporting events within the city limits — apart from the football ( soccer ) tournaments which would be held in the cities of Belo Horizonte , Brasília , Salvador and São Paulo — making the Games more compact and technically feasible . The competition venues will be located in four Olympic zones — Barra , Copacabana , Deodoro , and Maracanã — and divided in seven Olympic clusters — Barra , Copacabana , Deodoro , Flamengo , João Havelange , Lagoa and Maracanã — with four Olympic precincts — Maracanã , Olympic Park , Riocentro and X Park . The Olympic and Paralympic Village , the International Broadcast Centre ( IBC ) and the Main Press Centre ( MPC ) will be located at the Barra zone , which is the core of the project and includes the largest number of competition venues . A television tower will be built at the IBC / MPC complex to complement broadcasting operations and provide panoramic studios . There will be a media @-@ exclusive hotel within the complex , accessible directly from the IBC / MPC . The Olympic and Paralympic Village complex will include an Olympic Village Training Center , an Olympic Village Park , an Olympic Beach and direct access to the Olympic Park , in addition to the 8 @,@ 856 rooms to accommodate over 17 @,@ 770 athletes and team officials , including accredited additional officials .
Rio de Janeiro 's competition venues meet the International Federation 's ( IFs ) technical requirements and both IOC and IPC standards , and align with the City Master Plan and legacy strategy . Most venues are already operational , recently developed or renovated . According to the Rio de Janeiro 2016 bid committee , there are ten ( 29 % ) existing venues with no permanent works required and eight ( 24 % ) venues requiring reforms , while nine ( 26 % ) new permanent venues and seven ( 21 % ) temporary venues will be built . In total there will be 34 competition venues alongside 29 training venues , as part of the training venues strategy . The most significant legacy project from the bid is the Olympic Training Center ( OTC ) program and facilities with its headquarters located in Barra zone . Furthermore , the Rio de Janeiro 2016 bid committee recognized the possibility of new sports being added to the Olympic Program and , following detailed analysis for each of the seven potential sports — baseball , golf , karate , roller sports , rugby , softball and squash — confirmed its capability to accommodate any of them in respect to venues , transport and other operational or logistical aspects . In addition , Rio de Janeiro and the four proposed cities to hold football ( soccer ) competitions — Brasília , Belo Horizonte , Salvador and São Paulo — were chosen to host the 2014 FIFA World Cup .
Rio de Janeiro will build the Summer Paralympics , upon the experience of hosting the III Parapan American Games — considered " the best ever " by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) and the Americas Paralympic Committee ( APC ) — as well as many other international competitions for athletes with disabilities . For this purpose , the organizing committee will include representatives of the Brazilian Paralympic Committee ( BPC ) and create a specific department responsible for supervising the Games . Another element that will bring the Paralympics up to par with their Olympic counterpart is the reuse of twenty Olympic competition venues for the equivalent Paralympic sports . Promotion of accessibility @-@ friendly measures by the hospitality and tourism industries will also be encouraged and recognized by the government .
= = = Infrastructure = = =
Rio de Janeiro 's infrastructure , systems , management structures and staff readiness will be tested during the 2014 FIFA World Cup and during dedicated test events for the transport network in 2015 . There will be 49 @,@ 750 rooms to meet IOC requirements , of which some 1 @,@ 700 are located in apartment hotels in the city and more than 13 @,@ 000 in hotels throughout Rio de Janeiro and the football tournament host cities . Rio de Janeiro proposed the use of cruise ships and condominium apartments to overcome a possible shortage in the number of hotel rooms . Six modern cruise ships will provide more than 8 @,@ 500 cabins . Media would be accommodated in a combination of media villages and hotels . Rio de Janeiro plans to implement 150 km ( 93 mi ) of Olympic lanes connecting the four Olympic zones and the Antônio Carlos Jobim International Airport . An existing corridor of high @-@ capacity rail and metro systems as well as motorways and major roads links three of the four Olympic zones , and with the development of the western corridor , all four zones will be connected . Bus Rapid Transit ( BRT ) system is going to be the main solution to the city 's topography . Security and disaster @-@ related risks for the event will be mitigated by the implementation of a comprehensive security operation . Crime in parts of Rio de Janeiro was considered to be an issue for the safety of people attending the Games . Rio de Janeiro 's experience in mounting security structures around highly mediatized and crowd @-@ attracting events is a positive aspect . The Federal Government will be responsible for the security of the 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics .
= = = Finance = = =
The three levels of Brazilian government assured the free provision of a range of services to the bid , including security , medical services , customs , transport , immigration , and other governmental services and support . Rio de Janeiro also approved funding of US $ 240 billion from the Program for Growth Acceleration ( PAC ) of the federal government . Other revenue @-@ generating activities include sponsorship sales , ticketing program , licensing and merchandising . These revenues will be supplemented by IOC @-@ secured commercial and broadcast contributions . Capital expenditure on infrastructure by the government or the private sector includes already committed and ongoing investments of US $ 3 @.@ 9 billion on projects such as airport and subway expansions and construction of the metropolitan road arc . The OCOG budget does not assume any capital contributions to the construction of permanent or legacy venues , other than for Games overlay , including the construction of temporary venues . The balance of OCOG expenditures will be funded by the public sector , involving a combination of government commitments from Federal , State and Municipal levels . The OCOG budget and operating expenses are projected at US $ 2 @.@ 8 billion , with its Olympic @-@ related budget , including capital investments in transportation , sports venues and incremental costs being US $ 11 @.@ 6 billion . The government submitted guarantees to cover any potential shortfall . The bid expenses for both Applicant and Candidature phases were of R $ 85 @,@ 792 million , as released during the official closing of the campaign on November 11 , 2009 .
= New Jersey Route 65 =
Route 65 is a former state highway in the city of Newark , New Jersey . The route went for 4 @.@ 12 miles ( 6 @.@ 63 km ) along Port Street and Doremus Avenue through the industrial districts of the city . Route 65 began at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 and 9 near Newark Liberty International Airport . The route crossed over the New Jersey Turnpike along Port Street until an intersection with Doremus Avenue , where it turned northward for the rest of the distance , terminating at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 and 9 Truck .
Route 65 was originally planned in 1939 as a spur of Route 25 , Route 25B , in Newark to connect that route with Route 25T ( now U.S. Route 1 / 9 Truck ) . The route lasted for 14 years , until January 1 , 1953 , when the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering occurred . Route 25B was decommissioned on that day , along with its parent route , Route 25 . Route 25B was redesigned as Route 65 , and was removed from the state highway system by 1963 . The two roads are now maintained by the city of Newark .
= = Route description = =
Route 65 began at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 and 9 in the area of Newark Liberty International Airport in the city of Newark . The route progressed eastward along Port Street , a divided highway for a short distance . The route crossed the access road to the airport before crossing over the newly constructed New Jersey Turnpike south of Interchange 14 . From there , Route 65 continued as Port Street but as one roadway into the industrial districts in Newark . The route progressed further over a railroad before intersecting with Doremus Avenue , where Route 65 turned northward off of Port Street . Both Port Street and Doremus Avenue dead @-@ end right after this respective intersection , Doremus Avenue to the south and Port Street to the east .
From there , Route 65 headed northward along Doremus Avenue , crossing over the Newark Bay Extension ( Interstate 78 ) just north of the intersection . The route continued through the industrial district , reaching higher in elevation on a bridge over the Central Railroad of New Jersey ( now Conrail Shared Assets Operations , CSAO ) . From there , the route paralleled the turnpike 's mainline along Doremus Avenue . At the intersection with Raymond Boulevard , Route 65 became a divided highway once again , terminating at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 / 9 Truck in the city of Newark .
= = History = =
Route 65 was originally designated in 1939 as State Highway Route 25B , a spur off of State Highway Route 25 ( now U.S. Route 1 and 9 ) at a traffic circle near the Newark Metropolitan Airport ( now Newark Liberty International Airport ) . The route was then to commence along Port Street and Doremus Avenue to an intersection with State Highway Route 25T ( now U.S. Route 1 and 9 Truck ) . Route 25B remained intact along the alignment of Port Street and Doremus Avenue until January 1 , 1953 . On that day , the New Jersey State Highway Department renumbered routes in the state , and eliminated Route 25 entirely . Due to decommissioning of Route 25 , Route 25B was renumbered to Route 65 , eliminating the relation to former Route 25 or U.S. Route 1 and 9 . Route 65 remained on the Port Street and Doremus Avenue alignment for a short time , and was completely eliminated from the state system by 1963 . Port Street and Doremus Avenue are both now maintained by the city of Newark but both are of the National Highway System as of 2009 . In 2001 , the bridge over the CSAO line was reconstructed .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Newark , Essex County .
= Giacomo Meyerbeer =
Giacomo Meyerbeer ( born Jacob Liebmann Beer ; 5 September 1791 – 2 May 1864 ) was a German opera composer of Jewish birth who has been described as perhaps the most successful stage composer of the nineteenth century . With his 1831 opera Robert le diable and its successors , he gave the genre of grand opera ' decisive character ' . Meyerbeer 's grand opera style was achieved by his merging of German orchestra style with Italian vocal tradition . These were employed in the context of sensational and melodramatic libretti created by Eugène Scribe and were enhanced by the up @-@ to @-@ date theatre technology of the Paris Opéra . They set a standard which helped to maintain Paris as the opera capital of the nineteenth century .
Born to a very wealthy Berlin family , Meyerbeer began his musical career as a pianist but soon decided to devote himself to opera , spending several years in Italy studying and composing . His 1824 opera Il crociato in Egitto was the first to bring him Europe @-@ wide reputation , but it was Robert le diable ( 1831 ) which raised his status to great celebrity . His public career , lasting from then until his death , during which he remained a dominating figure in the world of opera , was summarized by his contemporary Hector Berlioz , who claimed that he ' has not only the luck to be talented , but the talent to be lucky . ' He was at his peak with his operas Les Huguenots ( 1836 ) and Le prophète ( 1849 ) ; his last opera ( L 'Africaine ) was performed posthumously . His operas made him the most frequently performed composer at the world 's leading opera houses in the nineteenth century .
At the same time as his successes in Paris , Meyerbeer , as a Prussian Court Kapellmeister ( Director of Music ) from 1832 , and from 1843 as Prussian General Music Director , was also influential in opera in Berlin and throughout Germany . He was an early supporter of Richard Wagner , enabling the first production of the latter 's opera , Rienzi . He was commissioned to write the patriotic opera Ein Feldlager in Schlesien to celebrate the reopening of the Berlin Royal Opera House in 1844 and wrote music for certain Prussian state occasions .
Apart from around 50 songs , Meyerbeer wrote little except for the stage . The critical assaults of Wagner and his supporters , especially after his death , led to a decline in the popularity of his works ; his operas were suppressed by the Nazi regime in Germany , and were neglected by opera houses through most of the twentieth century . Meyerbeer 's works are only infrequently performed today .
= = Early years = =
Meyerbeer 's birthname was Jacob Liebmann Beer ; he was born in Tasdorf ( now a part of Rüdersdorf ) , near Berlin , then the capital of Prussia , to a Jewish family . His father was the enormously wealthy financier Judah Herz Beer ( 1769 – 1825 ) and his mother , Amalia ( Malka ) Wulff ( 1767 – 1854 ) , to whom he was particularly devoted , also came from the moneyed elite . Their other children included the astronomer Wilhelm Beer and the poet Michael Beer . He was to adopt the surname Meyerbeer on the death of his grandfather Liebmann Meyer Wulff ( 1811 ) and the first name Giacomo during his period of study in Italy , around 1817 .
Judah Beer was a leader of the Berlin Jewish community and maintained a private synagogue in his house which leaned towards reformist views . Jacob Beer wrote an early cantata for performance at this synagogue . Both Judah Herz Beer and his wife were close to the Prussian court ; when Amalia was awarded in 1816 the Order of Louise , she was given , by Royal dispensation , not the traditional Cross but a portrait bust of the Queen . The Beer children were provided with a fine education ; their tutors included two of the leaders of the enlightened Jewish intelligentsia , the author Aaron Halle @-@ Wolfssohn and Edmund Kley , ( later a reform movement rabbi in Hamburg ) to whom they remained attached into their maturity . The brothers Alexander von Humboldt , the renowned naturalist , geographer and explorer , and the philosopher , linguist and diplomat Wilhelm von Humboldt were close friends of the family circle .
Beer 's first keyboard instructor was Franz Lauska , a pupil of Johann Georg Albrechtsberger and a favoured teacher at the Berlin court . Beer also became one of Muzio Clementi 's pupils while Clementi was in Berlin . The boy made his public debut in 1801 playing Mozart 's D minor Piano Concerto in Berlin . The Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung reported : ' The amazing keyboard playing of young Bär ( a Jewish lad of 9 ) , who carried off the difficult passages and other solo parts with aplomb , and has fine powers of rendition even more rarely found in one of his age , made the concert even more interesting ' .
Beer , as he still named himself , studied with Antonio Salieri and the German master and friend of Goethe , Carl Friedrich Zelter . Louis Spohr organised a concert for Beer at Berlin in 1804 and continued his acquaintance with the lad later in Vienna and Rome . A portrait of Jacob commissioned by the family at this time shows him ' confidently facing the viewer , his hair romantically dishevelled … his left hand rests on the keyboard , and his right hand grasps a musical manuscript … plac [ ing ] its subject in the tradition of the young Mozart ' . Beer 's first stage work , the ballet Der Fischer und das Milchmädchen ( The Fisherman and the Milkmaid ) was produced in March 1810 at the Court Opera in Berlin . His formal training with the Abbé Vogler at Darmstadt between 1810 and 1812 was , however , of crucial importance , and at around this time he begins to sign himself ' Meyer Beer ' . Here , with his fellow students ( who included Carl Maria von Weber ) , he learnt not only the craft of composition but also the business of music ( organising concerts and dealing with publishers ) . Forming a close friendship with Weber and other pupils , Meyerbeer established the Harmonischer Verein ( Musical Union ) , whose members undertook to support each other with favourable press criticism and networking . On 12 February 1813 Beer received the first of the string of honours he was to accumulate throughout his life when he was appointed ' Court Composer ' by Grand Duke Ludwig of Hesse @-@ Darmstadt .
Throughout his early career , although determined to become a musician , Beer found it difficult to decide between playing and composition . Certainly other professionals in the decade 1810 – 1820 , including Moscheles , considered him amongst the greatest virtuosi of his period . He wrote during this period numerous piano pieces , including a concerto and set of variations for piano and orchestra , but these have been lost . To this period also belongs a Clarinet Quintet written for the virtuoso Heinrich Baermann ( 1784 – 1847 ) who remained a close friend of the composer .
= = Career = =
= = = In Italy = = =
Despite performances of his oratorio Gott und die Natur ( God and Nature ) ( Berlin , 1811 ) and his early operas Jephtas Gelübde ( Jephtha 's Vow ) ( Munich , 1812 ) and Wirth und Gast ( Landlord and Guest ) ( Stuttgart , 1813 ) in Germany , Meyerbeer had set his sights by 1814 on basing an operatic career in Paris . In the same year , his opera Die beiden Kalifen ( The Two Caliphs ) , a version of Wirth und Gast , was a disastrous failure in Vienna . Realizing that a full understanding of Italian opera was essential for his musical development , he went to study in Italy , enabled by the financial support of his family . He arrived in Italy at the beginning of 1816 , after visits to Paris and London , where he heard Cramer play . In Paris , he wrote to a friend , ' I go from museum to museum , library to library , theatre to theatre , with the restlessness of the Wandering Jew ' .
During his years in Italy Meyerbeer became acquainted with , and impressed by , the works of his contemporary Gioachino Rossini , who by 1816 , at the age of 24 , was already director of both major opera houses in Naples and in the same year premiered his operas The Barber of Seville and Otello . Meyerbeer wrote a series of Italian operas on Rossinian models , including Romilda e Costanza ( Padua , 1817 ) , Semiramide riconosciuta ( Turin , 1819 ) , Emma di Resburgo ( Venice , 1819 ) , Margherita d 'Anjou ( Milan 1820 ) and L 'esule di Granata ( Milan 1821 ) . All but the last two of these had libretti by Gaetano Rossi , whom Meyerbeer continued to support until the latter 's death in 1855 , although not commissioning any further libretti from him after Il crociato in Egitto ( 1824 ) . During a visit to Sicily in 1816 , Meyerbeer noted down a number of folksongs , and these in fact constitute the earliest collection of folk music of the region . In a birthday greeting from Rossi 's wife in 1817 occurs the earliest use discovered of Meyerbeer 's adopted forename ' Giacomo ' .
= = = Recognition = = =
The name Giacomo Meyerbeer first became known internationally with his opera Il crociato in Egitto — premiered in Venice in 1824 and produced in London and Paris in 1825 ; incidentally , it was the last opera ever written to feature a castrato , and the last to require keyboard accompaniment for recitatives . This ' breakthrough ' in Paris was exactly what Meyerbeer had been aiming for over the past ten years ; he had been carefully preparing for it , developing contacts , and fully reaped his reward .
In 1826 , shortly after the death of his father , Meyerbeer married his cousin , Minna Mosson ( 1804 – 1886 ) . The marriage which may have been ' dynastic ' in its origins proved to be stable and devoted ; the couple were to have five children , of whom the three youngest ( all daughters ) survived to adulthood . In the same year , following the death of Carl Maria von Weber , Weber 's widow asked Meyerbeer to complete her husband 's unfinished comic opera Die drei Pintos . This was to cause him much trouble over future years , as he found the material insufficient to work on . Eventually in 1852 he settled the matter with Weber 's heirs by handing them Weber 's drafts and a cash compensation . ( The opera was later completed by Gustav Mahler ) .
With his next opera Meyerbeer became virtually a superstar . Robert le diable ( with libretto by Eugène Scribe and Germain Delavigne ) , produced in Paris in 1831 , was one of the earliest grand operas . The libretto , originally planned in 1827 as a three @-@ act opéra comique for the Opéra @-@ Comique theatre , was refashioned after 1829 in a five @-@ act form to meet the requirements of the Paris Opéra . Its revised characterisation as a ' grand opera ' placed it in succession to Auber 's La muette de Portici ( 1828 ) and Rossini 's Guillaume Tell ( 1829 ) in this new genre . The composer undertook further work on the opera in early 1831 adding ballet episodes , including the " Ballet of Nuns " , which was to prove one of the opera 's great sensations , becoming an early example of the ballet blanc genre . He also rewrote the two major male roles of Bertrand and Robert to suit the talents of Nicolas Levasseur and Adolphe Nourrit , respectively . At the invitation of Nourrit , Cornélie Falcon made her debut at the age of 18 at the Opéra in the role of Alice on 20 July 1832 , and she made a vivid impression on the public , which included on that night Auber , Berlioz , Halévy , Maria Malibran , Giulia Grisi , Honoré Daumier , Alexandre Dumas and Victor Hugo . On hearing her in the role , Meyerbeer himself declared his opera at last ' complete ' .
The success of the opera led to Meyerbeer himself becoming a celebrity . In January 1832 he was awarded membership of the Légion d 'honneur . This success – coupled with Meyerbeer 's known family wealth – inevitably also precipitated envy amongst his peers . Berlioz – who had commented that ' Meyerbeer not only had the luck to be talented , he had the talent to be lucky ' – wrote ' I can 't forget that Meyerbeer was only able to persuade [ the Opéra ] to put on Robert le diable ... by paying the administration sixty thousand francs of his own money ' ; and Chopin lamented ' Meyerbeer had to work for three years and pay his own expenses for his stay in Paris before Robert le diable could be staged .... Three years , that 's a lot – it 's too much . ' King Frederick William III of Prussia who attended the second performance of Robert le diable , swiftly invited him to compose a German opera , and Meyerbeer was invited to stage Robert in Berlin . Within a few years the opera had been staged with success all over Europe , and also in the USA .
The fusion of dramatic music , melodramatic plot , and sumptuous staging in Robert le diable proved a sure @-@ fire formula , as did the partnership with Scribe , which Meyerbeer would go on to repeat in Les Huguenots , Le prophète , and L 'Africaine . All of these operas held the international stage throughout the 19th century , as did the more pastoral Dinorah ( 1859 ) , making Meyerbeer the most frequently performed composer at leading opera houses in the nineteenth century .
= = = Between Paris and Berlin = = =
= = = = 1832 – 1839 = = = =
Letellier describes Meyerbeer 's mature life as ' a tale of two cities ... His artistic triumph and legendary status were achieved in Paris ... but he never abandoned Prussia , especially his home city of Berlin ' . His wife Minna was based in Berlin ( she did not enjoy Paris ) as was his beloved mother ; and he had a series of Royal duties from the Prussian court , stemming from his appointment as Court Kapellmeister in 1832 . For these reasons his life from 1830 onwards is characterised by travel between these two centres .
In Paris Meyerbeer had been asked by Louis Véron , the director of the Opéra , for a new work . At first he attempted to persuade Véron to accept the opéra @-@ comique Le portefaix to a libretto by Scribe , which he had been contracted to compose in early 1831 ; but Véron insisted on a full five @-@ act piece . Together with Scribe , Meyerbeer reviewed many subjects before deciding , in 1832 , on Les Huguenots . The contract which Meyerbeer signed with Véron contained a penalty clause if the work was not delivered by the end of 1833 . When the time came and the opera was not ready , Véron claimed his 30 @,@ 000 francs under this clause ; Meyerbeer was perhaps unique amongst composers in being able to pay this . In fact Véron refunded the money under a further agreement , when the opera was delivered in late 1834 ; but Veron himself was replaced as director of the Opera by Henri Duponchel before Les Huguenots was premiered on 29 February 1836 . It was an immediate and immense success , its splendid staging and effects exceeding even those of Fromental Halévy 's La Juive , which had premiered the previous year . Berlioz called the score " a musical encyclopaedia " , and the singing , especially of Nourrit and Falcon , was universally praised . Les Huguenots was the first opera to be performed at the Opéra more than 1 @,@ 000 times ( the 1,000th performance being on 16 May 1906 ) and continued to be produced up to 1936 , more than a century after its premiere . Its many performances in all other of the world 's major opera houses give it a claim to being the most successful opera of the 19th century .
However , in Berlin Meyerbeer faced many problems , including the enmity of the jealous Gaspare Spontini , who since 1820 had been Court Kapellmeister and director of the Berlin Hofoper . Complaints were made in the Berlin press about the delay of the Berlin premiere of Robert le diable ( which finally took place in June 1832 ) , and Meyerbeer 's music was decried by the critic and poet Ludwig Rellstab . There was no sign of the German opera expected from Meyerbeer . Moreover , reactionary censorship laws prevented production of Les Huguenots in Berlin , ( and indeed in many other cities of Germany ) . Nevertheless , Meyerbeer , who ( as he wrote to a friend ) ' years ago ... swore to myself never to respond personally to attacks on my work , and never under any circumstances to cause or respond to personal polemics ' , refused to be drawn on any of these matters .
Meanwhile , in Paris Meyerbeer began to seek new libretti , initially considering Le prophète of Scribe , Le cinq mars by Henri Saint @-@ Georges and eventually settling on Scribe 's Vasco da Gama ( later to become L 'Africaine ) , which he contracted to complete by 1840 . However , Meyerbeer had envisaged that the main role in L 'Africaine would be written for Falcon ; after the catastrophic failure of her voice in 1837 , he turned instead to Le prophète .
On 20 August 1839 Meyerbeer , whilst relaxing at Boulogne in the company of Moscheles , met for the first time with Richard Wagner , who was en route to Paris . Their ensuing relationship ( see below ) was to have major repercussions for the careers and reputations of both . At this meeting Wagner read to Meyerbeer from the libretto of Rienzi , and Meyerbeer agreed to look through the score , which indeed he subsequently recommended for performance at Dresden .
= = = = The 1840s = = = =
By the end of 1841 , Meyerbeer had completed the first draft of Le prophète , but refused to stage it because the then director of the opera , Leon Pillet , wished to cast his mistress , Rosine Stoltz , in the part of Fidès , the hero 's mother . ( Berlioz characterised Stoltz as ' la Directrice du Directeur ' ) . Meyerbeer insisted on Pauline Viardot for the role . Meyerbeer lodged the score with a Parisian lawyer , and refused to countenance any production until his wishes were met . It was not until 1849 when the Opéra was willing to agree his conditions . Meyerbeer was unique in his time in having the wealth and influence to impose his will as a composer in this way .
In the meantime , the situation in Prussia was changing . Following the death of Frederick William III , the new regime of Frederick William IV was far more liberal . Spontini was dismissed , and the Berlin premiere of Les Huguenots was arranged ( 20 May 1842 ) . On the instigation of Alexander von Humboldt , Meyerbeer was installed later in the year as Prussian Generalmusikedirektor and director of music for the Royal Court . Meyerbeer wrote a number of works for court occasions , and also provided music , at the King 's request , for the first staging on Berlin in 1856 of his brother Michael 's play Struensee ( based on the life of Johann Friedrich Struensee ) , which had also been proscribed under the previous regime .
In 1843 , the Berlin Opera house burnt down . The creation of the new building gave a new opportunity to commission a German opera from Meyerbeer . The subject of the opera , Ein Feldlager in Schlesien ( A Silesian Encampment ) , was an episode in the life of Frederick the Great . As this patriotic opera ' needed ' Prussian creators , Meyerbeer arranged that whilst the trusted Scribe would write the libretto , Rellstab would translate it and take the credit ( and the royalties ) . This had the added advantage of winning over the formerly hostile Rellstab . Meyerbeer had hoped to have Jenny Lind ( for whom he had written the part ) sing the lead role of Vielka , but the opera premiered on 7 December 1844 without her ( although she did appear in subsequent performances ) . The libretto was revised by Charlotte Birch @-@ Pfeiffer to a Bohemian background as Vielka for a production in Vienna ( 1847 ) . ( In a further incarnation , the music was later used by Meyerbeer for a revamped libretto by Scribe featuring Peter the Great , and produced as an opéra comique in Paris ( L 'étoile du nord , 1854 ) ) .
With the continuing delays in the production of Le prophète and L 'Africaine , Meyerbeer was now becoming subject to increasing sniping in Paris . In 1846 Meyerbeer began work on a new project with Scribe and Saint @-@ Georges , Noëma , but in the following year Pillet was sacked from the opera and the direction was resumed by Duponchel . As a consequence , Meyerbeer was at last able to stage Le prophète with a cast to his liking , ( including Viardot as Fidès ) , and it premiered on 16 April 1849 . Again Meyerbeer 's new opera was an outstanding success – despite the unusual feature of the lead female role being the hero 's mother , rather than his lover . Amongst those at the 47th performance in February 1850 was Richard Wagner , now an impoverished political exile ; the success of a work so fundamentally against his own operatic principles was one of the spurs to his spiteful anti @-@ Jewish denunciation of Meyerbeer and Mendelssohn , ' Das Judenthum in der Musik ' ( 1850 ) .
= = = = Last years = = = =
Increasing ill @-@ health ( or possibly hypochondria ) now began to restrict Meyerbeer 's output and activities . The death of his beloved mother in 1854 was also a blow . However the success of L 'étoile du nord in 1854 demonstrated that he could still pack the theatres . Following this he began on two new projects , an opera by Scribe based on the biblical story of Judith , and an opéra comique , Le pardon de Ploërmel , ( also known as Dinorah , the title given to the Italian version performed at London ) to a libretto by Jules Barbier . The latter premiered on 4 April 1859 at the Opéra Comique at Paris ; the former , like many previous projects , remained only as sketches . The death of Scribe in 1861 was a further disincentive to Meyerbeer to proceed with his operatic work in progress . In 1862 , in accordance with his original contract with Scribe , he paid Scribe 's widow compensation for not completing Judith .
Nevertheless , Meyerbeer 's last years saw the composition of a good deal of non @-@ operatic music , including a Coronation March for William I of Prussia , ( 1861 ) , an overture for the 1862 International Exhibition in London , and incidental music ( now lost ) to Henry Blaze de Bury 's play La jeunesse de Goethe ( 1860 ) . He composed a few settings of liturgical material , including one of the 91st Psalm ( 1853 ) ; and also choral works for the synagogue at Paris .
Meyerbeer died in Paris on 2 May 1864 . Rossini , who , not having heard the news , came to his apartment the next day intending to meet him , was shocked and fainted . He was moved to write on the spot a choral tribute ( Pleure , pleure , muse sublime ! ) . A special train bore Meyerbeer 's body from the Gare du Nord to Berlin on 6 May , where he was buried in the family vault at the Jewish cemetery in Schönhauser Allee .
L 'Africaine was eventually premiered after Meyerbeer 's death at the Salle Le Peletier on 28 April 1865 in a performing edition undertaken by François @-@ Joseph Fétis .
= = Personality and beliefs = =
Meyerbeer 's immense wealth ( increased by the success of his operas ) and his continuing adherence to his Jewish religion set him apart somewhat from many of his musical contemporaries . They also gave rise to rumours that his success was due to his bribing musical critics . Richard Wagner ( see below ) accused him of being interested only in money , not music . Meyerbeer was , however , a deeply serious musician and a sensitive personality . He philosophically resigned himself to being a victim of his own success : his extensive diaries and correspondence – which survived the turmoil of 20th @-@ century Europe and have now been published in eight volumes – are an invaluable source for the history of music and theatre in the composer 's time .
Meyerbeer 's personal attachment to Judaism was a mature personal decision – after the death of his maternal grandfather in 1811 he wrote to his mother ' Please accept from me a promise that I will always live in the religion in which he died ' . In his diaries he noted significant family events including birthdays , not by their Gregorian calendar occurrence , but by their Jewish calendar dates . Moreover , he regularly suffered from ( and / or imagined ) anti @-@ Jewish slights throughout his life , warning his brothers frequently in his letters against richess ( Yiddish for ' Jew @-@ hatred ' ) . Writing to Heinrich Heine in 1839 , he offered the fatalistic view :
I believe that richess is like love in the theatres and novels : no matter how often one encounters it ... it never misses its target if effectively wielded ... [ Nothing ] can grow back the foreskin of which we are robbed on the eighth day of life ; those who , on the ninth day , do not bleed from this operation shall continue to bleed an entire lifetime , even after death .
It was probably a similar fatalism that led Meyerbeer never to enter public controversy with those who slighted him , either professionally or personally , although he occasionally displayed his grudges in his Diaries ; for example , on hearing Robert Schumann conduct in 1850 : ' I saw for the first time the man who , as a critic , has persecuted me for twelve years with a deadly enmity.'
In his mature operas Meyerbeer selected stories which almost invariably featured as a major element of storyline a hero living within a hostile environment . Robert , Raoul the Huguenot , Jean the prophet , and the defiant Vasco da Gama in L 'Africaine are all ' outsiders ' . It has been suggested that ' Meyerbeer 's choice of these topics is not accidental ; they reflect his own sense of living in a potentially inimical society.'
Meyerbeer 's relationship with Heine displays the awkwardness and prickliness of the social personae of both parties . Meyerbeer , apart from any of his personal feelings , needed Heine onside as an influential personality and writer on music . He genuinely admired Heine 's verse , and made a number of settings from it . Heine , living in Paris from 1830 , always equivocal about his loyalties between Judaism and Christianity , and always short of money , asked Meyerbeer to intervene with Heine 's own family for financial support and frequently took loans and money from Meyerbeer himself . He was not above threatening Meyerbeer with blackmail by writing satirical pieces about him ( and indeed Meyerbeer paid Heine 's widow to suppress such writings ) . And yet , at Heine 's death in 1856 , Meyerbeer wrote in his diary ' Peace be to his ashes . I forgive him from my heart for his ingratitude and many wickednesses against me.'
= = Music and theatre = =
= = = Music = = =
Meyerbeer did not operate on the basis of any theory or philosophy of music and was not an innovator in harmony or musical form . In the words of John H. Roberts , " He had a rich fund of appealing if somewhat short @-@ breathed melody , commanded an increasingly rich harmonic vocabulary , and was a master of brilliant and novel orchestral effect . But he had very limited skill in thematic development and even less in contrapuntal combination . "
All of his significant music is for the voice ( opera and songs ) and this reflects his detailed grounding in Italian opera . Throughout his career he wrote his operas with specific singers in mind and took great care to temper his writing to their strengths ; but at the same time he seemed little interested in expressing the emotions of his characters , preferring to use his music to underline the larger @-@ scale machinations of the plot . In this way he was close to the ideas of his teacher Vogler , himself renowned for his dramatic depictions of nature and incident in keyboard music , who wrote in 1779 that " writing beautifully is easy ; expression is not too difficult ; but only the genius of a great painter ... can choose for each picture agreeable and natural colours that are particular to it . " Indeed , his devotion to the voice often led him to ignore the dramatic cohesion of his operas ; typically , he would write far too much music and the scores of his operas would have to be drastically cut during rehearsals . ( The lengthy overture to Le prophète had to be cut in its entirety , surviving only in a piano arrangement by Charles @-@ Valentin Alkan ) .
The first signs of Meyerbeer breaking with the Italian traditions in which he had trained are in Il crociato in Egitto . Amongst other notable features of the opera were its lavish orchestral forces ( extending to two onstage military bands in the final act ) . The grandiosity of the work reflected the need to make an impact on the sophisticated and technologically advanced stages of London and Paris , for which it was extensively rewritten . Meyerbeer 's contribution was revealed at this stage to be the combination of Italian vocal lines , German orchestration and harmony , and the use of contemporary theatrical techniques , ideas which he carried forward in Robert and his later works . However Meyerbeer 's background in the Italian operatic traditions can be clearly seen as late as 1859 in the ' mad scene ' in Dinorah ( the virtuoso aria Ombre légère ) .
Typical of Meyerbeer 's innovative orchestration is the use in Robert le diable of dark @-@ toned instruments – bassoons , timpani and low brass , including ophicleide – to characterise the diabolical nature of Bertram and his associates . At one point the arrival of a character is announced by a combination of three solo timpani and pizzicato double @-@ basses . Similar adventurousness is shown in Les Huguenots where the composer uses a solo bass clarinet and solo viola d 'amore to accompany arias . For Le prophète , Meyerbeer considered using the newly invented saxophone . Becker suggests that Meyerbeer in all his grand operas often ' created a deliberately ' unbeautiful ' sound ..... with unusual orchestration designed to express ... content rather than produce a sensuous sound ' and opines that this explains much of the criticism he received from German writers on music .
= = = Theatre = = =
Meyerbeer 's concern to integrate musical power with all the resources of contemporary theatre anticipated in some ways the ideas of Wagner 's Gesamtkunstwerk . Becker writes :
Wagner 's idea of music drama ... was originally developed by way of grand opera ... his ideas could never have been realised in their particular form without the pioneering development [ s ] ... that Meyerbeer 's operas were the first to demand .
Meyerbeer was always concerned to intensify the theatricality of his operas , even when new ideas emerged at a relatively late stage in the music 's composition . An example of his receptiveness was the addition of the provocative " Ballet of the Nuns " in the third act of Robert le diable , at the suggestion of Duponchel . The set for the ballet was an innovative and striking design by Duponchel and Pierre @-@ Luc @-@ Charles Ciceri . Duponchel had also introduced technical innovations for the staging , including ' English traps ' for the sudden appearance and disappearance of the ghosts . ( Meyerbeer was led in fact to complain that the spectacle was too much and was pushing his music into the background ) . In Le prophète the skating ballet , which created a great sensation , was composed after rehearsals had begun , in order to capitalise on the new craze for roller skates . The theatre was also able to use new electrical lighting effects to create a powerful sunrise , and to depict the conflagration which ends the opera .
Meyerbeer 's large choral ' tableaux ' also made a major contribution to the overall dramatic effect ; the composer particularly sought opportunities to write such large @-@ scale crowd scenes , and preferred libretti which offered such possibilities . Crosten writes : ' These massive developed sections are the chief glory of the Meyerbeerian opera , for they are not only big in volume but big in their structural design ' .
Mention should also be made of Meyerbeer 's intense concern with the business of opera , which indeed had formed part of his studies under Vogler . This gave him the background not only to deal with complex contractual issues and to negotiate with publishers , but extended to wooing the press and ' marketing ' in general . Indeed , he was probably the originator of the ' press conference ' at which journalists were fed refreshment and information . This marketing and commercialisation of opera was reinforced by Meyerbeer 's Paris publisher Maurice Schlesinger who had established his fortune on the back of Robert , and even persuaded Honoré de Balzac to write a novella ( Gambara ) to promote Les Huguenots . Schlesinger 's publication of Franz Liszt 's Reminiscences de Robert le diable sold out on the day of issue and was immediately reprinted . Such manoeuvres did little to endear Meyerbeer to his fellow artists , and indeed engendered envious comments of the sort already quoted from Berlioz and Chopin .
= = Reception = =
= = = Musical influence = = =
Meyerbeer had no pupils and no direct ' school ' . Yet as his works spanned the golden age of grand opera , clear traces of his influence can be found in the grand operas of Fromental Halévy , Gaetano Donizetti , Giuseppe Verdi and others . After 1850 , Huebner notes a continuing tradition of operas at Paris where ' principals appear with chorus at the end of an act and where private intrigue conjoins a well @-@ articulated public dimension in the plot ' and cites amongst others Charles Gounod 's La nonne sanglante ( 1854 ) , Ambroise Thomas 's Hamlet and operas by Jules Massenet , amongst them Le roi de Lahore ( 1877 ) and Le Cid ( 1885 ) . The line of succession was however virtually washed away in the tide of Wagner in Paris after 1890 ( see below ) . The influence of Meyerbeer has also been detected in the operas of Antonín Dvořák and other Czech composers , and in the operas of Russian composers including Rimsky @-@ Korsakov and the young Tchaikovsky , who thought Les Huguenots ' one of the greatest works in the repertoire ' .
Themes from Meyerbeer 's works were used by many contemporary composers , often in the form of keyboard paraphprases or fantasies . Perhaps the most elaborate and substantial of these is Franz Liszt 's monumental Fantasy and Fugue on the chorale " Ad nos , ad salutarem undam " , S.259 ( 1852 ) , for organ or pédalier , based on the chorale of the Anabaptist priests in Le prophète and dedicated to Meyerbeer . The work was also published in a version for piano duet ( S.624 ) which was much later arranged for solo piano by Ferrucio Busoni .
Liszt also wrote piano works based on Robert le diable , notably the Réminiscences de Robert le diable subtitled Valse infernale . He also transcribed two pieces from L 'Africaine , as " Illustrations de l 'opéra L 'Africaine " . Frédéric Chopin and Auguste Franchomme jointly composed a Grand duo concertant on themes from the opera , for cello and piano , in 1832 , and the Italian pianist and composer Adolfo Fumagalli composed an elaborate fantasy on the opera for left hand alone as his Op. 106 . Other pieces based on the opera included works by Adolf von Henselt and Jean @-@ Amédée Méreaux . Similar works , of varying musical quality , were churned out by composers for each of the further operas in attempts to cash in on their success .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Meyerbeer 's operas consistently enjoyed enormous popularity during his lifetime , and the verdict of ( the then pro @-@ Meyerbeer ) Wagner in 1841 , when the Paris Opéra was vainly awaiting Le prophète and L 'Africaine , was not atypical :
The Paris Opéra lies dying . It looks for its salvation to the German Messiah , Meyerbeer ; if he keeps it waiting much longer , its death agonies will begin ... It is for that reason ... that one only sees Robert le Diable and Les Huguenots turning up again when the mediocrities are forced to withdraw .
However , dissenting voices were heard from critics . Not all of these however were on musical grounds . Berlioz for example raised the issue of the inhibiting effects of Meyerbeer 's success ( which he felt particularly as one who struggled to get his works performed ) : " The pressure [ Meyerbeer ] exerts on managers , artists and critics , and consequently on the Paris public , at least as much by his immense wealth as by his eclectic talent , makes all serious success at the Opéra virtually impossible . This baneful influence may still be felt ten years after his death : Heinrich Heine maintains he has ' paid in advance ' . "
Mendelssohn disapproved of Meyerbeer 's works on moral grounds , believing Robert le diable to be ' ignoble ' .
Schumann 's attack on Les Huguenots was clearly a personal diatribe against Meyerbeer 's Judaism : ' Time and time again we had to turn away in disgust ... One may search in vain for a sustained pure thought , a truly Christian sentiment ... It is all contrived , all make believe and hypocrisy ! ... The shrewdest of composers rubs his hands with glee.'
Wagner 's disciple Theodor Uhlig followed Schumann 's Judaeophobic line in his 1850 review of Le prophète : ' To a good Christian [ it ] is at best contrived , exaggerated , unnatural and slick , and it is not possible that the practised propaganda of the Hebrew art @-@ taste can succeed using such means . ' Uhlig 's phrase ' the Hebrew art @-@ taste ' was to be used by Richard Wagner to spark off his attack on Meyerbeer , ' Das Judenthum in der Musik ( Jewishness in Music ) . ' ( see below ) .
In 1911 , the composer Charles Villiers Stanford cited Meyerbeer 's music as an example of the dangers he believed lay in improvising at the piano without a clear plan , ( although there is in fact no evidence to suggest Meyerbeer worked in this way ) , writing : ' Man of genius though he was , as any man who wrote the fourth act of the Huguenots must have been , Meyerbeer is a sign @-@ post of this danger of trusting to the pianoforte as a medium of inspiration.'
= = = Wagner 's campaign against Meyerbeer = = =
The vitriolic campaign of Richard Wagner against Meyerbeer was to a great extent responsible for the decline of Meyerbeer 's popularity after his death in 1864 . This campaign was as much a matter of personal spite as of racism – Wagner had learnt a great deal from Meyerbeer and indeed Wagner 's early opera Rienzi ( 1842 ) was facetiously called by Hans von Bülow ' Meyerbeer 's best opera ' . Meyerbeer supported the young Wagner , both financially and in helping to obtain the premiere productions of both Rienzi and The Flying Dutchman at Dresden .
Wagner 's early correspondence with Meyerbeer , up to 1846 , is cringingly obsequious . However , from the early 1840s , as Wagner developed Tannhäuser and Lohengrin , his ideas on opera increasingly diverged from Meyerbeerean standards ; even in 1843 Wagner had written to Schumann condemning Meyerbeer 's work as ' a striving after superficial popularity ' . During 1846 Meyerbeer turned down Wagner 's application for a loan of 1 @,@ 200 thalers , and this may have marked a turning point .
In particular , after 1849 , Wagner resented Meyerbeer 's continuing success at a time when his own vision of German opera had little chance of prospering . After the May Uprising in Dresden of 1849 , Wagner was for some years a political refugee facing a prison sentence or worse should he return to Saxony . During his period of living in exile he had few sources of income and little opportunity of getting his own works performed . The success of Le prophète sent Wagner over the edge , and he was also deeply envious of Meyerbeer 's wealth . In reaction he published , under a pseudonym , his 1850 essay ' Jewishness in Music ' . Without specifically naming Meyerbeer , he interpreted the popular success of the latter as the undermining of German music by alleged Jewish venality and willingness to cater to the lowest tastes , and attributed the supposed poor quality of such ' Jewish music ' to Jewish speech and song patterns , which ' though the cultured son of Jewry takes untold pains to strip them off , nevertheless they shew an impertinent obstinacy in cleaving to him ' .
In his major theoretical statement , ' Opera and Drama ' ( 1852 ) , Wagner objected to the music of Meyerbeer , asserting its superficiality and incoherence in dramatic terms ; this work contains Wagner 's well @-@ known put @-@ down of Meyerbeer 's operas as ' effects without causes ' . It also contains the sardonic crack that ' [ Rossini ] never could have dreamt that it would some day occur to the Bankers , for whom he had always made their music , to make it for themselves ' . ' Jewishness in Music ' was reissued in 1869 , ( after Meyerbeer 's death ) in an extended form , with a far more explicit attack on Meyerbeer . This version was under Wagner 's own name – and as Wagner had by now a far greater reputation , his views obtained far wider publicity . These attacks on Meyerbeer ( which also included swipes at Felix Mendelssohn ) are regarded by Paul Lawrence Rose as a significant milestone in the growth of German anti @-@ Semitism .
As Wagner prospered , it became second @-@ nature for him , his wife Cosima and the Wagner circle to deprecate Meyerbeer and his works , and Cosima 's Diaries contain numerous instances of this – ( as well as recording a dream of Wagner 's in which he and Meyerbeer were reconciled ) . Wagner 's autobiography ' Mein Leben ' , circulated amongst his friends ( and published openly in 1911 ) , contains constant sniping at Meyerbeer and concludes with Wagner exulting over Meyerbeer 's death . The downgrading of Meyerbeer became a commonplace amongst Wagnerites : in 1898 , George Bernard Shaw , in The Perfect Wagnerite , commented that " Nowadays young people cannot understand how anyone could have taken Meyerbeer 's influence seriously . "
Thus as Wagner 's stock rose , Meyerbeer 's fell . In 1890 , the year before the Paris premiere of Wagner 's Lohengrin , there were no Wagner performances at the Paris Opéra , and 32 performances of Meyerbeer 's four grand operas . In 1909 , there were 60 Wagner performances , and only three of Meyerbeer ( Les Huguenots being the sole work performed ) .
= = = Reevaluation = = =
Meyerbeer 's costly operas , requiring grand casts of leading singers , were gradually dropped from the repertoire in the early 20th century . They were banned in Germany from 1933 , and subsequently in subject countries , by the Nazi regime because the composer was Jewish , and this was a major factor in their further disappearance from the repertory .
One of the first serious post @-@ war studies of Meyerbeer and grand opera was Crosten 's 1948 book Grand Opera : An Art and a Business which laid out the themes and standards for much subsequent research . A major contribution to revival of interest in Meyerbeer was the work of the scholar Heinz Becker , leading to the complete publication , between 1960 and 2006 , of Meyerbeer 's complete diaries and correspondence in German , which are an important source for musical history of the era . The English scholar Robert Letellier has translated the diaries and undertaken a wide range of Meyerbeer studies . Not least , the establishment of a ' Meyerbeer Fan Club ' in America has stimulated interest .
Most importantly the operas themselves are now beginning to be revived and recorded , although despite the efforts of such champions as Dame Joan Sutherland , who took part in performances of , and recorded , Les Huguenots , they have yet to achieve anything like the huge popular following they attracted during their creator 's lifetime . Recordings are now available of all the operas from Il crociato onwards , for many of the earlier Italian operas , and for other pieces including his songs and the incidental music for Struensee .
Amongst reasons often adduced for the dearth of modern productions are the scale of Meyerbeer 's more ambitious works and the cost of mounting them , as well as the alleged lack of virtuoso singers capable of doing justice to Meyerbeer 's demanding music . However , recent successful productions of some of the major operas at relatively small centres such as Strasbourg ( L 'Africaine , 2004 ) and Metz ( Les Huguenots , 2004 ) show that this conventional wisdom can be challenged . A highly successful production of Les Huguenots conducted by Marc Minkowski with stage direction by Gilbert Py was presented at Brussels ' Théâtre de la Monnaie in 2011 , and a new production of the same work opened at the Staatstheater Nürnberg in 2014 , conducted by Guido Johannes Rumstadt with stage direction by Tobias Kratzer , a co @-@ production with Opéra de Nice . In December 2012 , the Royal Opera House in London premiered its first performance of Robert le diable in 120 years . In 2013 , Meyerbeer 's original version of L 'Africaine in a new critical edition by Jürgen Schläder was performed by Chemnitz Opera House under the original title Vasco de Gama . The production was a success with audiences and critics and won the poll of German critics award presented by Opernwelt magazine annually as " Rediscovery of the year " in 2013 .
On 9 September 2013 a plaque to mark Meyerbeer 's last residence was put up at Pariser Platz 6a , Berlin .
= = On film = =
Vernon Dobtcheff played the role of Giacomo Meyerbeer in the 1983 film Wagner .
= = Recordings = =
A Meyerbeer discography ( updated whenever an additional opera by Meyerbeer is issued on CD ) at the Wayback Machine ( archived October 27 , 2009 )
Recordings of Meyerbeer 's operas as listed on operadis @-@ opera @-@ discography.org.uk /
= Washington State Route 221 =
State Route 221 ( SR 221 ) is a 25 @.@ 95 @-@ mile ( 41 @.@ 76 km ) long state highway located entirely within Benton County , Washington , United States . The highway serves to connect the unincorporated community of Paterson to the county seat Prosser . The highway has existed since at least 1926 and was designated as Primary State Highway 8E from 1937 until the 1964 renumbering of Washington state highways .
= = Route description = =
Washington State Route 221 ( SR 221 ) starts at an intersection with SR 14 in the unincorporated community of Paterson . After leaving Paterson the highway travels north through rural farm land as a two @-@ lane highway . A few minor roads are intersected before the roadway turns to the west after about 17 mi ( 27 km ) , before turning back to the north . After the highway resumes its northerly course it climbs into the Horse Heaven Hills , gaining a passing lane through the uphill segments , before finally terminating at SR 22 in south Prosser .
Every year the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2009 , WSDOT calculated that as few as 2 @,@ 000 cars traveled through the central part of the highway , and as many as 2 @,@ 500 cars at the interchange with SR 22 .
= = History = =
The roadway on its current alignment has existed since at least 1926 , however there are records of a road between Paterson and Prosser since 1906 . The highway was designated Secondary State Highway 8E ( SSH 8E ) in 1937 , but the route number was changed to SR 221 during the 1964 state highway renumbering .
High winds have forced the closure of SR 221 in 2003 , 2004 , and 2005 due to large amounts of dust being blown around , causing visibility to drop to almost zero through the Horse Heaven Hills .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is within unincorporated Benton County .
= Superman : Escape from Krypton =
Superman : Escape from Krypton ( originally known as Superman : The Escape ) is a steel shuttle roller coaster located at Six Flags Magic Mountain in Valencia , California . When it opened in 1997 , it was the tallest roller coaster in the world , and its speed of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) was tied for the fastest with Tower of Terror II , a similar roller coaster which opened two months earlier at Dreamworld in Australia . These two coasters were the first to utilize Linear Synchronous Motor ( LSM ) technology to propel vehicles to top speed . The park originally intended to open the ride in 1996 , but the opening was delayed because of several issues with the launch system . The ride was closed in late 2010 for refurbishment , and it emerged in 2011 as " Superman : Escape from Krypton " . The refurbished ride featured new trains which face backward , and it was painted with a new color scheme . As of 2013 , Superman : Escape from Krypton has the third @-@ tallest structure , the fifth @-@ fastest speed and the third @-@ longest drop in the world .
= = History = =
= = = Superman : The Escape ( 1997 — 2010 ) = = =
While in the planning stages , the ride was going to be named Velocetron and themed as The Man of Steel . The ride was announced on January 5 , 1996 as Superman : The Escape , breaking records as the first roller coaster to reach 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) , passing Desperado and Phantom 's Revenge at 82 miles per hour ( 132 km / h ) . The ride was designed by Intamin , a Swiss roller coaster firm . It was originally intended to open on June 1 , 1996 . However , due to a range of problems with the launch system , its opening was delayed . In late 1996 , there was a preview for season pass holders . After 10 months of testing and reengineering , the ride opened on March 15 , 1997 . After its opening , the media claimed Superman to be the fastest roller coaster in the world . However , since it was delayed , a similar roller coaster known as Tower of Terror , which also has a 100 @-
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gone , and there is a bellcote at the west end , which may be original rather than a later addition . There is no physical division between the nave and the chancel , although one account in the 19th century said that there had originally been a screen separating them , and some traces of it still remained at that time .
Entrance to the church was through a doorway with a square head , in the north wall at the west end ; this dates from the 19th century . An inscribed stone near the doorway has the date 1798 and some initials , and it has been suggested that this marked the date of some renovation work . There are two windows on the south wall , one fully blocked and one partially blocked . The small window at the east end of the church dates from the latter part of the 15th century .
Inside , little remains , but the ruins still have most of the original roof trusses ( one , at the west end of the church , is a replacement ) . There are some slate memorial tablets on the walls , dating from the middle of the 19th century , and a plain 12th @-@ century circular font . The 1937 survey noted a bell dating from 1717 and some portions of 17th @-@ century panelled seating near the pulpit ; these were not recorded when the church was given listed status in 1970 .
= = Assessment = =
St Mary 's has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing , designating " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " . It was given this status on 12 May 1970 and has been listed because it is " a late Medieval church of exceptionally simple character " . Cadw ( the Welsh Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also notes that despite its " very poor condition " , St Mary 's " is a virtually unaltered late Medieval building ( even retaining the original roof trusses ) and in its isolation , is characteristic of many churches on the island . "
Writing in 1859 , the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones called it a " small , plain , single @-@ aisled chapel " , and said that one of the small south windows was " a good specimen of its kind . " A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey says that the " roofless ruin " of St Mary 's " has the distinction of probably being the most isolated church in Anglesey " .
= First Light ( Rebecca Stead novel ) =
First Light is a young adult science fiction and mystery novel by Rebecca Stead , first published in 2007 . The novel follows Peter , who is in Greenland with his father and mother for research on global warming , and Thea , who lives in Gracehope , an underground colony located below Greenland . First Light explains how global warming is melting Gracehope and Peter and Thea 's attempt to persuade the people to leave . The novel addresses the effects of global warming as a theme .
Stead began writing the novel in 2002 , but her first draft was confusing and unorganized . To help her , she met editor Wendy Lamb who advised her to meet with a small group of people who would help critique the novel . After three years of work , Stead finished the second draft and met with Lamb who once again helped make improvements and later published the novel . Reviewers praised the description of Gracehope and main characters , as well as the performances of Coleen Marlo and David Ackroyd who voiced Thea and Peter in a subsequent audiobook publication of First Light .
= = Inspiration and origins = =
Stead drew inspiration from many sources in order to create the novel . As a child growing up in a big city , she was interested in the small towns which made her think " that in smaller places , everybody , even the kids , had special identities , where as in a city people are pretty anonymous " . An idea began to form for a hidden society that also served as a small town .
Stead began writing First Light in 2002 , but had no experience prior to that . The first draft turned out confusing and unorganized . To help her , Stead met with Wendy Lamb , an editor Stead had met in a workshop a few years before . Lamb suggested that Stead meet with a " critique group " who would help read and revise the drafts Stead wrote . After Stead created a revised copy of the novel in 2005 , she sent it to Lamb again and a contract was drawn up . More revisions were made in order to make the new world created in the novel easier to understand . Stead found it hard " to maintain a sense of ' the whole ' . Over and over I mapped out the book out for myself using post @-@ its in a manila folder , trying to get a sense of where the tension went " . The novel took three years to complete .
After the revisions were completed , much of the plot stayed the same , but several events in the original draft were cut out to strengthen the whole book . Stead combined two characters into one , having a stronger outline and also cut out several scenes for minor characters . In the end , Stead found that the revisions helped to make the book more cohesive .
= = Plot summary = =
First Light follows the adventure of two protagonists , Peter , who lives with his mother and father in New York but is in Greenland for his father 's research , and Thea , who lives in an underground colony in Greenland called Gracehope . Gracehope was formed hundreds of years ago by a group called the Settlers who used to live in England . They possessed unusual abilities , such as extremely good vision and hearing , leading them to be called ' eye adepts ' and ' ear adepts ' , respectively . These powers were seen as sorcery , prompting Grace , the leader of the Settlers , to bring the Settlers under the ice in Greenland where they could live in peace .
While walking around her house , Thea finds a map in her room of Gracehope . The map shows a tunnel leading onto the surface . Thea and her cousin Mattias find the tunnel and meet Peter who helps them back to Gracehope . Reaching Gracehope , Peter realizes that several talismans of the people are in the shape of mitochondrial DNA , which his mom is studying . After waking up from a headache , Peter finds his mom next to his bed . She explains that she used to live in Gracehope , but was banished with her sister , after her sister ventured above the surface and contracted an illness that could not be cured . She also explains that her research of mitochondrial DNA relates to the ability of mutations to benefit the human body , which could cause their extremely good vision and hearing . In the end , she warns Peter that global warming is causing Gracehope to slowly melt away . The entire colony must learn the dangers they face and escape . One obstacle lies in their way : Rowen , Thea and Peter 's grandmother who banished Peter 's mom and did nothing to help Thea 's mom when she was on her deathbed from an illness when she ventured aboveground . Rowen is the head of the Council in Gracehope and is strictly against going aboveground .
To convince the rest of the colony , Peter and Thea plan to use a piece of mythology , that a dog with four white paws would be born when it was time to leave . Such a dog had been born several days ago but has yet to open his eyes . Thea decides to proceed without using the dog and tries to convince the colony at a reenactment of the Settler 's escape to Greenland with several allies who know of Rowen 's actions . Just as Thea and her allies are about to lose the argument , Peter arrives with the dog , whose eyes are open . That , coupled with the fact that Peter is an eye adept , the first in a hundred years , convinces the colony to listen to Thea instead of Rowen . The novel ends eight months later as the people of Gracehope are slowly educated on global warming and the dangers of staying in their colony .
= = Genre and themes = =
First Light is categorized as a science fiction and mystery novel . Katie Haegele from the Philadelphia Inquirer also listed the novel as a " slow @-@ to @-@ unfold mystery combining elements of science and history with an appealing note of fantasy " . Kirkus Reviews classified the novel as an " ice @-@ age mystery " as both Peter and Thea " discover one another 's worlds as well as the truth about themselves " . Connie Tyrrell Burns from School Library Journal found the novel to be " an exciting , engaging mix of science fiction , mystery , and adventure " .
Reviewers also noted the environmental theme in the book . Kirkus Reviews found that " With the impending threat of global warning as an ominous backdrop , teens from very different worlds find they have much in common " . In the novel , Peter finds an underground civilization beneath Greenland that is sinking as a result of global warming . Burns felt that First Light is a " great discussion starter of issues ranging from global warming to shunning and building a new society " . VOYA recognized the global warming theme and also classified First Light as a coming @-@ of @-@ age tale .
= = Critical reception = =
Publisher 's Weekly said , " It is a testament to the storytelling that the existence of this parallel world and the convergence of Peter and Thea 's stories , told in separate chapters , are both credible and absorbing . Young readers will find this a journey worth taking . " Kirkus Reviews found the novel to be a " Thoroughly enjoyable arctic adventure " , praising how the adventure tests the main characters ' courage as they learn the truth of both worlds . Vicky Smith from Horn Book Magazine found the two main characters well written and the city of Gracehope well structured . While , Smith found the city 's origin unbelievable , she recognized that few people would care about that and compared the threat in First Light similar to the one in The City of Ember . Jenifer Hubert from Booklist also compared the novel to The City of Ember and to Neal Shusterman 's Downsiders . Hubert criticized the slow beginning and flaws in the mythology and structure of the underground world , but still felt that " the icy setting and global @-@ warming theme are well realized " .
= = Audiobook adaption = =
First Light has been made in an audiobook containing six disks and a length of seven hours and six minutes . The audiobook was released by the Listening Library and read by David Ackroyd and Coleen Marlo for the parts of Peter and Thea , respectively . Kathy Miller from School Library Journal praised the two readers for their performance which " engages listeners , and they are both adept at creating a different voice for each character and moving seamlessly between them " . Miller also found the novel useful for starting a discussion on topics such as " political subterfuge and propaganda to global warming " . A review from Horn Book Review by Jenifer Brabander praised the easy shifts from American to English accents made by both narrators . Brabander also found the tone given to Thea appropriate and compared the novel to Stead 's second work , When You Reach Me , feeling that " [ t ] hough First Light doesn 't reach the excellence of Stead 's second novel , the Newbery @-@ winning When You Reach Me , this audio will nevertheless draw listeners in with its narrators ' strong talent " .
= Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral =
The Metropolitan Cathedral of the Assumption of the Most Blessed Virgin Mary into Heaven ( Spanish : Catedral Metropolitana de la Asunción de la Santísima Virgen María a los cielos ) is the largest cathedral in the Americas , and seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mexico . It is situated atop the former Aztec sacred precinct near the Templo Mayor on the northern side of the Plaza de la Constitución in Downtown Mexico City . The cathedral was built in sections from 1573 to 1813 around the original church that was constructed soon after the Spanish conquest of Tenochtitlan , eventually replacing it entirely . Spanish architect Claudio de Arciniega planned the construction , drawing inspiration from Gothic cathedrals in Spain .
The cathedral has four façades which contain portals flanked with columns and statues . The two bell towers contain a total of 25 bells . The tabernacle , adjacent to the cathedral , contains the baptistery and serves to register the parishioners . There are two large , ornate altars , a sacristy , and a choir in the cathedral . Fourteen of the cathedral 's sixteen chapels are open to the public . Each chapel is dedicated to a different saint or saints , and each was sponsored by a religious guild . The chapels contain ornate altars , altarpieces , retablos , paintings , furniture and sculptures . The cathedral is home to two of the largest 18th @-@ century organs in the Americas . There is a crypt underneath the cathedral that holds the remains of many former archbishops .
Over the centuries , the cathedral has suffered damage . A fire in 1967 destroyed a significant part of the cathedral 's interior . The restoration work that followed uncovered a number of important documents and artwork that had previously been hidden . Although a solid foundation was built for the cathedral , the soft clay soil it is built on has been a threat to its structural integrity . Dropping water tables and accelerated sinking caused the structure to be added to the World Monuments Fund list of the 100 Most Endangered Sites . Reconstruction work beginning in the 1990s stabilized the cathedral and it was removed from the endangered list in 2000 .
After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , the conquistadors decided to build their church on the site of the Templo Mayor of the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan to consolidate Spanish power over the newly conquered domain . Hernán Cortés and the other conquistadors used the stones from the destroyed temple of the Aztec god of war Huitzilopochtli , principal deity of the Aztecs , to build the church . Cortés ordered the original church 's construction after he returned from exploring what is now Honduras . Architect Martín de Sepúlveda was the first director of this project from 1524 to 1532 . Juan de Zumárraga , the first Bishop of the first See of the New World , established in the Viceroyalty of New Spain , promoted this church 's completion . Zumárraga 's Cathedral was located in the northeast portion of what is now the cathedral . It had three naves separated by three Tuscan columns . The central roof was ridged with intricate carvings done by Juan Salcedo Espinosa and gilded by Francisco de Zumaya and Andrés de la Concha . The main door was probably of Renaissance style . The choir area had 48 seats made of ayacahuite wood crafted by Adrian Suster and Juan Montaño . However , this church was soon considered inadequate for the growing importance of the capital of New Spain .
In 1544 , ecclesiastical authorities in Valladolid ordered the creation of new and more sumptuous cathedral . In 1552 , an agreement was reached whereby the cost of the new cathedral would be shared by the Spanish crown , encomenderos and the Indians under the direct authority of the archbishop of New Spain . The cathedral was begun by being built around the existing church in 1573 . When enough of the cathedral was built to house basic functions , the original church was demolished to enable construction to continue .
= = Construction = =
The cathedral was constructed over a period of over two centuries , between 1573 and 1813 . Its design is a mixture of three architectural styles that predominated during the colonial period , Renaissance , Baroque and Neo @-@ classic .
Initial plans for the new cathedral were drawn up and work on the foundation began in 1562 . The decision to have the cathedral face south instead of east was made in 1570 . In the same year , construction commenced , working from the Gothic designs and models created by Claudio de Arciniega and Juan Miguel de Agüero , inspired by cathedrals found in Spanish cities such as Valladolid and Jaén .
Because of the muddy subsoil of the site , work on the foundation continued past the work on the walls to 1581 . In 1585 , work on the first of the cathedral 's chapels began and by 1615 , the cathedral 's walls reached to about half of their final height . Construction of the interior of the current cathedral began in 1623 and what is now the vestry was where Mass was conducted after the first church was finally torn down .
In 1629 , work was interrupted by flooding , over two metres in depth . Parts of the city were damaged , especially around the main plaza or Zocalo . Because of such damage , this site was almost abandoned and a new cathedral project was begun in the hills of the Tacubaya area to the west .
Despite these problems , the project continued in its current location , and under the direction of Luis Gómez de Transmonte , the interior was finished and consecrated in 1667 . The cathedral still lacked bell towers , the complete front facade , and many of the other features it has now at the beginning of the 18th century .
In 1787 , José Damian Ortiz de Castro was in charge of finishing work on the cathedral . He did most of the work on the bell towers , putting in most of the fretwork and capping them with roofs in the shape of bells . With his death in 1793 , he did not live to see the cathedral completed , and Manuel Tolsá finished the cathedral by adding the cupola , the central front facade , the balustrades , and the statues of Faith , Hope and Charity at the top of the front facade . Tolsa 's work was the last major construction to the cathedral and the appearance it had when he finished is the basic look the cathedral has today .
The cathedral faces south and is approximately 54 @.@ 5 metres ( 179 ft ) wide and 110 metres ( 360 ft ) long . It consists of two bell towers , a central dome , three main portals , five naves , 51 vaults , 74 arches and 40 columns . Inside the cathedral are five large altars , sixteen chapels , a choir area , a corridor , capitulary room , and sacristy . The cathedral has approximately 150 windows .
= = Exterior = =
= = = Facades and portals = = =
The main facade of the cathedral faces south . The main portal is centered in the main facade and is the highest of the cathedral 's three portals . Statues of Saint Peter and Paul the Apostle stand between the columns of the portal , while Saint Andrew and James the Just are depicted on the secondary doorway . In the center of this doorway is a high relief of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary , to whom the cathedral is dedicated . This image is flanked by images of Saint Matthew and Saint Andrew . The coat of arms of Mexico is above the doorway , with the eagle 's wings outstretched . There is a clock tower at the very top of the portal with statues representing Faith , Hope and Charity , which was created by sculptor Manuel Tolsá .
The west facade was constructed in 1688 and rebuilt in 1804 . It has a three @-@ section portal with images of the Four Evangelists . The west portal has high reliefs depicting Jesus handing the Keys of Heaven to Saint Peter .
The east facade is similar to the west facade . The reliefs on the east portal show a ship carrying the four apostles , with Saint Peter at the helm . The title of this relief is The ship of the Church sailing the seas of Eternity .
The northern facade , built during the 16th century in the Renaissance Herrera style , is oldest part of the cathedral and was named after Juan de Herrera , architect of the El Escorial monastery in Spain . While the eastern and western facades are older than most of the rest of the building , their third level has Solomonic columns which are associated with the Baroque period .
All the high reliefs of the portals of the cathedral were inspired by the work of Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens .
= = = Bell towers = = =
The bell towers are the work of Xalapan artist José Damián Ortiz de Castro . They are capped with bell @-@ shaped roofs made of tezontle covered in chiluca , a white stone . Ortiz de Castro was in charge of the cathedral 's construction in the latter half of the 18th century until he died , unexpectedly . Manuel Tolsá of Valencia , who had built other notable buildings in Mexico City , was hired to finish the cathedral . At this point , the cathedral had already been 240 years in the making . He added the neo @-@ Classic structure housing the clock , the statues of the three theological virtues ( Faith , Hope , and Charity ) , the high balustrade surrounding the building , and the dome that rises over the transept .
The cathedral has 25 bells — eighteen hang in the east bell tower and seven in the west tower . The largest bell is named the Santa Maria de Guadalupe and weighs around 13 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 29 @,@ 000 lb ) . Other major bells are named the Doña Maria , which weighs 6 @,@ 900 kilograms ( 15 @,@ 200 lb ) , and La Ronca ( " the hoarse one " ) , named so because of its harsh tone . Doña Maria and La Ronca were placed in 1653 while the largest bell was placed later in 1793 .
The statues in the west tower are the work of José Zacarías Cora and represent Pope Gregory VII , Saint Augustine , Leander of Seville , St. Fulgentius of Écija , St.Francis Xavier , and Saint Barbara . The statues in the east tower are by Santiago Cristóbal Sandoval and depict Emilio , Rose of Lima , Mary ( mother of Jesus ) , Ambrogio , Jerome , Philip of Jesus , Hippolytus of Rome , and Isidore the Laborer .
In 1947 , a novice bell ringer died in an accident when he tried to move one of the bells while standing under it . The bell swung back and hit him in the head , killing him instantly . The bell was then " punished " by removing the clapper . In the following years , the bell was known as la castigada ( " the punished one " ) , or la muda ( " the mute one " ) . In 2000 , the clapper was reinstalled in the bell .
In October 2007 , a time capsule was found inside the stone ball base of a cross , in the southern bell tower of the cathedral . It was placed in 1742 , supposedly to protect the building from harm . The lead box was filled with religious artifacts , coins and parchments and hidden in a hollow stone ball . The ball was marked with the date of 14 May 1791 , when the building 's topmost stone was laid . A new time capsule will be placed in the stone ball when it is closed again .
= = = Tabernacle = = =
Situated to the right of the main cathedral , the Metropolitan Tabernacle ( Spanish : Sagrario Metropolitana ) was built by Lorenzo Rodríguez during the height of the Baroque period between 1749 and 1760 , to house the archives and vestments of the archbishop . It also functioned and continues to function as a place to receive Eucharist and register parishioners .
The first church built on the cathedral site also had a tabernacle , but its exact location is unknown . During the construction of the cathedral , the tabernacle was housed in what are now the Chapels of San Isidro and Our Lady of Agony of Granada . However , in the 18th century , it was decided to build a structure that was separate , but still connected , to the main cathedral . It is constructed of tezontle ( a reddish porous volcanic rock ) and white stone in the shape of a Greek cross with its southern facade faces the Zócalo . It is connected to the main cathedral via the Chapel of San Isidro .
The interiors of each wing have separate uses . In the west wing is the baptistry , in the north is the main altar , the main entrance and a notary area , separated by inside corner walls made of chiluca stone and tezontle . Chiluca , a white stone , covers the walls and floors and the tezontle frames the doors and windows . At the crossing of the structure is an octagonal dome framed by arches that form curved triangles where they meet at the top of the dome . The principal altar is in the ornate Churrigueresque style and crafted by indigenous artist Pedro Patiño Ixtolinque . It was inaugurated in 1829 .
The exterior of the Baroque styled tabernacle is almost entirely adorned with decorations , such as curiously shaped niche shelves , floating drapes and many cherubs . Carvings of fruits such as grapes and pomegranates have been created to in the shape of ritual offerings , symbolizing the Blood of Christ and the Church . Among the floral elements , roses , daisies , and various types of four @-@ petalled flowers can be found , including the indigenous chalchihuite .
The tabernacle has two main outside entrances ; one to the south , facing the Zócalo and the other facing east toward Seminario Street . The southern façade is more richly decorated than the east façade . It has a theme of glorifying the Eucharist with images of the Apostles , Church Fathers , saints who founded religious orders , martyrs as well as scenes from the Bible . Zoomorphic reliefs can be found along with the anthropologic reliefs , including a rampaging lion , and the eagle from the coat of arms of Mexico . The east facade is less ambitious , but contains figures from the Old Testament as well as the images of John Nepomucene and Ignacio de Loyola . Construction dates for the phases of the tabernacle are also inscribed here .
= = Interior = =
= = = Altars = = =
= = = = Altar of Forgiveness = = = =
The Altar of Forgiveness is located at the front of the central nave . It is the first aspect of the interior that is seen upon entering the cathedral . It was the work of Spanish architect Jerónimo Balbás , and represents the first use of the estípite column ( an inverted triangle @-@ shaped pilaster ) in the Americas .
There are two stories about how the name of this altar came about . The first states that those condemned by the Spanish Inquisition were brought to the altar to ask for forgiveness in the next world before their execution . The second relates to painter Simon Pereyns , who despite being the author of many of the works of the cathedral , was accused of blasphemy . According to the story , while Pereyns was in jail , he painted such a beautiful image of the Virgin Mary that his crime was forgiven .
This altar was damaged by fire in January 1967 but has been completely restored .
= = = = Altar of the Kings = = = =
The Altar of the Kings was also the work of Jerónimo Balbás , in Mexican Baroque or Churrigueresque style . It was begun in 1718 by Balbás in cedar , and was gilded and finished by Francico Martínez , debuting in 1737 . It is located at the back of the Cathedral , beyond the Altar of Forgiveness and the choir . This altar is 13 @.@ 75 metres ( 45 @.@ 1 ft ) wide , 25 metres ( 82 ft ) tall and 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) deep . Its size and depth gave rise to the nickname la cueva dorada ( " the golden cave " ) .
It takes its name from the statues of saintly royalty which form part of its decoration , and is the oldest work in churrigueresque style in Mexico , taking 19 years to complete . At the bottom , from left to right , are six female royal saints : Saint Margaret of Scotland , Helena of Constantinople , Elisabeth of Hungary , Isabel of Portugal , Empress Cunegunda and Edith of Wilton . In the middle of the altar are six canonized kings , four of whom are : Hermenegild a Visigoth martyr , Henry II , Holy Roman Emperor , Edward the Confessor and Casimir of Poland . Above these four are Saints Louis of France and Ferdinand III of Castile . In between these kings an oil painting of the Adoration of the Magi by Juan Rodriguez Juarez shows Jesus as the King of kings . The top portion features a painting of the Assumption of Mary as celestial queen flanked by oval bas reliefs , one of Saint Joseph carrying the infant Jesus and the other of Saint Teresa of Ávila with a quill in her hand and the Holy Spirit above her , inspiring her to write . Above this are figures of Jesus and Mary among sculptures of angels crowned with an image of God , the Father .
This altar has been under restoration since 2003 .
= = = Sacristy = = =
The Herrera door opens into the sacristy , the oldest part of the cathedral . It is a mixture of Renaissance and Gothic styles .
The walls hold large canvases painted by Cristóbal de Villalpando , such as The Apotheosis of Saint Michael , The Triumph of the Eucharist , The Church Militant and the Church Triumphant , and The Virgin of the Apocalypse . The Virgin of the Apocalypse depicts the vision of John of Patmos . Two other canvases , Entering Jerusalem and The Assumption of the Virgin , painted by Juan Correa , are also here . An additional painting , attributed to Bartolomé Esteban Murillo , hangs in the Sacristy .
On the north wall , there is a niche that holds a statue of the crucifix with a Christ image sculpted in ivory . Behind this , is another mural that depicts the Juan Diego 's of Our Lady of Guadalupe . The Sacristy used to house Juan Diego 's cloak , upon which the Virgin 's image purportedly appears , but after massive flooding in 1629 , it was removed from the Sacristy to better protect it .
A cabinet on the west wall of the Sacristy , under the Virgin of the Apocalypse painting , once held golden chalices and cups trimmed with precious stones , as well as other utensils .
In 1957 , The wooden floor and platform around the perimeter of the Sacristy were replaced with stone .
= = = Chapels = = =
The cathedral 's sixteen chapels were each assigned to a religious guild , and each is dedicated to a saint . Each of the two side naves contain seven chapels . The other two were created later on the eastern and western sides of the cathedral . These last two are not open to the public . The fourteen chapels in the east and west naves are listed below . The first seven are in the east nave , listed from north to south , and the last seven are in the west nave .
= = = = Chapel of Our Lady of the Agonies of Granada = = = =
The Chapel of Our Lady of the Agonies of Granada ( Spanish : Capilla de Nuestra Señora de las Angustias de Granada ) was built in the first half of the 17th century , and originally served as the sacristy . It is a medieval @-@ style chapel with a ribbed vault and two relatively simple altarpieces . The narrow altarpiece contains an oval painting of Saint Raphael , Archangel and the young Tobias , a 16th century painting attributed to Flemish painter Maerten de Vos . At the top of this altarpiece is a painting of Our Lady of Mount Carmel , and above this is a painting of the Last Supper . At the back of the chapel is a churrigueresque painting of Our Lady of the Agonies of Granada .
= = = = Chapel of Saint Isidore = = = =
The Chapel of Saint Isidore ( Spanish : Capilla de San Isidro ) was originally built as an annex between 1624 and 1627 , and was once used as the baptistery . Its vault contains plaster casts representing Faith , Hope , Charity , and Justice , considered to be basic values in the Catholic religion . After the Tabernacle was built , it was converted into a chapel and its door was reworked in a churrigueresque style .
= = = = Chapel of the Immaculate Conception = = = =
The Chapel of the Immaculate Conception ( Spanish : Capilla de la Inmaculada Concepción ) was built between 1642 and 1648 . It has a churrigueresque altarpiece which , due to the lack of columns , most likely dates from the 18th century . The altar is framed with molding — instead of columns — and a painting of the Immaculate Conception presides over it . The altar is surrounded by paintings by José de Ibarra relating to the Passion of Christ and various saints . The chapel also contains a canvas of Saint Christopher painted by Simon Pereyns in 1588 , and the Flagellation by Baltasar de Echave Orio , painted in 1618 . The altarpiece on the right side is also dedicated to the Immaculate Conception and was donated by the College of Saints Peter and Paul . This chapel holds the remains of Franciscan friar Antonio Margil de Jesús who was evangelized in what is now the north of Mexico .
= = = = Chapel of Our Lady of Guadalupe = = = =
The Chapel of Our Lady of Guadalupe ( Spanish : Capilla de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe ) was built in 1660 . It was the first baptistery of the cathedral and for a long time was the site for the Brotherhood of the Most Holy Sacrament , which had many powerful benefactors . It is decorated in a 19th century neo @-@ classic style by the architect Antonio Gonzalez Vazquez , director of the Academy of San Carlos . The main altarpiece is dedicated to the Virgin of Guadalupe and the sides altars are dedicated to John the Baptist and San Luis Gonzaga respectively .
= = = = Chapel of Our Lady of Antigua = = = =
The Chapel of Our Lady of Antigua ( Spanish : Capilla de Nuestra Señora de La Antigua ) was sponsored and built between 1653 and 1660 by a brotherhood of musicians and organists , which promoted devotion to this Virgin . Its altarpiece contains a painting of the Virgin , a copy of one found in the Cathedral of Seville . This copy was brought to New Spain by a merchant . Two other paintings show the birth of the Virgin and her presentation . Both were painted by Nicolás Rodriguez Juárez .
= = = = = Chapel of Saint Peter = = = = =
The Chapel of Saint Peter ( Spanish : Capilla de San Pedro ) was built between 1615 and 1620 , and contains three highly decorated Baroque altarpieces from the 17th century . The altar at the back is dedicated to Saint Peter , whose sculpture presides over the altar . It is surrounded by early 17th century paintings relating to his life , painted by Baltasar de Echave Orio . To the right is an altarpiece dedicated to the Holy Family , with two paintings by Juan de Aguilera of Florence called The Holy Family in the workshop of Saint Joseph and Birth of the Savior . The altarpiece to the left of the main altarpiece is dedicated to Saint Theresa of Jesus whose image also appears in the chapel 's window . It includes four paintings on sheets of metal that depict scenes from the birth of Jesus . Five oil paintings illustrate scenes from the life of Saint Theresa , and above this is a semi @-@ circular painting of the coronation of Mary . All these works were created in the 17th century by Baltasar de Echave y Rioja .
This chapel is home to the Niño Cautivo ( Captive Child ) a Child Jesus figure that was brought to Mexico from Spain . It was sculpted in the 16th century by Juan Martínez Montañez in Spain and purchased by the cathedral . However , on its way to Veracruz , pirates attacked the ship it was on and sacked it . To get the image back , a large ransom was paid . Today , the image is in the Chapel of San Pedro or De las Reliquias . Traditionally , the image has been petitioned by those seeking release from restrictions or traps , especially financial problems or drug addiction or alcoholism . The cult to the Niño Cautivo is considered to be " inactive " by INAH . However , this particular image has made a comeback since 2000 as one to petition when a family member is abducted and held for ransom .
= = = = Chapel of Christ and of the Reliquaries = = = =
The Chapel of Christ and of the Reliquaries ( Spanish : Capilla del Santo Cristo y de las Reliquias ) was built in 1615 and designed with ultra @-@ Baroque details which are often difficult to see in the poorly lit interior . It was originally known as the Christ of the Conquistadors . That name came from an image of Christ that was supposedly donated to the cathedral by Emperor Charles V. Over time , so many reliquaries were left on its main altar that its name was eventually changed . Of 17th century ornamentation , the main altarpiece alternates between carvings of rich foliage and small heads on its columns in the main portion and small sculptures of angels on its telamons in the secondary portion . Its niches hold sculptures of saints framing the main body . Its crucifix is from the 17th century . The predella is finished with sculptures of angels , and also contains small 17th paintings of martyred saints by Juan de Herrera . Behind these paintings , hidden compartments contain some of the numerous reliquaries left here . Its main painting was done by Jose de Ibarra and dated 1737 . Surrounding the altar is a series of paintings on canvas , depicting the Passion of Christ by Jose Villegas , painted in the 17th century . On the right @-@ hand wall , an altar dedicated to the Virgin of the Confidence is decorated with numerous churrigueresque figurines tucked away in niches , columns and top pieces .
= = = = Chapel of the Holy Angels and Archangels = = = =
The Chapel of the Holy Angels and Archangels ( Spanish : Capilla de los Ángeles ) was finished in 1665 with Baroque altarpieces decorated with Solomonic columns . It is dedicated to the Archangel Michael , who is depicted as a medieval knight . It contains a large main altarpiece with two smaller altarpieces both decorated by Juan Correa . The main altarpiece is dedicated to the seven archangels , who are represented by sculptures , in niches surrounding images of Saint Joseph , Mary and Christ . Above this scene are the Holy Spirit and God the Father . The left @-@ hand altarpiece is of similar design and is dedicated to the Guardian Angel , whose sculpture is surrounded with pictures arranged to show the angelic hierarchy . To the left of this , a scene shows Saint Peter being released from prison , and to the right , Saul , later Saint Paul , being knocked from his horse , painted by Juan Correa in 1714 . The right @-@ hand altarpiece is dedicated to the Guardian Angel of Mexico .
= = = = Chapel of Saints Cosme and Damian = = = =
The Chapel of Saints Cosme and Damian ( Spanish : Capilla de San Cosme y San Damián ) was built because these two saints were commonly invoked during a time when New Spain suffered from the many diseases brought by the Conquistadors . The main altarpiece is Baroque , probably built in the 17th century . Oil paintings on wood contain scenes from physician saints , and are attributed to painter Sebastian Lopez Davalos , during the second half of the 17th century . The chapel contains one small altarpiece which came from the Franciscan church in Zinacantepec , to the west of Mexico City , and is dedicated to the birth of Jesus .
= = = = Chapel of Saint Joseph = = = =
The Chapel of Saint Joseph ( Spanish : Capilla de San José ) , built between 1653 and 1660 , contains an image of Our Lord of Cacao , an image of Christ most likely from the 16th century . Its name was inspired from a time when many indigenous worshipers would give their alms in the form of cocoa beans . Churrigueresque in style and containing an graffito statue of Saint Joseph , patron saint of New Spain , the main altarpiece is Baroque and is from the 18th century . This once belonged to the Church of Our Lady of Monserrat . This altar contains statues and cubicles containing busts of the Apostles , but contains no paintings .
= = = = Chapel of Our Lady of Solitude = = = =
The Chapel of Our Lady of Solitude ( Spanish : Capilla de Nuestra Señora de la Soledad ) was originally built in honor of the workers who built the cathedral . It contains three Baroque altarpieces . The main altarpiece is supported by caryatids and small angels as telamons , to uphold the base of the main body . It is dedicated to the Virgin of Solitude of Oaxaca , whose image appears in the center . The surrounding 16th century paintings are by Pedro Ramírez , and depict scenes from the life of Christ .
= = = = Chapel of Saint Eligius = = = =
The Chapel of Saint Eligius ( Spanish : Capilla de San Eligio ) , also known as the Chapel of the Lord of Safe Expeditions ( Spanish : Capilla del Señor del Buen Despacho ) , was built by the first silversmith guild , who donated the images of the Conception and Saint Eligius to whom the chapel was formerly dedicated . The chapel was redecorated in the 19th century , and the image of Our Lord of Good Sending was placed here , named thus , since many supplicants reported having their prayers answered quickly . The image is thought to be from the 16th century and sent as a gift from Charles V of Spain .
= = = = Chapel of Our Lady of Sorrows = = = =
The Chapel of Our Lady of Sorrows ( Spanish : Capilla de Nuestra Señora de los Dolores ) , formerly known as the Chapel of the Lord 's Supper ( Spanish : Capilla de la Santa Cena ) , was built in 1615 . It was originally dedicated to the Last Supper since a painting of this event was once kept here . It was later remodeled in a Neo @-@ classical style , with three altarpieces added by Antonio Gonzalez Velazquez . The main altarpiece contains an image of the Virgin of Sorrows sculpted in wood and painted by Francisco Terrazas , at the request of Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico . On the left @-@ hand wall a ladder leads to a series of crypts which hold most of the remains of past archbishops of Mexico . The largest and grandest of these crypts contains the remains of Juan de Zumarraga , the first archbishop of Mexico .
= = = = Chapel of Saint Philip of Jesus = = = =
The Chapel of Saint Philip of Jesus ( Spanish : Capilla de San Felipe de Jesús ) was completed during one of the earliest stages of the construction of the cathedral . It is dedicated to Philip of Jesus , a friar and the only martyr from New Spain , who was crucified in Japan . The chapel is topped with a Gothic @-@ style dome and has a Baroque altarpiece from the 17th century . A statue of the saint is located in a large niche in the altarpiece . The altar to the left is dedicated to Saint Rose of Lima , considered a protector of Mexico City . To the right is an urn which holds the remains of Agustín de Iturbide , who briefly ruled Mexico in the 19th century . Next to this chapel is a baptismal font , in which it is believed Philip of Jesus was baptised .
= = = Organs = = =
The cathedral has had perhaps a dozen organs over the course of its history . The earliest is mentioned in a report written to the king of Spain in 1530 . Few details survive of the earliest organs . Builders names begin to appear at the end of the sixteenth century . The earliest disposition that survives is for the Diego de Sebaldos organ built in 1655 . The first large organ for Mexico City Cathedral was built in Madrid from 1689 to 1690 by Jorge de Sesma and installed by Tiburcio Sanz from 1693 to 1695 . It now has two , which were made in Mexico by José Nassarre of Spain , and completed by 1736 , incorporating elements of the 17th century organ . They are the largest 18th century organs in the Americas ; they are situated above the walls of the choir , on the epistle side ( east ) and the gospel side ( west ) . Both organs , damaged by fire in 1967 , were restored in 1978 . Because both organs had fallen into disrepair again , the gospel organ was re @-@ restored from 2008 @-@ 2009 by Gerhard Grenzing ; the restoration of the epistle organ , also by Grenzing , was completed in 2014 , and both organs are now playable .
= = = Choir = = =
The choir is where the priest and / or a choral group sings the psalms . It is located in the central nave between the main door and the high altar , and built in a semicircular fashion , much like Spanish cathedrals . It was built by Juan de Rojas between 1696 and 1697 . Its sides contain 59 reliefs of various saints done in mahogany , walnut , cedar and a native wood called tepehuaje . The railing that surrounds the choir was made in 1722 by Sangley Queaulo in Macao , China and placed in the cathedral in 1730 .
= = = Crypt = = =
The Crypt of the Archbishops is located below the floor of the cathedral beneath the Altar of the Kings . The entrance to the crypt from the cathedral is guarded by a large wooden door behind which descends a winding yellow staircase . Just past the inner entrance is a Mexica @-@ style stone skull . It was incorporated as an offering into the base of a cenotaph to Juan de Zumárraga , the first archbishop of Mexico . Zumárraga was considered to be a benefactor of the Indians , protecting them against the abuses of their Spanish overlords . There is also a natural @-@ sized sculpture of the archbishop atop the cenotaph .
On its walls are dozens of bronze plaques that indicate the locations of the remains of most of Mexico City 's former archbishops , including Cardinal Ernesto Corripio y Ahumada . The floor is covered with small marble slabs covering niches containing the remains of other people .
The cathedral contains other crypts and niches where other religious figures are buried , including in the chapels .
= = Restoration = =
The sinking ground and seismic activity of the area have had an effect on the cathedral 's construction and current appearance . Forty @-@ two years were required simply to lay its foundation when it was first built , because even then the Spaniards recognized the danger of constructing such a huge monument in soft soil . However , for political reasons , much , but not all , of the cathedral was built over the remains of pre @-@ Hispanic structures , leading to uneven foundation from the beginning .
= = = Fire of 1967 = = =
On 17 January 1967 at 9 pm , a fire caused by an electrical short circuit caused extensive damage to the cathedral . On the Altar of Forgiveness , much of the structure and decoration were damaged including the loss of three paintings ; The Holy Face by Alonso López de Herrera , The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian by Francisco de Zumaya and The Virgin of Forgiveness by Simon Pereyns . The choir section lost 75 of its 99 seats as well a painting by Juan Correa along with many stored books . The two cathedral organs
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from court to care for his diocese . Towards the end of 1105 Gerard attempted to join Bohemond of Antioch , who was assembling a crusading force in France , but it appears that King Henry prevented Gerard 's departure . In 1106 Gerard wrote to Bohemond that he was still preparing to go on crusade , but he never did . At about the same time , Gerard was working to find a mutually acceptable resolution to the Investiture Crisis , writing a number of letters and other works supporting Anselm 's and the pope 's position . By 1107 King Henry and Anselm had reached an agreement settling the dispute .
Gerard agreed to a compromise on the matter of obedience to Anselm . King Henry proposed that Anselm accept a witnessed oath from Gerard that he would remain bound by the profession he made to Anselm on his consecration as Bishop of Hereford . Gerard made this oath at the Council of Westminster in 1107 . It was a victory for Canterbury , but not a complete one , as Gerard avoided making a written profession , and it was specific to Gerard , not to his office . Gerard continued to oppose Anselm 's attempts to assert Canterbury 's primacy , but the two were reconciled before Gerard 's death .
Gerard also had an uneasy relationship with his cathedral chapter , after attempting to reform his cathedral clergy by forcing them to give up their wives and concubines and become ordained priests . He wrote to Anselm in 1103 complaining of the intransigence of his clergy and envying Anselm 's better relations with Canterbury 's chapter , which was composed of monks instead of the secular canons who made up York Minster 's chapter . In this correspondence , Gerard complained that some of the York canons refused to be ordained as priests , thereby hoping to avoid taking the vow of celibacy . He also accused them of accepting prebends but refusing to live or work at the cathedral , and of focusing on a narrow legal definition of celibacy without actually being celibate . The canons ' argument was that they were only required not to maintain women in their own houses , but they were not forbidden to visit or entertain women in houses belonging to others . It was not only Gerard who complained about the relationship between him and his canons ; the latter accused Gerard of impoverishing York by making gifts of lands to others .
= = Death and legacy = =
Gerard was an associate of the anonymous author of the Quadripartitus and the Leges Henrici Primi , two 12th @-@ century law books . The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury charged Gerard with immorality , avarice and the practice of magic . Gerard encouraged at least one of his clergy to study Hebrew , a language not normally studied at the time . Some chroniclers considered his ownership of a Hebrew psalter to be disturbing , seeing it as a sign of heresy or secret Judaism . Among the sins that Malmesbury imputed to him was the study of Julius Firmicus Maternus , a late Roman astrologer , every morning , which to Malmesbury meant that Gerard was a sorcerer . Malmesbury further claimed that Gerard was " lewd and lustful " . In Gerard 's favour , Anselm regarded him as learned and highly intelligent . Some verses composed by Gerard survive in unpublished form , now in the British Library manuscript collection as part of manuscript Cotton Titus D.xxiv. A collection of his letters circulated in the mid @-@ 12th century , part of a bequest made to Bec Abbey in 1164 by Philip de Harcourt , the Bishop of Bayeux , but it is now lost .
Gerard died suddenly on 21 May 1108 , at Southwell , on his way to London to attend a council . His body was found in an orchard , next to a book of " curious arts " , his copy of Julius Firmicus . His canons refused to allow his burial within his cathedral , but their hostility probably owed more to Gerard 's attempts to reform their lifestyle than to his alleged interest in sorcery . Gerard was at first buried beside the porch at York Minster , but his successor , Thomas , moved the remains inside the cathedral church .
= Something Borrowed ( Torchwood ) =
" Something Borrowed " is the ninth episode of the second series of British science fiction television series Torchwood . It was first broadcast by BBC Three on 5 March 2008 and repeated on BBC Two one week later . The episode was written by Phil Ford , directed by Ashley Way and produced by Richard Stokes . The episode featured the five initial series regulars John Barrowman , Eve Myles , Burn Gorman , Naoko Mori and Gareth David Lloyd plus recurring actor Kai Owen in a central role .
The episode centers on the marriage of Torchwood employee Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) to her long @-@ term partner Rhys Williams ( Kai Owen ) . The wedding is complicated by Gwen 's sudden impregnation by a shape @-@ shifting alien Nostrovite . Although she resolves to see her wedding through , her nuptials are interrupted by an attack from the biological mother of the alien fetus ( played successively by Collette Brown , Nerys Hughes and John Barrowman ) . With the help of Rhys and Gwen 's Torchwood colleagues the fetus is neutralised and the attacking alien defeated . Gwen and Rhys marry , and their families have their memories of the wedding day wiped .
The episode was designed to be the most humorous of Torchwood 's second series and incorporated elements of broad comedy and soap opera style storytelling to the monster of the week story . It was filmed largely on location in South Wales — prominent locations included the tourist attractions Margam Country Park and Dyffryn Gardens — and featured an ensemble of previously unseen Welsh characters . The episode was seen by an aggregated total of 4 @.@ 76 million viewers across its three debut showings in the United Kingdom . Critical response was extremely mixed . Some reviewers praised the inclusion of a less serious episode in the series whilst others felt that the comedy in the episode was too overt and detracted from the overall tone of the show .
= = Plot = =
On the night before her wedding , Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) is bitten on the arm by a male shape shifting alien . Her boss , Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) kills the alien , and Gwen attends her hen night though is troubled by her wound . She wakes up the next morning heavily pregnant . Jack arrives along with Torchwood 's medic Owen Harper ( Burn Gorman ) to examine Gwen and tries to persuade her to cancel her wedding . Gwen 's fiancee Rhys ( Kai Owen ) also tries to postpone the wedding in Gwen 's interest but Gwen insists that the wedding go ahead as she desires nothing more than to marry him . The sudden pregnancy is explained to Gwen and Rhys ' families as their own child . Gwen 's mother ( Sharon Morgan ) and father ( William Thomas ) are excited at the prospect of a grandchild , but Rhys ' parents suspect Gwen of being pregnant by another man . Torchwood agent Toshiko Sato ( Naoko Mori ) is sent to the wedding venue to keep an eye on Gwen and to deliver a new wedding dress to accommodate her alien pregnancy .
At Torchwood 's Cardiff headquarters , Owen determines from an autopsy that the alien that impregnated Gwen is a Nostrovite , a race of carnivorous shape shifters who hunt in pairs and mate for life . He tells Jack that after fertilisation , the female transfers her eggs to the male who plants them in a host body until they are ready to hatch . Later , the female kills the host to release the offspring . At the wedding venue , the female Nostrovite ( Colette Brown ) murders and partly devours wedding guest Mervyn . Toshiko investigates along with Rhys ' best man " Banana Boat " ( Jonathan Lewis Owen ) and they are subsequently captured by the alien , who intends to feed on them later . As Gwen and Rhys prepare to say their wedding vows , Jack runs up the aisle and demands that the wedding be halted . Owen and Ianto ( Gareth David @-@ Lloyd ) free Toshiko but the half @-@ eaten corpse of Mervyn is discovered by his wife , a bridesmaid , who alerts the entire wedding party to the murder . The Nostrovite reveals herself and is chased away by Jack , escaping through a window .
Jack questions Owen about Gwen and Rhys , and he states that Rhys ' mother Brenda ( Nerys Hughes ) is with them . Tosh mentions that she saw Brenda with Gwen 's mother Mary in the garden . Tosh and Jack rush to the couple 's room , where Jack identifies Brenda as an alien and calls her an " ugly bitch " . After Brenda protests her innocence and Rhys punches Jack , Gwen states that Rhys ' mother is not the shapeshifter as Brenda wears a distinctive perfume . Torchwood reach the garden to find the Nostrovite , in Brenda 's image , with Mary . The alien holds Mary hostage , demanding that Gwen give her her child . Gwen walks towards them and as the Nostrovite releases Mary , Gwen reveals a hidden gun in her wedding bouquet and fires at the creature . Owen suggests using a piece of alien equipment called the singularity scalpel to destroy the alien fetus . He sends Gwen to her room and teaches Rhys how to use the scalpel ; Owen cannot use it himself due to injuries sustained in his undead state . Gwen is approached by Jack and reveals to him that she would have married Rhys a long time ago if she had not met him . She leans in as he appears to be ready to kiss her but he reveals himself to be the Nostrovite . Owen enters , shooting the creature whilst Gwen exits with Rhys . The Nostrovite , still in Jack 's form , attempts to attack Owen only to be repelled by the fact he is dead .
Rhys and Gwen find refuge in a barn and Rhys explains Owen 's plan to remove the fetus . As the Nostrovite launches an assault on the door of the barn , Rhys succeeds in destroying the fetus . The Nostrovite enters , again impersonating Rhys ' mother . She attacks Rhys , who attempts to protect himself with a chainsaw , which malfunctions . Jack arrives and kills the alien with a more powerful gun . He shares a moment of joy with Gwen before praising Rhys ' own display of heroism and telling him that " the hero always gets the girl " . Rhys and Gwen return to the wedding venue and are married . At the wedding reception , they notice the guests all suddenly falling asleep . Jack reveals that he has drugged them all with amnesia pills mixed with sedative so that they will not remember the events of the day . Jack offers Gwen and Rhys Retcon too but Gwen declines as she does not wants any secrets in her marriage to Rhys . As Gwen and Rhys anticipate their honeymoon , Torchwood clear up the mess left behind . Later , Jack enters the Hub alone , and retrieves an old tin box from his office . He looks through photographs from his past , reminiscing , before picking up a picture of himself and an unidentified bride at their wedding .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
The original working title and given descriptor in the series breakdown for " Something Borrowed " was " The Wedding " . Writer Phil Ford felt the episode to be reminiscent of a soap @-@ opera as well as possessing science fiction elements . He describes the episode as " Coronation Street meets Torchwood " . Ford was chosen to write this episode because of his own involvement as a writer on Coronation Street and executive producer Russell T Davies ' view that this would enable him to handle a wedding with comedic elements . As the most humorous episode of the series it was deliberately scheduled alongside a series of darker episodes to provide a contrast .
Describing the tone of the episode Ford describes it as " an all out romp " and an " action , rollercoaster ride " with " a lot of comedy in it as much as thrills and nasty monsters " . Davies stated that " the whole point of the episode is to have a right old laugh " . Expanding on the comedic aspects , something Ford considered whilst writing the episode was that " the trick is to have the comedy come out of the characters " rather than the scenario itself . It was Eve Myles ' idea to have Gwen compulsively eat gherkins after waking up pregnant ; the script had only specified the character drinking a glass of water . The episode also plays on Gwen 's conflicted feelings between Jack and Rhys . Davies felt it would be " irresistible " to have the wedding temporarily halted by " the one man Rhys doesn 't want to see running down the aisle . " Ford stated that whilst Jack is " the series hero " Rhys is " the hero of this episode " . He compares a sequence where Rhys arms himself with a chainsaw to defend Gwen to the character being in " Evil Dead mode " . Producer Richard Stokes commented that the episode illuminated that " even though [ Gwen ] ' s put [ Rhys ] through some really difficult times , she really does love him and want to be with him . " In an early draft of the script Gwen and Rhys had their memories wiped at the end of the episode in addition to the other guests and were convinced by Jack that the wedding had been problem free .
= = = Casting = = =
The episode featured an ensemble of family and friends of Gwen and Rhys previously unseen in the series . William Thomas and Sharon Morgan were cast as Gwen 's parents Geraint and Mary Cooper . Davies re @-@ introduced the characters during the fourth series of the show , considering Thomas and Morgan to be " two fine Welsh actors " . Thomas had previously appeared as two different characters in the 1988 Doctor Who serial Remembrance of the Daleks and the 2005 Doctor Who episode " Boom Town " . Upon appearing in " Something Borrowed " he became the first actor to have appeared in all three of the classic series , new series and Torchwood . Nerys Hughes played Rhys ' mother Brenda Williams , in addition to a duplicate form of the alien Nostrovite . Like Thomas she had previously appeared in a Doctor Who serial ( the 1982 story Kinda ) . Hughes enjoyed getting to play a " monster " for the first time in her career which involved having " fangs and claws and red eyes " and being wired up so " all this black blood can ooze out when I get shot " . Despite the funny aspect of the script Hughes took the role seriously stating that " everyone plays it for real " and that " you can 't camp it up " . She believed that as an actor " you 've got to believe what you 're doing " .
Kai Owen describes Thomas , Morgan and Hughes collectively with Robin Griffith ( Barry Williams ) as a " good old @-@ fashioned Welsh cast who know what it 's all about " . Jonathan Lewis Owen was cast as Rhys ' best man " Banana Boat " a character referred to sporadically since Torchwood 's first series premiere " Everything Changes " ( 2006 ) . In keeping with the character 's name he was given a pair of banana patterned cuff links to compliment his costume . As a joke , Eve Myles ( who Jonathan Owen had previously worked with in other projects ) left a banana skin on his car on his first day of filming . Collette Brown played " Carrie " , the original human form of the mother Nostrovite . To transform her into the alien creature the actress was required to spend approximately an hour having make @-@ up applied . Brown was surprised at the efficiency of the make @-@ up artists as she had expected the transformation process to take longer . Originally , the human versions of the Nostrovite shapeshifter were intended to be more monstrous but Davies felt it was important that the audience would still be able to recognise the actor underneath once the make up had been applied .
= = = Filming = = =
The episode was filmed between October and November 2007 in the sixth production block of the series , alongside " Exit Wounds " . The sequence of Jack , Ianto and Owen leaving for Gwen 's wedding was recorded at Roald Dahl Plass on 25 October 2007 . A number of locations were used for the wedding venue . Producer Richard Stokes notes that " it felt like we were organising a real wedding but one that was being shot in about five different venues " . Director Ashley Way states that in directing the wedding scenes , the production team had to make sure that the colour scheme co @-@ ordinated in regards to aspects like the bridesmaids costumes and the flower patterns . Costume designer Ray Holman experienced difficulty sourcing a maternity wedding dress to accommodate the nine @-@ month baby bump worn by Eve Myles . He remarks that in trying to source three such dresses from bridal shops in Cardiff he was regarded " as if I was the biggest sinner in the world " and ended up designing the dress worn by Gwen himself .
The main location shoot for the episode was at Margam Country Park in Margam , Port Talbot in and around a converted Orangery which provided a location for the wedding and reception . Way states that one of the reasons Margam 's Orangery was chosen for the shoot was because of the " fantastic windows " which provided a good visual opportunity in regards to a sequence involving the alien Carrie jumping out of them . However , due to its listed building status the production crew were not able to remove the window glass for filming and had to construct replica windows on separate scaffolding using resin glass . The hotel exteriors and sequences set in the gardens of the wedding venue were filmed at Dyffryn Gardens in St Nicholas , Vale of Glamorgan . The hotel interiors were partly recorded at Court Colman Manor in the village of Pen @-@ y @-@ Fai , Bridgend and partly in studio . The opening sequence of the episode where Gwen pursues the shape @-@ shifter was recorded on 19 November in a men 's public toilet in The Hayes , a shopping area in central Cardiff .
The episode featured a large amount of incidental music . During Gwen 's hen night , the club she is in plays the tracks " Filthy / Gorgeous " and " Comfortably Numb " by the Scissor Sisters from their eponymous 2004 album and the single " Hole in the Head " from the Sugababes 2003 album Three . The song heard on Gwen 's radio Alarm Clock when she wakes up heavily pregnant is " Fire in My Heart " from the Welsh rock band Super Furry Animals . At Gwen and Rhys ' wedding reception , the records played include " You Do Something to Me " by Paul Weller and the song " Tainted Love " by Soft Cell . One of the black and white photos of Jack seen at the end of the episode is actually a promotional picture of John Barrowman from his role as Billy Flynn in the musical Chicago .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Something Borrowed " was first broadcast on the digital channel BBC Three on 5 March 2008 at 9 : 50 pm , straight after the BBC Two broadcast of the preceding episode " A Day in the Death " at 9 : 00 pm . The episode was first broadcast on BBC Two on 12 March at 9 : 00 pm , with a pre @-@ watershed repeat airing on 13 March at 7 : 00 pm . According to consolidated figures the episode was viewed by 0 @.@ 98 million viewers on BBC Three , 2 @.@ 76 million viewers for its 12 March BBC Two showing and 1 @.@ 02 million viewers for the pre @-@ watershed repeat amounting to an aggregated 4 @.@ 76 million viewers across its three initial showings . The episode was also available to watch on the online catch up service BBC iPlayer , where it was the 12th most viewed individual broadcast between 1 January and 31 March 2008 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received critical response ranging from extremely positive to extremely negative . Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy gave the episode five stars out of five , summarising it as an " energetic romp that oozed with body horror that would make David Cronenberg proud " which also " infused a type of family melodrama commonly seen on soaps " . He praised the " stunningly bonkers " plot noting that " every potential dramatic and comedic moment that stemmed from Gwen 's unconventional ' bun in the oven ' scenario was fully maximised " . He felt that in the central role " Eve Myles delivered an outstanding performance as Gwen " and also singled out the guest actors for praise , particularly Nerys Hughes . In an end of series review he listed " Something Borrowed " as his favourite episode of Torchwood 's second series . Writing for The Stage , Mark Wright wrote that " it ’ s good to see Torchwood can get in touch with its lighter side and not lose any momentum " concluding " I think I really might love this show " . Jon Beresford of TV Scoop felt the episode to be one of the strongest of the second series . Whilst he felt it to be " corny " in places he summarised the episode as an " exciting yarn with some really good performances from the team " . He felt that Myles and Owen " stole the show " as Gwen and Rhys believing that " there 's a definite spark between these two that sets their moments apart . "
Joan O 'Connell Hedman of Slant Magazine felt the episode to be the strongest of the second series . She praised the " uniformly fantastic " guest cast and the " drop dead gorgeous " exterior and interior locations . She singled out writer Phil Ford for considerable praise feeling that he wrote the episode true to the characters " while filling in backstory we had no way of imagining " and delivered " drama , action , and laughs " . Brad Trechak of AOL TV felt the more comic episode was a welcome respite from darker episodes . He praised the episode for being " light and fluffy yet it furthered things along with regard to the Torchwood universe and its characters " . Reviewing the episode Brigid Cherry of Total Sci @-@ Fi felt that " contrary to expectation – it ’ s hilarious " . She praised the comedy provided from Eve Myles , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd and Nerys Hughes in particular as well as the " terrifying moments that threaten to tip over into gross @-@ out horror @-@ comedy . " She felt overall the " offbeat self @-@ parody " made a welcome change from the show 's more serious episodes and rated it eight out of ten . Den of Geek 's Jack Kibble @-@ White found the episode to be a " surprise series highlight " .
However , the episode attracted heavy criticism . In a review titled " Too Much Crying , Not Enough Shagging " io9 's Charlie Jane Anders criticised the episode 's reliance on " cheesy soap opera moments " . Her major criticisms also encompassed the nonsensical aspects of the plot and the depiction of Torchwood as an incompetent team , particularly in allowing Gwen to progress with her wedding in the circumstance of her being pregnant . She felt that the episode had saving graces in a sequence which she felt acted as an homage to films Dead Alive and Evil Dead and the fact it made her believe " that Rhys and Gwen care about each other . " Ian Berriman of SFX magazine wrote that the episode was one of the weakest of the second series and was hampered by " limp gags and thuddingly obvious characterisation " . IGN 's Travis Fickett rated the episode five out of ten and criticised it as " flat out bad television " . He felt the comedic style to be at odds with Torchwood 's science fiction and horror storytelling and criticised some of the character moments as " preposterous " and " insipid " . Airlock Alpha 's Alan Stanley Blair was more mixed stating that the " episode feels like a lot of ideas have been thrown into a pot and mixed with all the Torchwood goodness " . He felt that the episode held together " by luck more than skill " but still " provided a lot of laughs and some wild fun " . Den of Geek 's Andrew Mickel felt that the episode exaggerated and stereotyped the Welsh characters in the overall scenario parodying them collectively as " the Welshest people on television " . He also criticised the focus on Gwen and the ridiculousness of her plan to marry Rhys despite her being pregnant . He felt however , that the episode played out " like a fun episode of Buffy " and that Rhys continued to be " Gwen ’ s one redeeming feature " , praising the scenes between him and his mother .
= Perfect Dark ( 2010 video game ) =
Perfect Dark is a remastered release of the first @-@ person shooter video game by the same name . Developed by 4J Studios and published by Microsoft Game Studios a decade after the original 's 2000 release , the remaster features several technical improvements , including higher resolution textures and models , a higher frame rate , and a multiplayer mode that supports the Xbox Live online service . It was released for the Xbox 360 video game console in March 2010 , through the Xbox Live Arcade download service . The story of the game follows Joanna Dark , an agent of the Carrington Institute organization , as she attempts to stop a conspiracy by rival corporation dataDyne .
Perfect Dark was under development for nearly a year and its game engine was completely re @-@ written from scratch to support several Xbox 360 features . Therefore , although the game plays exactly the same as the original , the code and renderer is different . The game received generally favorable reviews . Some critics considered the relatively unchanged game to be outdated , but most agreed that the title was a solid revival of a classic . As of the end of 2011 , the game had sold nearly 410 @,@ 000 units .
= = Gameplay = =
Perfect Dark is a first @-@ person shooter with elements of stealth games . In the game 's campaign mode , the player controls Joanna Dark through a series of nonlinear levels collected together into missions . Each level requires the player to complete a certain number of objectives , ranging from disguising oneself to hacking computers , collecting objects , and defeating enemies , among others . Players can carry an unlimited number of weapons and almost all of the weapons have two firing modes . The levels in Perfect Dark have no checkpoints , meaning that if Joanna is killed or fails an objective , the player has to start the level from the beginning . Every level can be played on three difficulty settings and several aspects , such as the enemies aggressiveness and the number of objectives that must be completed , among others , can vary in function of the chosen difficulty . Two players can also play the campaign co @-@ operatively or through a " counter @-@ operative " mode , in which one player controls the protagonist , while the other controls enemies throughout the level , attempting to stop the first player from completing objectives .
The game also features a multiplayer mode , called Combat Simulator , where various players can compete against each other in different types of deathmatch and objective @-@ based games . Aspects of each game can be highly customized . Features such as the weapons available , the winning condition , and team management can be changed to match player preference . Computer controlled bots , called Simulants , can also be added to the game and each of them can be individually customized , including their appearance , difficulty , and behavior . Players can also issue orders to the Simulants on their respective team ; for example , Guard tells a Simulant to stay in its current location and guard that area . The player can explore the Carrington Institute , which serves as the game 's training ground , and take part in different training activities . The most substantial of these activities is the shooting range , which allows the player to test all the weapons of the game against moving targets .
= = = Enhancements = = =
The remaster offers several improvements over the original Perfect Dark that was released for the Nintendo 64 in 2000 . The most remarkable change is that any of the multiplayer modes , including co @-@ operative and counter @-@ operative , can now be played in either splitscreen or through the Xbox Live online service . Combat Simulator matches are still capped at 12 entities , but the game can now comprise eight players online simultaneously , an improvement to the original 's cap of four players and eight Simulants . Players can also play against more than eight Simulants as long as there are enough slots available in a match ; for example , a single player can play against 11 Simulants ; such a feature was not possible in the original game . Unlike the original game , all the multiplayer content is unlocked from the beginning , and weapons from the game 's predecessor , which were originally only available in the missions , are now available to use in multiplayer . The game features an online leaderboard system and players can earn achievements and in @-@ game crowns by accomplishing certain tasks . The game also includes two new control set @-@ ups , entitled " Spartan " and " Duty Calls " , which are based on the popular first @-@ person shooter franchises Halo and Call of Duty respectively .
= = Plot = =
Perfect Dark is set in the year 2023 against the backdrop of an interstellar war between two races : the Maians , who resemble the stereotypical grey aliens , and the Skedar , reptile @-@ like extraterrestrials who can disguise themselves as humans , bearing similarities to Nordic aliens . On Earth the megacorporation dataDyne has developed in secret Dr. Caroll , the world 's first sentient AI computer . Feeling that dataDyne has betrayed ethical and moral standards , Dr. Caroll contacts the Carrington Institute , an espionage agency founded by Daniel Carrington , with the hope of revealing dataDyne 's sinister dealings . He is recovered by Joanna Dark , the Institute 's top agent , but is later recaptured by dataDyne at Carrington 's private villa . Joanna is then sent to Chicago to once again recover Dr. Caroll and uncover dataDyne 's plan . She learns that dataDyne and their conspirators plan to kidnap the President of the United States in order to get access to a deep sea vessel which will allow the conspirators to steal an alien megaweapon buried on the ocean floor .
Meanwhile , Joanna is ordered to rescue a Maian survivor named Elvis from Area 51 who is key in stopping the conspiracy . She succeeds and the pair work together to rescue the president . She learns the conspirators are actually Skedar aliens disguised as Scandinavian humans who intend to test the weapon on the Earth before using it against the Maian homeworld . Without permission from the president , dataDyne elect to hijack the deep sea vessel and take it to the ancient alien spacecraft . With the help of Elvis , Joanna follows where she finds a reprogrammed Dr. Caroll decoding the megaweapon . She replaces its current personality with a backup of the original , and the restored Dr. Carroll sets the weapon to self @-@ destruct in order to protect Earth . In retaliation , the Skedar capture Joanna and take her to their homeworld . Elvis rescues her and she then kills the Skedar High Priest , leaving the Skedar in disarray . The game ends with Elvis and Joanna leaving the Skedar planet just prior to an orbital bombardment from the Maian navy .
= = Development = =
Perfect Dark was ported by 4J Studios , the same studio that previously developed the Xbox Live Arcade versions of Rare 's platform games Banjo @-@ Kazooie and Banjo @-@ Tooie . According to Microsoft Game Studios creative director Ken Lobb , the development team " took the original code , ported it to the Xbox 360 and included deep [ Xbox Live ] integration . " The game was developed over a course of approximately 11 months after the creation of a working prototype . As the Xbox Live functionality had to be written from scratch , the developers opted to completely rewrite the game engine rather than do a port through emulation . As a result , although the game plays exactly the same , the code and renderer is different . The game also runs at 1080p and 60 frames per second .
While the original level geometry was kept , the levels received new textures , characters and weapons were recreated , and skyboxes were rebuilt . Lobb explained that " things are large and blocky because that 's what [ Perfect Dark ] looks like " , meaning that the sharper textures and higher resolution simply make the game look clearer . He also observed that , as character and weapon models were remodeled from their original low hundreds polygon count to polygons in the thousands , he was worried about them looking awkward in the low @-@ poly geometry level design . According to him , " it 's one of the areas that I give a lot of credit to the developer on . It just looks right . They were smart about the way they up @-@ resed the models so they still feel like they 're kind of retro , but they 're clean . "
Although music and sound effects were kept from the original recording sessions , original master recordings have been used to update the soundtrack at much higher quality ; the original recording size was 16 MB , while in the remaster it is over 250 MB . Developers also decided to retain the free aim mode because they wanted to be faithful to the original game . According to Rare 's Producer Nick Ferguson , " We didn 't change the fundamental behavior of the aiming system simply because that is not how Perfect Dark was played " . He also observed that the idea of updating the controls was actually seen as a flaw in Perfect Dark Zero , which tried to " combine the original Perfect Dark system with aspects of Halo " . The original diagonal running , which allows players to move faster than by running forwards or sideways alone , did not work the first time they implemented the analog stick , so it was manually rewritten as it was considered essential for speedruns and achieving some of the target times required to unlock cheats .
= = Marketing and release = =
Perfect Dark was first teased to consumers in April 2009 via a screenshot of a Rare employee 's Xbox 360 dashboard which showed an icon for the game . It was confirmed to be in development on June 2 , 2009 via Xbox Live Director of Programming Larry Hryb 's Twitter account . The game was released on March 17 , 2010 as part of Microsoft 's Xbox Live Block Party promotion . As a cross @-@ promotion with the game Crackdown 2 , users can unlock that game 's protagonist , known simply as Agent 4 , although a Crackdown 2 savegame is required on the Xbox 360 hard drive . A title update was released in April 2010 which addressed bugs , added two control schemes , and expanded playlists . Perfect Dark was downloaded over 150 @,@ 000 times during its first week of release and grossed approximately $ 1 @.@ 61 million at the end of the month . The game has sold more than 285 @,@ 000 units as of August 2010 and nearly 325 @,@ 000 units at the end of 2010 . As of year @-@ end 2011 , sales had increased to nearly 410 @,@ 000 units . In 2015 , the game was released as part of the Rare Replay compilation for Xbox One .
= = Reception = =
Perfect Dark received generally favorable reviews from critics . Writing for 1UP.com , Scott Sharkey highlighted the technical improvements , stating that the remaster is " a great way to re @-@ enjoy a game you already love " . Daemon Hatfield of IGN noted the game 's outdated dialogue , voice acting , and mission objectives , but nevertheless remarked that the game " wasn 't brought back for the uninitiated -- this is for the fans , and they will be very , very happy . " He also praised the game 's multiplayer mode over Xbox Live and highlighted the selection of weapons , the satisfying gunplay , and leaderboards , noting that they allow players to compare their performance with their friends .
Despite the praise , some reviewers criticized the game for its confusing level layouts and felt they have not held up very well over the years . Christian Donlan of Eurogamer stated that Perfect Dark is " not afraid to throw dead ends at you seemingly for the hell of it , or repeat textures so much in its huge maps that you can get a little dizzy . " GameSpot 's Tom Mc Shea noted that the campaign was " oddly paced " , and that " locked doors , unused rooms , and dead ends ... can be disheartening to stumble around in a circle until you finally happen upon the correct door you just couldn 't locate . " Nevertheless , he admitted that " it 's a lot of fun to replay them to try for high scores and figure out the many unique objectives . " He also remarked that that online play can periodically suffer from a significant amount of lag , but praised the amount of content and features .
The game 's original Counter @-@ Operative mode was very well received , with Eurogamer remarking that it " still feels ahead of its time even now . " Dan Ryckert of Game Informer stated similar pros , saying that " it 's even better this time around thanks to the framerate improvement . " Although the game 's controls have been upgraded to support two analog sticks , Steven Hopper of GameZone noted that the game still " feels a little different from what modern day shooter fans are used to " , while Eurogamer remarked that the aim assist can be unnecessarily generous on easy difficulties . At the end of March 2010 , IGN named Perfect Dark Xbox Live Arcade Game of the Month .
= First Ostend Raid =
The First Ostend Raid ( part of Operation ZO ) was the first of two attacks by the Royal Navy on the German @-@ held port of Ostend during the late spring of 1918 during the First World War . Ostend was attacked in conjunction with the neighbouring harbour of Zeebrugge on 23 April in order to block the vital strategic port of Bruges , situated 6 mi ( 5 @.@ 2 nmi ; 9 @.@ 7 km ) inland and ideally sited to conduct raiding operations on the British coastline and shipping lanes . Bruges and its satellite ports were a vital part of the German plans in their war on Allied commerce ( Handelskrieg ) because Bruges was close to the troopship lanes across the English Channel and allowed much quicker access to the Western Approaches for the U @-@ boat fleet than their bases in Germany .
The plan of attack was for the British raiding force to sink two obsolete cruisers in the canal mouth at Ostend and three at Zeebrugge , thus preventing raiding ships leaving Bruges . The Ostend canal was the smaller and narrower of the two channels giving access to Bruges and so was considered a secondary target behind the Zeebrugge Raid . Consequently , fewer resources were provided to the force assaulting Ostend . While the attack at Zeebrugge garnered some limited success , the assault on Ostend was a complete failure . The German marines who defended the port had taken careful preparations and drove the British assault ships astray , forcing the abortion of the operation at the final stage .
Three weeks after the failure of the operation , a second attack was launched which proved more successful in sinking a blockship at the entrance to the canal but ultimately did not close off Bruges completely . Further plans to attack Ostend came to nothing during the summer of 1918 , and the threat from Bruges would not be finally stopped until the last days of the war , when the town was liberated by Allied land forces .
= = Bruges = =
Bruges had been captured by the advancing German divisions during the Race for the Sea and had been rapidly identified as an important strategic asset by the German Navy . Bruges was situated 6 mi ( 5 @.@ 2 nmi ; 9 @.@ 7 km ) inland at the centre of a network of canals which emptied into the sea at the small coastal towns of Zeebrugge and Ostend . This land barrier protected Bruges from bombardment by land or sea by all but the very largest calibre artillery and also secured it against raiding parties from the Royal Navy . Capitalising on the natural advantages of the port , the German Navy constructed extensive training and repair facilities at Bruges , equipped to provide support for several flotillas of destroyers , torpedo boats and U @-@ boats .
By 1916 , these raiding forces were causing serious concern in the Admiralty as the proximity of Bruges to the British coast , to the troopship lanes across the English Channel and for the U @-@ boats , to the Western Approaches ; the heaviest shipping lanes in the World at the time . In the late spring of 1915 , Admiral Reginald Bacon had attempted without success to destroy the lock gates at Ostend with monitors . This effort failed , and Bruges became increasingly important in the Atlantic Campaign , which reached its height in 1917 . By early 1918 , the Admiralty was seeking ever more radical solutions to the problems raised by unrestricted submarine warfare , including instructing the " Allied Naval and Marine Forces " department to plan attacks on U @-@ boat bases in Belgium .
The " Allied Naval and Marine Forces " was a newly formed department created with the purpose of conducting raids and operations along the coastline of German @-@ held territory . The organisation was able to command extensive resources from both the Royal and French navies and was commanded by Admiral Roger Keyes and his deputy , Commodore Hubert Lynes . Keyes , Lynes and their staff began planning methods of neutralising Bruges in late 1917 and by April 1918 were ready to put their plans into operation .
= = Planning = =
To block Bruges , Keyes and Lynes decided to conduct two raids on the ports through which Bruges had access to the sea . Zeebrugge was to be attacked by a large force consisting of three blockships and numerous supporting warships . Ostend was faced by a similar but smaller force under immediate command of Lynes . The plan was for two obsolete cruisers — HMS Sirius and Brilliant — to be expended in blocking the canal which emptied at Ostend . These ships would be stripped to essential fittings and their lower holds and ballast filled with rubble and concrete . This would make them ideal barriers to access if sunk in the correct channel at the correct angle .
When the weather was right , the force would cross the English Channel in darkness and attack shortly after midnight to coincide with the Zeebrugge Raid a few miles up the coast . By coordinating their operations , the assault forces would stretch the German defenders and hopefully gain the element of surprise . Covering the Inshore Squadron would be
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compared to Coldplay 's song " Viva la Vida " . It received positive reviews from music critics and received airplay over the 2010 Christmas season , peaking at number three on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart .
= = Background and recording = =
" Joyful , Joyful " , is a rearrangement of the hymn " Joyful , Joyful We Adore Thee " ( itself a re @-@ arrangement of a theme from Beethoven ) . Hall felt that there are many Christian songs that have been around and sung so long that the meaning behind them is lost ; he commented that " you hear them so many times you don 't really hear what they 're saying anymore " , listing the original version of " Joyful , Joyful We Adore Thee " as an example .
Although the song is a re @-@ interpretation of " Joyful , Joyful We Adore Thee " , Mark Hall and Bernie Herms are credited with writing the song . It was produced by Mark A. Miller and recorded by Sam Hewitt , Michael Hewitt , and Dale Oliver at Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee ; the string instrument tracks were recorded by John Painter and Leslie Richter at Ocean Way in Nashville , Tennessee . Digital editing was handled by Michael Hewitt , while mixing was handled by Sam Hewitt . The song was mastered by Andrew Mendelson , Shelly Anderson , Natthaphol Abhigantaphand and Daniel Bacigalupi at Georgetown Masters in Nashville .
= = Composition = =
" Joyful , Joyful " is a song with a length of four minutes and twenty @-@ eight seconds . According to the sheet music published by Musicnotes.com , " Joyful , Joyful " is a CCM and alternative CCM set in common time in the key of F major with a tempo of 120 beats per minute . Mark Hall 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of B ♭ 3 to the high note of F5 . The song has regarded as a re @-@ invention of " Joyful , Joyful We Adore Thee " and Beethoven 's Symphony No. 9 , the song alters the format of the former , rearranging the song 's overall structure while adding a chorus . " Joyful , Joyful " is led by a " driving " and " pulsing " string section that has been compared to Coldplay 's " Viva la Vida " . Mark Hall felt that the band 's arrangement brought out the message of one of the song 's final verses ( " God our Father / Christ our brother / all who live in love are thine / teach us how to love each other / and fill us to the joy divine " ) ; Hall described the message by saying " God 's our father and Christ 's our brother , we have this connection with God . But if we can 't love each other , the joy isn 't completed . Its not real joy yet until we know how to love the people that are around us " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Joyful , Joyful " received positive reviews from music critics . Andrew Greer of CCM Magazine praised the song as a " fitting ode " to Beethoven 's Symphony No. 9 . Roger Ham of Christianity Today praised it as one of the best songs off of Until the Whole World Hears . Tony Cummings of Cross Rhythms praised the song as having " the same kind of string arrangement which made Coldplay 's ' Viva La Vida ' so enjoyable " . Debra Akins of Gospel Music Channel regarded the song as a highlight of the album . Roger Gelwicks of Jesus Freak Hideout , while describing the song as " interesting " , felt that it wasn 't much of an improvement over the rest of the album .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Joyful , Joyful " received airplay over the 2010 Christmas season , debuting at number forty @-@ two on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart for the chart week of December 11 , 2010 . In its fifth week on the chart , the chart week of January 8 , 2011 , it reached its peak position of number three .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits lifted from the album liner notes for Until the Whole World Hears .
Recording
Recorded Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee .
Strings recorded at Ocean Way in Nashville , Tennessee .
= = Charts = =
= Hurricane Dot ( 1959 ) =
Hurricane Dot of August 1959 was at its time the costliest tropical cyclone in Hawaiian history . Dot was first identified as a strong tropical storm southeast of Hawaiʻi on August 1 . The storm was potentially a continuation of a previously unnamed tropical cyclone that was monitored west of the Baja California Peninsula from July 24 @-@ 27 , but was never confirmed due to a lack of ship reports . Dot was quick to intensify , reaching hurricane intensity six hours after naming . By August 3 , Dot reached its peak intensity , with maximum sustained winds reaching 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . Intensity leveled off afterwards as Dot tracked westward before making a curve towards the northwest on August 5 , after which the hurricane weakened at a faster clip . Dot made landfall the next day on Kauai as a minimal hurricane before dissipating west of the Hawaiian Islands on August 8 .
Dot produced heavy rainfall and gusty winds as it passed south of the Big Island , Lanai , Maui , Molokai , and Oahu , resulting in minor damage . In Oahu , some homes along the coast were unroofed , and damage from wave action was also reported . Damage from these four islands totaled US $ 150 @,@ 000 , and two indirect deaths occurred in Lanai . Extensive damage occurred on Kauai as Dot made landfall , producing wind gusts as high as 103 mph ( 166 km / h ) and toppling trees and power lines . Widespread power outages affected the island , causing telecommunications and water systems to fail . Although infrastructure was damaged to an extent by floodwater and strong winds , crops suffered the most losses . Cane sugar crops sustained US $ 2 @.@ 7 million in losses . Overall , damage from Dot across Hawaii totaled US $ 6 million , and a disaster area declaration and state of emergency took effect for the archipelago after the hurricane 's passage .
= = Meteorological history = =
On July 24 , the SS Pacificus encountered a storm with maximum sustained winds meeting the threshold of tropical storm status roughly 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) west of the Baja California Peninsula . Despite reports that the location of the system remained vague , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began issuing tropical cyclone advisories and warnings on the unnamed disturbance . Tracking west @-@ northwestward , the tropical storm peaked with winds reported at 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) shortly after its discovery ; however , the JTWC discontinued its monitoring of the cyclone on July 27 due to a lack of ship reports confirming the location of the tropical storm .
At 1800 UTC on August 1 , an unidentified ship roughly 950 mi ( 1 @,@ 550 km ) southeast of Hilo , Hawaii reported 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) winds within a storm , prompting the JTWC to initiate advisories on Tropical Storm Dot . Despite an apparent correlation between Dot and the preceding unnamed tropical cyclone , the lack of ship reports between July 27 and August 1 prevented the agency from confirming that the two systems were the same . Nonetheless , development upon designation was rapid as the system tracked westward , with reports from the SS Sonoma indicating that Dot had intensified to hurricane strength by August 2 . Rapid intensification continued , and at 0000 UTC on August 3 , reconnaissance aircraft found winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 952 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 11 inHg ) , making Dot a Category 4 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Later analysis indicated that these figures constituted the hurricane 's peak intensity .
After peaking , Dot slightly weakened , but maintained its Category 4 status for more than two days ; during that time it boasted an unusually large eye spanning as much as 40 mi ( 65 km ) in diameter . Late on August 4 , a fourth reconnaissance flight into the storm found surface winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) , but this reading was discounted on the basis that pressures were unusually high for a storm of that intensity . On August 5 , Dot passed 90 mi ( 145 km ) south of Ka Lae before the storm curved sharply towards the northwest late that day . A more definite weakening phase began after this point , and during the night of August 6 , Dot made landfall on Kauai with winds estimated at 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) , making the storm a Category 1 @-@ equivalent at the time of landfall . After traversing the island , Dot was downgraded to tropical storm intensity and curved back to the west before eventually dissipating on August 8 .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
On August 3 , the United States Weather Bureau issued a hurricane watch for coastal areas of the Big Island in Kau and Puna districts . As Dot swept by the Hawaiian islands , various gale warnings and small craft warnings shifted westward to reflect the hurricane 's predicted path . Due to the storm 's sudden northward shift in movement , hurricane warnings were issued for portions of Oahu and the Kauai channel before being issued for only the island of Kauai . All watches and warnings were discontinued on August 7 after Dot weakened below hurricane intensity . Disaster workers in Oahu and Kauai were warned by civil defense agencies and the American Red Cross to prepare for emergency . Roughly 400 people fled from the beaches of Kauai due to the threat of storm surge , with an additional 500 people being evacuated by authorities as the storm neared the island . After the storm caused flooding in Kauai , nearly 1 @,@ 000 people evacuated out of submerged areas into schools , armories , and public facilities repurposed as emergency shelters .
Passing well to the south of the Big Island , Lanai , Maui , Molokai , and Oahu , damage from Dot on these islands was minor . Rainfall on the Big Island peaking at 4 in ( 100 mm ) caused localized flooding in some areas , while wave damage occurred at Ka Lae and along the island 's Kona coast . Winds at a station on Ka Lae reached 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Flooding also occurred on Oahu , and along the coast homes were unroofed and cars were damaged by flying projectiles after being subjected to winds estimated at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Off of Lanai , a tugboat captain was indirectly killed after he slipped between two boats in rough seas while attempting to board another ship , crushing him . Another indirect death occurred on Lanai in a traffic incident resulting from Dot 's rainfall . Damage on the Hawaiian islands outside of Kauai was estimated at $ 150 @,@ 000 .
Rough surf along the coasts of Kauai combined with torrential rainfall to produce widespread coastal flooding . Waves at Port Allen peaked at 35 ft ( 10 @.@ 7 m ) . Pineapple plantations were inundated , with losses exceeding US $ 200 @,@ 000 . Infrastructure damage as a result of wave action was spotty but nonetheless amounted to US $ 100 @,@ 000 . The August 1959 rainfall total in Lihue , largely attributed to Dot , measured 8 @.@ 13 in ( 207 mm ) , 6 in ( 150 mm ) in excess of normal . The heavy rainfall caused rivers and streams to swell and inundate adjacent areas . Despite making landfall as a weak Category 1 hurricane , Dot brought damaging winds inland , with a maximum wind gust of 103 mph ( 166 km / h ) reported at Kilauea Light . However , gusts as high as 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) were estimated given the snapping of palm trees . Strong winds damaged hundreds of buildings in the areas of Kilauea , Lihue , and Lawai , Hawaii . Extensive losses resulted from the damaging and toppling of macadamia trees . However , of the crops on Kauai , cane suffered the greatest impact with damage figures reaching US $ 2 @.@ 7 million . The toppling of power lines caused power outages across the island ; fallen lines also blocked roads . Water supply to some communities failed due to the lack of electricity . With the exception of emergency radio transmitters , telecommunications on Kauai failed . The damage toll from Dot for the entirety of Hawaiʻi totaled US $ 6 million , making the hurricane the costliest in Hawaiian history before it was surpassed by hurricanes Iwa , Iniki and Iselle in 1982 , 1992 and 2014 , respectively . Adjusted for inflation , Dot 's damage figure nears US $ 50 million .
Due to the damage wrought by Dot on Kauai , the island was declared a major disaster area . Stepping in for governor William F. Quinn , Hawaiian secretary Edward E. Johnston declared a state of emergency for Hawaii and allocated funds towards the repairing of roads and public property . The United States Weather Bureau awarded the SS Sonoma a public service award on October 7 , 1959 for serving as reconnaissance for Hurricane Dot throughout its existence .
= Jacob deGrom =
Jacob Anthony deGrom ( born June 19 , 1988 ) , is an American professional baseball pitcher for the New York Mets of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Prior to playing professionally , deGrom attended Stetson University and played college baseball for the Stetson Hatters .
DeGrom began playing baseball as a shortstop and was converted into a pitcher during his junior year at Stetson . The Mets selected him in the ninth round of the 2010 MLB Draft , and he made his MLB debut with the Mets on May 15 , 2014 . That year , deGrom was named the National League 's ( NL ) Rookie of the Month twice , and the NL Rookie of the Year . In 2015 , deGrom was selected as an MLB All @-@ Star .
= = Amateur career = =
DeGrom attended Calvary Christian Academy in Ormond Beach , Florida , where he played for the school 's baseball and basketball teams . As a senior , the Florida Sports Writers Association named deGrom to the All @-@ Florida second team . He also played American Legion baseball , where he was noticed by the coaches for the Stetson Hatters , the college baseball team of Stetson University .
DeGrom was not selected in the Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Draft out of high school . He enrolled at Stetson University and joined their baseball team where he played exclusively as a shortstop during his freshman and sophomore seasons . Though he was considered a good fielder with a strong throwing arm , deGrom was a light hitter , with a career .263 batting average . He made his first appearance as a pitcher in May 2009 . In the summer of 2009 , between his sophomore and junior years , deGrom received an invitation to play collegiate summer baseball for the DeLand Suns of the Florida Collegiate Summer League , which he declined after discovering that they wanted him to play as a pitcher .
When deGrom returned to Stetson that fall , the team used him as a relief pitcher , filling the role of their closer , in addition to playing shortstop . He quickly became one of Stetson 's best pitchers , so the team moved deGrom into their starting rotation midway through the season . In addition to a fastball , deGrom learned to throw a changeup and a slider . MLB scouts began to take notice of deGrom when he pitched against Chris Sale of Florida Gulf Coast University . In that game , deGrom hit his only home run of the season . He made 12 starts for the Hatters , pitching to a 4 – 5 win – loss record with a 4 @.@ 48 earned run average .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor League Baseball = = =
The New York Mets selected deGrom in the ninth round as a pitcher , with the 272nd overall selection , of the 2010 MLB Draft . He signed with the Mets , receiving a $ 95 @,@ 000 signing bonus . The Mets assigned deGrom to the Kingsport Mets of the Rookie @-@ level Appalachian League , where he made six starts before he was diagnosed with a partial tear of the ulnar collateral ligament ( UCL ) in his pitching elbow . He attempted to rehabilitate his arm for four months , but underwent Tommy John surgery to repair the UCL in October . He did not pitch in 2011 while he recovered from the surgery . While rehabilitating , deGrom worked on his changeup with Johan Santana .
DeGrom pitched for the Savannah Sand Gnats of the Class A South Atlantic League and the St. Lucie Mets of the Class A @-@ Advanced Florida State League in 2012 , finishing the year with a 2 @.@ 43 ERA in 19 games started . In 2013 , he began the season with St. Lucie , but was promoted to the Binghamton Mets of the Class AA Eastern League after two starts due to injuries to Binghamton 's Luis Mateo and Cory Mazzoni . He received a promotion to the Las Vegas 51s of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League in June after the Mets promoted Zack Wheeler and Carlos Torres to the major leagues and traded Collin McHugh . He had a combined 4 @.@ 51 ERA for the season , due to a broken finger suffered during the offseason , which altered the way he threw the ball .
The Mets added deGrom to their 40 @-@ man roster on November 20 , 2013 , to protect him from being eligible in the Rule 5 draft . During the offseason , deGrom improved his mechanics , and learned to throw a curveball . He began the 2014 season with Las Vegas , and had a 4 – 0 win – loss record and a 2 @.@ 58 ERA in his first seven games started .
= = = Major League Baseball = = =
= = = = 2014 = = = =
The Mets promoted deGrom to the major leagues on May 12 , 2014 , after Gonzalez Germen was placed on the disabled list . The Mets planned to use deGrom in relief , but an injury to Dillon Gee required the Mets to insert him into their starting rotation . DeGrom made his major league debut on May 15 against cross @-@ town rival New York Yankees in Citi Field . He faced fellow rookie Chase Whitley , also making his MLB debut . He pitched seven innings , allowing only one run and striking out six , but the Yankees shut out the Mets and won 1 – 0 . DeGrom also collected his first MLB hit in the game in his first career at bat . It was the first hit by a Mets pitcher in the 2014 season ending an 0 @-@ for @-@ 64 hitless streak , the worst collective mark by a pitching staff to begin a season in MLB history .
DeGrom compiled four quality starts in his first four MLB starts , but did not record a win in any of them . On July 8 , deGrom pitched seven scoreless innings and recorded 11 strikeouts in giving the Mets their 4,000th franchise victory . Along with Steve Cishek of the Miami Marlins , deGrom was named the National League 's ( NL ) Co @-@ Player of the Week for the period of July 21 to July 27 after allowing only one earned run in two starts that week . He was named the NL Rookie of the Month for July . On August 11 , deGrom went on the disabled list with rotator cuff tendinitis . Rafael Montero was called up on August 12 in deGrom 's place . On August 23 , Montero was re @-@ sent back to the 51s to make room for deGrom coming off the disabled list .
On September 15 , 2014 , deGrom faced the Marlins and struck out his first eight batters , tying the MLB record . Near the end of the season , deGrom was shut down for the year , ending his season with a 9 – 6 record , a 2 @.@ 69 ERA and 144 strikeouts . DeGrom won the 2014 Sporting News NL Rookie of the Year Award and was named the NL Rookie of the Year by the Baseball Writers ' Association of America , ( the first by a Met since Dwight Gooden in 1984 ) receiving first place votes on 26 of the 30 ballots .
= = = = 2015 = = = =
DeGrom and Clayton Kershaw of the Los Angeles Dodgers were selected as NL Co @-@ Players of the Week for the week ending June 7 , 2015 . He began the 2015 season with a 8 – 6 win @-@ loss record and a 2 @.@ 30 ERA through the end of June , and was named to the NL roster in the 2015 MLB All @-@ Star Game . During the All @-@ Star Game , deGrom struck out the three batters he faced on ten pitches , becoming the first person to do so since pitch counts were recorded . DeGrom pitched to a 14 – 8 record with a 2 @.@ 54 ERA and a 0 @.@ 99 walks plus hits per inning pitched ratio during the 2015 season .
Starting Game 1 of the 2015 NLDS , he allowed no runs and five hits over seven innings pitched and tied a Mets franchise postseason record with 13 strikeouts ( set by Tom Seaver , Game 1 of the 1973 NLCS ) . DeGrom won the deciding Game 5 with a six @-@ inning , two @-@ run effort . In Game 3 of the 2015 NLCS against the Chicago Cubs , deGrom pitched seven @-@ inning game , allowing just two runs on four hits , one walk and seven strikeouts , putting the Mets ahead 3 – 0 and within one game of their first World Series appearance since the 2000 Subway Series . DeGrom started Game 2 of the 2015 World Series on October 28 ; he allowed four runs on six hits and three walks over five innings and took the loss as the Royals went up , 2 – 0 , in the series .
Following the season , deGrom received a Wilson Defensive Player of the Year Award as the best defensive player statistically at his position in Major League Baseball .
= = = = 2016 = = = =
Not yet eligible for salary arbitration , the Mets renewed deGrom 's contract for the 2016 season with a $ 607 @,@ 000 salary , a raise from the $ 556 @,@ 875 they paid him for the previous season . DeGrom refused to sign the contract in protest , but stated that he was open to negotiating a contract extension .
= = Personal life = =
DeGrom is from DeLeon Springs , Florida . He was raised by his parents , Tony , an AT & T lineman , and Tammy , a customer service representative for a credit card rewards program . Tony built a batting cage in the backyard for his son to practice . He credits his father for his quiet intensity and humility . He has two sisters , Sarah and Jessica .
DeGrom met his wife , Stacey , shortly after high school . They were married in November 2014 , and live in DeLand , Florida . They have a Morkie , and welcomed their first son in April 2016 .
DeGrom is known for his long hair , which he began to grow out while at Stetson . His starts with the Mets led to the trending hashtag on Twitter of " # hairwego " .
= Battle of Merville Gun Battery =
The Battle of Merville Gun Battery occurred on 6 June 1944 , as part of Operation Tonga , part of the Normandy landings , during the Second World War . Allied intelligence believed the Merville Gun Battery was composed of heavy @-@ calibre guns that could threaten the British landings at Sword Beach , only 8 miles ( 13 km ) away .
The 9th Parachute Battalion , part of the 3rd Parachute Brigade attached to 6th Airborne Division , was given the objective of destroying the battery . However , when the battalion arrived over Normandy , their parachute descent was dispersed over a large area , so instead of over 600 men , only 150 with no heavy weapons or equipment arrived at the battalion assembly point . Regardless , they pressed home their attack and succeeded in capturing the battery , only to discover that the guns were of a lower caliber than expected [ Czech @-@ manufacture 100mm ] . However , these still had the range ( over 8000 metres ) to hit targets on Sword Beach and in Ouistreham . Using what explosives they had been able to recover , the surviving 75 men tried to disable the guns .
When the British paratroopers had withdrawn , two of the guns were put back into action by the Germans . Another attack the next day by British Commandos failed to recapture the battery , which remained under German control until 17 August , when the German Army started to withdraw from the area .
= = Background = =
On 6 June 1944 , the British 6th Airborne Division was given the task of securing the left flank of the Allied seaborne landings . One of their objectives was the destruction of the Merville Gun Battery . Allied planners had judged from the size of the concrete gun emplacements that the guns must be around 150 mm in calibre . If so , the guns would have a range of about 8 miles ( 13 km ) and could threaten Sword Beach , to the west of Ouistreham , where the 3rd British Infantry Division were due to land later that day .
= = = British forces = = =
The unit assigned to destroy the battery was the 9th Parachute Battalion , part of the 3rd Parachute Brigade , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Terence Otway . The battalion 's normal complement of 600 men was supported by a section of sappers from the Royal Engineers , eight Airspeed Horsa glider loads transporting Jeeps and trailers , and stores including explosives , an anti @-@ tank gun and flamethrowers . Three of the gliders , transporting 50 volunteers , were to carry out a coup de main landing onto the position to coincide with the ground assault . In April 1944 , the force was taken to Walbury Hill in Berkshire , where over seven days the Royal Engineers had built a full @-@ scale replica of the battery , including obstacles and barbed wire fences . The following five days were spent holding briefings and getting acquainted with the layout of the battery . They carried out nine practice assaults , four of them at night . Due to the nature of the mission , the battalion was given additional medical support from No. 3 Section 224th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance . Another unit that would be present during the attack but not directly involved was A Company of the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion . This company was tasked to provide covering fire for the 9th Battalion 's approach to and withdrawal from the battery . The assault had to be completed and the battalion clear of the position by 05 : 00 , when the Royal Navy cruiser HMS Arethusa would open fire on the battery in an attempt to destroy it with naval gunfire .
= = = Battery = = =
The Merville Battery was composed of four 6 @-@ foot @-@ thick ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) steel @-@ reinforced concrete gun casemates , built by the Todt Organisation . Each was designed to protect First World War @-@ vintage Czech M.14 / 19 100 mm guns . Other buildings on the site included a command bunker , a building to accommodate the men , and ammunition magazines . During a visit on 6 March 1944 , to inspect the defences , Field Marshal Erwin Rommel ordered the builders to work faster , and by May 1944 , the last two casemates were completed .
The battery was defended by a 20 mm anti @-@ aircraft gun and several machine guns in 15 gun positions , all enclosed in an area 700 by 500 yards ( 640 by 460 m ) surrounded by two barbed wire obstacles 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) thick by 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) high , which also acted as the exterior border for a 100 @-@ yard @-@ deep ( 91 m ) minefield . Another obstacle was an anti @-@ tank ditch covering any approach from the nearby coast . The original commander of the battery , Hauptmann Wolter , was killed during a Royal Air Force bombing raid on 19 May 1944 . He was replaced by Oberleutnant Raimund Steiner , who commanded 50 engineers and 80 artillerymen from the 1st Battery , Artillery Regiment 1716 , part of the 716th Static Infantry Division .
The battery had a complement of some one hundred men in all . These were chiefly gunnery crews , of course , such as my team , but also included staff officers and their assistants , medical , cooks , observation teams , maintenance teams and guards with side arms . It was intended that the battery could remain under siege for up to three months , with sufficient rations and generator fuel kept on site for this event ; the water supply came from an aquifer and could not be interrupted . It was a remarkable structure , and it featured prominently in propaganda of the time …
= = Assault = =
Just after midnight on 6 June , the 9th Parachute Battalion 's advance party landed with the brigade 's pathfinders , and reached the battalion assembly area without any problems . While some men remained to mark out the company positions , the battalion 's second in command , Major George Smith , and a reconnaissance party left to scout the battery . At the same time , Royal Air Force Lancaster bombers started their bombing run , which completely missed the battery , their bombs landing further to the south . The pathfinders in the meantime were having problems . Those who had arrived at the correct drop zone found their Eureka beacons had been damaged when they landed , and in the smoke and debris left over from the bombing , their marker lights could not be seen by the pilots of the transport aircraft . The main body of the 9th Parachute Battalion and their gliders were to land at drop zone ' V ' , located between the battery and Varaville from 01 : 00 . However , the battalion was scattered , with a number of paratroopers landing a considerable distance from the designated drop zone . Lieutenant Colonel Otway landed with the rest of his " stick " 400 yards ( 370 m ) away from the drop zone at a farmhouse being used as a command post by a German battalion ; after a brief fire @-@ fight , they helped other scattered paratroopers , and reached the drop zone at 01 : 30 . By 02 : 50 , only 150 men had arrived at the battalion 's assembly point with 20 Bangalore torpedoes and a machine gun . The mortars , anti @-@ tank gun , mine detectors , jeeps , sappers and field ambulance section were all missing .
Aware of the time constraints , Otway decided he could wait no longer , and the reduced battalion headed for the battery and joined up with Major Smith 's reconnaissance party just outside the village of Gonneville en Auge . The reconnaissance party had cut a way through the barbed wire , and marked four routes through the minefield . Otway divided his men into four assault groups , and settled down to await the arrival of the three gliders .
In England , one of the gliders never left the ground , as its tow rope had snapped on taxiing . The other two gliders , unable to locate the battery , did not land where expected . On their run in , both gliders were hit by anti @-@ aircraft fire . One landed around 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) away , the other at the edge of the minefield . The troops from this glider became involved in a fire fight with German troops heading to reinforce the battery garrison .
Otway launched the assault as soon as the first glider overshot the battery , ordering the explosives to be detonated to form two paths through the outer perimeter through which the paratroopers attacked . The defenders were alerted by the explosions , and opened fire , inflicting heavy casualties ; only four attackers survived to reach Casemate Four , which they disabled by firing into apertures and throwing grenades into air vents . The other casemates were cleared with fragmentation and white phosphorus grenades , as the crews had neglected to lock the doors leading into the battery . During the bombing raid , the battery 's guns had been moved inside the casemates and the steel doors left open for ventilation . During the battle , 22 Germans were killed and a similar number made prisoners of war . The rest of the garrison escaped undetected by hiding in the underground bunkers .
Steiner was not present during the bombing , but at a command bunker in Franceville @-@ Plage . After the raid , he set out for the battery , but was unable to gain entry due to the volume of fire from the British paratroopers . At the same time , a reconnaissance patrol from an army Flak unit with a half @-@ track mounting a large anti @-@ aircraft gun arrived . The crew had intended to seek cover at the position , but instead used the gun to engage the paratroopers .
With the battery in their hands , but no sappers or explosives , the British gathered together what plastic explosives they had been issued for use with their Gammon bombs to try to destroy the guns . By this time , Steiner had returned to Franceville @-@ Plage , and directed his regiment 's 2nd and 3rd Batteries to fire onto the Merville Battery .
= = Aftermath = =
Just before 05 : 00 , the battalion 's survivors , just 75 men of the 150 who had set out , left the battery and headed for their secondary objective , the village of La Plein . The battalion , being too weak , only managed to liberate around half of the village , and had to await the arrival of the 1st Commando Brigade later in the day to complete its capture .
After the British had withdrawn , the Germans reoccupied the battery position . Steiner was unable to see Sword Beach from his command bunker , so even though he was able to get two of his guns back in action , he was unable to direct accurate fire onto the landings . However , observers with the 736th Infantry Regiment , holding out at La Brèche , were able to direct his guns until that position was neutralised .
On 7 June , the battery was assaulted again by two troops of commandos from No. 3 Commando , part of the 1st Special Service Brigade . The attack in daylight was repulsed with heavy losses to the commandos . As they withdrew , they were engaged by the battery 's guns firing over open sights . The British never succeeded in completely destroying the battery , and it remained under German control until 17 August , when the German Army started to withdraw from France .
= St Caffo 's Church , Llangaffo =
St Caffo 's Church , Llangaffo is a 19th @-@ century church , in the south of Anglesey , north Wales , about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from the county town , Llangefni . It was constructed in 1846 to replace the previous medieval church in the village of Llangaffo . The new building includes a number of monuments from the old church , and has a spire which is a prominent local landmark . The churchyard has part of a stone cross dating from the 9th or 10th century , and some gravestones from the 9th to 11th centuries . It is dedicated to St Caffo , a 6th @-@ century martyr who was killed in the vicinity .
The church is still in use as part of the Church in Wales , one of four churches in a combined parish . It is a Grade II listed building , a designation given to " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " , in particular because it is regarded as " a mid 19th @-@ century rural church , consistently articulated and detailed in an Early English style " .
= = History and location = =
The date of first construction of a church in Llangaffo ( a village in Anglesey about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) south of the county town of Llangefni ) is uncertain . The village takes its name from the church : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and " -gaffo " is a modified form of the saint 's name . St Caffo , a 6th @-@ century Christian , was a companion of St Cybi and was martyred by shepherds in the vicinity of what is now Llangaffo , perhaps in revenge for his brother Gildas insulting Maelgwn Gwynedd , the local ruler . It is thought that there may have at one point been a monastery in this location , known as " Merthyr Caffo " : merthyr is the Welsh word for " martyr " , and in place names means a building erected near a saint 's grave .
The present building , which is in the north @-@ eastern part of the village on the south @-@ eastern side of the B4419 road , was erected in 1846 alongside the churchyard to a design by the Sheffield @-@ based architects Weightman and Hadfield . It replaced an older church , which had stood on an adjoining outcrop of rock until it was demolished . It was described by the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones ( writing in 1846 , as the new church was being constructed ) as a " very small and unimportant edifice " ; he also noted that it was the only medieval building remaining in the parish .
The 19th @-@ century church is still in use and belongs to the Church in Wales . It is one of four churches in the combined benefice of Llanfihangel Ysgeifiog ( St Michael 's Church , Gaerwen ) with Llangristiolus ( St Cristiolus 's Church ) with Llanffinan ( St Ffinan 's Church ) with Llangaffo . It is within the deanery of Malltraeth , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2012 , the vicar of the four churches is Emlyn Williams , assisted by a curate ( E. R. Roberts ) . Williams was appointed in 2007 ; before that , the position had been vacant for 20 years despite many attempts by the Church in Wales to fill it . Services in Welsh are held every Sunday , either Holy Communion or Morning Prayer ; there are no midweek services .
Edward Wynn ( 1618 – 1669 ) was rector here from 1658 ; he later became Chancellor of Bangor Cathedral , and is buried at the church . James Williams ( 1790 – 1872 ) was the son of John Williams , rector of St Caffo 's . He succeeded his father when he resigned in 1821 , and later became Chancellor of Bangor Cathedral .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
St Caffo 's is built of rubble masonry dressed with limestone , in an early English style ( a style of architecture used between about 1180 and 1275 , typically using narrow pointed windows and arches ) . The roof is made of slate . The tower , at the west end , has buttresses at the corners and is topped with a broach spire , which is a prominent local landmark . Entrance is through an arched doorway in the north side of the tower . The chancel , at the east end of the church , is smaller than the nave in both height and width ; there is a transept on the north side of the chancel . The nave has lancet windows , and there is a further lancet window on the south side of the chancel . The church 's east window is set in a pointed arch and has three lights ( sections of window separated by mullions ) .
Inside the church , the sanctuary at the east end is raised above the chancel by one step ; the floor of the sanctuary and the reredos behind the altar are made from encaustic tiles . Fittings include a circular decorated 12th @-@ century font and a 17th @-@ century pulpit with carved decorative panels . A 1937 survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire recorded that the church owned a silver cup and a paten dated 1736 . The transept has a number of memorials dating from the 17th century ( including one to Edward Wynn ) , and a stone from the early 7th century inscribed with .. VI / RNIN / FILIUS / CUURIS / CINI / ERE / XIT / HUNC / LAPI / DEM . The stone , which is set in the wall , originally came from Newborough , Anglesey . The church porch houses part of a cross head in the shape of a wheel , dating from the 9th or 10th century ; part of the rest of the cross is in the churchyard , but it has suffered significant weather damage with most of the patterns worn away .
The oldest graves are to the north of the church , which is unusual : ordinarily the southern part of the churchyard would be used first for burials , with the northern part remaining unconsecrated unless and until extra space for graves was required . The path between the road and the church has sunken , which may partly be explained by the medieval custom of burying the dead on top of each other . One author has suggested that the mound alongside the path might indicate that the church is located in the site of a Bronze Age settlement .
The churchyard has seven gravestones that were discovered in the walls of the previous church . Six of them date from between the 9th and 11th centuries , and the seventh is from the 12th or 13th century . The doorway from the old church , dating from the 15th century , has been reused as an entrance to the churchyard . A carved stone human head , from the 12th century , has been inserted into the north wall of the churchyard . A war memorial in the shape of a Celtic cross remembers those who died during the First and Second World Wars .
= = Assessment = =
The church is a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing , designating " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " . It was given this status on 30 January 1968 and Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales ) states that it has been listed because it is " a mid 19th @-@ century rural church , consistently articulated and detailed in an Early English style . "
The 19th @-@ century writer Samuel Lewis said that the rebuilt church " forms a very good specimen of the early English style of architecture " , adding that it was " effective from its simplicity and the absence of pretension . " He added that the interior had been " fitted up in a neat and appropriate manner , and the details throughout appear to have been carefully studied " . A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey says that the " impressive " tower and steeple " form " a landmark visible for many miles . " It also comments that rendering on part of the tower and the south wall makes them less attractive than the north wall .
A 2009 guide to the buildings of the region notes the " exceptional number of inscribed fragments " , showing it to be a place of early Christian worship , but considers that the church is " unlovely " . Similarly , a 2005 guide to Wales describes St Caffo 's as " an uninspiring nineteenth @-@ century church from the outside " but says that it has " a remarkable collection " of memorial stones .
= George N. Briggs =
George Nixon Briggs ( April 12 , 1796 – September 12 , 1861 ) was an American lawyer and politician from Massachusetts . A Whig , Briggs served for twelve years in the United States House of Representatives , and served seven one @-@ year terms as the 19th Governor of Massachusetts , from 1844 to 1851 .
Raised in rural Upstate New York , Briggs studied law in western Massachusetts , where his civic involvement and successful legal practice preceded statewide political activity . He was elected to Congress in 1830 , where he supported the conservative Whig agenda , serving on the Committee on the Post Office and Post Roads . He was also a regular advocate of temperance , abstaining from all alcohol consumption .
He was nominated by the Whigs in 1843 to run against Democratic Governor Marcus Morton as part of a Whig bid for more rural votes , and easily won election until 1849 . Although he sought to avoid the contentious issue of slavery , he protested South Carolina policy allowing the imprisonment of free African Americans . He supported capital punishment , notably refusing to commute the death sentence of John White Webster for the murder of George Parkman . Briggs died of an accidental gunshot wound at his home in Pittsfield , Massachusetts .
= = Early life and education = =
George Nixon Briggs was born in Adams , Massachusetts on April 12 , 1796 . He was the eleventh of twelve children of Allen Briggs , a blacksmith originally from Cranston , Rhode Island , and Nancy ( Brown ) Briggs , of Huguenot descent . His parents moved the family to Manchester , Vermont when he was seven , and , two years later , to White Creek , New York . The household was religious : his father was a Baptist and his mother was a Quaker , and they gave their children religious instruction from the Bible .
At the age of 14 , during the Second Great Awakening , which was especially strong in Upstate New York , Briggs experienced a conversion experience and joined the Baptist faith . He spoke at revival meetings of his experience , drawing appreciative applause from the crowds , according to Hiland Hall , who came to know Briggs at that time and who became a lifelong friend and political associate . His faith informed his personal behavior : he remained committed to religious ideals , for instance objecting to Congressional sessions that stretched into Sunday and abstaining from alcohol consumption .
Briggs sporadically attended the public schools in White Creek , and was apprenticed for three years to a Quaker hatter . With support from his older brothers he embarked on the study of law in Pittsfield and Lanesboro in 1813 , and was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1818 . He first opened a practice in Adams , moved it to Lanesboro in 1823 , and Pittsfield in 1842 . His trial work was characterized by a contemporary as clear , brief , and methodical , even though he was fond of telling stories in less formal settings .
In 1817 Briggs helped to establish a Baptist church in Lanesboro ; in this congregation he met Harriet Hall , whom he married in 1818 ; their children were Harriet , George , and Henry . Briggs was also called upon to raise the four orphaned children of his brother Rufus , one of the brothers who supported him in his law studies . Rufus died in 1816 , followed by his wife not long afterward .
Briggs ' involvement in civic life began at the local level . From 1824 to 1831 Briggs was the register of deeds for the Northern district of Berkshire County , Massachusetts . He was elected town clerk in 1824 , was appointed chairman of the board of commissioners of highways in 1826 . His interest in politics was sparked by his acquaintance with Henry Shaw , who served in the United States House of Representatives from 1817 to 1821 .
A criminal case tried in 1826 brought Briggs wider notice . An Oneida Indian living in Stockbridge was accused of murder . Briggs was appointed by the court to defend him ; convinced by the evidence that the man was innocent , Briggs made what was described by a contemporary as a plea that was " a model of jury eloquence " . The jury , unfortunately , disagreed with Briggs , and convicted the man , who was hanged . In 1830 the true murderer confessed to commission of the crime .
= = U.S. House of Representatives = =
Despite his rise in prominence , Briggs was at first ineligible for state offices because he did not own property . In 1830 he decided to run for Congress , for which there was no such requirement . He was elected to the twenty @-@ second through the twenty @-@ fourth Congresses as an Anti @-@ Jacksonian , and as a Whig to the twenty @-@ fifth through twenty @-@ seventh Congresses , serving from March 4 , 1831 to March 3 , 1843 . He decided not to run for reelection in 1842 .
Briggs was what became known in later years as a " Cotton Whig " . He was in favor of protectionist tariffs , and opposed the expansion of slavery into western territories , but did not seek to threaten the unity of the nation with a strong stance against slavery . He served on the Committee on Public Expenditures and the Committee on the Post Office and Post Roads , serving for a time as the chairman of each . The Post Office committee was a regular recipient of complaints from southern states concerning the transmission of abolitionist mailings , which were seen there as incendiary ; the matter was of some controversy because southern legislators sought to have these types of mailings banned . Briggs ' friend Hiland Hall , who also sat on the committee , drafted a report in 1836 rebutting the rationales used in such legislative proposals , but the committee as a whole , and then the House , refused to accept the report . Although the authorship of the report appears to be entirely Hall 's , Briggs may have contributed to it , and was a signatory to Hall 's publication of the report in the National Intelligencer , a major political journal . The document was influential in driving later Congressional debate on legislative proposals concerning abolitionist mailings , none of which were ever adopted . Briggs and Hall were both instrumental in drafting and gaining passage of the Post Office Act of 1836 , which included substantive accounting reforms in the wake of financial mismanagement by Postmaster General William Taylor Barry .
During his time in Congress , Briggs was a vocal advocate for temperance . He formed the Congressional Temperance Society in 1833 , sitting on its executive committee ; at an 1836 temperance convention at Saratoga Springs , New York he advocated the taking of total abstinence pledges as a way to bring more people away from the evils of alcohol , and notably prepared such a pledge for Kentucky Representative Thomas F. Marshall on the floor of the House of Representatives . His moves to organize the temperance movement in Congress died out when he left the body , but it was a cause he would continue to espouse for the rest of his life . In 1860 he was chosen president of the American Temperance Union .
= = Governor of Massachusetts = =
Briggs was nominated to run for the governorship on the Whig ticket against the incumbent Democrat Marcus Morton in 1843 . Former Governor John Davis had been nominated first , but refused the nomination , possibly because Daniel Webster promised him party support for a future vice presidential bid . Briggs was apparently recommended as a compromise candidate acceptable to different factions within the party ( one controlled by Webster , the other by Abbott Lawrence ) . He was also probably chosen to appeal more directly to the state 's rural voters , a constituency that normally supported Morton . The abolitionist Liberty Party also fielded a candidate , with the result that none of the candidates won the needed majority . The legislature decided the election in those cases ; with a Whig majority there , Briggs ' election was assured . Briggs was reelected annually until 1850 against a succession of Democratic opponents . He won popular majorities until the 1849 election , even though third parties ( including the Liberty Party and its successor , the Free Soil Party ) were often involved . Although Whigs had a reputation for aristocratic bearing , Briggs was much more a man of the people than the preceding Whig governors , John Davis and Edward Everett .
In 1844 Briggs , alarmed at a recently enacted policy by South Carolina authorizing the imprisonment of free blacks arriving there from Massachusetts and other northern states , sent representatives to protest the policy . Samuel Hoar and his daughter Elizabeth were unsuccessful in changing South Carolina policy , and after protests against what was perceived as Yankee interference in Southern affairs , were advised to leave the state for their own safety .
Capital punishment was a major issue that was debated in the state during Brigg 's tenure , with social reformers calling for its abolition . Briggs personally favored capital punishment , but for political reasons called for moderation in its use , seeking , for example , to limit its application in murder cases to those involving first degree murder . After an acquittal in an 1846 murder case where anti @-@ death penalty sentiment was thought to have a role , Briggs , seeking to undercut the anti @-@ death penalty lobby , proposed eliminating the penalty for all crimes except murder , but expressed concern that more such acquittals by sympathetic juries would undermine the connection between crime and punishment .
Briggs ' argument was used in the 1849 trial of Washington Goode , a black mariner accused of killing a rival for the affections of a lady . The case against Goode was essentially circumstantial , but the jury heeded the district attorney 's call for assertive punishment of " crimes of violence " and convicted him . There were calls for Briggs to commute Goode 's capital sentence , but he refused , writing " A pardon here would tend toward the utter subversion of the law . "
Not long after the Goode case came the sensational trial of Professor John White Webster in the murder of George Parkman , a crime that took place at the Harvard Medical School in November 1849 . The trial received nationwide coverage , and the prosecution case was based on evidence that was either circumstantial ( complicated by the fact that a complete corpse was not found ) , or founded on new types of evidence ( forensic dentistry was used for the first time in this trial ) . Furthermore , Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw was widely criticized for bias in the instructions he gave to the jury . Briggs was petitioned to commute Webster 's sentence by death penalty opponents , and even threatened with physical harm if he did not . He refused however , stating that the evidence in the case was clear ( especially after Webster gave a confession ) , and that there was no reason to doubt that the court had acted with due and proper diligence .
During Briggs ' time as governor , abolitionist activists continued to make inroads against both the Whigs and Democrats , primarily making common cause with the Democrats against the dominant Whigs . Briggs ' stance as a Cotton Whig put him in opposition to these forces . He opposed the Mexican @-@ American War , but acceded to federal demands that the states assist in raising troops for the war , earning the wrath of activist Wendell Phillips . He did promote other types of reform , supporting Horace Mann in his activities to improve education in the state .
In 1849 , Briggs failed to secure a majority in the popular vote because of the rise in power of the Free Soil Party , but the Whig legislature returned him to office . In the 1850 election , anger over the Compromise of 1850 ( a series of federal acts designed to preserve the unity of the nation which included the Fugitive Slave Act ) prompted the Democrats and Free Soilers to form a coalition to gain control over the Massachusetts legislature , and divided the Whigs along pro- and antiabolition lines . With the gubernatorial election again sent to the legislature , Democrat George S. Boutwell was chosen over Briggs .
= = Later years = =
Briggs resumed the practice of law in Pittsfield . He was a member of the state constitutional convention in 1853 , and sat as a judge of the Court of Common Pleas from 1853 to 1858 . In 1859 he was nominated for governor by the fading Know @-@ Nothing movement , but trailed far behind other candidates .
In 1861 Briggs was appointed by President Abraham Lincoln to a diplomatic mission to the South American Republic of New Granada ( roughly present @-@ day Colombia and Panama ) . However , he died before he could take up the position . On September 4 , 1861 Briggs was getting an overcoat out of his closet at his home in Pittsfield , when a gun fell . As Briggs was picking it up , the gun discharged and Briggs was shot . Briggs died early in the morning of September 12 , 1861 , and was buried in the Pittsfield Cemetery .
= Simon Bradstreet =
Simon Bradstreet ( baptized March 18 , 1603 / 4 – March 27 , 1697 ) was a colonial magistrate , businessman , diplomat , and the last governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony . Arriving in Massachusetts on the Winthrop Fleet in 1630 , Bradstreet was almost constantly involved in the politics of the colony but became its governor only in 1679 . He served on diplomatic missions and as agent to the crown in London , and also served as a commissioner to the New England Confederation . He was politically comparatively moderate , arguing minority positions in favor of freedom of speech and for accommodation of the demands of King Charles II following his restoration to the throne .
Bradstreet was married to Anne , the daughter of Massachusetts co @-@ founder Thomas Dudley and New England 's first published poet . He was a businessman , investing in land and shipping interests . Due to his advanced age ( he died at 93 ) Cotton Mather referred to him as the " Nestor of New England " . His descendants include the famous jurists Oliver Wendell Holmes , Jr. and David Souter .
= = Early life = =
Simon Bradstreet was baptized on March 18 , 1603 / 4 in Horbling , Lincolnshire , the second of three sons of Simon and Margaret Bradstreet . His father was the rector of the parish church , and
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into a van parked outside his workplace . Newspapers argued that the number of stories printed regarding the two victims were similar , though a survey of national newspapers after the two murders showed that longer and more in @-@ depth articles were written about the murder of Pryce than that of Mathura .
= = Legacy = =
Following the murder of Pryce , his friends and family set up The Tom ap Rhys Pryce Memorial Trust to enable individuals who could not otherwise afford it to achieve their potential by gaining access to appropriate educational facilities . It aims to raise at least £ 1million to help educate society 's poorest children .
This incident sparked a major public discussion on station safety and security , mainly because the station was unstaffed when the suspects mugged Ali on the platform . The only security present was CCTV cameras , and the ticket barriers were left open allowing the suspects to enter the station freely . Many high @-@ profile politicians spoke on the issue of station safety and called on rail companies to provide security or staff the station until the last train had left the station . The Mayor of London , Ken Livingstone assailed Silverlink , the train company who managed the station , for not providing all @-@ night staffing or security . The new provider of every franchise across the rail network will have to provide staff at all times the station is open .
A school was built in Vietnam in memory of Pryce . His colleagues raised enough money to have the school built to leave a lasting legacy in his honour . The primary school opened in 2007 . Its cost was met by the Hong Kong office of Pryce 's employer , Linklaters .
= Lágrimas Cálidas =
Lágrimas Cálidas ( English : Warm Tears ) is the debut studio album by Colombian recording artist Fanny Lu , released on January 1 , 2005 . The record contains ten tracks , most of which were composed by Jose Gaviria , and produced with Andres Munera . Musically , the album experiments with tropipop , which is composed of the genres of vallenato , merengue , and pop music . Recording for the album took place in 2004 in three cities : Miami , Bogota and Medellin . An international version of the album , containing two remixes , was released exclusively in United States , Spain and Colombia .
The album was certified gold in Colombia , Venezuela and Ecuador and ranked number thirteen on the Billboard Tropical Albums chart in the United States . The album earned Lu many accolades , including a Latin Grammy nomination , five Billboard Latin Music Awards nominations , and three Premios Shock nominations , winning two . Three singles were released from the record , two of which , " No Te Pido Flores " and " Y Si Te Digo " , reached number one on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart .
= = Background = =
While studying for a degree in engineering at the University of Los Andes in 1994 , Fanny Lu began her career in the entertainment industry as a host for shows such as Locomotora , Siempre Música , and Radio Hits y Bailoteca . As a host on Locomotora , she was given the opportunity to work with musicians such as Luis Manuel Díaz , Gil Magno , and Cesar Franco . She met Colombian producer , Jose Gaviria , during her career in television , and they began working on a musical project , but the production was halted , because Fanny was busy in her television career . Eight years later , she reunited with Gaviria to finish this recording . Her experience as a television host led to her signing a music deal with Universal Music Latino . Her first album under that agreement was Lágrimas Cálidas , which was released in Colombia on January 1 , 2005 .
= = Composition = =
Lágrimas Cálidas was produced by Jose Gaviria and Andres Munera . It was recorded at Crescent Moon Studios and Big Dog Studios in Miami , New World Studios in Bogota and Promix Estudios in Medellin . The genre of the album is defined as Tropipop , because it mixes tropical genres such as vallenato and merengue with pop and Caribbean influences . The album opens with " No Te Pido Flores " ( " I 'm Not Requesting Flowers " ) , where the predominant instruments are the accordion , guitar and caja vallenata . Lyrically , the song begins with the absence of her man , but then , in the chorus , transitions into a warning not to fall in love with material things . The second track , " Lágrimas Cálidas " ( " Warm Tears " ) , is a vallenato @-@ stylized pop ballad , expressing her suffering due to being abandoned by her lover . " Te Arrepentiras " ( " You 'll Regret " ) , is about a woman who surrendered completely to a man who did not appreciate her .
" Solo Quiero " ( " Only Want " ) begins with an accordion solo , and is a song explaining to her lover that she only wants to be with him forever , because with him all the things in life are more beautiful . The fifth track , " Cariñito " ( " Sweetie " ) , describes her need for the affection of the person she loves , and her desire to remedy the void left in her heart . " Sin Razones " ( " Without Reasons " ) , express the reasons why she should not have to prove her love , while " Y Si Te Digo " ( " And If I Tell You " ) , tells of her desire to confess her love to the person who doesn 't know she loves him . " Es Por Ti " ( " It Is For You " ) is a poem describing the strength of an all @-@ encompassing love . The penultimate track , " Para Que Si Tu No Estas " ( " For That If You Aren 't " ) , asks her boyfriend whether or not she should suffer for him . The eleventh and final track of the album , " Me Acordare de Ti " ( " I Will Remember You " ) , expresses that everything she feels , sees , and perceives , reminds her of her beloved .
= = Reception = =
The album was certified gold in Colombia , Venezuela and Ecuador . In the United States , the album debuted at number 18 on the Billboard Tropical Albums chart , peaking three weeks later at number 13 . Lágrimas Cálidas was generally well received . At the Colombian Premios Shock , it won the category of Radio Album , as well as winning best Radio Song for " No Te Pido Flores " . At the 15th Latin Billboard Music Awards , the album was nominated for two awards : Tropical Album of the Year for a Female Artist and Best New Artist . At the 2007 Latin Grammy Awards , " No Te Pido Flores " received a nomination for Best Tropical Song , but lost to " La Llave De Mi Corazón " , by Juan Luis Guerra .
= = Singles = =
" No Te Pido Flores " was the first single from the album , released in 2005 . The song was a success in Latin America , reaching number one in Colombia , Ecuador , Perú and Venezuela . In the United States , it also reached number one on the Billboard Latin Tropical Airplay chart . It was nominated for two Billboard Latin Music Awards and a Latin Grammy for Best Tropical Song . " No Te Pido Flores " has two music videos , one recorded in Lake Guatavita , Sesquilé , Colombia , and the international version , which was recorded in the Plaza Moreno in La Plata , Argentina .
Unlike " No Te Pido Flores " , the album 's second single , " Te Arrepentirás " , was released after the release of Lágrimas Cálidas in Latin America . The third and final single , " Y Si Te Digo " , was released on May 27 , 2007 . In Latin America , the song did not have the same success as the first single , but in the United States , the song hit number one on Billboard 's Hot Latin Songs chart and Billboard 's Tropical Airplay chart . The song won a Billboard Latin Music Award for Best Tropical Airplay for a new artist .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from Allmusic :
Performance credits
Technical credits
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Roger Federer =
Roger Federer ( German : [ ˈfeːdərər ] born 8 August 1981 ) is a Swiss professional tennis player who is currently ranked world No. 3 by the Association of Tennis Professionals ( ATP ) . His accomplishments in professional tennis have led to him being regarded by many as the greatest tennis player of all time . Federer turned professional in 1998 and has been continuously ranked in the top 10 since October 2002 .
Federer holds several records of the Open Era : holding the world No. 1 position for 302 weeks ( including 237 consecutive weeks ) ; winning 17 Grand Slam singles titles ; reaching each Grand Slam final at least five times ( an all @-@ time record ) ; and reaching the Wimbledon final ten times . He is among the eight men ( and among the five in Open Era ) to capture a career Grand Slam . Federer shares an Open Era record for most titles at Wimbledon with Pete Sampras ( seven ) and at the US Open with Jimmy Connors and Sampras ( five ) . He is the only male player to win five consecutive US Open titles .
Federer has reached 27 men 's singles Grand Slam finals , including 10 in a row from the 2005 Wimbledon Championships to the 2007 US Open , both statistics being records . He also appeared in 18 of 19 finals from the 2005 Wimbledon through to the 2010 Australian Open . He reached the semifinals at 23 consecutive Grand Slam tournaments , from the 2004 Wimbledon Championships through the 2010 Australian Open . At the 2016 Wimbledon Championships , he reached a record 48th Grand Slam quarterfinal and a record 40th Grand Slam semifinal . Earlier at the 2016 Australian Open , he played in a record 65th consecutive Grand Slam tournament . Earlier at the 2015 US Open , he reached a record 27th Grand Slam final . Also earlier at the 2013 French Open , Federer reached a record 36th consecutive Grand Slam quarterfinal . Federer has won the most matches in Grand Slam events ( 307 ) and is the first to record 65 + wins at each Grand Slam tournament .
Federer 's ATP tournament records include winning a record six ATP World Tour Finals , playing in the finals at all nine ATP Masters 1000 tournaments ( a record shared with Djokovic and Nadal ) . He also won the Olympic gold medal in doubles with his compatriot Stan Wawrinka at the 2008 Summer Olympic Games and the Olympic silver medal in singles at the 2012 Summer Olympic Games . Representing Switzerland , he was a part of the 2014 winning Davis Cup team . He finished eight consecutive years ( 2003 – 2010 ) in one of the top two positions in the year @-@ end men 's rankings and ten ( 2003 – 2012 ) in the top three . He was named the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year for a record four consecutive years ( 2005 – 2008 ) .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Childhood and early life = = =
Federer was born at the Basel Cantonal Hospital in Basel , Switzerland . His father , Robert Federer , is Swiss , from Berneck , near the borders between Switzerland , Austria and Germany ; and his mother , Lynette Federer ( born Durand ) , from Kempton Park , Gauteng , is a South African whose ancestors were Dutch and French Huguenots . Federer has one sibling , his older sister Diana , who is the mother of a set of twins . He holds both Swiss and South African citizenship . He grew up in nearby Birsfelden , Riehen , and then Münchenstein , close to the French and German borders and speaks Swiss German , Standard German , English and French fluently , Swiss German being his native language .
Federer was raised as a Roman Catholic and met Pope Benedict XVI while playing the 2006 Internazionali BNL d 'Italia tournament in Rome . Like all male Swiss citizens , Federer was subject to compulsory military service in the Swiss Armed Forces . However , in 2003 he was ruled " unsuitable " and was subsequently not required to fulfill his military obligation . Instead , he served in the civil protection force and was required to pay 3 % of his taxable income as an alternative . He grew up supporting F.C. Basel and the Swiss National Football Team . Federer also credits the range of sports he played as a child — he also played badminton and basketball — for his hand @-@ eye coordination .
= = = Family = = =
Federer is married to former Women 's Tennis Association player Mirka Vavrinec . He met her while both were competing for Switzerland in the 2000 Sydney Olympics . Vavrinec retired from the tour in 2002 because of a foot injury . They were married at Wenkenhof Villa in Riehen near Basel on 11 April 2009 , surrounded by a small group of close friends and family . In July 2009 , Mirka gave birth to identical twin girls , Myla Rose and Charlene Riva . The Federers had another set of twins in 2014 , this time boys whom they named Leo and Lennart , called Lenny .
= = = Philanthropy and outreach = = =
In 2003 , he established the Roger Federer Foundation to help disadvantaged children and to promote their access to education and sports . Since May 2004 , citing his close ties with South Africa including because that is where his mother was raised , he started supporting the South Africa @-@ Swiss charity IMBEWU which helps children better connect to sports and social and health awareness and , in 2005 , Federer visited South Africa to meet the children that had benefited from his support . In 2005 , he auctioned his racquet from his US Open championship to aid victims of Hurricane Katrina . At the 2005 Pacific Life Open in Indian Wells , Federer arranged an exhibition involving several top players from the ATP and WTA tour called Rally for Relief . The proceeds went to the victims of the tsunami caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake . In December 2006 he visited Tamil Nadu , one of the areas in India most affected by the tsunami . He was appointed a Goodwill Ambassador by UNICEF in April 2006 and has appeared in UNICEF public messages to raise public awareness of AIDS .
In response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake , Federer arranged a collaboration with fellow top tennis players for a special charity event during the 2010 Australian Open called ' Hit for Haiti ' , in which proceeds went to Haiti earthquake victims . He participated in a follow @-@ up charity exhibition during the 2010 Indian Wells Masters which raised $ 1 million . The Nadal vs Federer " Match for Africa " in 2010 in Zurich and Madrid raised more than $ 4 million for the Roger Federer Foundation and Fundación Rafa Nadal . In January 2011 , Federer took part in an exhibition , Rally for Relief , to raise money for the victims of the Queensland floods . In 2014 , the " Match for Africa 2 " between Federer and Stan Wawrinka , again in Zurich , raised £ 850 @,@ 000 for education projects in southern Africa .
= = Tennis career = =
= = = Pre – 1998 : Junior years = = =
Federer 's main accomplishments as a junior player came at Wimbledon in 1998 , where he won both the boys ' singles final over Irakli Labadze , and in doubles teamed with Olivier Rochus , defeating the team of Michaël Llodra and Andy Ram . In addition , Federer lost the US Open Junior final in 1998 to David Nalbandian . He won four ITF junior singles tournaments in his career , including the prestigious Orange Bowl , where he defeated Guillermo Coria in the final . He ended 1998 with the No. 1 junior world ranking , and he entered his first tournament as a professional during 1998 in Gstaad , where he lost to Lucas Arnold Ker in the first round .
= = = 1998 – 2002 : Early career and breakthrough in the ATP = = =
Federer entered the top 100 ranking for the first time on 20 September 1999 . His first final came at the Marseille Open in 2000 , where he lost to fellow Swiss Marc Rosset . Federer won the 2001 Hopman Cup representing Switzerland , along with Martina Hingis . The duo defeated the American pair of Monica Seles and Jan @-@ Michael Gambill in the finals . Federer 's first singles win was at the 2001 Milan Indoor tournament , where he defeated Julien Boutter in the final . Although he won his first title already in 1999 on the Challenger tour , winning the doubles event in Segovia , Spain with Dutchman Sander Groen , the final was played on Federer 's 18th birthday . In 2001 , Federer made his first Grand Slam quarterfinal at the French Open , and at Wimbledon that same year defeated four @-@ time defending champion Pete Sampras to reach the quarterfinals . The most prestigious event final he reached during this period was the 2002 Miami Masters event , where he lost to Andre Agassi on hard court .
Federer won his first Master Series event at the 2002 Hamburg Masters on clay , over Marat Safin ; the victory put him in top 10 for the first time . Federer made 10 singles finals between 1998 and 2002 , of which he won four and lost six . He also made six finals in doubles . Of note are Federer and partner Max Mirnyi 's defeat in the final of the Indian Wells Masters in 2002 , and their victory in the same year in the final of the Rotterdam 500 series event . Federer had won the latter a year earlier with partner Jonas Björkman . He finished 2001 with an ATP ranking of No. 13 , and 2002 was the first year he was ranked within the top 10 , finishing at No. 6 .
= = = 2003 : Wimbledon breakthrough = = =
In 2003 , Federer won his first Grand Slam singles title at Wimbledon , beating Mark Philippoussis in the final . Federer won his first and only doubles Masters Series 1000 event in Miami with Max Mirnyi and made it to one singles Masters Series 1000 event in Rome on clay , which he lost . Federer made it to nine finals on the ATP Tour and won seven of them , including the 500 series events at Dubai and Vienna . Lastly , Federer won the year @-@ end championships over Andre Agassi , finishing the year as world No. 2 , narrowly behind Andy Roddick .
= = = 2004 : Imposing dominance = = =
During 2004 , Federer won three Grand Slam singles titles for the first time in his career and became the first person to do so since Mats Wilander in 1988 . His first major hard @-@ court title came at the Australian Open over Marat Safin , thereby becoming the world No. 1 for the first time . He then won his second Wimbledon crown over Andy Roddick . Federer defeated the 2001 US Open champion , Lleyton Hewitt , at the US Open for his first title there .
Federer won three ATP Masters Series 1000 events , one was on clay in Hamburg , and the other two were on hard surfaces at Indian Wells and in Canada . Federer took the ATP 500 series event at Dubai and wrapped up the year by winning the year @-@ end championships for the second time . He also won his first tournament on home soil by capturing the Swiss Open in Gstaad . His 11 singles titles were the most of any player in two decades , and his record of 74 – 6 was the best since Ivan Lendl in 1986 . He improved his year @-@ end ranking to world No. 1 for the first time .
= = = 2005 : Consolidating dominance = = =
In 2005 , Federer failed to reach the finals of the first two Grand Slam tournaments , losing the Australian Open semifinal to eventual champion Safin after holding match points , and the French Open semifinal to eventual champion Rafael Nadal . However , Federer quickly reestablished his dominance on grass , winning the Wimbledon Championships over Andy Roddick . At the US Open , Federer defeated Andre Agassi in the latter 's last major final .
Federer also took four ATP Masters Series 1000 wins : Indian Wells , Miami , and Cincinnati on hard court , and Hamburg on clay . The win in Miami was particularly noteworthy as it was the first final contested between Federer and Rafael Nadal in what would become one of the greatest rivalries in tennis history . Federer received from down two sets and a break to take the final in five sets . Furthermore , Federer won two ATP 500 series events at Rotterdam and Dubai . Federer lost the year @-@ end championships to David Nalbandian in five sets while playing through a foot injury that sidelined him for almost the entire season after September . He maintained his position as world No. 1 for the entirety of the season .
The season was statistically one of the most dominant in the Open Era . He won 11 singles titles , which tied his 2004 season as the most in over two decades , his 81 match victories were the most since Pete Sampras in 1993 , and his record of 81 – 4 ( 95 @.@ 2 % ) remains the second @-@ best winning percentage in the Open Era behind only John McEnroe in 1984 .
= = = 2006 : Career best season = = =
The 2006 season was statistically the best season of Federer 's career , as well as one of the greatest seasons of any player in tennis history . In December 2011 , Stephen Tignor , chief editorial writer for Tennis.com , ranked Federer 's 2006 season as the second @-@ greatest season of all time during the Open Era , behind only Rod Laver 's Grand Slam year of 1969 . Federer won 12 singles titles ( the most of any player since John McEnroe in 1984 ) and had a match record of 92 – 5 ( the most wins since Ivan Lendl in 1982 ) . Federer reached the finals in an astounding 16 of the 17 tournaments he entered during the season .
In 2006 , Federer won three Grand Slam singles titles and reached the final of the other , with the only loss coming against Nadal in the French Open . This was Federer and Nadal 's first meeting in a Grand Slam final . He was the first man to reach all four finals in a calendar year since Rod Laver in 1969 . Federer defeated Nadal in the Wimbledon Championships final . In the Australian Open , Federer defeated Marcos Baghdatis , and at the US Open , Federer defeated Roddick ( 2003 champion ) . In addition , Federer made it to six ATP Masters Series 1000 finals , winning four on hard surfaces and losing two on clay to Nadal . Federer , however , consistently pushed Nadal to the limit on clay throughout the season taking him to fourth @-@ set tiebreakers in Monte @-@ Carlo and Paris , and a thrilling match in Rome that went to a deciding fifth @-@ set tiebreaker .
Federer won one ATP 500 series event in Tokyo and captured the year @-@ end championships for the third time in his career , again finishing the year as world No. 1 . Federer only lost to two players during 2006 , to Nadal four times in finals , and to 19 @-@ year @-@ old Andy Murray in the second round of the 2006 Cincinnati Masters , in what would be Federer 's only defeat before the final that year . Federer finished the season on a 29 @-@ match winning streak , as well as winning 48 of his last 49 matches after the French Open .
A personal highlight for Federer came near the end of the season when he finally won his hometown tournament the Swiss Indoors in Basel , Switzerland .
= = = 2007 : Holding off young rivals = = =
In 2007 , Federer reached all four Grand Slam singles finals , winning three of them again . He won the Australian Open over Fernando González and did so without dropping a set . This made him the first man in the 21st century to accomplish the feat , as Björn Borg at the 1980 French Open was the last to win a Grand Slam tournament without the loss of a set . Federer had entered the year on a huge winning streak and after capturing his fourth Dubai crown Federer 's winning streak stood at 41 matches , the longest of his career and only five shy of the record . Federer entered Indian Wells as the three @-@ time defending champion , but his streak would end in controversy . He was defeated by an Argentine , Guillermo Canas , who had failed a drug test for illegal doping . This surprising first @-@ round defeat marked the first time since August 2006 he suffered defeat , a period spanning over seven months .
During the clay season , Federer 's victory in the Hamburg Masters final was particularly impressive , as it snapped Rafael Nadal 's 81 @-@ match winning streak on clay , an Open @-@ Era record . Federer turned the match around from a set down to sweep 12 of the final 14 games , including a final set bagel . At the French Open , some anticipated that Federer could become the first man in almost 40 years to hold all four majors simultaneously , having just resoundingly defeated young rival Nadal on clay entering the tournament . However , in a repeat of the previous year Federer played a tough four @-@ set final against Nadal , but was undone by going 1 / 18 on break @-@ point chances .
At Wimbledon , Federer entered the tournament not only as the four @-@ time defending champion , but also riding a 48 @-@ match winning streak on grass . Once again , he defeated Rafael Nadal for a second consecutive year in the final , this time in a thrilling five @-@ set encounter that many analysts hailed as the greatest Wimbledon final since 1980 . Victory at Wimbledon equaled him with Björn Borg for the record of five consecutive championships at the All England Club .
Federer reached the final in Montreal before playing a young and relatively unknown Serbian named Novak Djokovic . Djokovic proved his potential by stunning the world No. 1 in a final @-@ set tiebreaker upset . Federer rebounded in Cincinnati to capture his fifth title of the year . Federer entered the US Open as the three @-@ time defending champion and faced Djokovic in the final . This time , Federer prevailed in a close straight @-@ set match . Victory in New York moved him ahead of Laver and Borg for third on the all @-@ time list of major championship victories . Throughout the tournament , the American press labeled him Darth Federer for his all @-@ black attire ( which included tuxedo @-@ striped shorts ) and the tournament played The Imperial March from Star Wars when he was announced onto the court for each of his matches . He would close out the year with victories in Basel and the Year End Championships in Shanghai .
He finished as the year @-@ end world No. 1 for the fourth year in a row , demonstrating his dominance , and during these four years he won 11 Grand Slam singles titles . After his phenomenal triple Grand Slam season yet again , Federer became the only player in history to win three Majors in a year for three years ( 2004 , 2006 , 2007 ) . It was the third consecutive season that Federer would hold the world No. 1 ranking for all 52 weeks of the year .
= = = 2008 : Illness , fifth US Open title and Olympic Gold = = =
Federer 's success in 2008 was severely hampered by a lingering bout of mononucleosis , which he suffered from during the first half of the year . At the end of the year , he would suffer a back injury that would prove to be recurring throughout his career .
In 2008 , Federer won one Grand Slam singles title at the US Open over Briton Andy Murray . Federer was defeated by Nadal in two Grand Slam finals , at the French Open , and at Wimbledon , when he was going for six straight wins to break Björn Borg 's record . At the Australian Open , Federer lost in the semifinals to eventual winner Djokovic , which ended his record of 10 consecutive finals . Later in the year , it was found Federer had been suffering from mononucleosis at the start of the year , particularly during the Australian Open . He lost twice in Masters Series 1000 finals on clay to Nadal , at Monte Carlo and Hamburg . However , Federer captured three titles in 250 @-@ level events at Estoril , Halle , and Basel .
At the Olympic Games , Federer and Stan Wawrinka won the gold medal in doubles , after beating the Bryan brothers American team in the semifinals and the Swedish duo of Simon Aspelin and Thomas Johansson in the final However , Federer could only reach the quarterfinals in the singles draw , knocked out by then world No. 8 James Blake . He ended the year as world No. 2 .
= = = 2009 : Career Grand Slam , sixth Wimbledon , breaking Grand Slam record = = =
In 2009 , Federer won two Grand Slam singles titles , the French Open over Robin Söderling , and Wimbledon over Andy Roddick . Federer reached two other Grand Slam finals , losing to Nadal at the Australian Open , and to Juan Martín del Potro at the US Open , both in tight five @-@ set matches .
The 2009 season was perhaps the most historically relevant of Federer 's career as he completed a career Grand Slam by winning his first French Open title and won a men 's record fifteenth Grand Slam singles title by defeating Andy Roddick at Wimbledon in five sets , surpassing Pete Sampras 's mark of fourteen . The 2009 Wimbledon final was also historic for being the longest Grand Slam final in terms of games played with Federer prevailing 16 – 14 in a thrilling fifth set . Upon breaking the Grand Slam tournament record , Federer was hailed by most analysts and many tennis greats as the greatest player in tennis history .
Federer won two more events , the first at the Madrid Masters over Nadal on clay . The second was in Cincinnati over Novak Djokovic .
= = = 2010 : Fourth Australian Open = = =
The year started with a win at the Australian Open , where he defeated Andy Murray in the final and extended the Grand Slam singles record to sixteen titles , matching Andre Agassi 's record of four Australian Open titles . Since Wimbledon 2005 Federer had made the finals of 18 out of 19 Grand Slam tournaments , an extraordinary period of sustained excellence unparalleled in the Open Era . This tournament , however , would mark the end of his utter dominance at the majors .
At the French Open , Federer won his 700th tour match and 150th tour match on clay . However , he failed to reach a Grand Slam semifinal for the first time since the 2004 French Open , losing to Söderling in the quarterfinals and relinquishing his No. 1 ranking , having been just one week away from equaling Pete Sampras 's record of 286 weeks as world No. 1 . In a huge upset at Wimbledon , Federer lost in the quarterfinals to Tomáš Berdych and fell to No. 3 in the rankings for the first time in 6 years and 8 months .
Towards the middle of July , Federer hired Pete Sampras ' old coach Paul Annacone on a trial basis to put his tennis game and career back on the right path . At the 2010 US Open , Federer reached the semifinals , where he lost a heart @-@ breaking five @-@ set match to Novak Djokovic after holding two match points . Federer made it to four Masters 1000 finals , prevailing at the Cincinnati Masters against Mardy Fish .
Federer finished the year in strong form , winning indoor titles at the Stockholm Open , Swiss Indoors , and the ATP World Tour Finals in London , which brought his tally to 66 career titles . Federer won the year @-@ end championships in London by beating rival Rafael Nadal for his fifth title at the event . He showed much of his old form , beating all contenders except Nadal in straight sets . It remains the only tournament in his career where Federer defeated all fellow members of the Big Four . Since Wimbledon 2010 , Federer had a win @-@ loss record of 34 – 4 . Federer finished in the top two for the eighth consecutive season .
= = = 2011 : Sixth World Tour Finals title = = =
The 2011 season , although great by most players ' standards , was a lean year for Federer . He was defeated in straight sets in the semifinals of the 2011 Australian Open by eventual champion Novak Djokovic , marking the first time since July 2003 that he did not hold any of the four major titles . In the French Open semifinals , Federer ended Djokovic 's undefeated streak of 43 consecutive wins with a stunning four @-@ set victory . However , Federer then lost in the final to Rafael Nadal . At Wimbledon , Federer advanced to his 29th consecutive Grand Slam quarterfinal , but lost to Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga . It marked the first time in his career that he had lost a Grand Slam tournament match after winning the first two sets .
At the US Open , Federer lost a much @-@ anticipated semifinal match with Novak Djokovic , after squandering two match points in the fifth set , which repeated his previous year 's result against Djokovic and added a second loss from two sets up in Grand Slam tournament play to his record . The loss at Flushing Meadows meant that Federer did not win any of the four majors in 2011 , the first time this has happened since 2002 . Later that month , in September 2011 , in a South African poll , Federer was voted the second most trusted and respected person in the world , next to Nelson Mandela .
Federer finished the season on a high note by yet again dominating the indoor season , winning his last three tournaments of the year at the Swiss Indoors , Paris Masters , and ATP World Tour Finals . He ended a 10 @-@ month title drought by winning the Swiss Indoors for the fifth time , defeating rising star Kei Nishikori . Federer followed this up with his first Paris Masters title , where he became the first player to reach all nine Masters 1000 finals . In the final of the 2011 ATP World Tour Finals , Federer defeated Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga for the third consecutive Sunday and , in doing so , claimed a record sixth ATP World Tour Finals title , finishing the year as world No. 3 .
= = = 2012 : Seventh Wimbledon , second Olympic Medal and return to No. 1 = = =
The 2012 season was a return to excellence for Federer . He had his most match wins since 2006 and his highest winning percentage and number of titles won since 2007 .
Federer reached the semifinal of the 2012 Australian Open , setting up a 27th career meeting with Nadal , a match he lost in four tight sets .
He then won the Rotterdam Open for the first time since 2005 , defeating Juan Martin del Potro . Federer played in the 2012 Dubai Tennis Championships , where he defeated Andy Murray in the final and won the championship title for the fifth time in his career . Federer then moved on to the Indian Wells Masters , where he defeated Rafael Nadal in the semifinals , and John Isner in the final . Federer won the title for a record fourth time , and , in doing so , equalled Rafael Nadal 's record of 19 ATP Masters 1000 titles .
Federer went on to compete at the Madrid Masters on the new blue clay surface , where he beat Tomáš Berdych in the final , thus regaining the world No. 2 ranking from Rafael Nadal . In the French Open , Federer made the semifinals before losing to Djokovic .
At Wimbledon , Federer survived an epic five @-@ set thriller in the third round against Julien Benneteau on his way to the semifinals . In his semifinal match @-@ up against world No. 1 Novak Djokovic , Federer earned a record eighth Wimbledon final appearance after dispatching Djokovic in four sets . Federer defeated Andy Murray in four sets in the 2012 Wimbledon final , regaining the world No. 1 ranking in the process . " It 's amazing . It equals me with Pete Sampras , who 's my hero . It just feels amazing " , Federer said of winning his seventh Wimbledon championship , tying Sampras ' Open Era record . By defeating top @-@ ranked Djokovic in the semifinals and winning in the finals , Federer returned to the top spot in the world rankings and , in doing so , broke Sampras ' record of 286 weeks atop the list .
Four weeks after the Wimbledon final , Federer again faced Murray on the Wimbledon centre court , this time for the final of the 2012 Summer Olympics . This came after an epic 4 @-@ hour 26 @-@ minute semifinal against Juan Martin del Potro of Argentina that Federer won 19 – 17 in the third and final set . He lost to Murray in straight sets in the final , winning a silver medal for his country .
Federer won in Cincinnati , beating Novak Djokovic soundly in the final . In the US Open , five @-@ time champ Federer was defeated by Tomáš Berdych in the quarterfinals . In the Shanghai Rolex Masters , defeating Stan Wawrinka in the third round , Federer confirmed his 300th week at No. 1 . Federer made it to the finals of the ATP World Tour Finals , where he lost to Novak Djokovic in two tight sets .
= = = 2013 : Injury struggles = = =
Federer struggled with back injuries sustained in March and again in July and saw his ranking drop from No. 2 to No. 6 . The 2013 season was the first since 1999 in which Federer failed to reach a final in the first four months of the year .
Federer 's first and only title of 2013 came at the Gerry Weber Open ( def . Mikhail Youzhny ) , where he also played doubles with good friend Tommy Haas . With the victory in Halle , he tied John McEnroe for the third @-@ most number of ATP titles won by a male player in the Open Era . Federer , however , was unable to maintain his form into Wimbledon , suffering his worst Grand Slam tournament defeat since 2003 in the second round against Sergiy Stakhovsky . Not only did the loss end Federer 's record streak of 36 consecutive quarterfinals at Grand Slam tournaments , it meant he would drop out of the top 4 for first time since July 2003 , exactly 10 years after he won his first Wimbledon title .
During the summer , he experimented with various different racquets and played the German Open with a blacked @-@ out 98 @-@ inch Wilson racquet , instead of his regular Pro Staff 6 @.@ 1 90 BLX racquet with the smaller 90 @-@ inch hitting area . He returned to his regular racquet for the second half of the season . After Wimbledon , Federer continued to be upset early in tournaments because of a serious back injury through October , when he announced that he was parting ways with Paul Annacone , his coach for the last three years . Federer made the final in Basel , succumbing to Juan Martín del Potro .
On 27 December 2013 , Federer announced that Stefan Edberg was joining his team as co @-@ coach with Severin Lüthi .
= = = 2014 : Wimbledon runner @-@ up , and Davis Cup glory = = =
Federer began the season by changing rackets for the first time in his career , from his longtime frame of 90 square inches to one measured at 97 square inches . He had long been at a comparative disadvantage in equipment as almost the entire tour , including his top rivals Nadal and Djokovic , used more powerful frames of between 95 and 100 square inches .
Federer played well at the Australian Open , defeating Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga and Andy Murray to reach his 11th consecutive semifinal in Melbourne , before losing to Rafael Nadal in straight sets .
At the Dubai Tennis Championships , he defeated Novak Djokovic in the semifinals , and then defeated Tomáš Berdych in the final to win his sixth Dubai crown and his first title since Halle in 2013 . Federer made the final at the Indian Wells Masters , but lost to Novak Djokovic in a final @-@ set tiebreaker . At the Davis Cup quarterfinals , Federer won both of his singles rubbers against Kazakhstan , the second of which was the first live deciding rubber of his Davis Cup career . Federer then took a wild card into the Monte @-@ Carlo Masters defeating Novak Djokovic on his way to the finals , but lost to compatriot Stan Wawrinka in a tight final .
In June , Federer announced that after the end of his third term , he would resign as President of the ATP Players Council , a position he had held since 2008 . At the Halle Open , Federer reached both the singles and the doubles finals and won his seventh Halle singles title , beating Alejandro Falla in the final . At Wimbledon , Federer reached a record ninth final , but he defeated by Djokovic in an epic five @-@ set match .
Federer made the final of the Canadian Open , but was defeated by Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga . Federer defeated Spain 's David Ferrer in three sets to capture his sixth Cincinnati crown and his 22nd ATP World Tour Masters 1000 title , his first since Cincinnati 2012 . He then reached the semifinals at the US Open , but lost in straight sets to eventual champion Marin Čilić . At the Davis Cup semifinals , Federer won both of his singles matches against Italy in straight sets and hence led Switzerland to the final for the first time since 1992 .
Federer then played in the Shanghai Masters . He beat Novak Djokovic in the semifinals , ending the Serb 's 28 @-@ match unbeaten run on Chinese soil . He battled Frenchman Gilles Simon in his second Shanghai final , defeating him in two tiebreak sets and collected the 23rd Masters 1000 title of his career . The victory saw Federer return to world No. 2 for the first time since May 2013 . Federer then played the Swiss Indoors in October , where he won a record sixth title and his 82nd ATP men 's singles title overall . Federer also reached the finals of the 2014 ATP World Tour Finals to face Djokovic again , but withdrew from the final because of another back injury from his semifinal match against Stan Wawrinka . Despite his injury , Federer finished the season on a high by defeating Richard Gasquet to clinch the Davis Cup for Switzerland for the first time in its history .
= = = 2015 : 1,000th career win , Wimbledon and US Open runners @-@ up = = =
Federer started his season at the Brisbane International . He defeated Milos Raonic in the final , thereby becoming only the third man in the Open Era to have 1000 or more wins , joining Jimmy Connors and Ivan Lendl , as well as the first man in the Open Era to win at least one title in each of 15 consecutive
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. McCall was substituted in the Scottish Cup final defeat to Hearts as Rangers went the season without picking up a single title for the first season in McCall 's time at the club . In February 2008 , McCall became the 71st inductee into the Rangers hall of fame . McCall 's former teammate and Rangers assistant manager Ally McCoist presented him with the award .
= = = = Back to Bradford City = = = =
McCall still had one year left on his Rangers contract in 1998 , but much of the team that Walter Smith had built had left and McCall was allowed to leave on a free transfer by new manager Dick Advocaat , as long as he joined an English club . Barnsley and Huddersfield Town were both interested in signing McCall , but he rejoined Bradford City as club captain . Rookie manager Paul Jewell put together a squad which emerged as surprise promotion contenders after two seasons spent battling relegation , adding other new signings , including central midfield partner Gareth Whalley and striker Lee Mills , who went on to be club 's top goal @-@ scorer . The season started off slowly with just one win from the first seven games , but by the latter half of the season , City were vying with Ipswich Town and Birmingham City for the second promotion spot behind runaway leaders Sunderland . Loan signing Lee Sharpe and Dean Windass were added to the ranks and City had the chance to seal promotion in their penultimate game against relegation @-@ threatened Oxford United . The game finished as a 0 – 0 draw , with McCall heading over the goal in the final minutes , taking the promotion bid to the final game of the season . Days later he was named the club 's player of the year . A 3 – 2 victory over Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux on 9 May 1999 ensured promotion to the Premier League and denied Ipswich Town – the team that had thwarted McCall and Bradford 11 years before .
Bradford were expected to struggle in their first season in the top flight for 77 years . Jewell signed David Wetherall , Dean Saunders and Neil Redfearn , all experienced top flight performers , but City were in the bottom four teams for most of the season . It was Bradford 's home form – they earned 26 of their 36 points at Valley Parade – that was key to City avoiding relegation , which was narrowly averted by two points after a shock 1 – 0 final day victory over Liverpool in 1999 – 2000 , sending Wimbledon down instead . When Jewell left only days after the season ended , McCall was appointed assistant manager to Chris Hutchings , and subsequently served as caretaker manager for two games when Hutchings was sacked after just 12 games of the 2000 – 01 league season . City were relegated with just 26 points . During a 6 – 1 defeat to West Yorkshire rivals Leeds United in the penultimate game , McCall and team @-@ mate Andy Myers fought on the pitch .
McCall stayed on for one more season before he was released by manager Nicky Law in May 2002 , shortly before the club went into administration for the first time after finishing 15th in Division One . His playing career at Bradford City had looked uncertain in December 2001 before Law arrived , when previous manager Jim Jefferies had left McCall out of the side in a 3 – 1 defeat at Manchester City following a training ground dispute . However , it was Jefferies who lost out in the dispute when he resigned his post a week later after summit talks with chairman Geoffrey Richmond . In April 2002 , McCall 's testimonial match against Rangers attracted a crowd of more than 21 @,@ 000 to Valley Parade . McCall gave part of the proceeds from his testimonial to the Bradford burns research unit , which was set up following the 1985 fire . Two years after his benefit match , McCall played one more time in City colours in a Save Our City appeal match organised by Bradford 's evening newspaper , the Telegraph & Argus , to raise funds for the club , who were now in administration for a second time .
= = = = Sheffield United = = = =
On 2 July 2002 McCall joined Sheffield United , where he played an integral part in their first @-@ team side , despite being 38 , and also coached the reserves to the league title . He played 71 league games over the next two seasons , and scored twice , including a winner against former side Bradford . He was in the side that reached the Division One play @-@ off final in 2003 as well as the semi @-@ finals of both cup competitions that year . However he and Dean Windass , who was also now at Sheffield United , were both left out of the play @-@ off final , as United lost 3 – 0 to Wolverhampton Wanderers . McCall played just two League Cup games in the 2004 – 05 season , and retired just a few weeks before his 41st birthday . His career total of 763 league games placed him in 13th position on the all @-@ time appearance list of British footballers .
= = = International career = = =
McCall was picked for England and Scotland under @-@ 21 sides on the same day in 1984 , and chose to play for England in a game against Turkey . However , he was only picked as a substitute and the referee blew the final whistle with McCall waiting to come on . He later told Scottish newspaper Glasgow Herald , " I felt it was a mistake almost from the start . I was put on the bench and they tried to bring me on with a minute to go . But I took my time re @-@ tying my boots and generally warming up and luckily didn 't get on , otherwise that would have been that . " As a result , McCall was still eligible for both England and Scotland , and he eventually switched allegiances to the latter , for whom he qualified through his father . He made his Scotland debut at under @-@ 21 level in March 1988 , ironically against England . McCall made one more appearance for Scotland under 21s , against France in 1990 .
Later the same year , McCall was called up to the Scottish senior team . He won his first cap on 28 March 1990 in a 1 – 0 friendly victory over Argentina . He played in five friendlies in 1990 which earned him a call up to the Italia 90 World Cup squad . He played in all three of Scotland 's World Cup games . They lost their first game 1 – 0 to Costa Rica , before McCall scored what would be his only international goal against Sweden in a 2 – 1 victory . However , Scotland failed to qualify for the knock @-@ out stage when they were defeated 1 – 0 by Brazil .
McCall represented Scotland at the European Championships in 1992 , when they again failed to go beyond the group stage after defeats to Netherlands and Germany , and in 1996 when they were edged out in the first round by Netherlands . Scotland failed to qualify for the World Cup in 1994 . McCall played just two qualifying games for the 1998 World Cup and his last cap came in a friendly against Denmark on 25 March 1998 , as he was overlooked for the final squad for the finals in France along with team @-@ mate Ally McCoist . He was capped a total of 40 times for Scotland , scoring one goal . McCall 's caps included 11 while at Everton and 29 during his career with Rangers .
= = Coaching and management career = =
= = = Early coaching career = = =
In July 2000 , McCall accepted his first coaching role , when he was appointed assistant manager to Chris Hutchings at Bradford City , after Hutchings was promoted from the role to replace Paul Jewell as City manager . Just four months later , Hutchings was sacked , and McCall was appointed as caretaker – player manager . His first game in the role was against his former team Everton , who were led by his former manager Walter Smith , but ended with a 1 – 0 defeat . He was in charge for one more game , which also ended in defeat , until Jim Jefferies was appointed the new manager . Jefferies brought with him his own assistant Billy Brown , and McCall was appointed first @-@ team coach .
After leaving Bradford City , he joined Sheffield United , where he also took up a coaching role . When he retired in 2004 , he remained at Sheffield United as assistant to Neil Warnock . Working alongside Warnock and learning the managerial ropes from him , he helped mastermind Sheffield 's promotion to the Premier League in 2006 . United were relegated to the Championship on the final day of the 2006 – 07 season and Warnock resigned three days later . McCall had already decided that the 2006 – 07 season would be his last as assistant manager , and when he was overlooked as a successor to the United manager 's position , in favour of Bryan Robson , he decided to leave after five years with the club .
= = = Bradford City = = =
McCall admitted in his autobiography , The Real McCall , he wanted to manage Bradford .
He had been linked with the manager 's position at Bradford City on numerous previous occasions , and after Colin Todd was sacked on 12 February 2007 , City chairman Julian Rhodes made McCall his number one target to take over in the summer . Club captain David Wetherall temporarily took over and was later announced as caretaker manager for the rest of the 2006 – 07 season . On 18 May 2007 it was announced McCall would become full @-@ time manager of the club where he started his career , and on 1 June 2007 he assumed the position . In less than seven years since McCall 's first two @-@ game reign , serious financial problems had driven the club to the verge of closure , and although they survived the threat of oblivion , they were unable to avoid a terrible on @-@ the @-@ pitch decline , which continued after the financial nightmare had been relieved . On McCall 's return to Valley Parade , the Bantams had just been relegated to League Two — meaning that they would be playing in the bottom division for the first time in 25 years . McCall set himself a target of earning promotion back to League One in his first season .
Bradford had just 13 players when McCall took over , and he made a number of summer signings including defender Darren Williams , midfielders Kyle Nix , Alex Rhodes and Scott Phelan , and strikers Barry Conlon , Guylain Ndumbu @-@ Nsungu and Peter Thorne . McCall recorded his first win as a manager against Wrexham on 25 August 2007 after substitute Luke Medley scored a late winner , but despite his pre @-@ season target his team spent much of the first half of the season in the bottom half of the table . After going unbeaten in January , the club were still 15th in League Two , and McCall told the Telegraph & Argus he did not regret his pre @-@ season target but was carried away with the euphoria at the time . City 's form continued to improve during the second half of the season , and McCall led his side to 10th place in League Two .
Despite City finishing outside the play @-@ off places , they were again installed as favourites for promotion by bookmakers for the 2008 – 09 season . McCall released 13 players from his squad and replaced them with a number of signings with experience in a higher division , as well as Michael Boulding , who was one of League Two 's top goalscorers during the 2007 – 08 campaign . McCall 's side made a good start to the season , and after winning five of their opening six league games , went top of the league – the first time City had led the table in seven years .
As a result of maintaining a place in the promotion places during the first half of the season and his " stabling influence " on the club , chairmen Julian Rhodes and Mark Lawn offered McCall a new contract in January 2009 . Later in the month , Lawn gave further backing to McCall , who was coming under pressure from the club 's fans following a run of one win in nine games ; during the run McCall was also charged by The Football Association for the first time of his managerial career after he had contested a refereeing decision during a game with Luton Town . McCall signed a new contract in February , which extended his deal by another two years and would have kept him at the club until 2011 . He set himself the goal of earning two promotions to put City in the Championship . However , less than a month later , McCall offered to resign if they did not reach the play @-@ offs after his side lost 4 – 1 to Bournemouth – their fifth consecutive away defeat . " Nobody is hurting more than me but it 's as simple as that , if we miss out I don 't deserve to be here , " he said . City eventually missed out on promotion , but McCall decided to stay on as manager and took a voluntary pay cut in the process because of the club 's budget being reduced .
As a result of the cuts , McCall made a number of changes to his squad during the summer of 2009 . His team started the 2009 – 10 season by going four games without scoring , until they recorded a 5 – 4 victory against Cheltenham Town . After the game , McCall said : " That was the youngest , and certainly cheapest , team Bradford have put out for a long time and I ’ m really proud of them . " City continued by going ten games unbeaten and reached the area semi @-@ finals of the Football League Trophy where they lost to Carlisle United , managed by McCall 's friend Greg Abbott , but at the start of 2010 found themselves 16th in League Two and eight points off the play @-@ offs after a run of five defeats in seven games . McCall laid down a challenge to his team to win three of their next four games , saying : " The bottom line is that the players and me personally will get judged on results . And the results aren 't good enough . " Despite the club 's slide down the table , he denied he would resign , but it was reported that two late goals from summer signing Gareth Evans to give City a late 2 – 1 away at Torquay United saved McCall from being sacked . However , defeat to Bury in the club 's following fixture was McCall 's last game as manager , with McCall saying after the game : " It 's time for somebody else to come in and take up the reins and hopefully do well . " He won a little more than one @-@ third of his 133 games in charge of City . McCall left by mutual consent .
= = = Motherwell = = =
After leaving Bradford , McCall spent some time out of the game before being recruited to work as a scout for Norwich City by Rangers former chief scout Ewan Chester . At the end of 2010 , he was among a number of men interviewed for the managerial vacancy at Scottish Premier League side Motherwell to succeed Craig Brown , before being given the job on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract . His first game in charge was a 0 – 0 draw away to Hamilton Academical on New Year 's Day 2011 , with McCall stating : " It was a fair result . You take positives , a clean sheet , but we can be better and we will be better . " He followed it up with a 4 – 0 victory in the Scottish Cup against Dundee before his maiden league victory – and the club 's first since November – against Hibernian by the end of January . McCall was partly selected as new manager because of his knowledge of the lower leagues of English football ; he was active in the transfer market in his early days , bringing in Steve Jones – a player he had at Bradford – and Mike Grella from Leeds United , although the latter move was cancelled because of a FIFA ruling limiting the number of clubs a player can sign for in one season . Having operated without an assistant for his first few weeks in charge , McCall chose former Airdrie United manager Kenny Black as his number two . McCall led Motherwell to the semi @-@ finals of both Scottish Cup competitions – they were defeated 2 – 1 by his former side Rangers in the League Cup but reached the final of the Scottish Cup by defeating St Johnstone 3 – 0 .
At the start of the following season , Motherwell lost only one match in their first six making them joint leaders of the Scottish Premier League , which led to McCall being named the Clydesdale Bank Premier League manager of the month for July and August . Well continued their good form , with McCall winning the award again in October , alongside player of the month Keith Lasley , in a month when the side went unbeaten . Motherwell 's final position in the Premier League was in 3rd , allowing them into the Champions League for the first time in the club 's history .
At the start of the 2012 @-@ 13 season , McCall was unable to make signings after losing ten players . In the summer transfer window , he made two signings Simon Ramsden and Fraser Kerr . McCall attempted to sign the returning James McFadden and Ryan Stevenson , but both were unsuccessful . McCall then managed the club 's first Champions League match in the second round against Panathinaikos , but they proved to be too strong and Motherwell failed to win either leg losing 2 @-@ 0 and 3 @-@ 0 respectively , which McCall described as " cruel " . After the match , Motherwell entered the Europa League play @-@ offs to face Levante ; McCall wanted to play with an " up @-@ and @-@ at @-@ them approach " against the Spaniards . Once again , their opposition proved to be too strong and they lost each leg 2 – 0 and 1 – 0 respectively , ending the club 's European competitions ; the second game at the Estadi Ciutat de València had Motherwell playing with a youthful and inexperienced squad due to injuries .
On 24 January 2013 , it was announced McCall would join the backroom staff of new Scotland national football team manager Gordon Strachan . During the 2012 / 13 season , the club managed to stay in the top @-@ six . On 28 March 2013 , McCall signed a new two @-@ year contract with Motherwell . In April 2013 , McCall was awarded March 's SPL manager of month for helping the club win three and draw one of their games during the month . At the end of the season , Motherwell finished second for the first time , their highest league position since 1994 @-@ 95 season , which he described as " incredible " . As a result , McCall won Clydesdale Bank Manager of the Year . On 22 May 2013 , it was reported that he was set to open talks with Sheffield United about their managerial vacancy in the next 24 hours and that he had cut short a family holiday to intend the interview . Eventually , McCall rejected a move to Sheffield United , following talks between the two and was happy to continue as manager of Motherwell , claiming it was the wrong time to join United .
At the start of the 2013 @-@ 14 season , key players Darren Randolph , Nicky Law , Chris Humphrey , Michael Higdon and Henrik Ojamaa all left the club . McCall replaced them by signing Paul Lawson , Iain Vigurs , John Sutton , Fraser Kerr , Gunnar Nielsen and Stephen McManus . He also managed to persuade James McFadden to stay at the club . Motherwell enjoyed another successful season , finishing second in the 2013 – 14 Scottish Premiership . The position was achieved by winning on the final day against nearest rivals Aberdeen . After a bad start to the 2014 – 15 season left Motherwell second from bottom , McCall resigned as manager on 2 November .
= = = Rangers = = =
McCall was appointed manager of Rangers on 12 March 2015 , agreeing a contract with the club to the end of the 2014 – 15 season . In his first match in charge Rangers were held to a 1 – 1 draw at home by bottom @-@ placed Livingston on 14 March 2015 . Rangers finished third in the 2014 – 15 Scottish Championship and in the Premiership play @-@ off final they were beaten 6 – 1 on aggregate by McCall 's former team Motherwell . Insisting he had " done a decent job " he wanted to extend his contract for the following season . Rangers instead opted to appoint Mark Warburton as manager for the new season .
= = = Return to Bradford City = = =
On 20 June 2016 , he returned as manager of Bradford City , replacing Phil Parkinson . McCall gave up his coaching role with the Scottish national team .
= = Style of play = =
McCall was a box @-@ to @-@ box midfielder characterised by his tireless running , tackling and also weighing in with an average of one goal every 11 games . Despite his position in the middle of the park he was rarely suspended and was sent off just once in his career – in the final minute of a 2 – 0 defeat to Charlton Athletic on 4 November 2000 . He also had a never @-@ say @-@ die attitude proven by a number of key late goals including his equaliser which sent the 1989 FA Cup Final into extra @-@ time , and a 93rd @-@ minute equaliser against Tottenham Hotspur during Bradford 's difficult start to their Premier League campaign in the 1999 – 2000 season . He was a passionate player whose strong desire to win even ran to reserve games . Even in his final years of his career he was described as a player with " plenty of drive and ambition " by manager Neil Warnock .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Playing = = =
= = = = Club = = = =
= = = = International = = = =
= = = = = International goals = = = = =
Scores and results list Scotland 's goal tally first .
= = = Managerial = = =
As of 31 May 2015
= = Honours = =
= = = Player = = =
Bradford City
English Third Division ( 1 ) : 1984 – 85
English First Division promotion ( 1 ) : 1998 – 99
Rangers
Scottish Premier Division ( 6 ) : 1991 – 92 , 1992 – 93 , 1993 – 94 , 1994 – 95 , 1995 – 96 , 1996 – 97
Scottish Cup ( 3 ) : 1992 , 1993 , 1996
Scottish League Cup ( 2 ) : 1993 , 1994
= = = Manager = = =
Motherwell
Lanarkshire Cup ( 3 ) : 2010 – 11 , 2012 – 13 , 2013 – 14
= = = Individual = = =
PFA Team of the Year ( 2 ) :
Second Division : 1987 , 1988
Third Division : 1985
Manager of the Month : July / August 2011 , October 2011 , March 2013
SPL Manager of the Season : 2012 – 13
= Black @-@ tailed jackrabbit =
The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit ( Lepus californicus ) , also known as the American desert hare , is a common hare of the western United States and Mexico , where it is found at elevations from sea level up to 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) . Reaching a length around 2 ft ( 61 cm ) , and a weight from 3 to 6 lb ( 1 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 7 kg ) , the black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is the third @-@ largest North American hare . Black @-@ tailed jackrabbits occupy mixed shrub @-@ grassland terrains . Their breeding depends on the location ; it typically peaks in spring , but may continue all year round in warm climates . Young are born fully furred with eyes open ; they are well camouflaged and are mobile within minutes of birth , thus females do not protect or even stay with the young except during nursing . The average litter size is around four , but may be as low as two and as high as seven in warm regions .
The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit does not migrate or hibernate during winter and uses the same habitat of 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 2 mi2 ( 1 – 3 km2 ) year @-@ round . Its diet is composed of various shrubs , small trees , grasses , and forbs . Shrubs generally comprise the bulk of fall and winter diets , while grasses and forbs are used in spring and early summer , but the pattern and plant species vary with climate . The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is an important prey species for raptors and carnivorous mammals , such as eagles , hawks , owls , coyotes , foxes , and wild cats . The rabbits host many ectoparasites including fleas , ticks , lice , and mites ; for this reason , hunters often avoid collecting them .
= = Description = =
Like other jackrabbits , the black @-@ tailed jackrabbit has distinctive long ears , and the long , powerful rear legs characteristic of hares . Reaching a length about 2 ft ( 61 cm ) , and a weight from 3 to 6 lb ( 1 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 7 kg ) , the black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is the third @-@ largest North American hare , after the antelope jackrabbit and the white @-@ tailed jackrabbit . The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit 's dorsal fur is agouti ( dark buff peppered with black ) , and its undersides and the insides of its legs are creamy white . The ears are black @-@ tipped on the outer surfaces , and unpigmented inside . The ventral surface of the tail is grey to white , and the black dorsal surface of the tail continues up the spine for a few inches to form a short , black stripe . The females are larger than males , with no other significant differences .
= = Taxonomy and distribution = =
Although 17 subspecies are recognized , this number may be excessive . Using a cluster analysis of anatomical characters , Dixon and others found that black @-@ tailed jackrabbit subspecies separated into two distinct groups that are geographically separated west and east of the Colorado Rocky Mountains and the Colorado River . They suggested only two infrataxa are warranted : the western subspecies L. c. californicus and the eastern subspecies L. c. texianus .
The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is the most widely distributed jackrabbit ( Lepus species ) in North America . Native black @-@ tailed jackrabbit populations occur from central Washington east to Missouri and south to Baja California Sur and Zacatecas . Black @-@ tailed jackrabbit distribution is currently expanding eastward in the Great Plains at the expense of white @-@ tailed jackrabbit . The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit has been successfully introduced in southern Florida and along the coastline in Maryland , New Jersey , and Virginia .
Distribution of subspecies occurring entirely or partially in the United States is :
Lepus californicus altamirae ( Nelson )
L. c. asellus ( G. S. Miller )
L. c. bennettii ( Gray ) – coastal southern California to Baja California Norte
L. c. californicus ( Gray ) – coastal Oregon to coastal and Central Valley California
L. c. curti ( E. R. Hall )
L. c. deserticola ( Mearns ) – southern Idaho to Sonora
L. c. ememicus ( J. A. Allen ) – central Arizona to Sonora
L. c. festinus ( Nelson )
L. c. magdalenae ( Nelson )
L. c. martirensis ( J. M. Stowell )
L. c. melanotis ( Mearns ) – South Dakota to Iowa , Missouri , and central Texas
L. c. merriamai ( Mearns ) – south @-@ central and southeastern Texas to Tamaulipas
L. c. richardsonii ( Bachman ) – central California
L. c. sheldoni ( W. H. Burt )
L. c. texianus ( Waterhouse ) – southeastern Utah and southwestern Colorado to Zacatecas
L. c. wallawalla ( Merriam ) – eastern Washington to northeastern California and northwestern Nevada
L. c. xanti ( Thomas )
= = Plant communities = =
The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit occupies plant communities with a mixture of shrubs , grasses , and forbs . Shrubland @-@ herb mosaics are preferred over pure stands of shrubs or herbs . Black @-@ tailed jackrabbit populations are common in sagebrush ( Artemisia spp . ) , creosotebush ( Larrea tridentata ) , and other desert shrublands ; palouse , shortgrass , and mixed @-@ grass prairies ; desert grassland ; open @-@ canopy chaparral ; oak ( Quercus spp . ) , and pinyon @-@ juniper ( Pinus @-@ Juniperus spp . ) woodlands ; and early seral ( succeeding each other ) , low- to mid @-@ elevation coniferous forests . It is also common in and near croplands , especially alfalfa ( Medicago sativa ) fields .
= = Major life events = =
Male black @-@ tailed jackrabbits reach sexual maturity around 7 months of age . Females usually breed in the spring of their second year , although females born in spring or early summer may breed in their first year . Ovulation is induced by copulation . The breeding season is variable depending upon latitude and environmental factors . In the northern part of their range in Idaho , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits breed from February through May . In Utah , they breed from January through July , with over 75 % of females pregnant by April . The Kansas breeding season extends from January to August . Breeding in warm climates continues nearly year @-@ round . Two peak breeding seasons corresponding to rainfall patterns and growth of young vegetation occur in California , Arizona , and New Mexico . In Arizona , for example , breeding peaks during winter ( January – March ) rains and again during June monsoons .
The gestation period ranges from 41 to 47 days . More litters are born in warm climates : the number of litters born each year ranges from two per year in Idaho to seven in Arizona . Litter sizes are largest in the northern portions of black @-@ tailed jackrabbit 's range and decrease toward the south . Average litter size has been reported at 4 @.@ 9 in Idaho , 3 @.@ 8 in Utah , and 2 @.@ 2 in Arizona .
Female black @-@ tailed jackrabbits do not prepare an elaborate nest . They give birth in shallow excavations called forms that are no more than a few centimeters deep . Females may line forms with hair prior to giving birth , but some drop litters in existing depressions on the ground with no further preparation . Young are born fully furred with eyes open , and are mobile within minutes of birth . Females do not protect or even stay with the young except during nursing . Ages of weaning and dispersal are unclear since the young are well camouflaged and rarely observed in the field . Captive black @-@ tailed jackrabbits are fully weaned by 8 weeks . The young stay together for at least a week after leaving the form .
= = Preferred habitat = =
The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit can occupy a wide range of habitats as long as diversity in plant species exists . It requires mixed grasses , forbs , and shrubs for food , and shrubs or small trees for cover . It prefers moderately open areas without dense understory growth and is seldom found in closed @-@ canopy habitats . For example , in California , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits are plentiful in open chamise ( Ademostoma fasciculatum ) and Ceanothus spp. chaparral interspersed with grasses , but does not occupy closed @-@ canopy chaparral . Similarly , the black @-@ tailed jackrabbit occupies clearcuts and early seral coniferous forest , but not closed @-@ canopy coniferous forest .
Black @-@ tailed jackrabbits do not migrate or hibernate during winter ; the same habitat is used year @-@ round . Diurnal movement of 2 to 10 miles ( 3 – 16 km ) occurs from shrub cover in day to open foraging areas at night . Home range area varies with habitat and habitat quality . Home ranges of 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 2 mi2 ( 1 – 3 km2 ) have been reported in big sagebrush ( Artemisia tridentata ) and black greasewood ( Sarcobatus vermiculatus ) communities of northern Utah .
Black @-@ tailed jackrabbits require shrubs or small conifers for hiding , nesting , and thermal cover , and grassy areas for night feeding . A shrub @-@ grassland mosaic or widely spaced shrubs interspersed with herbs provides hiding cover while providing feeding opportunities . Small shrubs do not provide adequate cover . In the Snake River Birds of Prey Study Area in southwestern Idaho , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits were more frequent on sites dominated by big sagebrush or black greasewood than on sites dominated by the smaller shrubs winterfat ( Krascheninnikovia lanata ) or shadscale ( Atriplex confertifolia ) . Black @-@ tailed jackrabbits do not habitually use a burrow , although they have occasionally been observed using abandoned burrows for escape and thermal cover .
= = Food habits = =
The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit diet is composed of shrubs , small trees , grasses , and forbs . Throughout the course of a year , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits feed on most if not all of the important plant species in a community . Growth stage and moisture content of plants may influence selection more than species . Shrubs generally comprise the bulk of fall and winter diets , while grasses and forbs are used in spring and early summer . This pattern varies with climate : herbaceous plants are grazed during greenup periods while the plants are in prereproductive to early reproductive stages , and shrubs are used more in dry seasons . Shrubs are browsed throughout the year , however . Most of a jackrabbit 's body water is replaced by foraging water @-@ rich vegetation . Jackrabbits require a plant 's water weight to be at least five times its dry weight to meet daily water intake requirements . Therefore , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits switch to phreatophyte ( deep @-@ rooted ) shrubs when herbaceous vegetation is recovering from their foraging .
Plant species used by black @-@ tailed jackrabbits are well documented for desert regions . Forage use in other regions is less well known . However , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits browse Douglas fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii ) , ponderosa pine ( Pinus ponderosa ) , lodgepole pine ( P. contorta ) , and western hemlock ( Tsuga heterophylla ) seedlings , and oak ( Quercus spp . ) seedlings and sprouts .
= = = Great Basin = = =
In Great Basin , big sagebrush is a primary forage species and is used throughout the year ; in southern Idaho it forms 16 – 21 % of the black @-@ tailed jackrabbit summer diet . Rabbitbrush ( Chrysothamnus spp . ) , spiny hopsage ( gray spinosa ) , and black greasewood are also browsed . Four @-@ wing saltbush ( Atriplex canescens ) is heavily used in western Nevada . In Butte County , Idaho , winterfat comprises 41 % of black @-@ tailed jackrabbits ' annual diet . Grasses comprise 14 % of the diet , with most grass consumption in March and April . Russian thistle ( Salsoda kali ) is an important forb diet item . Needle @-@ and @-@ thread grass ( Stipa comata ) and Indian ricegrass ( Oryzopsis hymenoides ) are preferred grasses . Other preferred native grasses include Sandberg bluegrass ( Poa secunda ) and bluebunch wheatgrass ( Pseudoroegneria spicata ) . Where available , crested wheatgrass ( Agropyron desertorum and Agropyron cristatum ) and barley ( Hordeum vulgare ) are highly preferred . Cheatgrass ( Bromus tectorum ) use is variable : it comprises 45 % of the April diet on two southern Idaho sites , but black @-@ tailed jackrabbit on an eastern Washington site do not use it .
= = = Warm desert = = =
In warm desert , mesquite ( Prosopis spp . ) and creosotebush ( Larrea tridentata ) are principal browse species . Broom snakeweed ( Gutierrezia sarothrae ) and Yucca spp. are also used . In honey mesquite ( Prosopis glandulosa var. glandulosa ) communities in New Mexico , the overall black @-@ tailed jackrabbit diet was 47 % shrubs , 22 % grasses , and 31 % forbs . Black grama ( Bouteloua spp . ) , dropseed ( Sporobolus spp . ) , fluffgrass ( Erioneuron pulchellum ) , and threeawns ( Aristida spp . ) are the most commonly grazed grasses . Leather croton ( Croton pottsii ) , silverleaf nightshade ( Solanum elaeagnifolium ) , desert marigold ( Baileya multiradiata ) , wooly paperflower ( Psilostrophe tagetina ) , and globemallow ( Sphaeralcea spp . ) are important forbs , although many forb species are grazed . Opuntia spp . , saguaro ( Carnegiea gigantea ) , and other cacti are used throughout the year , but are especially important in dry seasons as a source of moisture .
= = Predators = =
The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is an important prey species for many raptors and carnivorous mammals . The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit and Townsend 's ground squirrel ( Spermophilus townsendii ) are the two most important prey species on the Snake River Birds of Prey Study Area . Hawks preying on black @-@ tailed jackrabbits include the ferruginous hawk ( Buteo regalis ) , white @-@ tailed hawk ( Buteo albicaudatus ) , Swainson 's hawk ( B. swainsoni ) , and red @-@ tailed hawk ( B. jamaicensis ) . The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is the primary prey of Swainson 's , red @-@ tailed , and ferruginous hawks on Idaho and Utah sites . Other raptors consuming black @-@ tailed jackrabbits include the great horned owl ( Bubo virginianus ) , burrowing owl ( Athene cunicularia ) , golden eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos ) , and bald eagle ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus ) . A significant correlation exists between golden eagle and black @-@ tailed jackrabbit reproduction patterns . In Colorado and southeastern Wyoming , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits constitute 9 % of nesting bald eagles ' diet . Jackrabbits and cottontails ( Sylvilagus spp . ) combined form 9 % of the diet of bald eagles wintering on national forests in Arizona and New Mexico .
Mammalian predators include coyote ( Canis latrans ) , bobcat ( Lynx rufus ) , lynx ( Lynx canadensis ) , domestic dog ( Canis lupus familiaris ) , domestic cat ( Felis catus ) , red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) , common gray fox ( Urocyon cinereoargenteus ) , American badger ( Taxidea taxus ) , wolf ( Canis lupus ) , and mountain lion ( Felis concolor ) . In many areas , black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is the primary item in coyote diets . It is locally and regionally important to other mammalian predators . One study found that jackrabbits made up 45 % of the bobcat diet in Utah and Nevada . Another Utah – Nevada study found that jackrabbits were the fourth @-@ most commonly consumed prey of mountain lions .
Rattlesnakes ( Crotalus spp . ) and garter snakes ( Thamnophis sirtalis ) prey on black @-@ tailed jackrabbit young . Raccoons ( Procyon lotor ) and striped skunks ( Mephitis mephitis ) may also capture young .
= = Parasites and disease = =
The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit plays host to many ectoparasites including fleas , ticks , lice , and mites , and many endoparasites including trematodes , cestodes , nematodes , and botfly ( Cuterebra ) larvae . Diseases affecting the black @-@ tailed jackrabbit in the West are tularemia , equine encephalitis , brucellosis , Q fever , and Rocky Mountain spotted fever . Ticks are vectors for tularemia , and infected ticks have been found on jackrabbits in the West . Jackrabbits infected with tularemia die very quickly .
The high prevalence of disease and parasites in wild jackrabbits affects human predation . Many hunters will not collect the jackrabbits they shoot , and those who do are well advised to wear gloves while handling carcasses and to cook the meat thoroughly to avoid contracting tularemia . Most hunting of jackrabbits is done for pest control or sport .
= Battle of Romani =
The Battle of Romani was the last ground attack of the Central Powers on the Suez Canal at the beginning of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign during the First World War . The battle was fought between 3 and 5 August 1916 near the Egyptian town of Romani and the site of ancient Pelusium on the Sinai Peninsula , 23 miles ( 37 km ) east of the Suez Canal . This victory by the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division and the Anzac Mounted Division of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) over a joint Ottoman and German force , which had marched across the Sinai , marked the end of the Defence of the Suez Canal campaign , also known as the Offensive zur Eroberung des Suezkanals and the İkinci Kanal Harekâtı , which had begun on 26 January 1915 .
This British Empire victory , the first against the Ottoman Empire in the war , ensured the safety of the Suez Canal from ground attacks , and ended the Central Powers ' ambitions of disrupting traffic through the canal by gaining control of the strategically important northern approaches to the Suez Canal . The pursuit by the Anzac Mounted Division which ended at Bir el Abd on 12 August began the Sinai and Palestine Campaign . Thereafter , the Anzac Mounted Division supported by the Imperial Camel Brigade were on the offensive , pursuing the German and Ottoman army many miles across the Sinai Peninsula , reversing in a most emphatic manner the defeat suffered at Katia three months earlier .
From late April 1916 , after a German @-@ led Ottoman force attacked British yeomanry at Katia , British Empire forces in the region at first doubled from one brigade to two and then grew as rapidly as the developing infrastructure could support them . The construction of the railway and a water pipeline soon enabled an infantry division to join the light horse and mounted rifle brigades at Romani . During the heat of summer , regular mounted patrols and reconnaissance were carried out from their base at Romani , while the infantry constructed an extensive series of defensive redoubts . On 19 July , the advance of a large German , Austrian and Ottoman force across the northern Sinai was reported . From 20 July until the battle began , the Australian 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades took turns pushing out to clash with the advancing hostile column .
During the night of 3 / 4 August 1916 , the advancing force including the German Pasha I formation and the Ottoman 3rd Infantry Division launched an attack from Katia on Romani . Forward troops quickly became engaged with the screen established by the 1st Light Horse Brigade ( Anzac Mounted Division ) . During fierce fighting before dawn on 4 August , the Australian light horsemen were forced to slowly retire . At daylight , their line was reinforced by the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , and about mid morning , the 5th Mounted Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade joined the battle . Together these four brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division , managed to contain and direct the determined attackers into deep sand . Here the attackers came within range of the strongly entrenched 52nd ( Lowland ) Division defending Romani and the railway . Coordinated resistance by all these EEF formations , the deep sand , the heat and thirst prevailed , and the German , Austrian and Ottoman advance was checked . Although the attacking force fought strongly to maintain its positions the next morning , by nightfall they had been pushed back to their starting point at Katia . The retiring force was pursued by the Anzac Mounted Division between 6 and 9 August , during which the Ottomans and Germans forces fought a number of strong rearguard actions against the advancing Australian light horse , British yeomanry and New Zealand mounted rifle brigades . The pursuit ended on 12 August , when the German and Ottoman force abandoned their base at Bir el Abd and retreated back to El Arish .
= = Background = =
At the beginning of the First World War , the Egyptian police controlling the Sinai Peninsula had withdrawn , leaving the area largely unprotected . In February 1915 , a German and Ottoman force unsuccessfully attacked the Suez Canal . Minor Ottoman and Bedouin forces operating across the Sinai continued to threaten the canal from March through the Gallipoli Campaign until June , when they practically ceased until the autumn . Meanwhile , the German and Ottoman Empires supported an uprising by the Senussi ( a political @-@ religious group ) on the western frontier of Egypt which began in November 1915 .
By February 1916 , however , there was no apparent sign of any unusual military activity in the Sinai itself , when the British began construction on the first 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) stretch of 4 @-@ foot @-@ 8 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 42 m ) standard gauge railway and water pipeline from Kantara to Romani and Katia . Reconnaissance aircraft of the Royal Flying Corps and seaplanes of the Royal Naval Air Service found only small , scattered Ottoman forces in the Sinai region and no sign of any major concentration of troops in southern Palestine .
By the end of March or early in April 1916 , the British presence in the Sinai was growing ; 16 miles ( 26 km ) of track , including sidings , had been laid . Between 21 March and 11 April , the water sources at Wady Um Muksheib , Moya Harab and Jifjafa along the central Sinai route from southern Palestine were destroyed . In 1915 , they had been used by the central group of about 6 @,@ 000 or 7 @,@ 000 Ottoman soldiers who moved across the Sinai Desert to attack the Suez Canal at Ismailia . Without these wells and cisterns , the central route could no longer be used by large forces .
German General Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein 's raiding force retaliated to this growing British presence , by attacking the widely dispersed 5th Mounted Brigade on 23 April , Easter Sunday and also St George 's Day , when Yeomanry were surprised and overwhelmed at Katia and Oghratina east of Romani . The mounted Yeomanry brigade had been sent to guard the water pipeline and railway as they were being extended beyond the protection of the Suez Canal defences into the desert towards Romani .
In response to this attack , the British Empire presence in the region doubled . The next day , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and the 2nd Light Horse Brigade which had served dismounted during the Gallipoli Campaign , of the Australian Major General Harry Chauvel 's Anzac Mounted Division reoccupied the Katia area unopposed .
= = Prelude = =
On 24 April , the day after the Katia and Oghratina , Chauvel , commander of the Anzac Mounted Division , was placed in command of all the advanced troops : the 2nd Light Horse Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades at Romani and an infantry division ; the 52nd ( Lowland ) at Dueidar . The infantry moved forward to Romani between 11 May and 4 June 1916 .
The building of the railway and pipeline had not been greatly affected by the fighting on 23 April and by 29 April , four trains a day were running regularly to the railhead , manned by No. 276 Railway Company , and the main line to Romani was opened on 19 May . A second standard gauge railway line from Romani to Mahamdiyah on the Mediterranean coast was completed by 9 June . But conditions on the ground were extreme ; after the middle of May and in particular from mid June to the end of July , the heat in the Sinai Desert ranged from extreme to fierce when temperatures could be expected to be in the region of 123 ° F ( 51 ° C ) in the shade . The terrible heat was not as bad as the Khamsin dust storms which blow once every 50 days for between a few hours and several days ; the air is turned into a haze of floating sand particles flung about by a strong , hot southerly wind .
No major ground operations were carried out during these midsummer months , the Ottoman garrisons in the Sinai being scattered and out of reach of the British forces . But constant patrolling and reconnaissance were carried out from Romani to Ogratina , to Bir el Abd and on 16 May to Bir Bayud , 19 miles ( 31 km ) south @-@ east of Romani , on 31 May to Bir Salmana 22 miles ( 35 km ) east north @-@ east of Romani by the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade , when they covered 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) in 36 hours . These patrols concentrated on an area of great strategic importance to large military formations wishing to move across the Sinai along the northern route . Here water was freely available in a large area of oases which extends from Dueidar , 15 miles ( 24 km ) from Kantara on the Suez Canal , along the Darb es Sultani ( the old caravan route ) , to Salmana 52 miles ( 84 km ) away .
Between 10 and 14 June , the last water source on the central route across the Sinai Peninsula was destroyed by the Mukhsheib column . This column , consisting of engineers and units of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , the Bikaner Camel Corps , and the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps drained 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 19 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 l ; 4 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of water
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Peronist Party , the first large female political party in the nation . Navarro and Fraser write that by 1951 , the party had 500 @,@ 000 members and 3 @,@ 600 headquarters across the country . Navarro and Fraser write that while Eva Perón did not consider herself a feminist , her impact on the political life of women was decisive . Thousands of previously apolitical women entered politics because of Eva Perón . They were the first women active in Argentine politics . The combination of female suffrage and the organization of the Female Peronist Party granted Juan Perón a large majority ( sixty @-@ three percent ) of the vote in the 1951 presidential elections .
= = 1951 Presidential election = =
= = = Vice Presidential nomination = = =
In 1951 , Evita set her sights on earning a place on the ballot as candidate for vice @-@ president . This move angered many military leaders who despised Evita and her increasing powers within the government . According to the Argentine Constitution , the Vice President automatically succeeds the President in the event of the President 's death . The possibility of Evita becoming president in the event of Juan Perón 's death was not something the military could accept .
She did , however , receive great support from the working class , the unions , and the Peronist Women 's Party . The intensity of the support she drew from these groups is said to have surprised even Juan Perón himself . Fraser and Navarro write that the wide support Evita 's proposed candidacy generated indicated to him that Evita had become as important to members of the Peronist party as Juan Perón himself was .
On 22 August 1951 , the unions held a mass rally of two million people called " Cabildo Abierto . " ( The name " Cabildo Abierto " was a reference and tribute to the first local Argentine government of the May Revolution , in 1810 . ) The Peróns addressed the crowd from the balcony of a huge scaffolding set up on the Avenida 9 de Julio , several blocks away from the Casa Rosada , the official government house of Argentina . Overhead were two large portraits of Eva and Juan Perón . It has been claimed that " Cabildo Abierto " was the largest public display of support in history for a female political figure .
At the mass rally , the crowd demanded that Evita publicly announce her candidacy as vice president . She pleaded for more time to make her decision . The exchange between Evita and the crowd of two million became , for a time , a genuine and spontaneous dialogue , with the crowd chanting , " ¡ Evita , Vice @-@ Presidente ! " When Evita asked for more time so she could make up her mind , the crowd demanded , " ¡ Ahora , Evita , ahora ! " ( " Now , Evita , now ! " ) . Eventually , they came to a compromise . Evita told the audience that she would announce her decision over the radio a few days later .
= = = Declining health = = =
Eventually , she declined the invitation to run for vice @-@ president , saying that her only ambition was that — in the large chapter of history that would be written about her husband — the footnotes would mention a woman who brought the " ... hopes and dreams of the people to the president " , a woman who eventually turned those hopes and dreams into " glorious reality . " In Peronist rhetoric , this event has come to be referred to as " The Renunciation " , portraying Evita as having been a selfless woman in line with the Hispanic myth of marianismo . Most biographers , however , postulate that Evita did not so much renounce her ambition , as bow to pressure from her husband , the military , and the Argentine upper class , who preferred that she not enter the race .
On 9 January 1950 , Evita fainted in public and underwent surgery three days later . Although it was reported that she had undergone an appendectomy , she was diagnosed with advanced cervical cancer . Fainting continued through 1951 ( including the evening after " Cabildo abierto " ) , with extreme weakness and severe vaginal bleeding . By 1951 , it had become evident that her health was rapidly deteriorating . Although her diagnosis was withheld from her by Juan , she knew she was not well , and a bid for the vice @-@ presidency was not practical . Only a few months after " the Renunciation " , Evita underwent a secret radical hysterectomy in an attempt to eradicate her advanced cervical cancer . In 2011 , a Yale neurosurgeon studied Evita 's skull x @-@ rays and photographic evidence and said that Perón may have been given a prefrontal lobotomy in the last months of her life , " ... to relieve the pain , agitation and anxiety she suffered in the final months of her illness . "
= = = Re @-@ election and Spiritual Leader of the Nation = = =
On 4 June 1952 , Evita rode with Juan Perón in a parade through Buenos Aires in celebration of his re @-@ election as President of Argentina . Evita was by this point so ill that she was unable to stand without support . Underneath her oversized fur coat was a frame made of plaster and wire that allowed her to stand . She took a triple dose of pain medication before the parade , and took another two doses when she returned home .
In a ceremony a few days after Juan Perón 's second inauguration , Evita was given the official title of " Spiritual Leader of the Nation . "
= = Death and aftermath = =
= = = Death = = =
Although Perón had undergone a hysterectomy performed by the American surgeon George T. Pack , the cancer had metastasized and returned rapidly . She was the first Argentine to undergo chemotherapy ( a novel treatment at that time ) . Despite all available treatment , she became emaciated , weighing only 36 kg ( 79 lb ) by June 1952 . Evita died at the age of 33 , at 20 : 25 on Saturday , 26 July 1952 . Radio broadcasts throughout the country were interrupted with the announcement that " The Press Secretary 's Office of the Presidency of the Nation fulfills its very sad duty to inform the people of the Republic that at 20 : 25 hours Mrs. Eva Perón , Spiritual Leader of the Nation , died . " Ordinary activities ceased ; movies stopped playing ; restaurants were closed and patrons were shown to the door .
= = = Mourning = = =
Immediately after Perón 's death , the government suspended all official activities for two days and ordered all flags flown at half @-@ staff for ten days . It soon became apparent , however , that these measures fell short of reflecting popular grief . The crowd outside of the presidential residence , where Evita died , grew dense , congesting the streets for ten blocks in each direction .
The morning after her death , while Evita 's body was being moved to the Ministry of Labour Building , eight people were crushed to death in the throngs . In the following 24 hours , over 2000 people were treated in city hospitals for injuries sustained in the rush to be near Evita as her body was being transported , and thousands more would be treated on the spot . For the following two weeks , lines would stretch for many city blocks with mourners waiting hours to see Evita 's body lie at the Ministry of Labour .
The streets of Buenos Aires overflowed with huge piles of flowers . Within a day of Perón 's death , all flower shops in Buenos Aires had run out of stock . Flowers would be flown in from all over the country , and as far away as Chile . Despite the fact that Eva Perón never held a political office , she was eventually given a state funeral usually reserved for a head of state , along with a full Roman Catholic requiem mass . A memorial was held for the Argentine team during the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki due to Eva Perón 's death during those games .
On 9 August , Saturday , the body was transferred to the Congress Building for an additional day of public viewing , and a memorial service attended by the entire Argentine legislative body . The next day , after a final Mass , the coffin was laid on a gun carriage pulled by CGT officials . It was followed by Peron , his cabinet , Eva 's family and friends , the delegates and representatives of the Partido Peronista Femenino — then workers , nurses and students of the Eva Peron Foundation . Flowers were thrown from balconies and windows .
There were different interpretations of the popular mourning of Eva Perón 's death . Some reporters viewed the mourning as authentic , others saw a public succumbing to another of the " passion plays " of the Peronist regime . Time magazine reported that the Peronist government enforced the observance of a daily period of five minutes of mourning following a daily radio announcement .
During Perón 's time , children born to unmarried parents did not have the same legal rights as those born to married parents . Biographer Julie M. Taylor , professor of anthropology at Rice University , has said that Evita was well aware of the pain of being born " illegitimate . " Taylor speculates that Evita 's awareness of this may have influenced her decision to have the law changed so that " illegitimate " children would henceforth be referred to as " natural " children . Upon her death , the Argentine public was told that Evita was only 30 . The discrepancy was meant to dovetail with Evita 's earlier tampering with her birth certificate . After becoming the first lady in 1946 , Evita had her birth records altered to read that she had been born to married parents , and placed her birth date three years forward , making herself younger .
= = = Memorial plans = = =
Shortly after Evita 's death , Dr. Pedro Ara was approached to embalm the body . Fraser and Navarro write that it is doubtful that Evita ever expressed a wish to be embalmed , and suggest that it was most likely Juan Perón 's decision . Ara was a professor of anatomy who had studied in Vienna and maintained an academic career in Madrid . His work was occasionally referred to as " the art of death . " His highly advanced embalming technique consisted of replacing the corpse 's blood with glycerine , which preserved all organs including the brain and created a lifelike appearance , giving the body the appearance of " artistically rendered sleep . " Ara was known in Buenos Aires society for his work . Among the people he had embalmed was Spanish composer Manuel de Falla . Ara claims that his embalming of Evita 's corpse began on the night of her death and that by the next morning , " the body of Eva Perón was completely and infinitely incorruptible " and suitable for display to the public .
In the book Peron and the Enigmas of Argentina , biographer Robert D. Crassweller claims that the English @-@ speaking nations of North America and Europe largely misunderstood Argentina 's response to the death of Perón as well as the ornate funeral she was granted . Crassweller attributes this misunderstanding to the unique cultural makeup of the Peróns and Argentina , saying that the Peróns were of the Hispanic tradition and that their opposition was largely of British ancestry .
= = = Disappearance and return of corpse = = =
Shortly after Evita 's death , plans were made to construct a memorial in her honour . The monument , which was to be a statue of a man representing the descamisados , was projected to be larger than the Statue of Liberty . Evita 's body was to be stored in the base of the monument and , in the tradition of Lenin 's corpse , to be displayed for the public . While the monument was being constructed , Evita 's embalmed body was displayed in her former office at the CGT building for almost two years . Before the monument to Evita was completed , Juan Perón was overthrown in a military coup , the Revolución Libertadora , in 1955 . Perón hastily fled the country and was unable to make arrangements to secure Evita 's body .
Following his flight , a military dictatorship took power . The new authorities removed Evita 's body from display , and its whereabouts were a mystery for 16 years . From 1955 until 1971 , the military dictatorship of Argentina issued a ban on Peronism . It became illegal not only to possess pictures of Juan and Eva Perón in one 's home , but to speak their names . In 1971 , the military revealed that Evita 's body was buried in a crypt in Milan , Italy , under the name " María Maggi . " It appeared that her body had been damaged during its transport and storage , such as compressions to her face and disfigurement of one of her feet due to the body having been left in an upright position .
In 1995 , Tomás Eloy Martínez published Santa Evita , a fictionalized work propounding many new stories about the escapades of the corpse . Allegations that her body was the object of inappropriate attentions are derived from his description of an ' emotional necrophilia ' by embalmers , Coronel Koenig and his assistant Arancibia . Many primary and secondary references to his novel have inaccurately stated that her body had been defiled in some way resulting in the widespread belief in this myth . Also included are allegations that many wax copies had been made , that the corpse had been damaged with a hammer , and that one of the wax copies was the object of an officer 's sexual attentions .
= = = Final resting place = = =
In 1971 , Perón 's body was exhumed and flown to Spain , where Juan Perón maintained the corpse in his home . Juan and his third wife , Isabel , decided to keep the corpse in their dining room on a platform near the table . In 1973 , Juan Perón came out of exile and returned to Argentina , where he became president for the third time . Perón died in office in 1974 . His third wife , Isabel Perón , whom he had married on 15 November 1961 , and who had been elected vice @-@ president , succeeded him . She became the first female president in the Western Hemisphere . Isabel had Eva Perón 's body returned to Argentina and ( briefly ) displayed beside her husband 's . Perón 's body was later buried in the Duarte family tomb in La Recoleta Cemetery , Buenos Aires . The previous removal of Evita 's body was avenged by the Montoneros when they in 1970 stole Pedro Eugenio Aramburu 's corpse , whom they had previously killed . Montoneros then used the captive body of Aramburu to pressure for the repatriation of Evita 's body . Once Evita 's body arrived in Argentina the Montoneros gave up Aramburu 's corpse and abandoned it in a street in Buenos Aires .
The Argentine government took elaborate measures to make Perón 's tomb secure . The tomb 's marble floor has a trapdoor that leads to a compartment containing two coffins . Under that compartment is a second trapdoor and a second compartment . That is where Perón 's coffin rests . Biographers Marysa Navarro and Nicholas Fraser write that the claim is often made that her tomb is so secure that it could withstand a nuclear attack . " It reflects a fear " , they write , " a fear that the body will disappear from the tomb and that the woman , or rather the myth of the woman , will reappear . "
= = Legacy and criticism = =
= = = Argentina and Latin America = = =
In all of Latin America , only one other woman has aroused an emotion , devotion and faith comparable to those awakened by the Virgin of Guadalupe . In many homes , the image of Evita is on the wall next to the Virgin .
In his essay titled " Latin America " published in The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity , John McManners claims that the appeal and success of Eva Perón are related to Latin American mythology and concepts of divinity . McManners claims that Eva Perón consciously incorporated aspects of the theology of the Virgin and of Mary Magdalene into her public persona . Historian Hubert Herring has described Eva Perón as " Perhaps the shrewdest woman yet to appear in public life in Latin America . "
In a 1996 interview , Tomás Eloy Martínez referred to Eva Perón as " the Cinderella of the tango and the Sleeping Beauty of Latin America . " Martínez suggested she has remained an important cultural icon for the same reasons as fellow Argentine Che Guevara :
Latin American myths are more resistant than they seem to be . Not even the mass exodus of the Cuban raft people or the rapid decomposition and isolation of Fidel Castro 's regime have eroded the triumphal myth of Che Guevara , which remains alive in the dreams of thousands of young people in Latin America , Africa and Europe . Che as well as Evita symbolize certain naive , but effective , beliefs : the hope for a better world ; a life sacrificed on the altar of the disinherited , the humiliated , the poor of the earth . They are myths which somehow reproduce the image of Christ .
Although not a government holiday , the anniversary of Eva Perón 's death is marked by many Argentines each year . Additionally , Eva Perón has been featured on Argentine coins , and a form of Argentine currency called " Evitas " was named in her honor . Ciudad Evita ( Evita City ) , which was established by the Eva Perón Foundation in 1947 , is located just outside Buenos Aires .
Cristina Kirchner , the first elected female president in Argentine history , is a Peronist who has occasionally been referred to as " The New Evita . " Kirchner says she does not want to compare herself to Evita , claiming she was a unique phenomenon in Argentine history . Kirchner also says that women of her generation , who came of age in the 1970s during the military dictatorships in Argentina , owe a debt to Evita for offering an example of passion and combativeness . On 26 July 2002 , the 50th anniversary of Eva Perón 's death , a museum opened in her honor called Museo Evita . The museum , created by her great @-@ niece Cristina Alvarez Rodriquez , houses many of Eva Perón 's clothes , portraits , and artistic renderings of her life , and has become a popular tourist attraction . The museum was opened in a building that was once used by the Eva Perón Foundation .
In the book Eva Perón : The Myths of a Woman , cultural anthropologist Julie M. Taylor claims that Evita has remained important in Argentina due to the combination of three unique factors :
In the images examined , the three elements consistently linked — femininity , mystical or spirituality power , and revolutionary leadership — display an underlying common theme . Identification with any one of these elements puts a person or a group at the margins of established society and at the limits of institutional authority . Anyone who can identify with all three images lays an overwhelming and echoing claim to dominance through forces that recognize no control in society or its rules . Only a woman can embody all three elements of this power .
Taylor argues that the fourth factor in Evita 's continued importance in Argentina relates to her status as a dead woman and the power that death holds over the public imagination . Taylor suggests that Evita 's embalmed corpse is analogous to the incorruptibility of various Catholic saints , such as Bernadette Soubirous , and has powerful symbolism within the largely Catholic cultures of Latin America :
To some extent her continuing importance and popularity may be attributed not only to her power as a woman but also to the power of the dead . However , a society 's vision of the afterlife may be structured , death by its nature remains a mystery , and , until society formally allays the commotion it causes , a source of disturbance and disorder . Women and the dead — death and womanhood — stand in similar relation to structured social forms : outside public institutions , unlimited by official rules , and beyond formal categories . As a female corpse reiterating the symbolic themes of both woman and martyr , Eva Perón perhaps lays double claim to spiritual leadership .
John Balfour was the British ambassador in Argentina during the Perón regime , and describes Evita 's popularity :
She was by any standard a very extraordinary woman ; when you think of Argentina and indeed Latin America as a men dominated part of the world , there was this woman who was playing a very great role . And of course she aroused very different feelings in the people with whom she lived . The oligarchs , as she called the well @-@ to @-@ do and privileged people , hated her . They looked upon her as a ruthless woman . The masses of the people on the other hand worshipped her . They looked upon her as a lady bountiful who was dispensing Manna from heaven .
In 2011 , two giant murals of Evita were unveiled on the building facades of the current Ministry of Social Development , located on 9 de Julio Avenue . The works were painted by Argentine artist Alejandro Marmo . On 26 July 2012 , to commemorate the sixtieth anniversary of Evita 's death , notes were issued in a value of 100 pesos . The controversial effigy of Julio Argentino Roca was replaced by that of Eva Duarte , making her the first actual woman to be featured on the currency of Argentina . The image in the notes is based on a 1952 design , whose sketch was found in the Mint , made by the engraver Sergio Pilosio with artist Roger Pfund . The printing totals 20 million notes ; it is not clear whether the government will replace the notes that feature Roca and the Desert Campaign .
= = = Allegations of fascism = = =
Biographers Nicholas Fraser and Marysa Navarro write that Juan Perón 's opponents had from the start accused Perón of being a fascist . Spruille Braden , a diplomat from the United States who was greatly supported by Juan Perón 's opponents , campaigned against Juan Perón 's first candidacy on the platform that Juan Perón was a fascist and a Nazi . Fraser and Navarro also theorize that the perception of the Peróns as fascists was enhanced during Evita 's 1947 European tour during which she was a guest of honor of Francisco Franco . By 1947 , Franco had become politically isolated as one of the few remaining fascists to retain power . Franco , therefore , was in desperate need of a political ally . With nearly a third of Argentina 's population of Spanish descent , it seemed natural for Argentina to have diplomatic relations with Spain . Commenting on the international perception of Evita during her 1947 European tour , Fraser and Navarro write , " It was inevitable that Evita be viewed in a fascist context . Therefore , both Evita and Perón were seen to represent an ideology which had run its course in Europe , only to re @-@ emerge in an exotic , theatrical , even farcical form in a faraway country . "
Laurence Levine , the former president of the U.S.-Argentine Chamber of Commerce , writes that in contrast to Nazi ideology , the Peróns were not anti @-@ Semitic . In the book Inside Argentina from Perón to Menem : 1950 – 2000 from an American Point of View , Levine writes :
The American government demonstrated no knowledge of Perón 's deep admiration for Italy ( and his distaste for Germany , whose culture he found too rigid ) . Nor did they appreciate that although anti @-@ Semitism existed in Argentina , Perón 's own views and his political associations were not anti @-@ Semitic . They paid no attention to the fact that Perón sought out the Jewish community in Argentina to assist in developing his policies and that one of his most important allies in organizing the industrial sector was José Ber Gelbard , a Jewish immigrant from Poland .
Biographer Robert D. Crassweller writes , " Peronism was not fascism " , and " Peronism was not Nazism . " Crassweller also refers to the comments of U.S. Ambassador George S. Messersmith . While visiting Argentina in 1947 , Messersmith made the following statement : " There is not as much social discrimination against Jews here as there is right in New York or in most places at home . "
Time Magazine published an article by Tomás Eloy Martínez — Argentine writer , journalist , and former director of the Latin American program at Rutgers University — titled " The Woman Behind the Fantasy : Prostitute , Fascist , Profligate — Eva Peron Was Much Maligned , Mostly Unfairly " . In this article , Martínez writes that the accusations that Eva Perón was a fascist , a Nazi , and a thief had been made against her for decades . He wrote that the allegations were untrue :
She was not a fascist — ignorant , perhaps , of what that ideology meant . And she was not greedy . Though she liked jewelry , furs and Dior dresses , she could own as many as she desired without the need to rob others .... In 1964 Jorge Luis Borges stated that ' the mother of that woman [ Evita ] ' was ' the madam of a whorehouse in Junín . ' He repeated the calumny so often that some still believe it or , more commonly , think Evita herself , whose lack of sex appeal is mentioned by all who knew her , apprenticed in that imaginary brothel . Around 1955 the pamphleteer Silvano Santander employed the same strategy to concoct letters in which Evita figures as an accomplice of the Nazis . It is true that ( Juan ) Perón facilitated the entrance of Nazi criminals to Argentina in 1947 and 1948 , thereby hoping to acquire advanced technology developed by the Germans during the war . But Evita played no part .
In his 2002 doctoral dissertation at Ohio State University , Lawrence D. Bell writes that the governments that preceded Juan Perón had been anti @-@ Semitic but that his government was not . Juan Perón " eagerly and enthusiastically " attempted to recruit the Jewish community into his government and set up a branch of the Peronist party for Jewish members , known as the Organización Israelita Argentina ( OIA ) . Perón 's government was the first to court the Argentine Jewish community and the first to appoint Jewish citizens to public office . Kevin Passmore writes that the Peronist regime , more than any other in Latin America , has been accused of being fascist . But he says that the Peronist regime was not fascist , and what passed for fascism under Perón never took hold in Latin America . Additionally , because the Peronist regime allowed rival political parties to exist , it cannot be described as totalitarian .
= = = International popular culture = = =
By the late 20th century , Eva Perón had become the subject of numerous articles , books , stage plays , and musicals , ranging from the biography The Woman with the Whip to a 1981 TV movie called Evita Perón with Faye Dunaway in the title role . The most successful rendering of Eva Perón 's life has been the musical production Evita . The musical began as a concept album co @-@ produced by Tim Rice and Andrew Lloyd Webber in 1976 , with Julie Covington in the title role . Elaine Paige was later cast in the title role when the concept album was adapted into a musical stage production in London 's West End and won the 1978 Olivier Award for Best Performance in a Musical . In 1980 , Patti LuPone won the Tony Award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical for her performance as the title character in the Broadway production . Nicholas Fraser claims that to date " the musical stage production has been performed on every continent except Antarctica and has generated over $ 2 billion in revenue . "
As early as 1978 , the musical was considered as the basis for a movie . After a nearly 20 @-@ year production delay , Madonna was cast in the title role for the 1996 film version and won the Golden Globe Award for " Best Actress in a Musical or Comedy . " In response to the American film , and in an alleged attempt to offer a more politically accurate depiction of Evita 's life , an Argentine film company released Eva Perón : The True Story . The Argentine production starred actress Esther Goris in the title role . This movie was the 1996 Argentine submission for the Oscar in the category of " Best Foreign Language Film . "
Nicholas Fraser writes that Evita is the perfect popular culture icon for our times because her career foreshadowed what , by the late 20th century , had become common . During Evita 's time it was considered scandalous for a former entertainer to take part in public political life . Her detractors in Argentina had often accused Evita of turning public political life into show business . But by the late 20th century , Fraser claims , the public had become engrossed in the cult of celebrity and public political life had become insignificant . In this regard , Evita was perhaps ahead of her time . Fraser also writes that Evita 's story is appealing to our celebrity @-@ obsessed age because her story confirms one of Hollywood 's oldest clichés , the rags to riches story . Reflecting on Eva Perón 's popularity more than half a century after her death , Alma Guillermoprieto writes that , " Evita 's life has evidently just begun . "
= Halo : Uprising =
Halo : Uprising is a four @-@ issue American comic book limited series set in the Halo universe . The series was written by Brian Michael Bendis , illustrated by Alex Maleev , and published by Marvel Comics . Uprising tells a story set between the ending of the 2004 video game Halo 2 and the beginning of its sequel , Halo 3 , as Earth is under attack by a collective of alien races known as the Covenant . The series was intended to be released and concluded before Halo 3 shipped on September 25 , 2007 , but the final issue did not appear until April 2009 .
The series was brought together by Ruwan Jayatilleke , Marvel 's Vice President of Development . He attained the license to publish Halo comics , including the single @-@ volume The Halo Graphic Novel , in 2005 . The graphic novel 's critical and commercial success prompted Marvel to announce a new Halo limited series in 2006 with Jayatilleke serving as the series ' editor . Bendis , a long @-@ time Halo fan , was excited about adding to the franchise story .
Reception to the series was lukewarm . The series ' artistic style was generally praised . However , the lack of Master Chief @-@ focused action and character development — as well as the delays in publishing — led to average reviews . The series was commercially successful and appeared in the top slot of The New York Times Graphic Books bestsellers list .
= = Publication history = =
Marvel Vice President of Development Ruwan Jayatilleke contacted game developer Bungie about extending the Halo franchise to comics . Jayatilleke noted that Bungie 's dedication to creating a believable world compelling to both hardcore and casual fans made the series " an attractive fit " for Marvel . In 2005 , Marvel learned that Bungie had already created an original graphic novel , entitled The Halo Graphic Novel , but needed a publisher and distributor . Interested , Brian Michael Bendis and Jayatilleke visited Bungie to take up the offer of publishing the Halo Graphic Novel as well as to discuss the possibility of a tie @-@ in comic book series .
The Halo Graphic Novel proved to be a critical and commercial success ; the comic debuted at the number two position on the Diamond Comic Distributors ' sales charts and more than 100 @,@ 000 copies were published . Marvel Comics and Bungie announced the first Halo limited comic series , Halo : Uprising , at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con 2006 .
Brian Michael Bendis , writer for the series , said in an interview he was " honored " to add to the Halo lore . He noted that the graphic novel brought " humanity and perspective " to the franchise , something not easily imparted through the games . Bendis described himself as a longtime player of Halo and had " done [ his ] Halo homework " , reading and playing everything Halo . Bendis stated that Bungie was open to the Marvel team exploring lesser @-@ known elements of the Halo universe or even bringing up new ideas , as opposed to sticking to a script or set of preplanned ideas from Bungie or Microsoft . The Philadelphia Daily News suggested that a Halo comic book would attract readers who had never picked up a comic book before . Bendis said that drawing casual gamers to the comics was a major goal for the series . While using established characters meant that Bendis had to cooperate with Bungie and Microsoft , he said he did not feel it was a restriction . " You can get pretty bloated and sloppy with total autonomy all the time . " The Bungie team allowed Bendis to explore lesser known areas of the Halo story , which he enjoyed . Writing the dialogue for the Master Chief , who is faceless and normally silent during gameplay , was a challenge ; Bendis scrapped much of the drafted dialogue to allow Maleev 's work to define the character .
Originally , Halo : Uprising 's entire four @-@ issue series was to be published before the September 25 , 2007 , release of Halo 3 . Bendis suggested that the series might be delayed unexpectedly due to the close cooperation between Marvel and Bungie . For unspecified reasons , the release of all issues of Halo : Uprising were pushed back . Issue # 1 's original date of August 15 , 2007 , was pushed back a week to August 22 . Issue # 2 's original date of August 29 was pushed back and released on November 21 . Issue # 3 was originally slated for a September 2007 release but was pushed to a final release date of nearly a year late in August 2008 . The constant revisions of the date became a running forum joke at the fan site Halo.Bungie.Org. Issue # 4 also saw multiple delays , pushed from a scheduled October 31 , 2007 release to March 4 and then March 18 , 2009 . Claude Errera of Halo.Bungie.Org noted that , given the series ' track record and the fact that the issue 's release had been moved more than a dozen times by that time , its appearance in March would be unlikely . In announcing two new Halo comic series from Marvel in February 2009 , Jayatilleke informed IGN that the final issue was in the process of being colored . The final release date for the issue was April 15 . The series was collected into a single volume released in May 2009 ( ISBN 0 @-@ 7851 @-@ 3647 @-@ 9 ) . The collected hardcover features a variety of bonus art and " making of " materials .
= = Plot = =
Uprising 's story begins after the events of Halo 2 , in which the alien collective known as the Covenant discovers the location of Earth and begins a full @-@ scale invasion of their enemy 's homeworld . The supersoldier Master Chief is stowed away aboard an ancient Forerunner ship . On a course set for Earth , he is overwhelmed by a Covenant strike force and rendered unconscious . In the next scene , Colonel James Ackerson is being tortured by Covenant forces on Mars , to whom he betrays the existence of something called " The Key of Osanalan . " Ackerson admits the Key is located in Cleveland , Ohio . In Cleveland , the narrative follows the point of view of a hotel concierge named Ruwan as the city falls under attack by Covenant forces . In the mayhem he meets a woman named Myras Tyla . Tyla remains calm even as Ruwan edges towards all @-@ out panic . The pair are captured and with other residents herded into a sports stadium . The Covenant declare that the humans must give up the location of the Key to save their lives ; Tyla is confused , but Ruwan states he knows exactly what it is .
On board the Forerunner ship , the Master Chief is captured and interrogated by Covenant forces , but manages to escape using a concealed weapon . On Earth , Ruwan and Tyla escape detection by the Covenant and appropriate a vehicle in an effort to escape . Ruwan reveals that the Key is in fact a fictional object that he and his brother James Ackerson made up as children ; James told the Covenant about the Key in order to prevent the outright destruction of Cleveland . After fighting Covenant forces , Ruwan and Tyla are rescued by marines and leave the city . The Master Chief attempts to kill the Covenant 's leader , Prophet of Truth , but is discovered as he takes aim ; Truth escapes as the Chief is left to kill the Prophet 's guards and find a way off the ship . Learning that there is no way to change the Forerunner ship 's destination , the Chief jumps to Earth using a piece of the vessel as a heat shield .
After informing the UNSC about the true nature of the Key , Ruwan volunteers to " give " the Key to the Covenant . He is captured and brought aboard a Covenant ship . While the Covenant believe he is to be rescued due to a tracker embedded in him , Ruwan reveals he is actually a target . A coilgun takes aim at his position and destroys the ship . Upon learning that the Key is a fake , the Brutes on Mars behead Ackerson . In a relief camp , Tyla writes a song about Ruwan .
= = Reception = =
Halo : Uprising was a commercial success . The first issue sold out within 24 hours , leading Marvel to reissue the installment . The collected hardcover edition was the best @-@ selling hardcover graphic book for the week ending June 13 , according to The New York Times .
Reception to the miniseries varied . Reviewer Kevin Powers for Comics Bulletin and Richard George of IGN praised the action sequences and Maleev 's visuals . The balance between action and story was also positively noted ; Powers said that the first two sequences of the opening issue " masterfully capture the spirit of the game " . On the other hand , IGN 's Jesse Schedeen , reviewing the second issue , stated the series ' appeal was mostly superficial : " try as they might to replicate [ Halo 's ] visceral moments , Bendis and Maleev just can 't replicate the same feeling on the printed page . "
Reviewers criticized the lack of Master Chief as a main character , similar to the response to The Halo Graphic Novel ; Schedeen said that " Master Chief is barely a guest star in his own book " , and that he was reduced to blasting aliens for much of the series . Schedeen felt that there was a lack of connections between the Ruwan plot and the Master Chief 's adventures , which was never satisfactorily resolved . The comic 's focus on Ruwan and Myra 's subplot was also seen as a major fault : Comics Bulletin 's Geoff Collins , in a review of the second issue , said that " as a comic book fan I ’ m interested [ in Ruwan and Myra ] , but the Halo fans I know could [ sic ] care less about them . And the story in this issue centers around them . " Schedeen was surprised to find that he only began to care about them in the final issue . The many delays in publishing were a frequent point of frustration as well . Schedeen summed up his reviews by saying that he was hopeful the production teams behind the upcoming Halo books " will learn from the mistakes made here and craft stories that can consistently capture what makes Halo fun . At the very least , let 's hope we don 't have to wait a year between issues anymore " .
= Species ( film ) =
Species is a 1995 American science fiction horror thriller film directed by Roger Donaldson and written by Dennis Feldman . It stars Natasha Henstridge , Ben Kingsley , Michael Madsen , Alfred Molina , Forest Whitaker and Marg Helgenberger . In the film , a motley crew of scientists and government agents tries to track down an alien seductress played by Natasha Henstridge before she successfully mates with a human male . Due to her ruthlessness , the alien character was cited as an example of negative treatment of female sexuality and aliens by the Hollywood film industry . The design of Sil was also linked to a chupacabra sighting .
The film was conceived by Feldman in 1987 , and was originally pitched as a film treatment in the style of a police procedural , entitled The Message . When The Message failed to attract the studios , Feldman re @-@ wrote it as a spec script , which ultimately led to the making of the film . The extraterrestrial in Species , an alien woman named Sil , was designed by H. R. Giger , also responsible for the beings from the Alien franchise . The effects combined practical models done by Giger collaborator Steve Johnson and XFX , with computer @-@ generated imagery done by Richard Edlund 's Boss Film Studios . Giger felt the film and the character were too similar to Alien , so he pushed for script changes .
Most of the principal photography was done in Los Angeles , California , where the film is set . Several scenes were filmed in Utah and at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico . The film was poorly received by critics , but nevertheless turned out to be a box office success , grossing US $ 113 million ( $ 176 million in 2016 dollars ) . It spawned one theatrical sequel ( Species II ) , as well as two direct @-@ to @-@ video sequels ( Species III and Species : The Awakening ) . Species was adapted into a novel by Yvonne Navarro and two comic book series by Dark Horse Comics , one of which was written by Feldman .
= = Plot summary = =
During the SETI program , Earth 's scientists send out transmissions ( shown to be the Arecibo message ) with information about Earth and its inhabitants , DNA structure , etc . , in hopes of finding life beyond Earth . They then receive transmissions from an alien source on how to create endless fuel effortlessly . Therefore , the scientists assume that this is a friendly alien species . From a second alien transmission , the scientists receive information about an alien DNA along with instructions on how to splice it with human DNA . A government team led by Xavier Fitch ( Ben Kingsley ) goes forward with the genetic experiment attempting to induce a female , under the ( later proved to be mistaken ) assumption that a female would have " more docile and controllable " traits . One of the hundred experimental ova produces a girl named Sil , who looks like a normal human but develops into a 12 @-@ year @-@ old in 3 months .
Sil 's violent outbursts during sleep make the scientists consider her a threat . They try to kill her using cyanide gas but she breaks out of her containment cell and escapes . The government assembles a team composed of anthropologist Dr. Stephen Arden ( Alfred Molina ) , molecular biologist Dr. Laura Baker ( Marg Helgenberger ) , " empath " Dan Smithson ( Forest Whitaker ) and mercenary Preston " Press " Lennox ( Michael Madsen ) to track and destroy Sil . Sil matures rapidly into an adult ( Natasha Henstridge ) in her early twenties and makes her way to Los Angeles . Her body strength , regenerative ability and intelligence make tracking her extremely difficult . The scientists fear she may mate with human males and produce offspring that could eliminate the human race . Sil is intent on producing offspring as soon as possible , and kills several people to prevent them from notifying the authorities or simply to use their clothing .
Sil first tries to mate with a man she meets at a nightclub ( Anthony Guidera ) , but after sensing that he is diabetic , she rejects him . Unsatisfied , he tries to rape her , prompting her to kill him by puncturing his skull with her tongue . She then tries to mate with John Carey ( Whip Hubley ) , a man she meets after a car accident . They swim in Carey 's pool where Sil forces him to open his swimming trunks in order to mate , but he refuses . This act is interrupted by Preston and Laura . She kills Carey , morphing into her alien form , a bipedal mutant with tentacles on her shoulders and back , and flees naked into a forest without being seen by the team . She pretends to be a rape victim to kidnap a woman ( Marliese K. Schneider ) in order to assume her identity . Sitting in the car near Carey 's home , she hypnotizes Fitch over distance to order the team to search for her in the nightclub . There , she is seen by Dan , prompting a car chase . She fakes her death by crashing the car , which she has previously filled with gasoline containers into a high @-@ voltage transformer , using the kidnapped woman as a stand @-@ in for her own body .
After cutting and dyeing her hair , Sil takes an attraction to Preston , having dreamt of him the previous night . After the team celebrates their apparent victory , she stalks them in their hotel , and they do not recognize her . Arden , who is upset at being single , walks into his room to find Sil waiting there . She has intercourse with Arden , then kills him when he realizes who she is . Dan senses that Sil is in the hotel and he alerts Preston , Laura , and the rest of the team . She morphs again and escapes and they follow her into the sewers where Fitch is subsequently killed . Sil gives birth and Dan finds her offspring in a cavern behind the sewers . The child attacks him and he kills it . Sil , angered , attacks the trio and tries to kill Preston and Dan . Preston uses a grenade launcher on her , blowing her head off and killing her . The trio leaves the area . The last scene shows a rat chewing on one of Sil 's severed tentacles ; it starts to mutate into a vicious beast and attacks another rat .
= = Cast = =
Natasha Henstridge as Sil
Michelle Williams as Young Sil
Ben Kingsley as Xavier Fitch
Michael Madsen as Preston " Press " Lennox
Alfred Molina as Dr. Stephen Arden
Forest Whitaker as Dan Smithson
Marg Helgenberger as Dr. Laura Baker
Whip Hubley as John Carey
Anthony Guidera as Robbie
= = Influence and themes = =
Given Sil grows rapidly and kills humans with ease , at a certain point film character Dr. Laura Baker even speculates if she was a biological weapon sent by a species who thought humans were like an intergalactic weed . Feldman declared that he wanted to explore this theme further in the script , as it discussed mankind 's place in the universe and how other civilizations would perceive and relate to humanity , considering that " maybe [ humans are ] not a potential threat , maybe a competitor , maybe a resource . " He also declared that more could be said about Sil 's existentialist doubts , as she does not know her origin or purpose , and only follows her instinct to mate and perpetuate the species .
Writing for the Journal of Popular Film & Television , Susan George authored a paper that dealt with the portrayal of procreation in Species , Gattaca and Mimic . George compares the character of Fitch to " an updated Dr. Frankenstein , " and explores the development of Sil 's maternal aspirations , which convert the character into an " archaic mother " figure similar to the xenomorph creature in the Alien series , both of which are , she claims , portrayed negatively . George further states that a recurring theme in science fiction films is a response to " this kind of powerful female sexuality and ' alien @-@ ness ' " in that " the feminine monster must die as Sil does at the end of Species . " Feldman himself considered that an underlying theme regarded " a female arriving and seeking to find a superior mate . "
A five @-@ year investigation into accounts of the chupacabra , a well known cryptid , revealed that the original sighting report of the creature in Puerto Rico by Madeline Tolentino may have been inspired by the character Sil . This was detailed in paranormal investigator and skeptic Benjamin Radford 's book Tracking the Chupacabra . According to Virginia Fugarino of Memorial University of Newfoundland writing for the Journal of Folklore Research , Radford found a link between the
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original eyewitness report and the design of Sil in her alien form , and hypothesized that " [ Species ] , which [ Tolentino ] did see before her sighting , influenced what she believes she saw of the chupacabra . "
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and development = = =
Dennis Feldman had the idea for Species in 1987 , as he worked on another film about an alien invasion , Real Men . Having read an article by Arthur C. Clarke about the insurmountable odds against an extraterrestrial craft ever locating and visiting Earth , given that stellar distances are great , and faster @-@ than @-@ light travel is unlikely , Feldman started to think that it was " unsophisticated for any alien culture to come here in what [ he ] ' d describe as a big tin can . " Thus in turn he considered that the possibility of extraterrestrial contact was through information . Then he detailed that a message would contain instructions from across the void to build something that would talk to men . Instead of a mechanical device , Feldman imagined wetware . The visitor would adapt to Earth 's environment through DNA belonging to Earth 's organisms . Mankind has sent to space transmissions " giving out directions " such as the Arecibo message , which Feldman considered unwary , as they relay information to potential predators from outer space . He pointed out that " in nature , one species would not want a predator to know where it hides . "
Therefrom emerged a film treatment called The Message . The original script had more of a police procedural approach , with the alien being created by a " bathtub geneticist " who had just had his project aborted by the government , and a biologist who had worked on the project getting along with a police officer to search for the creature . Eventually Feldman came to believe this concept had some credibility issues , and instead changed the protagonists to a government team . After coining the name " Sil , " Feldman initially thought of forming an acronym , but in the end chose only the three @-@ letter name after learning about the codons of the genetic code , which can be represented in groups of three letters . Sil would originally emerge from a DNA sequence manipulating human DNA , and constantly mutate as she used the human junk DNA to access " all the defenses of the entire animal kingdom that [ humans ] evolved through – including ones that had never developed , plus ones [ Earth 's scientists ] don 't know about that have become extinct . " Among the research Feldman did for the script included going to sessions of UCLA 's Center for the Study of Evolution and the Origin of Life ( CSEOL ) , talking to SETI scientists , and visiting the Salk Institute for Biological Studies to talk with researchers working on the Human Genome Project . The Message was offered to several studios , but was passed up .
In 1993 , Feldman reworked his ideas into a spec script . This was sent to producer Frank Mancuso , Jr . , who had hired Feldman to adapt Sidney Kirkpatrick 's A Cast of Killers . The producer got attracted to the creative possibilites as the film offered " the challenge of walking that fine line between believability and pushing something as far as it can go . " Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer got interested on the project , and while Feldman had some initial disagreements on the budget , after considering other studios he signed with MGM . In turn , the now retitled Species attracted director Roger Donaldson , who was attracted to its blend of science fiction and thriller . The script underwent eight different drafts , written over an eight @-@ month period , before Donaldson was content that flaws in the story 's logic had been corrected . At one point another writer , Larry Gross , tried his hand with the script , but ultimately all the work was done by Feldman . Feldman would remain as a co @-@ producer . While the initial Species script suggested a love triangle between Sil and two government team members , the dissatisfaction of the crew eventually led to changes to the ending , which ended up featuring Sil having a baby that would immediately prove dangerous .
= = = Design = = =
Sil was designed by Swiss artist H. R. Giger , who also created the creatures in the Alien films . Donaldson thought Giger was the best man for the film after reading his compendium Necronomicon , and eventually he and Mancuso flew to Switzerland to meet the artist . What attracted Giger was the opportunity to design " a monster in another way — an aesthetic warrior , also sensual and deadly , like the women look in [ his ] paintings . " While Giger opted to stay in Switzerland to take care of his dying mother instead of flying to Los Angeles to accompany production , he built some puppets in his own studio , and later faxed sketches and airbrush paintings as production went through . The practical models were made by Steve Johnson and his company XFX , which had already worked with Giger 's designs in Poltergeist II . Giger had envisioned more stages of Sil 's transformation , but the film only employed the last one , where she is " transparent outside and black inside — like a glass body but with carbon inside , " with XFX doing the translucent skin based on what they had done for the aliens of The Abyss . Sil 's alien form had both full @-@ body animatronics with replaceable arms , heads and torsos , and a body suit . Richard Edlund 's Boss Film Studios was hired for over 50 shots of computer @-@ generated imagery , which included one of the earliest forms of motion capture effects . Using a two @-@ foot @-@ high ( 60 cm ) electric puppet that had sensors translating its movements to a digital Sil , Boss Films managed to achieve in one day what would have once taken as much as three weeks with practical effects .
Giger was unhappy with some elements he found to bear similarity with other movies , particularly the Alien franchise . At one point he sent a fax to Mancuso finding five similarities : a " chestburster " ( as Sil giving birth echoed the infant Alien breaking out of its host 's chest ) , the creature having a punching tongue ( Giger at first wanted Sil 's tongue to be composed of barbed hooks ) , a cocoon , the use of flame throwers , and having Giger as the creature designer . A great point of contention was the ending , which Giger considered derivative from the climaxes from both Alien 3 and Terminator 2 : Judgment Day . The designer felt that horror films frequently held some final confrontation with fire , which he considered old @-@ fashioned and linked to medieval witch trials . He sent some ideas for the climax to the producers , with them accepting to have Sil 's ultimate death occurring by headshot .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming happened mostly in Los Angeles , including location shooting at Sunset Strip , Silver Lake , Pacific Palisades , the Hollywood Hills and the Biltmore Hotel . Id Club , the nightclub featured in the film , was built within Hollywood 's Pantages Theater , while the hills above Dodger Stadium near Elysian Park were used for the car chase and crash where Sil fakes her death . For the opening scenes in Utah , the Tooele Army Depot dubbed as the outside of the research facility — the interiors were shot at the Rockwell International Corporation laboratory in California — and a Victorian @-@ era train station in Brigham City was part of Sil 's escape . Other locations included the Santa Monica Pier and the Arecibo telescope in Puerto Rico . The most complex sets involved the sewer complex and a tar @-@ filled granite cavern where the ending occurs . Donaldson wanted a maze quality for the sewers , which had traces of realism ( such as tree roots breaking through from the ceiling ) and artistic licenses . Production designer John Muto intentionally designed the sewers wider and taller than real ones , as well as with walkways , but nevertheless aiming for a claustrophobic and realistic atmosphere . The underground tunnels were built out of structural steel , metal rod , plaster and concrete to endure the fire effects , and had its design based on the La Brea Tar Pits , with Muto describing them as " just the sort of place in which a creature from another planet might feel at home . "
= = Release and reception = =
Species received a wide theatrical release on July 7 , 1995 . Its opening weekend was $ 17 @.@ 1 million , MGM 's biggest opening that far and second in the box office ranking behind Apollo 13 . Budgeted at $ 35 million , the film earned a total of $ 113 million worldwide ( $ 176 million adjusted for inflation ) , including $ 60 million in the United States . The film was released on DVD on March 26 , 1997 , and on VHS on August 3 , 1999 . The original DVD featured a booklet with trivia , production notes and a making @-@ of featurette . On July 25 , 2006 , the film was released on Blu @-@ ray .
The film received lukewarm reviews . On Rotten Tomatoes , Species holds an approval of 34 % based on 35 reviews . Roger Ebert gave it 2 out of 4 stars , criticizing the film 's plot and overall lack of intelligence . Cristine James from Boxoffice magazine gave the film 2 out of 5 stars , describing it as " ' Alien ' meets ' V ' meets ' Splash ' meets ' Playboy 's Erotic Fantasies : Forbidden Liaisons , ' diluted into a diffuse , misdirected bore . " James Berardinelli gave the film 2 ½ out of 4 stars , stating that " as long as you don 't stop to think about what 's going on , Species is capable of offering its share of cheap thrills , with a laugh or two thrown in as well . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly found the film lacking in imagination and special effects , also commenting that Alfred Molina " sport [ s ] a haircut that 's scarier than the creature . " Variety 's review of the film described it as a " gripping if not overly original account of an extraterrestrial species attempting to overwhelm our own " and that Ben Kingsley and other lead actors " have only two @-@ dimensional roles to engage them " . The review mentions the similarity between H.R. Giger 's design of Sil and his work on Alien .
Scott Weinberg of DVD Talk praised the acting , Feldman 's screenplay and Donaldson 's direction . He concluded by saying that Species makes for " a very good time for the genre fans . " Mick LaSalle , writing for San Francisco Chronicle , was notedly less enthusiastic , quipping that if " Species were a little bit worse , it would have a shot at becoming a camp classic . " Los Angeles Times critic Peter Rainer described Species as " a pretty good Boo ! movie " , finding it an entertaining thriller while unoriginal and with ineffective tonal shifts .
= = Related works = =
= = = Adaptations = = =
Yvonne Navarro co @-@ wrote a novelization based on the original screenplay with Dennis Feldman . The book gives several in @-@ depth details about the characters not seen in the film , such as Sil 's ability to visualize odors and determine harmful substances from edible items by the color . Gas appears black , food appears pink , and an unhealthy potential mate appears to give off green fumes . Other character details include Preston 's background in tracking down AWOL soldiers as well as the process of decoding the alien signal . Although no clues are given as to its origin , it is mentioned that the message was somehow routed through several black holes to mask its point of origin .
Dark Horse Comics published a four @-@ issue comic book adapting the film , written by Feldman and penciled by Jon Foster . Dark Horse would also publish a mini @-@ series with an all @-@ new storyline , Species : Human Race , released in 1997 . West End Games released a World of Species sourcebook for its Masterbook role @-@ playing game system .
= = = Sequels = = =
The first sequel to Species , Species II was released theatrically in April 1998 . The film depicts astronauts on a mission to Mars being attacked by the aliens from Species , and the events that ensue upon their return to Earth . There , Dr. Baker has been working on Eve , a more docile clone of Sil . Madsen and Helgenberger reprised their roles , while Henstridge played Eve . Species II was received by critics worse than the first film , garnering a 9 % approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes , and Madsen denounced it as a terrible film . The film 's director , Peter Medak , attributed the failure of the film to not picking up the infected rat ending of the original film . Navarro later authored the novelization for Species II which followed the film 's original screenplay with added scenes .
The second sequel , Species III followed in 2004 . It premiered on Sci @-@ Fi Channel on November 27 , 2004 with a DVD release on December 7 . The film 's plot starts where Species II ends , revolving around Sunny Mabrey 's character Sara , the daughter of Eve , reared by a doctor played by Robert Knepper . Sara , an alien @-@ human hybrid , seeks other hybrids to mate with . Henstridge cameos at the beginning of the film . Two out of six critics mentioned on Rotten Tomatoes gave it a positive rating , with DVD Talk 's reviewer noting that it is " a more cohesive and sensible flick than [ Species II ] is , but ultimately , it 's just a lot of the same old schtick , " while Film Freak Central called it " amateurish " and " vapid . " A fourth film , Species : The Awakening was filmed in 2007 , following the schedule of Species III of Sci @-@ Fi Channel premiere and subsequent DVD release . None of the actors from the original film returned in this sequel , which instead starred Helena Mattsson as the alien @-@ hybrid seductress .
= John of Brienne =
John of Brienne ( c . 1170 – 27 March 1237 ) , also known as John I , was King of Jerusalem from 1210 to 1225 and Latin Emperor of Constantinople from 1229 to 1237 . He was the youngest son of Erard II of Brienne , a wealthy nobleman in Champagne . John , originally destined for an ecclesiastical career , became a knight and owned small estates in Champagne around 1200 . After the death of his brother , Walter III , he ruled the County of Brienne on behalf of his minor nephew Walter IV ( who lived in southern Italy ) .
The barons of the Kingdom of Jerusalem proposed that John marry Maria , Queen of Jerusalem . With the consent of Philip II of France and Pope Innocent III , he left France for the Holy Land and married the queen ; the royal couple were crowned in 1210 . After Maria 's death in 1212 John administered the kingdom as regent for their infant daughter , Isabella II ; an influential lord , John of Ibelin , attempted to dethrone him . John was a leader of the Fifth Crusade . Although his claim of supreme command of the crusader army was never unanimously acknowledged , his right to rule Damietta ( in Egypt ) was confirmed shortly after the town fell to the crusaders in 1219 . He claimed the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia on behalf of his second wife , Stephanie of Armenia , in 1220 . After Stephanie and their infant son died that year , John returned to Egypt . The Fifth Crusade ended in failure ( including the recovery of Damietta by the Egyptians ) in 1221 .
John was the first king of Jerusalem to visit Europe ( Italy , France , England , León , Castile and Germany ) to seek assistance for the Holy Land . He gave his daughter in marriage to Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II in 1225 , and Frederick ended John 's rule of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . Although the popes tried to persuade Frederick to restore the kingdom to John , the Jerusalemite barons regarded Frederick as their lawful ruler . John administered papal domains in Tuscany , became the podestà of Perugia and was a commander of Pope Gregory IX 's army during Gregory 's war against Frederick in 1228 and 1229 .
He was elected emperor in 1229 as the senior co @-@ ruler ( with Baldwin II ) of the Latin Empire , and was crowned in Constantinople in 1231 . John III Vatatzes , Emperor of Nicaea , and Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria occupied the last Latin territories in Thrace and Asia Minor , besieging Constantinople in early 1235 . John directed the defence of his capital during the months @-@ long siege , with the besiegers withdrawing only after Geoffrey II of Achaea and united fleets from Italian towns defeated their fleet in 1236 . The following year , John died as a Franciscan friar .
= = Early life = =
John was the youngest of the four sons of Erard II , Count of Brienne , and Agnes of Montfaucon . He seemed " exceedingly old ... about 80 " to the 14 @-@ year @-@ old George Akropolites in 1231 ; if Akropolites ' estimate was correct , John was born around 1150 . However , no other 13th @-@ century authors described John as an old man . His father referred to John 's brothers as " children " in 1177 and mentioned the tutor of John 's oldest brother , Walter III , in 1184 ; this suggests that John 's brothers were born in the late 1160s . Modern historians agree that John was born after 1168 , probably during the 1170s .
Although his father destined John for a clerical career , according to the late 13th @-@ century Tales of the Minstrel of Reims he " was unwilling " . Instead , the minstrel continued , John fled to his maternal uncle at the Clairvaux Abbey . Encouraged by his fellows , he became a knight and earned a reputation in tournaments and fights . Although elements of the Tales of the Minstrel of Reims are apparently invented ( for instance , John did not have a maternal uncle in Clairvaux ) , historian Guy Perry wrote that it may have preserved details of John 's life . A church career was not unusual for youngest sons of 12th @-@ century noblemen in France ; however , if his father sent John to a monastery he left before reaching the age of taking monastic vows . John " clearly developed the physique that was necessary to fight well " in his youth , because the 13th @-@ century sources Akropolites and Salimbene di Adam emphasize his physical strength .
Erard II joined the Third Crusade and died in the Holy Land in 1191 . His oldest son , Walter III , succeeded him in Brienne . John was first mentioned in an 1192 ( or 1194 ) charter issued by his brother , indicating that he was a prominent figure in Walter 's court . According to a version of Ernoul 's chronicle , John participated in a war against Peter II of Courtenay . Although the Tales of the Minstrel of Reims claimed that he was called " John Lackland " , according to contemporary charters John held Jessains , Onjon , Trannes and two other villages in the County of Champagne around 1200 . In 1201 , Theobald III granted him additional estates in Mâcon , Longsols and elsewhere . After Theobald 's death his widow Blanche of Navarre persuaded John to sell his estate at Mâcon , saying that it was her dowry .
Walter III of Brienne died in June 1205 while fighting in southern Italy . His widow Elvira of Sicily gave birth to a posthumous son , Walter IV , who grew up in Italy . John assumed the title of count of Brienne , and began administering the county on his nephew 's behalf in 1205 or 1206 . As a leading vassal of the count of Champagne , John frequented the court of Blanche of Navarre ( who ruled Champagne during her son 's minority ) . According to a version of Ernoul 's chronicle , she loved John " more than any man in the world " ; this annoyed Philip II of France .
The two versions of Ernoul 's chronicle tell different stories about John 's ascent to the throne of Jerusalem . According to one version , the leading lords of Jerusalem sent envoys to France in 1208 asking Philip II to select a French nobleman as a husband for their queen Maria . Taking advantage of the opportunity to rid himself of John , Philip II suggested him . In the other version an unnamed knight encouraged the Jerusalemite lords to select John , who accepted their offer with Philip 's consent . John visited Pope Innocent III in Rome . The pope donated 40 @,@ 000 marks for the defence of the Holy Land , stipulating that John could spend the money only with the consent of the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem and the grand masters of the Knights Templar and the Knights Hospitaller .
= = King of Jerusalem = =
= = = Co @-@ ruler = = =
John landed at Acre on 13 September 1210 ; the following day , Patriarch of Jerusalem Albert of Vercelli married him to Queen Maria . John and Maria were crowned in Tyre on 3 October . The truce concluded by Amalric II , King of Jerusalem and the Ayyubid sultan Al @-@ Adil I had ended by John 's arrival . Although Al @-@ Adil was willing to renew it , Jerusalemite lords did not want to sign a new treaty without John 's consent . During John and Maria 's coronation , Al @-@ Adil 's son Al @-@ Mu 'azzam Isa pillaged the area around Acre but did not attack the city . After returning to Acre , John raided nearby Muslim settlements in retaliation .
Although about 300 French knights accompanied him to the Holy Land , no influential noblemen joined him ; they preferred participating in the French Albigensian Crusade or did not see him as sufficiently eminent . John 's cousin , Walter of Montbéliard , joined him only after he was expelled from Cyprus . Montbéliard led a naval expedition to Egypt to plunder the Nile Delta . After most of the French crusaders left the Holy Land , John forged a new truce with Al @-@ Adil by the middle of 1211 and sent envoys to Pope Innocent urging him to preach a new crusade .
= = = Conflicts = = =
Maria died shortly after giving birth to their daughter , Isabella , in late 1212 . Her death triggered a legal dispute , with John of Ibelin ( who administered Jerusalem before John 's coronation ) questioning the widowed king 's right to rule . The king sent Raoul of Merencourt , Bishop of Sidon , to Rome for assistance from the Holy See . Pope Innocent confirmed John as lawful ruler of the Holy Land in early 1213 , urging the prelates to support him with ecclesiastical sanctions if needed . Most of the Jerusalemite lords remained loyal to the king , acknowledging his right to administer the kingdom on behalf of his infant daughter ; John of Ibelin left the Holy Land and settled in Cyprus .
The relationship between John of Brienne and Hugh I of Cyprus was tense . Hugh ordered the imprisonment of John 's supporters in Cyprus , releasing them only at Pope Innocent 's command . During the War of the Antiochene Succession John sided with Bohemond IV of Antioch and the Templars against Raymond @-@ Roupen of Antioch and Leo I , King of Cilician Armenia , who were supported by Hugh and the Hospitallers . However , John sent only 50 knights to fight the Armenians in Antiochia in 1213 . Leo I concluded a peace treaty with the Knights Templar late that year , and he and John reconciled . John married Leo 's oldest daughter , Stephanie ( also known as Rita ) , in 1214 and Stephanie received a dowry of 30 @,@ 000 bezants . Quarrels among John , Leo I , Hugh I and Bohemond IV are documented by Pope Innocent 's letters urging them to reconcile their differences before the Fifth Crusade reached the Holy Land .
= = = Fifth Crusade = = =
Pope Innocent proclaimed the Fifth Crusade in 1213 , with the " liberation of the Holy Land " ( the reconquest of Jerusalem ) its principal object . The first crusader troops , commanded by Leopold VI of Austria , landed at Acre in early September 1217 . Andrew II of Hungary and his army followed that month , and Hugh I of Cyprus and Bohemond IV of Antioch soon joined the crusaders . However , hundreds of crusaders soon returned to Europe because of a famine following the previous year 's poor harvest . A war council was held in the tent of Andrew II , who considered himself the supreme commander of the crusader army . Other leaders , particularly John , did not acknowledge Andrew 's leadership . The crusaders raided nearby territory ruled by Al @-@ Adil I for food and fodder , forcing the sultan to retreat in November 1217 . In December John besieged the Ayyubid fortress on Mount Tabor , joined only by Bohemond IV of Antioch . He was unable to capture it , which " encouraged the infidel " , according to the contemporary Jacques de Vitry .
Andrew II decided to return home , leaving the crusaders ' camp with Hugh I and Bohemond IV in early 1218 . Although military action was suspended after their departure , the crusaders restored fortifications at Caesarea and Atlit . After new troops arrived from the Holy Roman Empire in April , they decided to invade Egypt . They elected John supreme commander , giving him the right to rule the land they would conquer . His leadership was primarily nominal , since he could rarely impose his authority on an army of troops from many countries .
The crusaders laid siege to Damietta , on the Nile , in May 1217 . Although they seized a strategically @-@ important tower on a nearby island on 24 August , Al @-@ Kamil ( who had succeeded Al @-@ Adil I in Egypt ) controlled traffic on the Nile . In September , reinforcements commanded by Pope Honorius III 's legate Cardinal Pelagius ( who considered himself the crusade 's supreme commander ) arrived from Italy .
Egyptian forces attempted a surprise attack on the crusaders ' camp on 9 October , but John discovered their movements . He and his retinue attacked and annihilated the Egyptian advance guard , hindering the main force . The crusaders built a floating fortress on the Nile near Damietta , but a storm blew it near the Egyptian camp . The Egyptians seized the fortress , killing nearly all of its defenders . Only two soldiers survived the attack ; they were accused of cowardice , and John ordered their execution . Taking advantage of the new Italian troops , Cardinal Pelagius began to intervene in strategic decisions . His debates with John angered their troops . The soldiers broke into the Egyptian camp on 29 August 1219 without an order , but they were soon defeated and nearly annihilated . During the ensuing panic , only the cooperation of John , the Templars , the Hospitallers and the noble crusaders prevented the Egyptians from destroying their camp .
In late October , Al @-@ Kamil sent messengers to the crusaders offering to restore Jerusalem , Bethlehem and Nazareth to them if they withdrew from Egypt . Although John and the secular lords were willing to accept the sultan 's offer , Pelagius and the heads of the military orders resisted ; they said that the Moslems could easily recapture the three towns . The crusaders ultimately refused the offer . Al @-@ Kamil tried to send provisions to Damietta across their camp , but his men were captured on 3 November . Two days later , the crusaders stormed into Damietta and seized the town . Pelagius claimed it for the church , but he was forced to acknowledge John 's right to administer it ( at least temporarily ) when John threatened to leave the crusaders ' camp . According to John of Joinville , John seized one @-@ third of Damietta 's spoils ; coins minted there during the following months bore his name . Al @-@ Mu 'azzam Isa , Sultan of Damascus , invaded the Kingdom of Jerusalem and pillaged Caesarea before the end of 1219 .
John 's father @-@ in @-@ law , Leo I of Armenia , died several months before the crusaders seized Damietta . He bequeathed his kingdom to his infant daughter , Isabella . John and Raymond @-@ Roupen of Antioch ( Leo 's nephew ) questioned the will 's legality , each demanding the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia for themselves . In a February 1220 letter , Pope Honorius declared John Leo 's rightful heir . Saying that he wanted to assert his claim to Cilicia , John left Damietta for the Kingdom of Jerusalem around Easter 1220 . Although Al @-@ Mu 'azzam Isa 's successful campaign the previous year also pressed John to leave Egypt , Jacques de Vitry and other Fifth Crusade chroniclers wrote that he deserted the crusader army .
Stephanie died shortly after John 's arrival . Contemporary sources accused John of causing her sudden death , claiming that he severely beat her when he heard that she tried to poison his daughter Isabella . Their only son died a few weeks later , ending John 's claim to Cilicia . Soon after Pope Honorius learned about the deaths of Stephanie and her son , he declared Raymond @-@ Roupen the lawful ruler of Cilicia and threatened John with excommunication if he fought for his late wife 's inheritance .
John did not return to the crusaders in Egypt for several months . According to a letter from the prelates in the Holy Land to Philip II of France , lack of funds kept John from leaving his kingdom . Since his nephew Walter IV was approaching the age of majority , John surrendered the County of Brienne in 1221 . During John 's absence from Egypt , Al @-@ Kamil again offered to restore the Holy Land to the Kingdom of Jerusalem in June 1221 ; Pelagius refused him . John returned to Egypt and rejoined the crusade on 6 July 1221 at the command of Pope Honorius .
The commanders of the crusader army decided to continue the invasion of Egypt , despite ( according to Philip d 'Aubigny ) John 's strong opposition . The crusaders approached Mansurah , but the Egyptians imposed a blockade on their camp . Outnumbered , Pelagius agreed to an eight @-@ year truce with Al @-@ Kamil in exchange for Damietta on 28 August . John was among the crusade leaders held hostage by Al @-@ Kamil until the crusader army withdrew from Damietta on 8 September .
= = = Negotiations = = =
After the Fifth Crusade ended " in colossal and irremediable failure " , John returned to his kingdom . Merchants from Genoa and Pisa soon attacked each other in Acre , destoying a significant portion of the town . According to a Genoese chronicle , John supported the Pisans and the Genoese left Acre for Beirut .
John was the first king of Jerusalem to visit Europe , and had decided to seek aid from the Christian powers before he returned from Egypt . He also wanted to find a suitable husband for his daughter , to ensure the survival of Christian rule in the Holy Land . John appointed Odo of Montbéliard as a bailli to administer the Kingdom of Jerusalem in his absence .
He left for Italy in October 1222 to attend a conference about a new crusade . At John 's request , Pope Honorius declared that all lands conquered during the crusade should be united with the Kingdom of Jerusalem . To plan the military campaign , the pope and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II met at Ferentino in March 1223 ; John attended the meeting . He agreed to give his daughter in marriage to Frederick II after the emperor promised that he would allow John to rule the Kingdom of Jerusalem for the rest of his life .
John then went to France , although Philip II was annoyed at being excluded from the decision of Isabella 's marriage . Matilda I , Countess of Nevers , Erard II of Chacenay , Albert , Abbot of Vauluisant and other local potentates asked John to intervene in their conflicts , indicating that he was esteemed in his homeland . John attended the funeral of Philip II at the Basilica of St Denis in July ; Philip bequeathed more than 150 @,@ 000 marks for the defence of the Holy Land . John then visited England , attempting to mediate a peace treaty between England and France after his return to France .
He made a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela in March 1224 . According to the Latin Chronicle of the Kings of Castile , John went to the Kingdom of León to marry one of the elder daughters of Alfonso IX of León ( Sancha or Dulce ) because Alfonso had promised him the kingdom " along with her " . The marriage could jeopardize the claim of Sancha 's and Dulce 's half @-@ brother , Ferdinand III of Castile , to León . To protect her son 's interests , Ferdinand 's mother Berengaria of Castile decided to give her daughter ( Berengaria of León ) to John in marriage . Although modern historians do not unanimously accept the chronicle 's account of John 's plan to marry Sancha or Dulce , they agree that the queen of France ( Blanche of Castile , Berengaria of Castile 's sister ) played an important role in convincing John to marry her niece . The marriage of John and Berengaria of León was celebrated in Burgos in May 1224 .
About three months later , he met Emperor Frederick 's son Henry in Metz and visited Henry 's guardian , Engelbert , Archbishop of Cologne . From Germany John went to southern Italy , where he persuaded Pope Honorius to allow Emperor Frederick to postpone his crusade for two years . Frederick married John 's daughter , Isabella ( who had been crowned queen of Jerusalem ) , on 9 November 1225 . John and Frederick 's relationship became tense . According to a version of Ernoul 's chronicle , John got into a disagreement with his new son @-@ in @-@ law because Frederick seduced a niece of Isabella who was her lady @-@ in @-@ waiting . In the other version of the chronicle John often " chastised and reproved " his son @-@ in @-@ law , who concluded that John wanted to seize the Kingdom of Sicily for his nephew Walter IV of Brienne and tried to murder John ( who fled to Rome ) . Frederick declared that John had lost his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem when Isabella married him ; he styled himself king of Jerusalem for the first time in December 1225 . Balian of Sidon , Simon of Maugastel , Archbishop of Tyre , and the other Jerusalemite lords who had escorted Isabella to Italy acknowledged Frederick as their lawful king .
= = Papal service = =
Pope Honorius did not accept Frederick 's unilateral act , and continued to regard John as the rightful king of Jerusalem . In an attempt to take advantage of the revived Lombard League ( an alliance of northern Italian towns ) against Frederick II , John went to Bologna . According to a version of Ernoul 's chronicle , he declined an offer by the Lombard League representatives to elect him their king . Even though this account was fabricated , John remained in Bologna for over six months . The dying Pope Honorius appointed John rector of a Patrimony of Saint Peter in Tuscany ( part of the Papal States ) on 27 January 1227 , and urged Frederick II to restore him to the throne of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . Honorius ' successor , Gregory IX , confirmed John 's position in the Papal States on 5 April and ordered the citizens of Perugia to elect him their podestà .
Gregory excommunicated Frederick II on 29 September 1227 , accusing him of breaking his oath to lead a crusade to the Holy Land ; the emperor had dispatched two fleets to Syria , but a plague forced them to return . His wife Isabella died after giving birth to a son , Conrad , in May 1228 . Frederick continued to consider himself king of Jerusalem , in accordance with the precedent set by John during Isabella 's minority .
The imperial army invaded the Papal States under the command of Rainald of Urslingen in October 1228 . Although John defeated the invaders in a series of battles , it took a counter @-@ invasion by another papal army in southern Italy to drive Rainald back to Sulmona . John laid a siege before returning to Perugia in early 1229 to conclude negotiations with envoys of the Latin Empire of Constantinople , who were offering him the imperial crown .
= = Emperor of Constantinople = =
= = = Election = = =
The Latin Emperor of Constantinople , Robert I , died in January 1228 . His brother Baldwin II succeeded him , but a regent was needed to rule the Latin Empire since Baldwin was ten years old . Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria was willing to accept the regency , but the barons of the Latin Empire suspected that he wanted to unite the Latin Empire with Bulgaria . They offered the imperial crown instead to John , an ally of the Holy See .
After months of negotiation , John and the envoys from the Latin Empire signed a treaty in Perugia which was confirmed by Pope Gregory on 9 April 1229 . John was elected emperor of the Latin Empire for life as senior co @-@ ruler with Baldwin II , who would marry John 's daughter Marie . The treaty also prescribed that although Baldwin would rule the Latin lands in Asia Minor when he was 20 years old , he would become sole emperor only after John 's death . John also stipulated that his sons would inherit Epirus and Macedonia , but the two regions still belonged to Emperor of Thessalonica Theodore Doukas .
After signing the treaty , John returned to Sulmona . According to the contemporary Matthew Paris , he allowed his soldiers to plunder nearby monasteries to obtain money . John lifted the siege of Sulmona in early 1229 to join Cardinal Pelagius , who launched a campaign against Capua . Frederick II ( who had crowned himself king of Jerusalem in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre ) returned to Italy , forcing the papal troops to withdraw .
John went to France to recruit warriors to accompany him to Constantinople . Pope Gregory did not proclaim John 's expedition to the Latin Empire a crusade , but promised papal privileges granted to crusaders to those who joined him . During his stay in France , John was again an intermediary between local potentates and signed a peace treaty between Louis IX of France and Hugh X of Lusignan . He returned to Italy in late 1230 . John 's envoys signed a treaty with Jacopo Tiepolo , Doge of Venice , who agreed to transport him and his retinue of 500 knights and 5 @,@ 000 commoners to Constantinople in return for John 's confirmation of Venetian possessions and privileges in the Latin Empire . Shortly after John left for Constantinople in August , Pope Gregory acknowledged Frederick II 's claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem .
= = = Rule = = =
John was crowned emperor in Hagia Sophia in autumn 1231 ; by then , his territory was limited to Constantinople and its vicinity . The Venetians urged him to wage war against John III Vatatzes , Emperor of Nicaea , who supported a rebellion against their rule in Crete . According to Philippe Mouskes ' Rhymed Chronicle , John could make " neither war nor peace " ; because he did not invade the Empire of Nicaea , most French knights who accompanied him to Constantinople returned home after his coronation . To strengthen the Latin Empire 's financial position , Geoffrey II of Achaea ( John 's most powerful vassal ) gave him an annual subsidy of 30 @,@ 000 hyperpyra after his coronation .
Taking advantage of John III Vatatzes ' invasion of Rhodes , John launched a military expedition across the Bosphorus against the Empire of Nicaea in 1233 . His three @-@ to @-@ four @-@ month campaign " achieved little , or nothing " ; the Latins only seized Pegai , now Biga in Turkey . With John 's approval , two Franciscan and two Dominican friars wanted to mediate a truce between the Latin Empire and Nicaea in 1234 but it was never signed . In a letter describing their negotiations , the friars described John as a " pauper " abandoned by his mercenaries .
John III Vatatzes and Ivan Asen II concluded a treaty dividing the Latin Empire in early 1235 . Vatatzes soon seized the last outposts of the empire in Asia Minor and Gallipoli , and Asen occupied the Latin territories in Thrace . Constantinople was besieged in an effort to persuade the defenders to gather in one place , enabling an invasion elsewhere . Although the besiegers outnumbered the defenders , John repelled all attacks on the town 's walls . Mouskes compared him to Hector , Roland , Ogier the Dane and Judas Maccabeus in his Rhymed Chronicle , emphasizing his bravery .
A Venetian fleet forced Vatatzes ' naval forces to withdraw , but after the Venetians departed for home the Greeks and Bulgarians besieged Constantinople again in November 1235 . John sent letters to European monarchs and the pope , pleading for assistance . Since the survival of the Latin Empire was in jeopardy , Pope Gregory urged the crusaders to defend Constantinople instead of the Holy Land . A combined naval force from Venice , Genoa , Pisa and Geoffrey II of Achaea broke through the blockade . Asen soon abandoned his alliance with Vatatzes , who was forced to lift the siege in 1236 .
= = = Death = = =
According to three 13th @-@ century authors ( Matthew Paris , Salimbene di Adam and Bernard of Besse ) , John became a Franciscan friar before his death . They agree that John 's declining health contributed to his conversion , but Bernard also described a recurring vision of an old man urging the emperor to join the Franciscans . Most 13th @-@ century sources suggest that John died between 19 and 23 March 1237 , the only Latin emperor to die in Constantinople .
According to the Tales of the Minstrel of Reims , he was buried in Hagia Sophia . Perry wrote that John , who died as a Franciscan friar , may have been buried in the Franciscan church dedicated to Saint Francis of Assisi which was built in Galata during his reign . In a third theory , proposed by Giuseppe Gerola , a tomb decorated with the Latin Empire coat of arms in Assisi 's Lower Basilica may have been built for John by Walter VI , Count of Brienne .
= = Family = =
John 's first wife ( Maria the Marquise , born 1191 ) was the only child of Isabella I of Jerusalem and her second husband , Conrad of Montferrat . Maria inherited Jerusalem from her mother in 1205 . John and Maria 's only child , Isabella ( also known as Yolanda ) , was born in late 1212 .
Stephanie of Armenia became John 's second wife in 1214 . She was the only daughter of Leo II of Armenia and his first wife , Isabelle ( niece of Sibylle , the third wife of Bohemond III of Antioch ) . Stephanie gave birth to a son in 1220 , but she and her son died that year .
John married his third wife , Berengaria of León , in 1224 ; she was born around 1204 to Alfonso IX of León and Berengaria of Castile . John and Berengaria 's first child , Marie , was born in 1224 . Their first son , Alphonse , was born during the late 1220s . Berengaria 's cousin , Louis IX of France , made him Grand Chamberlain of France and he acquired the County of Eu in France with his marriage . John 's second son , Louis , was born around 1230 . His youngest son , John , who was born in the early 1230s , was Grand Butler of France .
= Boise National Forest =
Boise National Forest is a federally protected area covering 2 @,@ 203 @,@ 703 acres ( 8 @,@ 918 @.@ 07 km2 ) of the U.S. state of Idaho as part of the national forest system . Created on July 1 , 1908 from part of Sawtooth National Forest , it is managed by the U.S. Forest Service as four units : the Cascade , Emmett , Lowman , and Mountain Home ranger districts .
The Idaho Batholith underlays most of Boise National Forest , forming the forest 's Boise , Salmon River , and West mountain ranges ; the forest reaches a maximum elevation of 9 @,@ 730 feet ( 2 @,@ 970 m ) on Steel Mountain . Common land cover includes sagebrush steppe and spruce @-@ fir forests ; there are 9 @,@ 600 miles ( 15 @,@ 400 km ) of streams and rivers and 15 @,@ 400 acres ( 62 km2 ) of lakes and reservoirs . Boise National Forest contains 75 percent of the known populations of Sacajawea 's bitterroot , a flowering plant endemic to Idaho .
The Shoshone people occupied the forest before European settlers arrived in the early 1800s . Many of the early settlers were trappers and prospectors before gold was discovered in 1862 . After the 1860s Boise Basin gold rush ended , mining of tungsten , silver , antimony , and gold continued in the forest until the mid @-@ twentieth century . Recreation opportunities and facilities include over 70 campgrounds , whitewater and flatwater boating , cabin rentals , and 1 @,@ 300 miles ( 2 @,@ 100 km ) of trails for hiking , biking , horseback riding , and motorized off @-@ road vehicle use . The Forest Service has an objective to maintain timber , range , water , recreation , and wildlife for multiple use and sustained yield of its resources .
= = History = =
Archaeological evidence indicates that human habitation in Idaho began towards the end of the last ice age : bone fragments about 10 @,@ 000 years old have been found in Wilson Butte Cave , an inflationary cave on the Snake River Plain believed to have been occupied by indigenous people until as recently as the 17th century . A change of climate around 7000 years ago dried up much of the Great Basin , forcing the Shoshone people northward into the mountainous areas of central Idaho . Most of what is now Boise National Forest was sparsely inhabited by Native Americans , and several archaeological sites , including campsites , rock shelters , burial grounds , and pictographs have been found along rivers in the area . Trappers and fur traders of European descent first arrived in the area in the early 1800s , starting with John Jacob Astor 's Pacific Fur Company in October 1811 . Donald Mackenzie and Francois Payette trapped in the area of Boise National Forest in 1819 . By 1840 the fur trade was coming to an end , but the westward migration on the Oregon Trail , which passed south of the forest , was beginning . The first settlers moved into the mountains in the 1860s after gold was discovered in Idaho , which forced many of the Shoshone out and led to conflicts throughout the state , including the Bannock War in southern Idaho .
Prospectors George Grimes and Moses Splawn were the first to discover gold in the forest at the eponymous Grimes Creek on August 2 , 1862 . Subsequent gold discoveries at Rocky Bar in 1863 and Atlanta in 1864 increased the rush of people to Idaho , and in 1863 Idaho City , with a population of 6 @,@ 267 , surpassed Portland , Oregon as the largest city in the Pacific Northwest . The Idaho gold rush was largely over by 1870 , and the population of the Boise Basin fell from 16 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 500 . In 1898 the forest 's first gold dredge was built in Placerville and followed by several others . By 1951 when the last dredges shut down , at least 2 @.@ 3 million ounces ( 65 @.@ 2 million grams ) of gold had been produced from the Boise Basin area . Silver was mined along the Crooked River from 1882 until 1921 , but a silver mine at Silver Mountain proved unsuccessful . Following a shortage of mercury during World War II , mines in the Stibnite area became the country 's largest producer of tungsten and second largest source of mercury . The most important known placer deposit of niobium and tantalum in the United States is located in Bear Valley . From 1953 until 1959 dredges there produced $ 12 @.@ 5 million ( $ 101 million today ) in niobium , tantalum , and uranium . Other minerals mined in the forest include antimony and molybdenum .
= = = U.S. Forest Service = = =
Boise National Forest was created on July 1 , 1908 from part of Sawtooth National Forest , and originally covered 1 @,@ 147 @,@ 360 acres ( 4 @,@ 643 @.@ 2 km2 ) . The U.S. President was given the authority to establish forest reserves administered by the U.S. Department of the Interior by the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 . With the passage of the Transfer Act of 1905 , forest reserves were transferred to the U.S. Department of Agriculture in the newly created U.S. Forest Service . Present @-@ day Boise National Forest was first protected as part of two forest reserves by proclamations issued by President Theodore Roosevelt : Sawtooth Forest Reserve ( created on May 29 , 1905 and expanded on November 6 , 1906 ) and Payette Forest Reserve ( created on June 3 , 1905 ) . After forest reserves were renamed national forests in 1908 , Boise National Forest was split from Sawtooth National Forest into an independent national forest . On April 1 , 1944 the entirety of what was then Payette National Forest was transferred to Boise National Forest , and simultaneously Weiser and Idaho national forests were combined to reestablish the present @-@ day Payette National Forest , which is to the north of Boise National Forest . In 1933 the Boise Basin Experimental Forest was created on 8 @,@ 740 acres ( 35 @.@ 4 km2 ) of the forest near Idaho City to study the management of ponderosa pine . The Lucky Peak Nursery was established in 1959 to produce trees for planting on burned or logged lands on the national forests of the Intermountain region .
After the creation of the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) in 1933 , nine camps and eight subcamps were set up in Boise National Forest , but the number of camps was reduced from 1934 until the program was closed in 1942 . Work conducted by the CCC included fire suppression , fish habitat improvement , and construction of guard houses , fire lookouts , campgrounds , roads , and trails , among other facilities .
= = Management = =
Boise National Forest is managed by the U.S. Forest Service , an agency within the Department of Agriculture , as five units called ranger districts . The ranger districts are Cascade ( 400 @,@ 000 acres or 1 @,@ 600 square kilometers ) , Emmett ( 350 @,@ 000 acres or 1 @,@ 400 square kilometers ) , Idaho City ( 400 @,@ 000 acres ) , Lowman ( 400 @,@ 000 acres ) , and Mountain Home ( 650 @,@ 000 acres or 2 @,@ 600 square kilometers ) ; each has an office in their respective cities and is managed by a district ranger , while forest headquarters are located in the city of Boise . Congress proclaimed 2 @,@ 648 @,@ 273 acres ( 10 @,@ 717 @.@ 18 km2 ) of Idaho part of Boise National Forest , but the forest manages only 2 @,@ 203 @,@ 703 acres ( 8 @,@ 918 @.@ 07 km2 ) . The proclaimed boundary is set and can only be changed by Congress whereas the administered boundary can be shifted among adjacent national forests without congressional approval . For management ( and from the visitor 's perspective ) the forest 's boundaries are its administered area .
= = Geography and geology = =
Elevations in the forest range from 2 @,@ 800 feet ( 850 m ) in the North Fork Payette River Canyon to 9 @,@ 730 feet ( 2 @,@ 970 m ) at the top of Steel Mountain , a gain of 6 @,@ 930 feet ( 2 @,@ 110 m ) . The forest contains several subranges of the Rocky Mountains , including the Boise , Salmon River , and West mountain ranges . Much of the forest is underlain by the Idaho Batholith , and the forest is dominated by granitic rock , but intrusions of basalt can be found to the west and other volcanic rocks to the south .
North of the South Fork Payette River and east of the North Fork Payette River , the forest is part of the Salmon River Mountains , which extend north and east outside the forest 's boundaries . The South Fork Salmon River Range and the North Fork Range are subranges of the Salmon River Mountains within Boise National Forest . The Boise Mountains cover much of the southern portion of the forest and contain the forest 's highest point , Steel Mountain , but the range 's highest point , Two Point Mountain , lies outside of the forest 's boundary . The Trinity Mountains are a subrange in southeastern part of the Boise Mountains that reach their peak at 9 @,@ 451 feet ( 2 @,@ 881 m ) on Trinity Mountain . The westernmost portion of the forest south and west of Lake Cascade are part of the West Mountains , which reach their highest point at 8 @,@ 320 feet ( 2 @,@ 540 m ) on Snowbank Mountain . The Danskin Mountains are a smaller range on the forest 's southern border that run northwest to southeast .
= = = Waterways = = =
There are an estimated 9 @,@ 600 miles ( 15 @,@ 400 km ) of perennial and intermittent streams and 15 @,@ 400 acres ( 62 km2 ) of lakes and reservoirs in the forest . The Forest Service provides access to and recreation opportunities at the seven reservoirs it borders , although it does not own or manage them . There are numerous natural lakes in the forest , most of which are tarns created by alpine glaciers during the Pleistocene . The largest , Warm Lake , is 26 miles ( 42 km ) east of Cascade in Valley County ; many of the smaller lakes are in the Trinity and West mountains . Annual water yield on the forest is estimated at 4 @.@ 1 million acre @-@ feet ( 5 @.@ 1 × 109 m3 ) . The southern portion of the forest is drained by the Boise River , the central and western portions by the Payette River , northeastern portion by the Salmon River , and far western portions of the Emmett Ranger District by the Weiser River . All four rivers are tributaries of the Snake River , which itself is a tributary of the Columbia River in the Pacific basin .
= = Climate = =
Daily high temperatures range from 9 to 29 ° F ( − 13 to − 2 ° C ) in winter to 80 to 90 ° F ( 27 to 32 ° C ) in summer , while lower elevations can experience conditions over 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) . Idaho 's mountain ranges can block Arctic air in the winter , but when cold air masses do enter the area , they sometimes stagnate in the Snake and Salmon river valleys , causing very cold temperatures to persist . Summer and fall are generally dry , while intense short @-@ duration thunderstorms can occur in late spring and early summer as atmospheric moisture interacts with warm temperatures and steep topography via orographic lifting . During winter , warm , moist air from the Pacific Ocean often brings rain at lower elevations in addition to snowfall throughout the forest . The influence of these Pacific maritime air masses increases as latitude increases in the forest . Average annual snowfall ranges from 55 inches ( 140 cm ) in drier areas and at lower elevations to 70 inches ( 180 cm ) in wetter locations and higher elevations . The growing season within the forest ranges from over 150 days in lower elevations to less than 30 days in alpine areas .
= = Natural resources = =
Boise National Forest is within the Idaho Batholith ecoregion , which is a level III ecoregion in the larger level I Northwestern Forested Mountains . In addition to species listed or proposed for listing as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act , the Forest Service maintains an independent listing of sensitive species for which it is directed to " develop and implement management practices to ensure that species do not become threatened or endangered because of Forest Service actions . " As of February 2013 there were 27 species in Boise National Forest listed as sensitive species : 6 mammals , 1 amphibian , 1 fish , 13 birds , and 6 plants .
= = = Flora = = =
An estimated 76 percent of Boise National Forest is forest , which according to the Forest Service is considered land capable of supporting trees on at least 50 percent of its area . The forests are primarily coniferous evergreens , dominated by Douglas fir and ponderosa and lodgepole pines at lower elevations and Engelmann spruce , subalpine fir , and whitebark pine at higher elevations . Grand fir and western larch ( a coniferous deciduous tree ) grow in the northern part of the forest where there are moister conditions . Quaking aspen , a broadleaf deciduous tree , grows both in stands among conifers and in monotypic stands throughout the forest at elevations above 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) . Non @-@ forested areas occupy 23 percent of the forest , primarily on south @-@ facing slopes , lower elevations in the forest 's southern latitudes , or high @-@ elevation areas and are dominated by grasses , forbs , or shrubs .
Sacajawea 's bitterroot is a plant species endemic to central Idaho , including parts of Boise National Forest , being found nowhere else in the world . Only about two dozen populations of the plant are known to exist , and three @-@ quarters of these are in Boise National Forest . It is usually found at elevations ranging from 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) to 9 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) above sea level and produces white flowers shortly after snowmelt .
Boise National Forest is directed by the U.S. Forest Service to " control the establishment , spread , or invasion of non @-@ indigenous plant species in otherwise healthy native vegetative ecosystems . " The forest 's plan addresses the need to control invasive plants , and management efforts include chemical , mechanical , and biological control methods . Invasive plants that are of particular concern in Boise National Forest include spotted knapweed , yellow star @-@ thistle , rush skeletonweed , and leafy spurge , among others .
= = = Vegetation communities = = =
The warmest , driest forested areas occur on south @-@ facing slopes from 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) to 6 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) . Due to the occurrence of frequent non @-@ lethal fires , ponderosa pine dominates these forests alongside Douglas fir . The understory consists of bluebunch wheatgrass , Idaho fescue , mountain snowberry , and bitterbrush in drier areas and elk sedge , pinegrass , white spirea , mallow ninebark , and common snowberry at higher elevations .
In cool , moist areas ranging from 4 @,@ 800 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) to 6 @,@ 800 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) , Douglas fir is predominant . Lodgepole pine and quaking aspen may be found alongside Douglas fir in cooler areas , both moist and dry , but particularly where frost pockets form . Understories in this forest type are dominated by mountain maple , mountain ash , and blue huckleberry in moister areas and white spirea , common snowberry , elk sedge , and pinegrass in drier areas . Between 3 @,@ 400 feet ( 1 @,@ 000 m ) and 6 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) in the moist northern parts of the forest , grand fir is predominant and western larch is one of the first trees to become established during ecological succession following disturbances , whereas understories consist of mountain maple , mountain ash , blue huckleberry , and mallow ninebark . Subalpine fir dominates from 4 @,@ 800 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) to 7 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @,@ 300 m ) along with mountain maple , serviceberry , Scouler 's willow , Sitka alder , menziesia , Utah honeysuckle , and mountain ash .
Lodgepole pine dominates in cold , dry areas from 5 @,@ 200 feet ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) to 9 @,@ 200 feet ( 2 @,@ 800 m ) . The understory in lodgepole pine forests can be sparse but includes grasses , forbs , huckleberries , and grouse whortleberry , although fires in these forests are typically lethal to trees and understories alike . At the highest elevations , forests consist of subalpine fir alongside whitebark pine and Engelmann spruce . Grasses and forbs tolerant to freezing throughout the growing season occupy the understory .
Sagebrush typically dominates drier , non @-@ forested areas at lower elevations . Species that commonly occur with sagebrush include Sandberg bluegrass , wild onion , milk vetches , bluebunch wheatgrass , bitterbrush , gray horsebrush , green rabbitbrush , and others . In riparian areas below 5 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 700 m ) , trees such as black cottonwood , narrowleaf cottonwood , thinleaf alder , water birch , and mountain maple grow with shrubs including chokeberry and willows . Riparian areas in largely treeless habitats such as sagebrush steppe primarily consist of willows along with thinleaf alder , chokecherry , mountain maple , shrubby cinquefoil , fireweed , saxifrage , and grasses .
= = = Fauna = = =
Habitats in Boise National Forest support nearly 300 terrestrial vertebrate species and 28 fish species . The most common large animals are mule deer and elk , but other mammals present include moose , black bears , pronghorn , mountain lions , coyote , bobcat , yellow @-@ bellied marmot , beaver , and gray wolves .
Gray wolves are top predators that were reintroduced amidst controversy to central Idaho in the mid @-@ 1990s to restore ecosystem stability . The wolves have since expanded their range and established packs in most of Boise National Forest . Wolves and mountain lions are the forest 's top large mammal predators and have no predators of their own except humans . Most of the forest 's native mammal species are present in the forest , with the exception of grizzly bears , which have become locally extinct , and plans for their reintroduction to central Idaho have been proposed since the 1990s but have not progressed .
Of the 28 fish species present in the forest , 11 are not native and have been introduced by humans . Rainbow trout , chinook salmon , westslope cutthroat trout , bull trout , and mountain whitefish are all native to some of the forest 's waterways , while brook trout are a common invasive species that compete with the forest 's salmonids . The forest 's management indicator species is bull trout because they are sensitive to habitat changes and depend on specific habitat conditions . Sockeye salmon are native to the Salmon River watershed in the northern part of the forest , but dam construction on the Columbia and Snake rivers has hampered the migration of this anadromous fish and caused its population to collapse . Warm Lake supports the forest 's only native population of Kokanee salmon , the resident ( non @-@ migratory ) form of sockeye salmon . However , due to introductions by humans , Anderson Ranch , Arrowrock , Lucky Peak , and Deadwood reservoirs now support populations of Kokanee salmon . To provide additional recreational fishing opportunities , the Idaho Department of Fish and Game stocks several of the forest 's waterways with rainbow trout , while reservoirs are also stocked with Kokanee or chinook salmon and Lake Cascade is stocked with coho salmon and steelhead , the anadromous form of rainbow trout .
Over 270 bird species have been observed in central Idaho , including 36 accidental species – those that are not normally found in the region but have been observed on at least one occasion . Golden eagles and greater sage @-@ grouse can be found over sagebrush steppe , whereas bald eagles can be seen along rivers . The Forest Service has listed northern goshawks , flammulated owls , and white @-@ headed woodpeckers as a sensitive species in the forest .
The few amphibians present in the forest include the Rocky Mountain tailed frog , long @-@ toed salamander , and Columbia spotted frog , which has been listed as a sensitive species . Common snakes include bullsnakes , garter snakes , and rubber boas .
= = = Fire ecology = = =
Boise National Forest 's 2010 forest plan recognizes that fire and other disturbances play important roles in maintaining the character and function of ecosystems . However , previous management strategies ( as recently as the 1990 forest plan ) treated fire as an undesirable process , and the Organic Act of 1897 explicitly stated that forests were to be protected from destruction by fire . In historic conditions fires naturally occurred on the landscape ; the suppression of fires allowed dead trees to accumulate in excess of historic levels and land cover types to change , such as a shift to higher shrub and tree densities . An estimated 14 percent of the land in Boise National Forest has been affected by fires since the early 1990s , and about 10 percent of the land capable of timber production was burned so severely that land cover shifted from forest to grass and shrubland ( as of 2010 ) .
Between 2004 and 2013 an average of 74 @,@ 325 acres ( 300 @.@ 78 km2 ) were burned by fires per year with a maximum of 346 @,@ 500 acres ( 1 @,@ 402 km2 ) in 2007 and a minimum of 152 acres ( 0 @.@ 62 km2 ) in 2008 . For example , in 2
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selskap A / S , often abbreviated NSS or shortened to Spisevognselskapet , was a Norwegian state enterprise which operated restaurant carriages on Norwegian trains and restaurants at railway stations and railway hotels . The company was established in December 1918 , and started a catering service in 1919 . Originally owned by the Norwegian Trunk Railway , it was acquired by the state in 1926 . Meals served in the restaurant carriages were relatively expensive , although they were available to all passengers . In the 1950s , the company began using serving trolleys on trains .
In January 1975 , NSS merged with the convenience @-@ store chain Narvesen Kioskkompani into a new company called Narvesen – Spisevognselskapet . This enterprise was partly owned by the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) and Fritt Ord , before it merged with the Reitan Group and was delisted from the Oslo Stock Exchange .
= = Background = =
From the 1854 establishment of railways in Norway to 1909 , no dining service was offered aboard trains ; passengers were allowed to bring food with them . Train stations also lacked dining facilities . The first dining service was started by restaurateur Carl Christiansen . He established the restaurant at Drammen Station , and in 1907 was asked by NSB to establish a dining service aboard the express trains on the Bergen Line , which would open in 1909 . After investigating similar operations in England and Germany , he ordered two carriages from Skabo Jernbanevognfabrikk . These were to be paid for by the state , but the Parliament of Norway delayed the grants after a long debate regarding the suitability of restaurant carriages on trains . The plans were opposed by the teetotaler faction of Parliament , but there was a majority in favor of dining service . To get the carriages in time , Christiansen personally guaranteed the production cost in case a state grant was not allocated . After the parliamentary decision , the cost of the carriages was refunded by NSB . In 1910 , when President of the United States Theodore Roosevelt visited Oslo to receive the Nobel Peace Prize , several restaurant carriages were ordered solely for the occasion . Two years later , restaurant carriages were put in regular service on the Østfold Line .
= = Early days = =
In 1916 , the executive board of the state railways wanted to centralise the operation of restaurant carriages and the most important station restaurants in Norway under one management . The board stated that they wanted to minimise the conflict of interest between the railway company and the dining @-@ car operator . They also saw centralising operations as a way to allocate a larger share of the revenue to the railway company , and to ensure a high quality of service on new lines . At that time the Sørland Line and Dovre Line were in the planning stages , and the NSB intended to introduce dining services on these when they opened . Oslo East Station and its restaurant were operated by the private Norwegian Trunk Railway . In an agreement signed on 18 September 1918 both railway companies agreed that a new restaurant operator would be controlled by the Norwegian Trunk Railway , but this company had to abide by the NSB 's decision of how many restaurant carriages to operate on any line .
This model was inspired by Sweden , where a separate dining company had been established ; this company paid the railway company part of its revenue and a fixed fee per restaurant carriage . The Swedish model involved including the operation of station restaurants at locations where the restaurant carriages would have depots . On 21 December 1918 , A.S Norsk Spisevognselskap was established with a share capital of 200 @,@ 000 Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . It had 20 shares ; 17 were owned by the Trunk Railway , and one by each of three directors : Waldemar Stoud Platou , Gotfred Furuholmen and Christian Emil Stoud Platou — the former representing the Trunk Railway and the latter being director @-@ general of the NSB . In January 1919 , Waldemar Platou was appointed chair and Christiansen managing director . The company took over Christiansen 's four restaurant carriages and the restaurant at Oslo Ø on 1 April 1919 .
On 2 February 1926 , Parliament voted to nationalise the Trunk Railway . During the debate , the organisation of Spisevognselskapet was criticised ; with the nationalisation , the state became the sole owner of Spisevognselskapet . On 31 March 1927 , the Ministry of Labour recommended that the company remain a state @-@ owned limited company ; the minority in parliament wanted a state enterprise . During the 1930s , Sigurd Astrup was managing director of Norsk Spisevognselskap . In 1948 , Erling Mossige was appointed managing director of the company . He was succeeded by Knut Tvedt in 1960 . The company had 75 employees in 1919 , and 591 in 1949 .
= = Restaurant carriages = =
The restaurant carriages of the NSS were open to everyone , but dining was so expensive that only passengers travelling in first class used the service . Usually , three or four dishes were offered in the restaurant carriages . A four @-@ course dinner cost five Norwegian kroner in the 1920s , which was expensive at the time . Warm dishes , such as soups and sauces , were usually prepared at a small stove in the restaurant carriage 's kitchen . On busy days , prepared steaks were delivered from rail depots . The kitchens were staffed by two maids and one attendant . Blocks of ice were often used instead of refrigerators .
With the opening of the Dovre Line , Spisevognselskapet established dining @-@ car service on 25 June 1921 . In 1921 a train ride from Kristiania to Trondheim lasted approximately 15 hours , and the average waiting time at each station was between 10 and 15 minutes . On 1 July 1925 dining service was introduced on the Valdres Line , from 1 July 1926 on the Brevik Line , from May 1934 on the Nordland Line and from 15 May 1936 on the Røros Line . In 1948 210 @,@ 000 meals were served on board , in addition to sandwiches and drinks . The company also offered a light breakfast on night trains on the Kongsvinger , Østfold and Dovre lines . During the Second World War , dining @-@ car service was discontinued .
After the war trains faced competition from aviation and automobiles , and serving trolleys were installed on Norwegian trains . In 1965 cart service on trains was centralised and standardised ; food service was faster , and prices were lowered . During the 1970s cafeteria cars were used , where passengers could serve themselves .
= = Restaurants = =
NSS derived most of its revenue from the operation of restaurants at railway stations ; in 1939 , this amounted to 80 % . Initially , the company operated the restaurant at Oslo Ø ; from 1921 , it also took over operation of the restaurants at Oslo West Station , Hamar , Koppang , Opdal and Elverum . The following year , four more restaurants were added : Støren , Myrdal , Dokka and Hell . NSS also established its first kiosk , at Bergen Station . In 1923 , the company was allowed to take over all restaurants in the railway districts of Oslo and Hamar ; by 1925 , it had taken over operation of the restaurants at Lillehammer , Hønefoss , Jessheim , Kornsjø , Halden , Ski , Eidsvoll , Otta , Dombås , Åndalsnes , Kongsvinger , Trondheim , Rena , Roa , Ringebu , Bjorli and Finse .
After this NSS decided not to obtain many additional restaurants , as it did not see value in such a strategy . From 1930 through 1934 the company took over restaurants at Ål , Jaren , Lillestrøm and Tønsberg , along with dining service on the steamship Skibladner , which ran on Mjøsa . During the first half of the 1940s it again acquired new restaurants , including the one at Kristiansand Station . In 1940 and 1941 the company made a solid profit , but lack of food from 1942 onwards transformed the profit to a loss . During the late 1940s NSS also took over the restaurants at Drammen and Sarpsborg , as well as the one at Oslo Airport , Fornebu .
= = Hotels = =
In 1919 the Norwegian Trunk Railway operated one hotel , which was built as part of Eidsvoll Station . Operation of the 20 @-@ room hotel was taken over by Spisevognselskapet on 14 October 1924 . NSB was at the time building the Dovre Line between Oslo and Trondheim , and was considering establishing hotels where the line passed through Dovrefjell . Both Hjerkinn and Fokkstua were considered , but these areas were served by other operators . Instead , Spisevognselskapet established the Oppdal Tourist Hotel adjacent to Oppdal Station and it opened on 28 June 1924 . The 60 @-@ bed hotel had a floor area of 605 square metres ( 6 @,@ 510 sq ft ) and was marketed as a tourist destination , with bobsleigh and curling during the winter and tennis and croquet in summer . The hotel was closed for part of 1929 , because the municipality would not allow it to serve alcoholic beverages .
In Oslo , the company had its offices and workings spread around town . The main depot was at the East Station ; the head office was at Fred . Olsens gate 21 from 1919 to 1921 , at Kongens gate 29 until 1932 , and at Tollbodgaten 24 until 1938 . Management wanted to centralise both a new depot and administrative offices at a single location close to the railway station , preferably co @-@ located with a hotel . In 1936 work began on a hotel at Jernbanetorget , but the project was cancelled . The proposed hotel would have had 100 rooms across the street from Oslo Ø . However , the plans were blocked by Parliament ( which was opposed to the state railway operating hotels ) . Instead , the administration moved into Nylandsveien 10 , in a new building built on a lot owned by NSB .
In Bergen the company established Hotel Terminus Bergen along with other investors , but the hotel failed to make money . In the late 1940s the company bought Grand Hotell Bellevue in Ålesund , and later operated Saltfjellet Tourist Hotel for a short period . In 1952 , Oslo Municipality 's Viking Hotel was completed , and Spisevognselskapet was selected as the operator . It remained the hotel 's operator until 1976 when the government sold it to Eiendomsinvest , which outbid Spisevognselskapet by several million krone .
= = Dissolution = =
Narvesen had an exclusive agreement with NSB to operate newsagent 's shops at all railway stations , except in stations with restaurants , which were operated by Spisevognselskapet . Narvesen had a near @-@ monopoly on newsagents in Norway , and rented facilities in many public places . The owners of Narvesen intended to create a foundation to obtain the company ; when plans for this started in 1972 , they had difficulties finding a way to transfer shares to the foundation without having to pay tax on the transaction . However , the tax laws permitted a tax @-@ free transaction if it was part of a restructuring . A merger with Spisevognselskapet would be considered a restructuring , and in 1974 Fritt Ord was established to take over Narvesen 's owners ' share of the company . The agreement between Narvesen and NSB was made in July 1974 ; in December it was passed by Parliament , although the Conservative Party and Progress Party voted against the merger . A.S Narvesen – Spisevognselskapet was established on 1 January 1975 . Fritt Ord owned 50 % of the new company and NSB 41 % . It assumed the Narvesen name in 1979 .
By the late 1980s , the company had sold all its hotel operations . The merged company retained the obligation to operate dining services on the trains , which throughout the 1980s necessitated considerable subsidies from NSB . In 1988 , NSB decided to organize the operation of the dining services through tendered contracts ; the first contract ( from 1990 through 1995 ) was won by TogService , a Narvesen subsidiary . The owners had an agreement that neither could sell without the approval of the other . In 1995 NSB sold its shares with Fritt Ord 's approval , and the company was listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange .
In 1999 , Fritt Ord reduced its stock share in Narvesen from 51 % to 34 % . In the fall of 2000 , Fritt Ord accepted a proposal to merge Narvesen with the Reitan Group . The merged company was named ReitanNarvesen ; Fritt Ord held 16 @.@ 2 % of its shares . In November 2001 Fritt Ord sold its shares of ReitanNarvesen , which was renamed Reitan Handel and delisted from the Oslo Stock Exchange .
= The Actor 's Children =
The Actor 's Children is a 1910 American silent short drama written by Lloyd Lonergan and produced by the Thanhouser Company in New Rochelle , New York . The film features Orilla Smith , Yale Boss , Frank Hall Crane and Nicholas Jordan . The production was not the first film subject by the company , but it was the first to be released . Both Barry O 'Neil and Lloyd B. Carleton have been credited as the director of the production . Edwin Thanhouser stated that 19 copies of the film were produced and distributed to dealers .
The film begins with two unemployed parents obtaining employment in an upcoming theater production . Shortly after returning home , the landlady shows up and demands the rent , but can not collect . She gives them one week , but the theater production does not manifest and the parents again search for work . While they are out , the landlady finds a tenant and puts the children out on the street . They end up dancing for an organ grinder and are saved by a theater manager who puts them on his vaudeville bill . The parents come into a fortune and are reunited by their children at the theater . The film was met with positive reviews and some criticism for its acting and scenario , but the industry had reasons to encourage the success of Edwin Thanhouser 's company . A print of the film exists , but it was the subject of nitrate deterioration .
= = Plot = =
The plot of the film was best convened through a published synopsis in trade which introduced the names of the cast and the backstory . Eugenie Freeman and Paul Temple , marry and have two children , a boy and a girl . The parents have been unemployed , but the film starts with the parents finding work in an upcoming production at a theater . As they return home , they are interrupted by the landlady , Mrs. O 'Brien , who demands the rent . The landlady does not car about the family 's misfortune and is upset when she cannot collect . She provides one week for the Temple family to pay up .
The production is postponed and the parents are out looking for work when a prospective tenant appears . Mrs. O 'Brien shows him the room and he is interested , but does not know what to do with the children . Mrs. O 'Brien puts the children out onto the street where they dance to the music played by an organ grinder . The organ grinder earns more money from their dancing and he entices the children to return to his hovel and teaches them to dance . The organ grinder instructs them to dance for money . The children are rescued by a theater manager and finds them a place in the theater program .
In the meantime , the parents have searched for their children and suddenly come into a fortune when a relative bequeaths a large sum of money to them . The parents search for their children in large gatherings and find their children dancing on the vaudeville bill from their theater box . The family is reunited and the film concludes .
= = Cast = =
Frank H. Crane as the actor ( adult male lead )
Orilla Smith as the actor 's daughter ( little girl )
Yale Boss as the actor 's son ( little boy )
Nicholas Jordan as a comedian
= = Production = =
The script for the production was written by Lloyd F. Lonergan , who employed the deus ex machina dramatic technique in the conclusion of the plot . In film , this is the sudden inheritance and parents finding their children in the theater . The two children , Orilla Smith and Yale Boss , were child actors with prior film experience and did not have any further known connection to the Thanhouser Company after the production . The cameraman , Blair Smith , used a camera rented by the Columbia Phonograph Company and had its inventor , Joseph Bianchi , assist in the camera 's operation and use . The director of has both been credited to Barry O 'Neil and Lloyd B. Carleton in numerous trade sources . Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser Company , but this film was not the Thanhouser Company 's first subject . Instead , it was The Mad Hermit produced in autumn 1909 and shelved until August 9 , 1910 . The exact order of the productions is not known , but a work titled Aunt Nancy Telegraphs was filmed in December 1909 and never released . Certain parts of The Actor 's Children were produced in the last week of February 1910 .
The director of the film is not known , but two possibles exist . Barry O 'Neil was the stage name of Thomas J. McCarthy , who would direct many important Thanhouser pictures , including its first two @-@ reeler , Romeo and Juliet . Lloyd B. Carleton was the stage name of Carleton B. Little , a director who would stay with the Thanhouser Company until moving to the Biograph Company by the summer of 1910 . The confusion between the directing credits stems from the industry practice of not crediting the film directors , even in studio news releases . Q. David Bowers says that the attribution of these early directors often comes from a collection of contemporary publications or interviews .
= = Release = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1000 ft , was released on March 15 , 1910 by the Thanhouser Company . In later years , Edwin Thanhouser recalled that 19 copies of the film were produced and sent out to dealers throughout the United States . Of these 19 copies produced , ten were returned , some with letters of interest in future Thanhouser productions . The film was viewed across the United States with advertisements for showings in Pennsylvania , Wisconsin , Kansas , and Washington
= = Reception and impact = =
The Actor 's Children was released with enthusiasm and positive reviews in trade publications . The Moving Picture World reviews would be favorable and without much criticism , even calling the acting convincing . A more honest review in The New York Dramatic Mirror was written by a reviewer who was pleased with the production , but offered criticism about the production 's weaker aspects . The reviewer found there to be too much emphasis on the unimportant parts and a lack of emotion from the actors , and the child actors performance was faulted by repeatedly looking at the camera . Critical reception of the film may not have been entirely neutral for a number of reasons . Edwin Thanhouser was a well @-@ liked gentleman who had many friends in the Patents Company that likely wanted him to succeed . Furthermore , writers in the magazines hoped that Independents would succeed and challenge the Patents Company 's stranglehold on the industry . Also , film critics and reviewers of the era would balance the negativity of even the worst films with some favorable aspects . Even without any ulterior motives , the film may have been worthy of a favorable review .
The release managed to survive against considerable odds , but the surviving print is not without severe faults . The surviving print has considerable nitrate deterioration and very poor picture quality in certain parts . This film survives in the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences film archives .
= The Stolen Eagle =
" The Stolen Eagle " is the series premiere of the British @-@ American historical drama television series Rome . Written by series creator Bruno Heller and directed by Michael Apted , the episode first aired in the United States on Home Box Office ( HBO ) on August 28 , 2005 , and on the BBC in the United Kingdom and Ireland on November 2 . Rome was given a budget of $ 100 million , making it the largest amount both networks had ever spent on a series . Heller centered the series ' narrative on the perspectives of two common soldiers , similar to Rosencrantz and Guildenstern from Shakespeare 's Hamlet . Apted shot the episode at Cinecittà , the Roman studio where the epic films Ben @-@ Hur and Cleopatra were filmed . On the set , realism and authenticity were emphasized more than grandiosity , with depictions of a cosmopolitan city of all social classes .
As the wars in Gaul come to an end , Julius Caesar ( Ciarán Hinds ) is faced with both triumph and tribulation . On the heels of his victory comes news of his daughter 's death . Awarded with the adulation of the people , he also garners the enmity of politicians in Rome , including Pompey the Great ( Kenneth Cranham ) . In Rome , Pompey must balance honor and politics as he is urged to betray his former friend . Meanwhile , Caesar 's niece Atia of the Julii ( Polly Walker ) tries to steer her family on the dangerous path between the growing divisions of power . In the Gallic countryside , two unlikely allies ( Kevin McKidd and Ray Stevenson ) journey to reclaim the stolen standard of the Roman legion .
HBO described its marketing strategy as " its largest , most aggressive for a new series , " and media outlets estimated its cost at $ 10 million . On its first broadcast , an estimated 3 @.@ 8 million US viewers watched the episode . On its first airing in the UK and Ireland , it secured an estimated audience of 6 @.@ 6 million people . Critical reception was largely mixed , with several reviewers writing that the episode suffered from slow storytelling . " The Stolen Eagle " garnered four major awards , including the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects and the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Drama Series .
= = Plot = =
During the Siege of Alesia in 52 BC , Centurion Lucius Vorenus of the 13th Legion commands his men as Gallic warriors fall on his line . In contrast to the Gauls ' chaotic charge , the Roman files fight with precision , until one drunk legionary , Titus Pullo , breaks ranks and charges into the crowd of Gauls . Vorenus angrily orders him back into formation , but Pullo hits him . Later , the assembled soldiers watch as Pullo is flogged and condemned to death for his disorderly conduct . The day after , Vercingetorix , " King of the Gauls " , is brought before Julius Caesar and made to surrender , ending the eight @-@ year @-@ long Gallic Wars . Caesar 's niece , Atia of the Julii , orders her son Octavian to deliver a horse she has purchased straight to Caesar in Gaul to ensure that he remembers them above all other well @-@ wishers . Caesar himself receives news that his daughter , married to his friend Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus with whom he shares power in Rome , has died in childbirth along with her stillborn daughter . A blood tie broken between them , Caesar orders a new wife be found for Pompey .
In the Roman Senate , Cato the Younger moves that Caesar be stripped of his command and recalled to Rome to answer charges of misusing his office and illegal warmongering . Pompey , as sole Consul present , vetoes the motion , insisting in trusting Caesar . At the theater that night , Scipio introduces his daughter Cornelia Metella to Pompey as a prospective wife , while Cato warns him that he must ally against Caesar before it is too late . Pompey again asserts that Caesar means no harm , although privately , he is troubled by Caesar 's rising prestige and power and gives orders to one of his slaves who is leaving on a trip to Gaul . At night in the encampment of the 13th Legion , the Aquila ( Eagle Standard ) is stolen by brigands . To avoid a potentially disastrous drop in morale , Mark Antony orders Vorenus to retrieve it . As Vorenus feels the mission is doomed to failure , he has the condemned Pullo released from the stockade to assist him .
In camp , Caesar welcomes Marcus Junius Brutus , his unofficial stepson whose mother is Caesar 's lover , Servilia of the Junii . Later , at a party hosted by Servilia , Brutus confides to Pompey that the loss of the eagle has made Caesar unusually vulnerable as his men are on the brink of mutiny . On the road to Caesar 's camp in Gaul , Octavian is taken captive by brigands . For Caesar 's request , Atia instructs her daughter Octavia to marry Pompey by first divorcing her husband Glabius , despite Octavia 's protests that they are deeply in love . Atia then presents Octavia to Pompey at a party and offers her for premarital relations , which Pompey takes advantage of .
Vorenus and Pullo set off in search of the eagle , encountering and rescuing Octavian from his captors . Octavian thanks them and promises that they will be rewarded . Vorenus and Pullo discover Pompey 's slave with the eagle hiding in the bandit cart and kill him , realizing the bandits were hired by Pompey . A politically astute Octavian explains that their mission is only a gesture , since the theft of the eagle is actually a blessing in disguise to Caesar . Civil war between Caesar and Pompey is inevitable , but Caesar needs Pompey to make the first move so as not to appear the aggressor ; Pompey is likely to do that if he believes Caesar 's soldiers are on the verge of desertion . The trio returns in triumph to camp , where a surprised yet grateful Caesar takes the eagle back and more than adequate proof of Pompey 's hostility . He sends Pompey the head of his slave and informs him of his next move , to winter the 13th Legion at Ravenna on the Italian border , in preparation for pressing his rights to the Consulship . Pompey breaks all ties with Caesar and takes Cornelia as his wife . Octavia , humiliated at being used by Pompey and heartbroken over her pointless divorce , says she wants him dead .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
" The Stolen Eagle " was written by executive producer and co @-@ creator Bruno Heller and directed by Michael Apted , who also directed the following two episodes . Heller said the era of the Roman Empire was " pivotal in Western history . If things hadn 't turned out the way they did at that particular point , the world that we live in now would be very different . " He decided to tell the story of the series from the perspectives of two common soldiers , Lucius Vorenus and Titus Pullo . According to Heller , " They are the only two ordinary soldiers mentioned by Caesar in his book , so the idea was to do a sort of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern take . I essentially took the seed of that idea to try to tell a big historical epic , but from the street level , the everyman 's point of view . "
The episode title is a reference to the standard of the Roman legion , a symbol that represents the legion 's unity . While the storyline detailing its theft was based on fiction , Heller believed that it showed how Caesar could turn " misfortune into opportunity . He was always one step ahead of his enemies . " Certain characters were changed from their traditional images ; for instance , while Brutus has been portrayed as the noblest Roman , Heller and historical consultant Jonathan Stamp thought it would be interesting to have him forced into his later role through his ancestry . Alluding to the fact that Brutus ' great great great grandfather " drove the last king out of Rome " , Stamp said that " his family history was pushing him in one direction , his emotions in another . "
= = = Casting = = =
The producers cast relatively unknown British actors for the series . Scottish actress Lindsay Duncan , who was cast as Servilia , believed that she and other UK actors " can do old , can do classic , and you believe it . " She also said that because of long distances , American actors or those of other nationalities were avoided : " Transporting actors from [ Los Angeles ] to Rome on a regular basis does not look good for the budget . We 're quite cheap . " Stamp described Servilia as " the great love of [ Julius ] Caesar 's life , his mistress and by all counts the only woman he truly loved . " Irish actor Ciarán Hinds was cast as Caesar . Hinds first thought it was " silly " to be offered the part , but then " you think it 's quite an honour to be chosen to play it . And then you think , ' Oh shit I 've got to do it ' , and then , well , ' I suppose someone has to do it ! ' " Heller had believed that Hinds would make " a great Caesar " for a long time , and considered the series " extremely lucky " for being able to cast him .
Scottish actor Kevin McKidd , who had never appeared in a television series that necessitated over twelve months of filming , was cast as Lucius Vorenus , one of the lead characters . McKidd said , " What was different about this show is you get 14 months to really get into every nook and cranny of the character , in a way you don 't get a chance to explore when you do a movie or a theater play . Initially , it was a terrifying prospect . But once you got over that , you realize what a great opportunity it was . " Heller described his character as " very much a Roman of the Old School , a stoic man devoted to duty and religion and the legion . " Ray Stevenson played Titus Pullo , a soldier who befriends Vorenus . McKidd said that " they 're kind of thrown together by fate , by chance , but somewhere along the line they start to stick ... [ They ] keep finding themselves accidentally at the epicenter of tumultuous events and immense change , so they 're kind of clinging to each other . "
Caesar 's niece , Atia , was portrayed by actress Polly Walker . According to Heller , while most auditioning actresses assumed that the character was the series ' villainess , Walker made " [ Atia ] bigger than life but completely real ... She could read the phone book with that kind of brio and joy . " Rather than a villain , Heller wrote her to be " a real life force . Everything she 's doing is for the good of her family , her children . No matter how evil it gets , it 's always for good reason . " Walker was pleased with her " very complex character . I found it exciting to play such massive emotions and deal with such interesting , to say the least , situations . I saw it as a huge challenge , and I have huge admiration for this character . A lot of people might consider her to be sort of evil or bad , but I think she 's wonderful . She 's just a survivor , doing what she 's got to do . "
= = = Filming = = =
The series was given a budget of $ 100 million ( £ 58 million ) , the largest both HBO and the BBC had ever devoted to a series . The season was filmed between March 2004 and July 2005 , at locations in or around Rome , and on a set considered " to be the biggest and most expensive ever built for television . " It was built at Cinecittà , where the epic films Ben @-@ Hur ( 1959 ) and Cleopatra ( 1963 ) had been filmed . Production designer Joseph Bennett built a set that emphasized authenticity and realism rather than grandiosity . He said ,
People think of Rome as white and cold and beautiful , powerful but distant . But based on the research , I don 't think it was like that at all . If you go to Pompeii , you 're struck by how garish it is , even now . The temples and sculptures were all brightly painted . Rome was like Pompeii , but much bigger . And Rome was so noisy it was impossible to sleep . It was like hell . Think of it as a combination of New York and Calcutta , with insane wealth and insane poverty . It was pretty extreme .
The series begins with opening credits that depict traditional Roman myths , such as Romulus and Remus , the city 's foundation mythos . For inspiration , visual effects and design company A52 explored museums , read the script and researched Roman history . They created the opening sequence entirely in @-@ house . VFX artist Kirk Balden said of production , " On many projects , you start off with storyboards and everyone has a good idea of what it 's going to look like when it 's completed . This project was very experimental right to the very end . The tone of it is pretty much unlike anything we 've done and most of what any of us here have seen . There 's a lot there that creatively sets the stage for the series . "
Heller was responsible for writing the episode 's voice @-@ over , despite his dislike of the task . He said that despite it being his " 400th version , " he was " still not happy with it . " He believed that an early scene in which cart distributes spoils in front of Pompey represented the first real sense of how the series would depict city life . He said , " I think this is the first time that we get sense of the version of Rome that the show is pushing , " which was a very different version than viewers may have been used to . To him , Rome was " colorful and painted " and cosmopolitan . A later scene featuring Cicero the Younger in the Senate proved difficult to film because of the large number of Italian extras who did not speak English . In the DVD audio commentary , he said that " this is one of those scenes where you need really great assistant directors , because all of these Italian extras who have no idea whatsoever what [ Cicero 's ] saying , so to keep them interested and focused and concentrated on what 's going on is a real trick . "
Anachronistic stirrups were used to ensure the safety of the actors , though the crew attempted to conceal or camouflage them for historical authenticity , as they were not then used by the Roman cavalry . Extras playing soldiers attended a boot camp under the guidance of a former Royal Marine . Those actors portraying legionnaires learned to fight by thrusting , not slashing their weapons . Artisans reportedly handmade four thousand costumes using authentic period materials such as cotton , linen , wool and silk , all of which were hand @-@ dyed on set . Pullo was originally written to be a poor horse rider , a reflection that " Romans were notoriously bad horsemen , " according to Heller . However , Stevenson turned out to be " probably the best horseman on the show , " so they rewrote this characteristic because bad horsemanship is difficult to fake .
James Madigan , the visual effects supervisor , approached the series as a feature film , observing that " every aspect of the production took meticulous care with every detail , the costumes , the set dressing , the acting , and the attention to historical fact . As you worked on it , you really got the feeling that Rome was going to look like something we had never seen on TV before , so our vfx approach very much wanted to respect that . " Madigan attempted to seamlessly mesh the visual effects with the physical sets and depend less on CGI . A friend told Madigan that after seeing the pilot , " he didn ’ t see any vfx shots , even though there are dozens of shots throughout episode 1 . That means we did our job well . "
= = Marketing = =
HBO said its marketing plan for the series was , " its largest , most aggressive push for a new series " . The channel broadcast the first three episodes seven days a week at various times during the day . Non @-@ subscribers could preview the first two episodes during the first week of September 2005 . HBO implemented an outdoor marketing campaign in major cities and produced movie @-@ style trailers which preceded a number of films in cinemas . Entertainment Weekly , Vanity Fair , Time , and GQ published full @-@ size articles about the series . The History Channel broadcast five nights of documentaries featuring the Roman Empire , which were hosted by Stevenson , McKidd , and Varma , a collaboration which was the first of its kind between the two networks .
David Baldwin , the executive vice president of program planning , said , " This is a huge series for us . We wanted to give it every opportunity to be seen by as many people as possible . " Media outlets estimated that the entire marketing campaign cost HBO $ 10 million , the most the network had spent on marketing a series to that point .
Commentators viewed the success of Rome as crucial for the network , especially after the past mixed reception of Carnivàle and K @-@ Street . In July 2005 , James Hibberd of Television Week wrote that Rome was viewed " as the network 's best shot for adding another literate , must @-@ see drama to its schedule " . Writing for the same publication , Tom Shales said that HBO " has made such a fuss over Rome , and the network itself has put such painful pressure on the show ( and its producers ) to make a hefty impact , that it 'll be scorned like a leper if it fails to make a truly gigantic splash . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Stolen Eagle " was first broadcast on August 28 , 2005 in the United States on HBO and in Canada on The Movie Network and Movie Central . An estimated 3 @.@ 8 million viewers watched the episode , less than the series premieres of Carnivale and Deadwood but consistent with the series finale of Six Feet Under . In the UK and Ireland , the premiere was broadcast on BBC 2 on November 2 , 2005 . According to The Independent , more than 6 @.@ 6 million viewers watched the episode .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" The Stolen Eagle " received generally mixed reviews from television critics , many of whom criticized its slow pace . Mark A. Perigard of The Boston Herald wrote , " Less perverse than I , Claudius , more entertaining than American Broadcasting Company 's ( ABC ) toga twister Empire , " Rome " gets off to an uneven start . " Terry Morrow of the Dayton Daily News criticized the premiere , writing that " the opener , like most pilots , is so bogged down with introducing faces and setting up the story that it turns into a long and tedious journey . " Morrow also said the episode suffered from lacking one " standout , signature character " , though he believed that the " flaws in Rome should clear up in time , given HBO 's knack for winning dramas . It 's an epic story , and one worth savoring if you can muddle through the demands of slow storytelling in the beginning . "
The Scotsman 's Robert McNeil thought that the premiere was " shocking , but also rather slow , as characters are established . Maybe it 'll get better . In the meantime , to paraphrase Roger McGough , I came , I saw , I concurred with those who say : Rome wasn 't built in an hour . " Similarly opinionated was The Cincinnati Post 's Rick Bird , who said that like other HBO series , Rome " takes a while to get going . After the first episode you will mostly be confused with a dizzying array of characters , intrigue and subplots . Hang in there . By the second episode things take shape and one should be hooked by episode three with this steamy romp through antiquity and its lusty intrigue . " Bird found some positive elements ; the episode , he said , was " enhanced by marvelous filmmaking including elaborate sets and costumes . Small @-@ screen film art has rarely painted such a realistic picture of ancient Rome . "
Paul English of The Daily Record wrote that " Rome is visually dazzling , full of vim and tantalizingly seductive , " adding that " McKidd 's growling turn as Ceasar 's [ sic ] footsoldier Lucius Vorenus will undoubtedly propel him into the US major league . " Writing for the Los Angeles Daily News , David Kronke failed to find the series very remarkable , writing that " notwithstanding some lurid sex and gruesome violence , [ it is ] as conventional as anything the network has ever done . Sword @-@ and @-@ sandals epics have become familiar Hollywood staples ... and those expecting something that takes up where the legendarily decadent BBC / PBS series I , Claudius left off may be in for something of a disappointment . " Television Without Pity graded the episode with a B.
Some viewers criticized the graphic nudity seen in the pilot , especially in the US . Heller commented , " Romans didn 't have our body shame and fear of sexuality . I think that is part of the modern fascination with that world . There was a lack of shame about those things , that we had to portray with a lack of shame in order to make it work . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= Roxas ( Kingdom Hearts ) =
Roxas ( Japanese : ロクサス , Hepburn : Rokusasu ) is a fictional character from Square Enix 's video game franchise Kingdom Hearts . First revealed during the final scenes of the 2004 title Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , Roxas is a " Nobody " , a being created when the series ' main character Sora briefly loses his heart during the first game of the series . Kingdom Hearts II reveals that Roxas is a member of Organization XIII , a group of Nobodies who needed Roxas as he could wield the Keyblade , a weapon that allows him to capture hearts . As a member of the organization , Roxas bears the title " Key of Destiny " ( めぐりあう鍵 , Meguriau Kagi , lit . " Serendipitous Key " ) . He is also the protagonist of the video game Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , which revolves around his origins . In the Japanese games , Roxas is voiced by Kōki Uchiyama , while Jesse McCartney takes the role in the English versions .
Since his first cameo in the series , director Tetsuya Nomura has stated that Roxas is an important character to the series , and that in order to explain his back story in more detail than done in Kingdom Hearts II , Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days was created . Since his introduction in Kingdom Hearts II , Roxas has received positive critical response from video game publications with most of them focusing on his development in 358 / 2 Days . Various types of merchandising have been released based on his character .
= = Characteristics = =
Roxas is depicted as a spiky blond @-@ haired teenager with blue eyes . As a civilian he wears a white jacket along with a black jacket and white trousers . As a member of Organization XIII , Roxas wears a black coat that covers most of his body including his hood along with the other members . His weapon is the Keyblade known as Kingdom Key ( キングダムチェーン , Kingudamu Chēn , Kingdom Chain ) , resembling a classic skeleton key , with a long silver keychain extending from the hilt , and a Mickey Mouse token on the end of the keychain , but the player is able to modify it during Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days using different keychains . Roxas also becomes able to dual @-@ wield Keyblades after leaving the Organization , and exclusively uses the Oathkeeper ( 約束のお守り , Yakusoku no Omamori , lit . " Oath 's Charm " ) , whose shaft displays two hearts , and its handle bears two angel wings , and the Oblivion ( 過ぎ去りし思い出 , Sugisarishi Omoide , lit . " Passing Memories " ) .
Roxas ' personality significantly changes across the series due to the fact that when first introduced , he appears with fake memories that make him believe he is a common teenager and spends most of his time with his friends . When learning that he is Sora 's Nobody and remembering his past , Roxas gives up his existence so that Sora could continue existing , but still expresses happiness for his fate . During his time in the Organization , Roxas develops a calmed personality based on the experiences he has as a result of having no memories of a previous life unlike other Nobodies .
= = Appearances = =
Roxas ' first appearances were cameos in " Another Side , Another Story " , a bonus trailer found in Kingdom Hearts , and in the ending of Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories . In Kingdom Hearts II , Roxas is introduced as a boy living in a digital replica of a city called Twilight Town . Unaware of the virtual nature of the city , Roxas begins to dream about the adventures of Sora , the series ' protagonist . He later encounters Axel , a member of Organization XIII who was given orders to rescue him , and Naminé , a Nobody who tells him he is Sora 's other half . Shortly after meeting , Ansem the Wise , the creator of the virtual world , Roxas learns the nature of Twilight Town as well as that Ansem erased his memory , and implanted false ones to make Roxas unaware of his past and then make him merge with Sora . Ansem leads Roxas to an old mansion where once reaching an asleep Sora , Roxas rejoins with him , allowing Sora to wake up . Sora later learns that Roxas is his Nobody , created during the events of the first game after Sora briefly turned into a Heartless . Xemnas brought Roxas to Organization XIII as he could wield the Keyblade , a weapon which would help them to capture hearts . Roxas later betrayed the Organization and encountered one of Sora 's friends , Riku , who captured him to help Sora wake up . Roxas makes two appearances near the end of the game . The first is in a mental battle with Sora depicted as a cut @-@ scene , and the second is with Naminé , who has merged with her other self , Kairi . In the re @-@ released version of the title , Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix , Roxas ' fight against Sora was expanded , making him a boss character . The battle was meant to be interactive in Kingdom Hearts II , but time constraints imposed from creating fights for the other Organization XIII members prevented inclusion . With the opportunity to include the fight , Nomura 's team worked hard to make it entertaining for players . Additional scenes regarding Roxas ' past were added to the game to add to the mystery around him .
Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , a prequel to Kingdom Hearts II , reveals Roxas ' life with Organization XIII . Unlike the other Organization members , Roxas lacks memories of his previous life . During Roxas ' time in the Organization , he is placed under Axel 's watch , and the two become friends . After Axel is sent to Castle Oblivion , Roxas is entrusted with Xion , another Keyblade wielder , whom he befriends . Roxas reacts to Sora 's memory restoration and starts questioning why he uses the Keyblade and doubt the Organization 's motives . When he discovers that Xion is a replica of Sora created by Xemnas , Roxas is compelled to defect from Organization XIII to find answers and meet Sora . After doing so , he encounters Xion , who tries to attack and absorb him so that she would become the " real " Sora ; however , the fight ends with Xion 's defeat who entruts Roxas to free the hearts the Organization captured . The death of his friend , coupled with full knowledge of how deranged Xemnas truly is , inspires Roxas to defeat Xemnas and release the hearts he and Xion captured for the Organization . On his way , Roxas is confronted by Riku who knocks him unconscious in order to help Ansem and Naminé wake up Sora .
A virtual representation of Roxas appears as a boss character in the mobile phone game Kingdom Hearts coded , in which he confronts a virtual representation of Sora , he later appears in the ending as one of the people connected to Sora 's heart who may have a chance at returning one day . He makes a cameo appearance at the end of Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , where he is shown with Xion and Axel eating sea @-@ salt ice cream in Twilight Town , as well as in Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance where Roxas contacts both Axel and Sora through dreams . He also appears in Shiro Amano 's manga and Tomoko Kanemaki 's novels , which reprise his role in the video games . The book Kingdom Hearts : Another Report includes a novel called Roxas – Somewhere in Time that retells Roxas ' days in the Organization with the exception of his befriending Xion .
= = Creation and development = =
After Roxas first made a cameo at the end of Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , the director of the series , Tetsuya Nomura , was questioned about the character . However , he refrained from revealing too much detail about him and stated that he would become an important , playable character for the franchise . The developers wrote Roxas ' story in Kingdom Hearts II to add mixed feelings to the game in a short time frame . After receiving a positive fan response regarding Roxas ' sad scenario , Nomura concluded that it was well executed . He also stated that Roxas ' merging with Sora in the game was one of his most memorable scenes from the series . Nomura later commented that Roxas was one of the first characters created for Organization XIII , and was always intended to be the 13th member . The meaning of Roxas ' name was meant to be revealed in a scene in Kingdom Hearts II that shows the letters in the word " Sora " rearranged with the " X " added to expand the connection between the characters . This scene , however , was omitted as Nomura found it difficult to implement time @-@ wise . Since his debut in Kingdom Hearts II , Roxas has been voiced by Kōki Uchiyama in Japanese and by Jesse McCartney in the English versions .
After Kingdom Hearts II : Final Mix was released , Nomura wanted to expand Roxas ' role in the series to explain the events between his birth and his disappearance from Organization XIII . For Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , the staff thought that Roxas ' role as a member of the group would be a suitable theme for the plot . Roxas was chosen as the game 's protagonist as the staff thought that having a main character besides Sora would help to introduce gamers to the series ' first Nintendo DS title . Co @-@ director Tomohiro Hasegawa explained that Roxas ' height was originally lower and as the game continued development , the staff decided to increase it . Nomura desired to portray Roxas ' activities different from Sora 's . In Sora 's games , he is on a journey around the worlds , while Roxas always returns to Organization XIII after each mission . The staff constructed Roxas ' interactions with the Disney characters to be different from Sora 's as the Organization was meant to be secret in the game 's story . Nomura told the writers that he wanted Roxas to learn something from each of his missions or just to have something to think about . Nomura later clarified that Roxas ' personality was different from the one portrayed in Kingdom Hearts II as he does not actively attempt to come into contact with other characters . With Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , Nomura wanted to reveal why Roxas left Organization XIII . Although Nomura found it to be a sad story it , he considered Zack Fair 's ending in Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII more tragic . His last words in the game were also Nomura 's most significant ones from the title as he wanted it to connect to Kingdom Hearts II 's first scene , which is actually the same scene . Uchiyama expressed sadness when the game ended development as he would not play the character for a long time .
Kingdom Hearts II : Final Mix 's secret ending features a character named Ventus that bears a striking resemblance to Roxas . Nomura commented that , despite how similar they are , Roxas and Ventus are not the same character . Additionally , he stated that by playing Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , players will be able to distinguish Roxas from Ventus . In another interview , Nomura implied both characters are related , specifically to Sora , but he wanted fans to imagine reasons for such connection . The Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Ultimania clarified the connection , stating that Roxas and Ventus look alike because Ventus ' heart entered Sora 's body and Roxas ' birth allowed Ventus ' heart to reside in Roxas . This also confirms the mystery about Roxas having a heart in contrast to other Nobodies which allows him to express emotions despite his lack of memories from a past , something that Nobodies use to show emotions .
= = Reception = =
Roxas has been featured in various types of merchandising published by Square Enix . An action figure was released as part of the Play Arts action figures series . Other items sold include plush , keychains and replicas of his necklace .
Roxas ' character has received a positive critical response by both fans and video game publications . During February 2010 , Roxas was twenty @-@ eighth in a Famitsu poll featuring the most popular video game characters from Japan . In another poll , Roxas was voted as the second most popular Kingdom Hearts character with his fight against Sora ranked as the best scene from the series . His fighting sequences from the first game 's secret ending were labelled by GameSpy as one of the best video game cinematic moments . While reviewing Kingdom Hearts II Jeff Haynes of IGN said that Roxas was a " likable kid " . Ron Fahey of Eurogamer took a similar stance , calling him a " likeable enough young chap who just happens to be troubled by memories and visions of people he doesn 't even know " . His playable position in the game was regarded as a transitional arc , being used to introduce the gameplay to players that are new to the franchise . Cavin Smith from PSXextreme also called Roxas a likable character and stated that the revelation regarding his existence in Kingdom Hearts II is " a shocker of a revelation for any RPG ! " The New York Times liked the fact that the player controls Roxas in Kingdom Hearts II 's introduction instead of the protagonist Sora , avoiding the continuation of Sora 's search for his friends . Additionally , he found the switch from Roxas ' story to Sora 's after a few hours " a little jarring " . Andrew Reiner from Game Informer emphasizes his role as a " troubled boy " , calling his story arc " an amazing chain of events " , particularly noting that the revelation of his nature as a Nobody creates a " devilish yet remarkable plot twist " which may impact the player in a way that he " may not want Sora back " . On the other hand , UGO Networks commented that due to the game 's initial focus on Roxas , gamers would have to wait until playing as Sora to experience the most exciting parts of the title .
Before Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days was released , 1UP.com featured Roxas at the top of their " Why You Should Care About Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days " feature , calling him " The darling of fanfiction and doujinshi writers everywhere " , and commenting on what he does during his only year within Organization XIII . Roxas ' role as protagonist was labelled by G4TV as an attempt to " satiate the ravenous fanboy " due to the explanation from his background . While reviewing 358 / 2 Days , PALGN 's Adam Ghiggino praised Roxas ' development during the title , expressing that even gamers who did not like his character in Kingdom Hearts II would care about him as " he evolves from a self @-@ described ' zombie ' to a strong @-@ willed and interesting character " . Ghiggino especially noted his relation with Xion and Axel , which he found charming despite the fact that they repeatedly meet at the top of a clock tower in a large number scenes . A similar response was made by Game Informer , who commented that although such scenes were " dull " , Roxas ' relation with Xion and Axel was appealing and the game 's ending would make up for such moments . GamesRadar also commented that Roxas " starts off like a zombie , but rapidly develops a personality " during the title and joked about the numerous times he eats ice cream . His growth in the game was also labelled as one of the most enjoyable elements from the title . IGN agreed , calling Roxas ' friendship " heart @-@ aching " . On the other hand , 1UP.com mentioned that although Roxas ' relationship with Xion and Axel is appealing , some of his first missions feel like " lonely , sad affairs " . His maneuvers in the game were praised by GameSpot for being easy to learn despite how complex they look , while IGN liked the variation between all of them .
Due to his resemblance with Ventus , video game publications initially thought that Roxas would be one of the protagonists from Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep . However , when it was revealed that the two were different , publications still discussed how similar they were and if there was a connection between them .
= Back to Tennessee ( song ) =
" Back to Tennessee " is a country rock song by American singer @-@ songwriter and actor Billy Ray Cyrus . It released as the second single from Cyrus ' eleventh studio album of the same name on February 2 , 2009 by Lyric Street Records . Cyrus drafted the song after learning that Hannah Montana : The Movie , a film he would star in , would be set in Tennessee . The song , developed with the aid of co @-@ songwriters Tamara Dunn and Matthew Wilder , includes country rock elements while describing Cyrus ' longing to return to the South , where he grew up , after spending several years in Los Angeles . " Back to Tennessee " was featured in both Hannah Montana : The Movie and its soundtrack .
" Back to Tennessee " was well received by critics , though some felt it took the album 's message too literally . It was a moderate commercial achievement for Cyrus and charted within the top fifty of the Billboard magazine chart Hot Country Songs . The song 's music video was directed by Declan Whitebloom and features scenes of Cyrus at a beach inter cut with clips of Hannah Montana : The Movie . The song was performed in several venues .
= = Development = =
Cyrus moved to Los Angeles to star on the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana in 2006 . Cyrus 's character , Robby Ray Stewart , is a former country singer and the father of Miley Stewart , a popstar played by Miley Cyrus , Cyrus ' real life daughter . The television series became a worldwide hit and the basis for Hannah Montana : The Movie , a feature film released in 2009 .
Cyrus first read the script for Hannah Montana : The Movie while in Malibu in early 2008 . The film 's plot features the Stewarts leaving Hollywood for a summer and returning to Tennessee , their home state , to reconnect with their southern roots . Having grown up in Kentucky , Cyrus was excited to learn the film would be set in the country and fought for it to be filmed on location . " They were gonna film it in a different state [ but ] I just knew that Tennessee had all the facilities , the man power , and the ability to make this film great , " said Cyrus . In addition , Cyrus believed that " in real life , Miley and [ he ] needed to come back home " , saying , " It was important for us to come back to where we are from and remember who we are . " Once filming in Tennessee was settled , Cyrus was " overcome with a very positive emotion of coming back home " and wrote " Back to Tennessee " with the aid of songwriters Tamara Dunn and Matthew Wilder .
Cyrus recorded " Back to Tennessee " for the film Hannah Montana : The Movie , in which his character performs the song at a fundraiser to save the meadows near his hometown from development . Cyrus says the song is " part of the cornerstone " of the film because it reflects the film 's theme of escaping the fast @-@ paced , glitzy world of Hollywood in search of a simpler country lifestyle . Cyrus commented ,
" It 's about remembering , you know , where you come from . It 's always important to be aware of where you 're at and always be looking to where you wanna go , but most importantly don 't forget where you come from . That 's ' Back to Tennessee ' is all about [ ... ] With me , I always try to keep it real with the music , you know . Line by line you listen to the song and you know that I 'm walking the walk and talking the talk . It 's what this song 's all about . It definitely comes from the heart . "
= = Composition = =
" Back to Tennessee " is one of the more rock music influenced tracks on Back to Tennessee . It is set in common time with a country rock tempo of 120 beats per minute . The song is written in the key of C major . The song has the following chord progression , C — C7 — C.
Cyrus said of the lyrics , " If you download " Back to Tennessee " and listen to the whole song , you 'll hear exactly how I felt after four years of Hannah Montana , and living in Los Angeles and giving up my previous life and existence and who I am and where I come from . You 'll hear a guy who 's immersed in music , and my love and desire and need to go back home . " Jon Caramanica of The New York Times interpreted the song as an apology " both to [ Cyrus 's ] teenage self and , by extension , to the daughter under his wing . " Both Caramanica and Alison Stewart of The Washington Post took interest in the lines , " Great big town / So full of users " . Caramanica said the line recognized that " fame is illusory " and " talk [ ed ] about some of his daughter ’ s famous friends " , while Stewart interpreted the line as a description of Hollywood life in general .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received generally positive reviews from critics . Shelly Fabian of About.com said , " There 's a special quality to this single that might be able to help people get past ' that one song ' from Billy Ray Cyrus 's past and realize there 's so much more to the man than something from two decades ago . " While reviewing the Hannah Montana : The Movie soundtrack , Heather Phares of Allmusic said the song " fits in smoothly with an acoustic version of Rascal Flatts ' witty ' Backwards ' " . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said , " His hard @-@ won insight is the next best thing to a good swaddle . " Allison Stewart of The Washington Post described " Back to Tennessee " as a " fusillade of strident twang rock track " . She added that the song was " eager " and that it explained " Country as Country Can Be " . Yahoo ! Music thought the song was followed Back to Tennessee 's message " too literally " . The song was included on the short list for Best Original Song at the 82nd Academy Awards , but failed to achieve a nomination .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Back to Tennessee " failed to reach the Billboard Hot 100 , the country 's main singles chart , but charted on the country @-@ genre chart . In the week ending March 7 , 2009 , " Back to Tennessee " debuted at number fifty @-@ nine on Billboard 's Hot Country Songs . " The Climb " , by Cyrus ' daughter , Miley Cyrus , debuted at number forty @-@ eight the same week , the first time a father and daughter had separate charting songs on the chart since Johnny Cash and Rosanne Cash charted in 1990 with " Silver Stallion " and " One Step over the Line " , respectively . On the week ending April 25 , 2009 , the song reached its peak at number forty @-@ seven on the chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Back to Tennessee " was directed by Declan Whitebloom and premiered on March 12 , 2009 on CMT . It was partially shot in Malibu , California , where Cyrus wrote the song . Like the song , the video represents Cyrus ' desire to return home . Cyrus explained ,
" When I see the video for ' Back to Tennessee , ' there 's a lot of emotion there . It 's a combination between the Hannah Montana movie and going back to the actual spot where I wrote the song . I wrote the song in Malibu , and we went back to Malibu to film the video . I had never done a video exactly where I wrote the song . Then we take my little blue truck from the movie and travel back across the country . Again , it becomes a very articulate picture of what that song 's about . It 's everything a video is supposed to be . "
Cyrus 's " little blue truck " is the blue 1990 Ford Ranger that he drove in the film , which was transported to California to be used in the video . The video prominently features clips of Hannah Montana : The Movie , particularly the scene in which Cyrus performs " Back to Tennessee " . Cyrus 's backup band in that performance includes part of Taylor Swift 's band , Bucky Covington , and Marcel . About the video as a whole , Cyrus said , " I hope when people , you know , watch the video . I hope that they can feel what this song is about . I hope they can relate to that in their life and their world . "
The video commences with the Hannah Montana : The Movie performance , in which Cyrus and his backup band perform atop a stage in a crowded
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2008 Senior Bowl . After the game , East Carolina finished the season 8 @-@ 5 , the highest win total since 2000 . This also marked Coach Skip Holtz 's first Bowl win . Boise State finished the season 10 @-@ 3 . This marked Coach Chris Petersen first post @-@ season loss .
= The Boat Race 1999 =
The 145th Boat Race took place on 3 April 1999 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Featuring the tallest rower in Boat Race history , Cambridge won the race in the second @-@ fastest time ever . It was their seventh consecutive victory in the event .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie defeated Oxford 's Isis in the fastest time ever , while Cambridge won the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1998 race by three lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 75 victories to Oxford 's 68 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
Andrew Lindsay was confident that the Oxford crew would be more motivated than their opponents : " our advantage over Cambridge is that we are hungry for the victory . Everyone in the Oxford boat is driven to go and win this damn thing " . He was making his third and final appearance in the race having lost in both the 1997 and 1998 race . His grandfather represented Cambridge in the 1930s , and his uncle , Alexander Lindsay , rowed for the losing Oxford crew in the 1959 race before triumphing the following year . Cambridge boat club president and Canadian international rower Brad Crombie was also making his third Boat Race appearance , attempting to complete a hat @-@ trick of victories . Sean Bowden was the head coach of Oxford . His Cambridge counterpart , Robin Williams , suggested " it still feels like all or nothing to us . The fear of defeat , the aim of trying to push the limits is motivation itself " . Just as he had done in the 1993 race , umpire Mark Evans introduced modifications to the starting procedure , suggesting that he would be content to hold the crews for up to ten seconds between issuing the " set " and " go " commands . Cambridge 's Williams remarked : " I 'm happy as long as both crews abide by it " , Bowden was nonplussed " Go is when you start races . I 'm happy . "
The race was sponsored for the first time by Aberdeen Asset Management , and both crews were competing for the Aberdeen Asset Trophy . It was the fiftieth anniversary of the BBC 's coverage of the event and over the preceding five years had secured an average audience in excess of six million .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed @-@ in at an average of 14 st 10 lb ( 93 @.@ 2 kg ) , 0 @.@ 5 pounds ( 0 @.@ 23 kg ) more per rower than Cambridge . Josh West , rowing at number four for Cambridge , became the tallest rower in Boat Race history at 6 ft 9 in ( 2 @.@ 06 m ) . The Oxford crew comprised three Britons , three Americans , a Swede , a Canadian and a German , while Cambridge were represented by five Britons , two Americans , a German and a Canadian . Three former Blues returned for Cambridge in Wallace , Crombie and Smith , while Oxford saw Humphreys and Lindsay return . Vian Sharif , the Cambridge cox , became the tenth female to steer a Boat Race crew , and was the lightest competitor at the event since the 1986 race .
= = Race = =
Bookmakers could not initially separate the crews , offering odds on for either boat to win . However , as the start of the race approached , Williams had suggested that he was worried by his crew 's " inconsistency " and Oxford were declared favourites . Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . Despite being warned by umpire Davis , Cambridge were soon half @-@ a @-@ length ahead , and a second clear by the Mile Post . The lead was extended to a length by Hammersmith Bridge and Sharif had steered her boat into a better angle of attack . Pushing on , Cambridge were seven seconds up by Chiswick Steps and nine seconds at Barnes Railway Bridge . They passed the finishing post three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths ahead , with an eleven @-@ second advantage over the Dark Blues . The Light Blues finished in 16 minutes 41 seconds , a time only bettered once before , in 1998 . It was the first time since 1936 that Cambridge had secured seven consecutive victories .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie beat Oxford 's Isis by one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , their ninth victory in ten years , and in a record time of 16 minutes 58 seconds which beat the fastest time recorded in 1996 and repeated in 1998 . Cambridge won the 51st Women 's Boat Race by one length in a time of 6 minutes 1 second , their eighth consecutive victory .
= = Reaction = =
Oxford 's Bowden was dumbstruck : " I 'm really floored . I just haven 't got any answers until I talk to the crew . " His number four , Toby Ayer admitted : " my impression is that they were quicker than us and that is a very hard thing to have to say . " Cambridge 's Williams noted : " I thought it would be a bit more competitive than that . " Cambridge boat club president Crombie exclaimed " that 's the most fun I 've ever had rowing for Cambridge . "
= Hoysala literature =
Hoysala literature is the large body of literature in the Kannada and Sanskrit languages produced by the Hoysala Empire ( 1025 – 1343 ) in what is now southern India . The empire was established by Nripa Kama II , came into political prominence during the rule of King Vishnuvardhana ( 1108 – 1152 ) , and declined gradually after its defeat by the Khilji dynasty invaders in 1311 .
Kannada literature during this period consisted of writings relating to the socio @-@ religious developments of the Jain and Veerashaiva faiths , and to a lesser extent that of the Vaishnava faith . The earliest well @-@ known brahmin writers in Kannada were from the Hoysala court . While most of the courtly textual production was in Kannada , an important corpus of monastic Vaishnava literature relating to Dvaita ( dualistic ) philosophy was written by the renowned philosopher Madhvacharya in Sanskrit .
Writing Kannada literature in native metres was first popularised by the court poets . These metres were the sangatya , compositions sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument ; shatpadi , six @-@ line verses ; ragale , lyrical compositions in blank verse ; and tripadi , three @-@ line verses . However , Jain writers continued to use the traditional champu , composed of prose and verse . Important literary contributions in Kannada were made not only by court poets but also by noblemen , commanders , ministers , ascetics and saints associated with monasteries .
= = Kannada writings = =
= = = Overview = = =
Beginning with the 12th century , important socio @-@ political changes took place in the Deccan , south of the Krishna river . During this period , the Hoysalas , native Kannadigas from the Malnad region ( hill country in modern Karnataka ) were on the ascendant as a political power . They are known to have existed as chieftains from the mid @-@ 10th century when they distinguished themselves as subordinates of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani . In 1116 , Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana defeated the Cholas of Tanjore and annexed Gangavadi ( parts of modern southern Karnataka ) , thus bringing the region back under native rule . In the following decades , with the waning of the Chalukya power , the Hoysalas proclaimed independence and grew into one of the most powerful ruling families of southern India . Consequently , literature in Kannada , the local language , flourished in the Hoysala empire . This literature can be broadly subdivided as follows : works dominated by the themes of Jain writings , contrasting works by Veerashaiva writers not belonging to the vachana poetic tradition , rebuttals to Shaiva writings from Jain writers , early brahminical works ( Vaishnava ) , works from the birth of the Bhakti ( devotional ) movement in the Kannada @-@ speaking region , writings on secular topics , and the first writings in native metres ( ragale , sangatya and shatpadi ) .
As in earlier centuries , Jain authors wrote about tirthankars ( saints ) , princes and other personages important to the Jain religion . Jain versions of the Hindu epics such as the Ramayana and Bhagavata ( tales of Hindu god Krishna ) were also written . According to R. Narasimhacharya , a noted scholar on Kannada literature , more Jain writers wrote in Kannada than in any other Dravidian language during the " Augustan age " of Kannada literature , from the earliest known works to the 12th century . The Veerashaiva writers , devotees of the Hindu god Shiva , wrote about his 25 forms in their expositions of Shaivism . Vaishnava authors wrote treatments of the Hindu epics , the Ramayana , the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata . Breaking away from the old Jain tradition of using the champu form for writing Kannada literature , Harihara penned poems in the ragale metre in Siva @-@ ganada @-@ ragalegalu ( 1160 ) . His nephew Raghavanka established the shatpadi tradition by writing a unique version of the story of King Harishchandra in Harishchandra Kavya ( 1200 ) . Sisumayana introduced the sangatya metre in his Anjanacharita and Tripuradahana ( 1235 ) . However , some scholars continued to employ Sanskritic genres such as champu ( Ramachandra Charitapurana ) , shataka ( 100 verse compositions , Pampa sataka ) and ashtaka ( eight line verse compositions , Mudige ashtaka ) .
The exact beginnings of the haridasa movement in the Kannada @-@ speaking region have been disputed . Belur Keshavadasa , a noted Harikatha scholar , claimed in his book Karnataka Bhaktavijaya that the movement was inspired by saint Achalananda Dasa of Turvekere ( in the modern Tumkur district ) in the 9th century . However , neither the language used in Achalananda Dasa 's compositions nor the discovery of a composition with the pen name " Achalanada Vitthala " , which mentions the 13th @-@ century philosopher Madhvacharya , lends support to the 9th @-@ century theory . Naraharitirtha ( 1281 ) , one of earliest disciples of Madhvacharya , is therefore considered the earliest haridasa to write Vaishnava compositions in Kannada . Secular topics were popular and included treatises on poetry ( Sringararatnakara ) and writings on natural sciences ( Rattasutra ) , mathematics ( Vyavaharaganita ) , fiction ( Lilavati ) , grammar ( Shabdamanidarpana ) , rhetoric ( Udayadityalankara ) and others .
Important contributions were made by some prominent literary families . One Jain family produced several authors , including Mallikarjuna , the noted anthologist ( 1245 ) ; his brother @-@ in @-@ law Janna ( 1209 ) , the court poet of King Veera Ballala II ; Mallikarjuna 's son Keshiraja ( 1260 ) , considered by D. R. Nagaraj , a scholar on literary cultures in history , to be the greatest theorist of Kannada grammar ; and Sumanobana , who was in the court of King Narasimha I and was the maternal grandfather of Keshiraja . Harihara ( 1160 ) and his nephew Raghavanka ( 1200 ) , poets who set the trend for using native metres , came from a Shaiva family ( devotees of the god Shiva ) .
The support of the Hoysala rulers for the Kannada language was strong , and this is seen even in their epigraphs , often written in polished and poetic language , rather than prose , with illustrations of floral designs in the margins . In addition to the Hoysala patronage , royal support was enjoyed by Kannada poets and writers during this period in the courts of neighbouring kingdoms of the western Deccan . The Western Chalukyas , the southern Kalachuris , the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri and the Silharas of Kolhapur are some of the ruling families who enthusiastically used Kannada in inscriptions and promoted its literature .
Writers bilingual in Kannada and Telugu gained popularity which caused interaction between the two languages , a trend that continued into modern times . The Veerashiva canon of the Kannada language was translated or adapted into Telugu from this time period . Palkuriki Somanatha ( 1195 ) , a devotee of social reformer Basavanna , is the most well @-@ known of these bilingual poets . The Chola chieftain Nannechoda ( c . 1150 ) used many Kannada words in his Telugu writings . After the decline of the Hoysala empire , the Vijayanagara empire kings further supported writers in both languages . In 1369 , inspired by Palkuriki Somanatha , Bhima Kavi translated the Telugu Basavapurana to Kannada , and King Deva Raya II ( c . 1425 ) had Chamarasa 's landmark writing Prabhulingalile translated into Telugu and Tamil . Many Veerashaiva writers in the court of the 17th century Kingdom of Mysore were multilingual in Kannada , Telugu and Sanskrit while the Srivaishnava ( a sect of Vaishnavism ) Kannada writers of the court were in competition with the Telugu and Sanskrit writers .
Information from contemporary records regarding several writers from this period whose works are considered lost include : Maghanandi ( probable author of Rama Kathe and guru of Kamalabhava of 1235 ) , Srutakirti ( guru of Aggala , and author of Raghava Pandaviya and possibly a Jina @-@ stuti , 1170 ) , Sambha Varma ( mentioned by Nagavarma of 1145 ) , Vira Nandi ( Chandraprabha Kavyamala , 1175 ) , Dharani Pandita ( Bijjala raya Charita and Varangana Charita ) , Amrita Nandi ( Dhanvantari Nighantu ) , Vidyanatha ( Prataparudriya ) , Ganeshvara ( Sahitya Sanjivana ) , Harabhakta , a Veerashaiva mendicant ( Vedabhashya , 1300 ) , and Siva Kavi ( author of Basava Purana in 1330 ) .
= = = Jain epics = = =
During the early 12th @-@ century ascendancy of the Hoysalas , the kings of the dynasty entertained imperial ambitions . King Vishnuvardhana wanted to perform Vedic sacrifices befitting an emperor , and surpass his overlords , the Western Chalukyas , in military and architectural achievements . This led to his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism . Around the same time , the well @-@ known philosopher Ramanujacharya sought refuge from the Cholas in Hoysala territory and popularised the Sri Vaishnava faith , a sect of Hindu Vaishnavism . Although Jains continued to dominate culturally in what is now the southern Karnataka region for a while , these social changes would later contribute to the decline of Jain literary output . The growing political clout of the Hoysalas attracted many bards and scholars to their court , who in turn wrote panegyrics on their patrons .
Nagachandra , a scholar and the builder of the Mallinatha Jinalaya ( a Jain temple in honor of the 19th Jain tirthankar , Mallinatha , in Bijapur , Karnataka ) , wrote Mallinathapurana ( 1105 ) , an account of the evolution of the soul of the Jain saint . According to some historians , King Veera Ballala I was his patron . Later , he wrote his magnum opus , a Jain version of the Hindu epic Ramayana called Ramachandra Charitapurana ( or Pampa Ramayana ) . Written in the traditional champu metre and in the Pauma charia tradition of Vimalasuri , it is the earliest extant version of the epic in the Kannada language . The work contains 16 sections and deviates significantly from the original epic by Valmiki . Nagachandra represents King Ravana , the villain of the Hindu epic , as a tragic hero , who in a moment of weakness commits the sin of abducting Sita ( wife of the Hindu god Rama ) but is eventually purified by her devotion to Rama . In a further deviation , Rama 's loyal brother Lakshmana ( instead of Rama ) kills Ravana in the final battle . Eventually , Rama takes jaina @-@ diksha ( converts to Digambara monk ) , becomes an ascetic and attains nirvana ( enlightenment ) . Considered a complementary work to the Pampa Bharatha of Adikavi Pampa ( 941 , a Jain version of the epic Mahabharata ) , the work earned Nagachandra the honorific " Abhinava Pampa " ( " new Pampa " ) . Only in the Kannada language do Jain versions exist of the Hindu epics , the Mahabharata and Ramayana , in addition to their brahminical version .
Kanti ( 1108 ) , known for her wit and humour , was one of the earliest female poets of the Kannada language and a contemporary of Nagachandra , with whom she indulged in debates and repartees . Rajaditya , a native of either Puvinabage or Raibhag ( the modern Belgaum district ) , was in the Hoysala court during the days of King Veera Ballala I and King Vishnuvardhana . He wrote in easy verse on arithmetic and other mathematical topics and is credited with three of the earliest writings on mathematics in the Kannada language : Vyavaharaganita , Kshetraganita and Lilavati . Udayaditya , a Chola prince , authored a piece on rhetoric called Udayadityalankara ( 1150 ) . It was based on Dandin 's Sanskrit Kavyadarsa .
= = = Age of Harihara = = =
Harihara ( or Harisvara , 1160 ) , who came from a family of karnikas ( accountants ) in Hampi , was one of the earliest Veerashaiva writers who was not part of the Vachana poetic tradition . He is considered one of the most influential Kannada poets of the Hoysala era . A non @-@ traditionalist , he has been called " poet of poets " and a " poet for the masses " . Kannada poetry changed course because of his efforts , and he was an inspiration for generations of poets to follow . Impressed by his early writings , Kereya Padmarasa , the court poet of King Narasimha I , introduced him to the king , who became Harihara 's patron . A master of many metres , he authored the Girijakalyana ( " Marriage of the mountain born goddess – Parvati " ) in the Kalidasa tradition , employing the champu style to tell a 10 @-@ part story leading to the marriage of the god Shiva and Parvati . According to an anecdote , Harihara was so against eulogising earthly mortals that he struck his protégé Raghavanka for writing about King Harishchandra in the landmark work Harishchandra Kavya ( c . 1200 ) . Harihara is credited with developing the native ragale metre . The earliest poetic biographer in the Kannada language , he wrote a biography of Basavanna called Basavarajadevara ragale , which gives interesting details about the protagonist while not always conforming to popular beliefs of the time . Ascribed to him is a group of 100 poems called the Nambiyanana ragale ( also called Shivaganada ragale or Saranacharitamanasa – " The holy lake of the lives of the devotees " ) after the saint Nambiyana . In the sataka metre he wrote the Pampa sataka , and in the ashtaka metre , the Mudige ashtaka in about 1200 .
Famous among Vaishnava writers and the first brahmin writer ( of the Smartha sect ) of repute , Rudrabhatta wrote Jagannatha Vijaya ( 1180 ) in a style considered a transition between ancient and medieval Kannada . Chandramouli , a minister in the court of King Veera Ballala II , was his patron . The writing , in champu metre , is about the life of the god Krishna . Leading to the god 's fight with Banasura , it is based on an earlier writing , Vishnupurana .
Nemichandra , court poet of King Veera Ballala II and the Silhara King Lakshmana of Kholapur , wrote Lilavati Prabandham ( 1170 ) , the earliest available true fiction ( and hence a novel ) in Kannada , with an erotic bent . Written in the champu metre , with the ancient town Banavasi as the background , it narrates the love story of a Kadamba prince and a princess who eventually marry after facing many obstacles . The story is based on a c . 610 Sanskrit original called Vasavadatta by Subhandu . His other work , Neminathapurana , unfinished on account of his death ( and hence called Ardhanemi or " incomplete Nemi " ) , details the life of the 22nd Jain tirthankar Neminatha while treating the life of the god Krishna from a Jain angle .
Palkuriki Somanatha , a native of modern Karnataka or Andhra Pradesh , is considered one of the foremost multi @-@ lingual Shaiva ( or Shiva @-@ following ) poets of the 12th and 13th centuries . Historians are divided about the time and place of his birth and death and his original faith . He was adept in the Sanskrit , Telugu and Kannada languages . He was a devotee of Basavanna ( the founder of the Veerashaiva movement ) , and all his writings propagate that faith . It is generally accepted that he was born a brahmin and later adopted the Shaiva faith , although according to the scholar Bandaru Tammayya he was born a Jangama ( follower of the Shaiva faith ) . His time of birth has been identified as either the 12th century or late 13th century . In Kannada , his most important writings are Silasampadane , Sahasragananama and Pancharatna . His well @-@ known poems , written in the ragale metre , are Basava ragale , Basavadhya ragale and Sadguru ragale . He is known to have humbled many Vaishnava poets in debates .
Other well @-@ known personalities from the 12th century included several Jain writers . These include Aggala , who authored Chandraprabhapurana ( 1189 ) , an account of the life of the eighth Jain tirthankar Chandraprabha ; Sujanottamsa , who wrote a panegyric on Gomateshwara of Shravanabelagola ; and Vritta Vilasa , who authored Sastra sara and Dharmaparikshe ( 1160 ) . The latter was Vilasa 's version of the Sanskrit original of the same name written by Amitagati c . 1014 . In this champu writing , the author narrates the story of two Kshatriya princess who went to Benares and exposed the vices of the gods after discussions with the brahmins there . The author questions the credibility of Hanuman ( the Hindu monkey god ) and the Vanaras ( monkey @-@ like humanoids in the Hindu epic Ramayana ) . Although controversial , the work sheds useful information on contemporary religious beliefs . Kereya Padmarasa , a Veerashaiva poet patronised by King Narasimha I , wrote Dikshabodhe in the ragale metre in 1165 . He would later become the protagonist of a biographical work called Padmarajapurana written by his descendant Padmanaka in c . 1400 . The brahmin poet Deva Kavi authored a romance piece called Kusumavali ( 1200 ) , and brahmin poet Kavi Kama ( 12th century ) authored a treatise called Sringara @-@ ratnakara on the rasa ( flavor ) of poetical sentiment . Sumanobana ( 1170 ) was a poet @-@ grammarian and the Katakacharya ( " military teacher " ) under King Narasimha I. He was also a priest in Devagiri , the Seuna Yadava capital .
= = = Jain – Veerashaiva conflict = = =
Harihara 's nephew and protégé , the dramatic poet Raghavanka of Hampi , whose style is compared to that of 10th @-@ century poet Ranna , was the first to establish the shatpadi metre in Kannada literature in the epic Harishchandra Kavya ( 1200 ) . According to L. S. Seshagiri Rao , it is believed that in no other language has the story of King Harishchandra been interpreted in this way . The writing is an original in tradition and inspiration that fully develops the potential of the shatpadi metre . The narration has many noteworthy elegiac verses such as the mourning of Chandramati over the death of her young son Lohitashva from snake bite . The very writing that made Raghavanka famous was rejected by his guru , Harihara . His other well @-@ known writings , adhering to strict Shaiva principles and written to appease his guru , are the Siddharama charitra ( or Siddharama Purana ) , a larger than life stylistic eulogy of the compassionate 12th @-@ century Veerashaiva saint , Siddharama of Sonnalige ; the Somanatha charitra , a propagandist work that describes the life of saint Somayya ( or Adaiah ) of Puligere ( modern Lakshmeshwar ) , his humiliation by a Jain girl and his revenge ; the Viresvara charita , a dramatic story of the blind wrath of a Shaiva warrior , Virabhadra ; the Hariharamahatva , an account of the life of Harisvara of Hampi ; and Sarabha charitra . The last two classics are considered lost .
In 1209 , the Jain scholar , minister , builder of temples and army commander Janna wrote , among other classics , Yashodhara Charite , a unique set of stories in 310 verses dealing with sadomasochism , transmigration of the soul , passion gone awry and cautionary morals for human conduct . The writing , although inspired by Vadiraja 's Sanskrit classic of the same name , is noted for its original interpretation , imagery and style . In one story , the poet tells of the infatuation of a man for his friend 's wife . Having killed his friend , the man abducts the wife , who dies of grief . Overcome by repentance , he burns himself on the funeral pyre of the woman . The stories of infatuation reach a peak when Janna writes about the attraction of Amrutamati , the queen , to the ugly mahout Ashtavakra , who pleases the queen with kicks and whip lashes . This story has piqued the interest of modern researchers . In honour of this work , Janna received the title Kavichakravarthi ( " Emperor among poets " ) from his patron , King Veera Ballala II . His other classic , Anathanatha Purana ( 1230 ) , is an account of the life of the 14th tirthankar Ananthanatha .
Andayya , taking a non @-@ conformist path that was never repeated in Kannada literature , wrote Madana Vijaya ( " Triumph of cupid " , 1217 – 1235 ) using only pure Kannada words ( desya ) and naturalized Sanskrit words ( tadbhava ) and totally avoiding assimilated Sanskrit words ( tatsamas ) . This is seen by some as a rebuttal meant to prove that writing Kannada literature without borrowed Sanskrit words was possible . The poem narrates the story of the moon being imprisoned by the god Shiva in his abode in the Himalayas . In his anger , Kama ( Cupid , the god of love , also called Manmata ) assailed Shiva with his arrows only to be cursed by Shiva and separated from his beloved . Kama then contrived to rid himself of Shiva 's curse . The work also goes by other names such as Sobagina Suggi ( " Harvest of Beauty " ) , Kavane Gella ( " Cupid 's Conquest " ) and Kabbigara @-@ kava ( " Poets defender " ) . Kama has an important place in Jain writings even before Andayya . The possibility that this writing was yet another subtle weapon in the intensifying conflict between the dominant Jains and the Veerashaivas , whose popularity was on the rise , is not lost on historians .
Mallikarjuna , a Jain ascetic , compiled an anthology of poems called Suktisudharnava ( " Gems from the poets " ) in 1245 in the court of King Vira Someshwara . Some interesting observations have been made by scholars about this important undertaking . While the anthology itself provides insight into poetic tastes of that period ( and hence qualifies as a " history of Kannada literature " ) , it also performs the function of a " guide for poets " , an assertive method of bridging the gap between courtly literary intelligentsia and folk poetry . Being a guide for " professional intellectuals " , the work , true to its nature , often includes poems eulogising kings and royalty but completely ignoring poems of the 12th @-@ century vachana canon ( Veerashaiva folk literature ) . However , the selection of poems includes contributions from Harihara , the non @-@ conformist Veerashaiva writer . This suggests a compromise by which the author attempts to include the " rebels " .
Other notable writers of the early 13th century were Bhanduvarma , author of Harivamsabhyudaya and Jiva sambhodana ( 1200 ) , the latter bearing on morals and renunciation , and written addressing the soul ; Balachandra Kavi Kandarpa , the author of the Belgaum fort inscription who claimed to be " master of four languages " ; Maghanandycharya , the author of an extinct commentary on the Jain theological work Sastrasara Samuccaya @-@ tiku ( 1209 ) for which there are references , and the available commentary called padarthasara giving a complete explanation of Sanskrit and Prakrit authoritative citations ; Hastimalla , who wrote Purvapurana ; Chandrama , author of Karkala Gomateshvara charite , and Sisumayana , who introduced a new form of composition called sangatya in 1232 . He wrote an allegorical poem called Tripuradahana ( " Burning of the triple fortress " ) and Anjanacharita . The latter work was inspired by Ravisena 's Sanskrit Padma charitra . Somaraja , a Veerashaiva scholar , wrote a eulogy of Udbhata , the ruler of Gersoppa , and called it Sringarasara ( or Udbhatakavya , 1222 ) . Other Jain writers were Parsva Pandita , author of Paravanathapurana , and Gunavarma II , the author of the story of the ninth Jain tirthankar Pushpadanta called Pushpadanta purana ( both were patronised by the Ratta kings of Saundatti ) . Polalva Dandanatha , a commander , minister , and the builder of the Harihareshwara temple in Harihar , wrote Haricharitra in 1224 . He was patronised by King Veera Ballala II and his successor , King Vira Narasimha II . Puligere Somanatha authored a book on morals called Somesvarasataka .
= = = Consolidation of grammar = = =
Keshiraja was a notable writer and grammarian of the 13th century . He came from a family of famous poet @-@ writers . Although five of Keshiraja 's writings are not traceable , his most enduring work on Kannada grammar , Shabdamanidarpana ( " Mirror of Word Jewels " , 1260 ) , is available and testifies to his scholarly acumen and literary taste . True to his wish that his writing on grammar should " last as long as the sun , the moon , the oceans and the Meru mountain lasted " , Shabdamanidarpana is popular even today and is considered a standard authority on old Kannada grammar . It is prescribed as a textbook for students of graduate and post @-@ graduate studies in the Kannada language . Although Keshiraja followed the model of Sanskrit grammar ( of the Katantra school ) and that of earlier writings on Kannada grammar ( by King Amoghavarsha I of the 9th century and grammarian Nagavarma II of 1145 ) , his work has originality . Keshiraja 's lost writings are Cholapalaka Charitam , Sri Chitramale , Shubhadraharana , Prabodhachandra and Kiratam ( or Kiratarjuniyam ) .
A major development of this period that would have a profound impact on Kannada literature even into the modern age was the birth of the Haridasa ( " servants of Hari or Vishnu " ) movement . This devotional movement , although reminiscent in some ways of the Veerashaiva movement of the 12th century ( which produced Vachana poetry and taught devotion to the god Shiva ) , was in contrast intimately devoted to the Hindu god Vishnu as the supreme God . The inspiration behind this movement was the philosophy of Madhvacharya of Udupi . Naraharitirtha ( 1281 ) is considered the first well @-@ known haridasa and composer of Vaishnava devotional songs in Kannada . Before his induction into the Madhva order , he had served as a minister in the court of Kalinga . The Vaishnava poetry however disappeared for about two centuries after Naraharitirtha 's death before resurfacing as a popular form of folk literature during the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire . Only three of Naraharitirtha 's compositions are available today .
Other writers worthy of mention are Mahabala Kavi , the author of Neminathapurana ( 1254 ) , an account of the 22nd Jain tirthankar Neminatha , and Kumudendu , author of a Jain version of the epic Ramayana in shatpadi metre called Kumudendu Ramayana in 1275 . The effort was influenced by Pampa Ramayana of Nagachandra . Kumara Padmarasa , son of Kereya Padmarasa , wrote the Sananda Charitre in shatpadi metre . Ratta Kavi , a Jain noble , wrote a quasi @-@ scientific piece called Rattasutra ( or Rattamala ) in 1300 . The writing bears on natural phenomena such rain , earthquakes , lightning , planets and omens . A commentary on the Amara Khosa , considered useful to students of the language , called Amara Khosa Vyakhyana was written by the Jain writer Nachiraja ( 1300 ) . Towards the end of the Hoysala rule , Nagaraja wrote Punyasrava in 1331 in champu style , a work that narrates the stories of puranic heroes in 52 tales and is said to be a translation from Sanskrit .
= = Sanskrit writings = =
The Vaishnava movement in the Kannada @-@ speaking regions found momentum after the arrival of the philosopher Ramanujacharya ( 1017 – 1137 ) . Fleeing possible persecution from the Chola King ( who was a Shaiva ) , Ramanujacharya sought refuge initially in Tondanur and later moved to Melkote . But this event had no impact on Vaishnava literature in Hoysala lands at that time . However , the teachings of Madhvacharya ( 1238 – 1317 ) , propounder of the Dvaita philosophy , did have a direct impact on Vaishnava literature , in both the Sanskrit and Kannada languages . This body of writings is known as haridasa sahitya ( haridasa literature ) .
Born as Vasudeva in Pajaka village near Udupi in 1238 , he learnt the Vedas and Upanishads under his guru Achyutapreksha . He was initiated into sanyasa ( asceticism ) after which he earned the name Madhvacharya ( or Anandatirtha ) . Later , he disagreed with the views of his guru and began to travel India . He successfully debated with many scholars and philosophers during this time and won over Naraharitirtha , a minister in Kalinga , who would later become Madhvacharya 's first notable disciple . Unlike Adi Shankaracharya ( 788 – 820 ) who preached Advaita philosophy ( monism ) and Ramanujacharya who propounded Vishishtadvaita philosophy ( qualified monism ) , Madhvacharya taught the Dvaita philosophy ( dualism ) .
Madhvacharya taught complete devotion to the Hindu god Vishnu , emphasising Jnanamarga or the " path of knowledge " , and insisted that the path of devotion " can help a soul to attain elevation " ( Athmonathi ) . He was however willing to accept devotion to other Hindu deities as well . He wrote 37 works in Sanskrit including Dwadasha Sutra ( in which his devotion to the god Vishnu found full expression ) , Gita Bhashya , Gita Tatparya Nirnaya , Mahabharata Tatparya Nirnaya , Bhagavata Tatparya Nirnaya , Mayavada Khandana and Vishnu Tattwa Nirnaya . To propagate his teachings he established eight monasteries near Udupi , the Uttaradhi monastery , and the Raghavendra monastery in Mantralayam ( in modern Andhra Pradesh ) and Nanjanagud ( near modern Mysore ) .
The writings of Madhvacharya and Vidyatirtha ( author of Rudraprshnabhashya ) may have been absorbed by Sayanacharya , brother of Vidyaranya , the patron saint of the founders of the Vijayanagara empire in the 14th century . Bharatasvamin ( who was patronised by Hoysala King Ramanatha ) wrote a commentary on Samaveda , Shadgurusishya wrote commentary on Aitareya Brahmana and Aranyaka , and Katyayana wrote Sarvanukramani . A family of hereditary poets whose names have not been identified held the title " Vidyachakravarti " ( poet laureate ) in the Hoysala court . One of them wrote Gadyakarnamrita , a description of the war between Hoysala king Vira Narasimha II and the Pandyas , in the early 13th century . His grandson with the same title , in the court of king Veera Ballala III , composed a poem called Rukminikalyana in 16 kandas ( chapters ) and wrote commentaries ( on poetics ) on the Alankarasarvasva and Kavyaprakasa . Kalyani Devi , a sister of Madhvacharya , and Trivikrama , his disciple , wrote commentaries on the Dvaita philosophy . To Trivikrama is ascribed a poem narrating the story of Usha and Aniruddha called Ushaharana . Narayana Pandita composed Madhwavijaya , Manimanjari and a poem called Parijataharana . The Jain writer Ramachandra Maladhari authored Gurupanchasmriti .
= = Literature after the Hoysalas = =
Literary developments during the Hoysala period had a marked influence on Kannada literature in the centuries to follow . These developments popularised folk metres which shifted the emphasis towards desi ( native or folk ) forms of literature . With the waning of Jain literary output , competition between the Veerashaiva and Vaishnava writers came to the fore . The Veerashaiva writer Chamarasa ( author of Prabhulingalile , 1425 ) and his Vaishnava competitor Kumaravyasa ( Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari , 1450 ) popularised the shatpadi metric tradition initiated by Hoysala poet Raghavanka , in the court of Vijayanagara King Deva Raya II . Lakshmisa , the 16th – 17th century writer of epic poems , continued the tradition in the Jaimini Bharata , a work that has remained popular even in the modern period . The tripadi metre , one of the oldest in the Kannada language ( Kappe Arabhatta inscription of 700 ) , which was used by Akka Mahadevi ( Yoganna trividhi , 1160 ) , was popularised in the 16th century by the mendicant poet Sarvajna . Even Jain writers , who had dominated courtly literature throughout the classical period with their Sanskritic champu style , began to use native metres . Among them , Ratnakaravarni is famous for successfully integrating an element of worldly pleasure into asceticism and for treating the topic of eroticism with discretion in a religious epic written in the native sangatya metre ( a metre initiated by Hoysala poet Sisumayana ) , his magnum opus , the Bharatadesa Vaibhava ( c . 1557 ) .
Though the Vaishnava courtly writings in Kannada began with the Hoysala poet Rudrabhatta and the devotional song genre was initiated by Naraharitirtha , the Vaishnava movement began to exert a strong influence on Kannada literature only from the 15th century on . The Vaishnava writers consisted of two groups who seemed to have no interaction with each other : the Brahmin commentators who typically wrote under the patronage of royalty , and the Bhakti ( devotion ) writers ( also known as haridasas ) who played no role in courtly matters . The Bhakti writers took the message of God to the people in the form of melodious songs composed using folk genres such as the kirthane ( a musical composition with refrain , based on tune and rhythm ) , the suladi ( a composition based on rhythm ) and the ugabhoga ( a composition based on melody ) . Kumara Vyasa and Timmanna Kavi were well @-@ known among the Brahmin commentators , while Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa were the most notable of the Bhakti writers . The philosophy of Madhvacharya , which originated in the Kannada @-@ speaking region in the 13th century , spread beyond its borders over the next two centuries . The itinerant haridasas , best described as mystic saint @-@ poets , spread the philosophy of Madhvacharya in simple Kannada , winning mass appeal by preaching devotion to God and extolling the virtues of jnana ( enlightenment ) , bhakti ( devotion ) and vairagya ( detachment ) .
Vachana poetry , developed in reaction to the rigid caste @-@ based Hindu society , attained its peak in popularity among the under @-@ privileged during the 12th century . Though these poems did not employ any regular metre or rhyme scheme , they are known to have originated from the earlier tripadi metrical form . The Veerashaivas , who wrote this poetry , had risen to influential positions by the Vijayanagara period ( 14th century ) . Court ministers and nobility belonging to the faith , such as Lakkanna Dandesa and Jakkanarya , not only wrote literature but also patronised talented writers and poets . Veerashaiva anthologists of the 15th and 16th centuries began to collect Shaiva writings and vachana poems , originally written on palm leaf manuscripts . Because of the cryptic nature of the poems , the anthologists added commentaries to them , thereby providing their hidden meaning and esoteric significance . An interesting aspect of this anthological work was the translation of the Shaiva canon into Sanskrit , bringing it into the sphere of the Sanskritic ( marga or mainstream as opposed to desi or folk ) cultural order .
= 1939 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1939 Pacific hurricane season ran through the summer and fall of 1939 . Before the satellite age started in the 1960s , data on east Pacific hurricanes are extremely unreliable . Most east Pacific storms are of no threat to land . However , 1939 saw a large number of storms threaten California .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane One = = =
On June 12 , a hurricane was detected . The lowest pressure reported by a ship was 985 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . The hurricane was last seen June 13 .
= = = Possible Tropical Cyclone Two = = =
A possible tropical cyclone was located off the coast of Mexico on June 27 . A ship reported a gale and a pressure of 1 @,@ 006 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . The system was last seen on June 28 .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Three = = =
On July 19 , a tropical cyclone was detected . A ship reported a pressure of 1 @,@ 000 @.@ 7 millibars ( 29 @.@ 55 inHg ) .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Four = = =
On July 29 , a tropical cyclone was located midway between Manzanillo and Acapulco . It moved up the coast , and a ship reported a pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) on July 29 as the cyclone made landfall in the vicinity of Manzanillo .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Five = = =
A small tropical cyclone was detected on August 31 . A ship reported gales and a pressure of 1 @,@ 003 @.@ 3 millibars ( 29 @.@ 63 inHg ) .
= = = Hurricane Six = = =
From September 4 to 7 , the remnants of a hurricane brought heavy rain to Southern California . The storm delivered over a year 's worth of rainfall to Blythe , while Imperial received more than two year 's worth . The flooding caused major damage in Mecca , California , and 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water swamped Thermal .
= = = Hurricane Seven = = =
A tropical cyclone was first detected south of Acapulco on September 5 . It intensified into a hurricane and moved northwestward . A ship sailing through the eye reported a pressure reading of 948 mbar ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) . The tropical cyclone made landfall somewhere along the Baja California Peninsula . It dissipated inland over the northern part of the peninsula on September 12 . Remnants of this tropical storm , in association with a trough , caused rain of up to 4 inches ( 100 mm ) in southern California on September 11 and 12 .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Eight = = =
On September 5 , a tropical cyclone formed off the coast of Costa Rica . It also headed northwest and dissipated over the southern part of Baja California on September 15 . The lowest reported pressure was 1 @,@ 004 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) . From September 19 to 21 , remnants of this tropical cyclone caused rain measuring up to 3 inches ( 76 mm ) in Southern California .
= = = Hurricane Nine = = =
On September 14 , a tropical cyclone formed off the coast of Central America . This tropical storm tracked northwestward and intensified into a hurricane . The sea @-@ level pressure dropped to 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) or lower . The hurricane recurved gradually to the northeast and weakened over cool seas . On September 25 , this tropical storm made landfall near Long Beach , California , and dissipated inland .
The tropical storm caught Southern Californians unprepared . It brought heavy rain and flooding to the area , which killed 45 people . At sea , 48 were killed . The storm caused heavy property damage amounting to $ 2 million ( 1939 USD ) in total , mostly to crops and coastal infrastructure .
= = = Hurricane Ten = = =
On October 23 , a tropical cyclone formed south of Cabo Corrientes . It intensified and headed roughly due north . A steamer , the Nevadan , caught in the eye of this extremely intense hurricane , recording a corrected central pressure of 930 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 46 inHg ) . Even with modern tropical cyclone observation techniques available , this reading still qualifies this cyclone as one of the most intense on record . The steep pressure gradient between the Nevadan and the external hurricane conditions off of Manzanillo , Colima caused several tarpaulins to burst . Other shipping was disrupted off the Mexican coast by the intense tropical cyclone .
The hurricane made landfall near Cabo Corrientes on October 25 and dissipated shortly thereafter . Onshore , the storm caused an extensive swath of damage . Homes were destroyed in the towns of Santiago Ixcuintla and Rosamorada in the Mexican state of Nayarit , displacing hundreds of people . In Puerto Vallarta , a strong storm surge flooded a section of the town , destroying several homes . Tobacco , corn , and rice crops in the region suffered considerable damage . The strong winds downed power lines , resulting in the delayed dissemination of damage reports . Although no exact casualty total was documented , reports indicated that the tropical cyclone caused a " few casualties " . After the storm , US $ 6 @,@ 000 was donated to help aid the displaced in the states of Nayarit and Jalisco , while doctors and nurses were sent to those areas .
= G.I. Joe : Retaliation =
G.I. Joe : Retaliation is a 2013 American military science fiction action film directed by Jon M. Chu , based on Hasbro 's G.I. Joe toy , comic and media franchises . Written by Rhett Reese and Paul Wernick , the film is a sequel to 2009 's G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra while also serving as a soft reboot of the franchise .
Retaliation features an ensemble cast , with Byung @-@ hun Lee , Ray Park , Jonathan Pryce , Arnold Vosloo , and Channing Tatum reprising their roles from the first film . Luke Bracey takes over the role of Cobra Commander , replacing Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt . Dwayne Johnson , D. J. Cotrona , Adrianne Palicki , Ray Stevenson , and Bruce Willis round out the principal cast .
In the film , with Cobra operative Zartan still impersonating the President of the United States , the terrorist organization is able to frame the Joes as traitors , and have them nearly decimated in an airstrike . Cobra Commander places the world leaders under Cobra 's control , and gains access to their advanced warheads . Outnumbered and outgunned , the surviving Joes form a plan with the original G.I. Joe , General Joseph Colton , to overthrow the Cobra Commander and his allies .
Originally slated for release in June 2012 , the film was delayed in order to convert to 3D and boost interest in international markets . It was released in North America on March 28 , 2013 , and received generally negative reviews , but was a box office success , grossing over $ 375 million worldwide .
= = Plot = =
Duke ( Channing Tatum ) has become the leader of the G.I. Joe unit , which is framed for stealing nuclear warheads from Pakistan by Zartan ( Arnold Vosloo ) , who is impersonating the President of the United States ( Jonathan Pryce ) . The unit is subsequently decimated in a military air strike with Duke among the casualties . The only survivors are Roadblock ( Dwayne Johnson ) , Flint ( D.J. Cotrona ) , and Lady Jaye ( Adrianne Palicki ) .
Meanwhile , Storm Shadow ( Byung @-@ hun Lee ) and Firefly ( Ray Stevenson ) rescue Cobra Commander ( Luke Bracey ) from an underground maximum @-@ security prison in Germany , leaving Destro behind . Storm Shadow is injured during the escape and retreats to a temple in the Himalayas to recover . Upon learning that he is alive , the Blind Master ( RZA ) , leader of the Arashikage Clan , sends Snake Eyes ( Ray Park ) and his apprentice Jinx ( Élodie Yung ) , Storm Shadow 's cousin , to capture Storm Shadow so he can answer for the murder of his uncle , the Hard Master .
Roadblock , Flint , and Lady Jaye return to the United States where they set up a base of operations in a rundown gym . After Zartan announces that Cobra will replace the Joes as America 's elite special forces unit , Lady Jaye deduces that someone is impersonating the President , and Roadblock leads them to General Joseph Colton ( Bruce Willis ) , who provides them with weapons , and helps them infiltrate a fundraising event that the President will be attending . Lady Jaye steals a sample of the President 's DNA and confirms that he is Zartan . They escape after a confrontation with Firefly and Zandar ( Matt Gerald ) , the head of the U.S. Secret Service 's Presidential Detail and a member of Cobra .
Snake Eyes and Jinx locate and capture Storm Shadow after a battle with ninjas and take him to Japan , where Storm Shadow reveals that Zartan murdered the Hard Master , and that he joined Cobra to avenge his uncle . Storm Shadow then accompanies Snake Eyes and Jinx as they join the Joes ' efforts to stop Cobra .
Zartan invites the world leaders to a summit at historic Fort Sumter , where he blackmails them into disabling their nuclear arsenals , and reveals that he has created Project Zeus : seven orbital kinetic bombardment weapons of mass destruction at his command . He destroys central London to prove his superiority , and threatens to destroy other capitals if the countries don 't submit to Cobra . Storm Shadow betrays Cobra Commander and kills Zartan , revealing Cobra 's deception to the world leaders . While Snake Eyes , Jinx , and Flint fight Cobra 's soldiers , Cobra Commander activates the remaining six weapons and instructs Firefly to protect the launch device . Firefly is killed in combat by Roadblock , who deactivates and destroys the orbital weapons . Meanwhile , Colton and Lady Jaye rescue the President .
Cobra Commander escapes during the battle and Storm Shadow disappears after avenging his uncle . The real President addresses the nation at a White House ceremony where Roadblock , Lady Jaye , Flint , Jinx , and Snake Eyes are commemorated as heroes . Colton presents Roadblock with an M1911 pistol that belonged to General George S. Patton , to use when he finally finds Cobra Commander and to avenge Duke . Roadblock proudly raises the weapon and fires a single shot in honor of his fallen comrades .
= = Cast = =
= = = G.I. Joe = = =
Dwayne Johnson as Marvin F. Hinton / Roadblock
Ray Park as Snake Eyes
Adrianne Palicki as Jaye Burnett / Lady Jaye
D.J. Cotrona as Dashiell R. Faireborn / Flint
Élodie Yung as Kim Arashikage / Jinx
Bruce Willis as General Joseph Colton
Channing Tatum as Conrad S. Hauser / Duke
Joseph Mazzello as Mouse
Ryan Hansen as Grunt
Jim Palmer as Clutch
= = = Cobra = = =
Luke Bracey as Rexford Lewis / Cobra Commander
Robert Baker as the voice of Cobra Commander
Byung @-@ hun Lee as Thomas " Tommy " Arashikage / Storm Shadow
Ray Stevenson as Firefly
Arnold Vosloo as Zartan
Matt Gerald as Zandar / Havoc
= = = Other characters = = =
Jonathan Pryce as the President of the United States
Walton Goggins as Warden Nigel James
RZA as Blind Master
DeRay Davis as Stoop
Joe Chrest as the Chief of Staff
James Carville as himself
Skai Jackson as Roadblock 's Daughter
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After the financially successful release of The Rise of Cobra , Rob Moore , the studio vice chairman of Paramount Pictures , stated in 2009 that a sequel would be developed . In January 2011 , Rhett Reese and Paul Wernick , the writers of Zombieland , were hired to write the script for the sequel . The movie was originally thought to be titled G.I. Joe : Cobra Strikes , which was later denied by Reese . Stephen Sommers was originally going to return as director of the sequel , but Paramount Pictures announced in February 2011 that Jon Chu would direct the sequel . In July 2011 , the sequel 's name was revealed to be G.I. Joe : Retaliation . Chu would later declare that Paramount wanted a reboot that also served as a sequel to The Rise of Cobra since " a lot of people saw the first movie so we don 't want to alienate that and redo the whole thing . "
= = = Casting = = =
In January 2011 , it was confirmed that Byung @-@ hun Lee would reprise his role as Storm Shadow in the sequel . Channing Tatum and Ray Park also returned , as Duke and Snake Eyes , respectively . Rachel Nichols , the actress who played Scarlett in the first film , stated that most cast members would not be returning , except for the three aforementioned actors . In March 2011 , Sienna Miller stated that she would not be returning for a sequel . Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt also confirmed that he would not be returning as Cobra Commander in the sequel .
In June 2011 , Dwayne Johnson was cast as Roadblock , D.J. Cotrona and RZA were cast as Flint and Blind Master respectively , while Élodie Yung was in talks for the role of Jinx . In July 2011 , Adrianne Palicki was confirmed for the lead female role of Lady Jaye , and Ray Stevenson was confirmed to portray the villain Firefly . Arnold Vosloo also confirmed that he would reprise his role of Zartan , although in the final film Vosloo appears only in a couple of non @-@ dialogue scenes , with Jonathan Pryce playing Zartan in most scenes . Joseph Mazzello was confirmed to play Mouse . In August 2011 , Walton Goggins was added as Warden Nigel James , and it was confirmed that Bruce Willis was cast to star in the film as the original G.I. Joe . The character of Joe Colton was a replacement for fan @-@ favorite Joe character Sgt. Slaughter . Sgt. Slaughter stated that he " was originally supposed to be the part of Bruce Willis ' [ as ] Sgt. Slaughter but because we had a conflict in toy companies , Hasbro and Mattel , I wasn 't able to do it . It 's one of those things , Rock ( Dwayne Johnson ) doesn 't have a contract so he can do what he wants to do and he 's been very successful " .
In September , a casting call sheet leaked to the Internet revealed that Cobra Commander would appear in the sequel , though it was unknown who would play the character . Chu said that fans would get a glimpse of Destro in the film , but Christopher Eccleston would not reprise his role in the sequel . On May 1 , 2012 , it was confirmed by Jon Chu that G.I. Joe : Retaliation 's Cobra Commander is Rex Lewis , the same character that Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt played in The Rise of Cobra . Actor Robert Baker confirmed that he is the voice of Cobra Commander in the sequel .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began in August 2011 in Louisiana . On November 22 , 2011 , a crew member died in an accident at a New Orleans warehouse that was serving as a soundstage for the production . The incident happened while crew members were changing out a set . The battle on the Himalayas was shot in a New Orleans warehouse previously used to build NASA rockets , that had been fitted with a green screen wall at a very steep angle with a lot of rigging above to swing the stunt people through .
Fort Pike in Louisiana stands in for Fort Sumter in South Carolina as the site of the climactic summit meeting of the leaders of nuclear @-@ armed countries .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Retaliation had 700 visual effects shots , which were mostly handled by three effects companies . Visual effects supervisor Zachary Kinnery declared that while the visuals aimed for the " big and bold " typical of the franchise , Retaliation would be the first to attempt " a bit more of that gritty realism . " The major part of the effects was given to Digital Domain , which for 227 effects created digital vehicles and aircraft that had to " look fantastic but which are also plausible " , given they had to match practical models , the Zeus satellite and a sequence where Zartan shows his nanomite @-@ related disguise to the president - done with the same head replacement software developed for The Curious Case of Benjamin Button and Tron : Legacy . Industrial Light & Magic made the London destruction , a digital White House , and the mountain sword fight , which had computer @-@ generated backgrounds and digital augmentation of the stunt people 's performance . Method Studios was responsible for the desert attack , Firefly 's explosive bugs , and the malfunction on the underground prison . Saints LA handled minor effects such as compositing and news graphics .
= = = Music = = =
The film 's score was composed by Henry Jackman .
= = Release = =
Previously slated for release on June 29 , 2012 , Paramount announced in May 2012 that they were delaying the film 's release until March 29 , 2013 ( but was later moved to March 28 , 2013 ) , in order to convert the movie to 3D and boost interest in international markets .
The delay " gobsmacked " the film industry , according to Deadline.com , because Paramount had already implemented a substantial advertising campaign beginning with a Super Bowl commercial , because " warehouses full of " toys were waiting for the film 's launch , and because it was one of only three Paramount @-@ produced films scheduled for Summer 2012 ( along with The Dictator and Katy Perry : Part of Me ) . The studio also wanted to avoid competing with Tatum 's Magic Mike , also scheduled for June 29 , Deadline reported .
= = = Ban in Pakistan = = =
The film was banned by the Central Board of Film Censors of Pakistan due to initial scenes at the beginning of the movie which depict the country negatively , according to film censor board officials . A Karachi @-@ based cinema posted on its Facebook page that the film would not be screened due to restrictions by the censor board . The censorship was due to the film 's depiction of Pakistan as an unstable state and the fictional portrayal of a " foreign invasion of Pakistan ’ s nuclear installations " , which caught the ire of film censor authorities . Consequently , restrictions were imposed on screening the movie countrywide . According to an official at the censor board , the film portrayed Pakistan negatively not only on the issue of the War on Terror but also on the international standing of the country : " There is a scene which shows the assassination of the Pakistani president and the imposition of martial law , which is not a fair representation of the country . " Another cinema official explained " There were obviously several objectionable things which would never have passed the censors , but these things are also relevant to the content of the film . "
= = = Promotion = = =
On December 12 , 2011 , the premiere trailer for the film was released on YouTube exclusively from Machinima.com. The trailer itself features a remix of the White Stripes ' song " Seven Nation Army " by The Glitch Mob . Following the release of the trailer , Interview magazine featured G.I. Joe : Retaliation in " Thursday video Face @-@ Off " against the indie film Alter Egos on January 12 , 2012 . A shorter teaser trailer for the film aired during Super Bowl XLVI , containing music by Jay @-@ Z. A Japanese trailer focusing on actor Byung @-@ hun Lee was released in April 2012 . The second full trailer made its debut on April 24 , 2012 , containing a viral marketing initiative inviting viewers to interact with a website and Facebook application for the film . On December 13 , 2012 , a third trailer was released featuring more footage of London 's destruction . In January 2013 , a four @-@ minute clip of the film featuring a ninja battle between Snake Eyes and Storm Shadow was attached with IMAX screenings of Hansel and Gretel : Witch Hunters . A soundtrack of the score by composer Henry Jackman was released in April 2013 .
A toyline for the film was confirmed by Hasbro in February 2012 . Despite the movie 's release being moved from June 2012 to March 2013 , the initial assortments of figures , vehicles , and role @-@ play items were shipped to retailers , and appeared on store shelves in May 2012 . A Variety article was published stating that the already released figures had been pulled from the shelves and recalled by Hasbro , although the company 's official statement indicated that existing product would be sold through . New product shipments were halted by Hasbro , but existing Retaliation figures were available in Target , Wal @-@ Mart , and Toys R Us as late as December 2012 . The toyline was re @-@ released in the United States in February 2013 .
= = = Home media = = =
G.I. Joe : Retaliation was released on DVD , Blu @-@ ray and Blu @-@ ray 3D on July 30 , 2013 . A Blu @-@ ray " Extended Action Cut " added 12 minutes of footage and uncensored violence was also available , with the United States version being a Best Buy exclusive .
The film topped No. 1 on both the Blu @-@ ray and DVD sales charts with at least 54 % of both Blu @-@ ray and DVD units sold . The film also topped weekend rentals as well .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 28 % approval rating with an average rating of 4 @.@ 5 / 10 based on 161 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " Though arguably superior to its predecessor , G.I. Joe : Retaliation is overwhelmed by its nonstop action and too nonsensical and vapid to leave a lasting impression . " At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film has received an average score of 41 % , indicating " mixed or average reviews " , based on 31 critics , which was higher than the first film 's 32 % average score .
Alan Scherstuhl of The Village Voice wrote in a positive review that " this [ movie ] pushes right past competent into mostly legitimately enjoyable " but added that " the movie is still dumb as catbutt . It 's an honest and accomplished dumbness , however , where the stupidest stuff seems to be there because the movie would be less fun without it . " The Hollywood Reporter 's Todd McCarthy was critical about the film 's use of 3D and accurate reflection of the franchise 's comic book and cartoon origins , but predicted it would still earn better than its predecessor , G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a grade of " B- " , calling it " well @-@ executed technocratic action fluff " and commented : " In its dehumanized and trivial way , it 's a triumph of razor @-@ sharp , hyper @-@ violent style over formulaic substance ... Hollywood has now evolved to the point that it can deliver these kinds of thrills with maximum brute force and keep the impact so light that the result can still be regarded as a ' harmless ' diversion for 14 @-@ year @-@ olds . " Glen Heath Jr. of Slant Magazine gave it two out of four stars , criticizing the film 's " cut @-@ happy style " and plot , but lauding the action sequences and Chu 's direction as " poetry in high @-@ speed motion . " Writing for Indiewire 's The Playlist Blog , Todd Gilchrist gave the film a " B- " and wrote : " As one might expect , there are more than a handful of loose ends once justice has been served , but there ’ s something to be said for a film which aims to please in a sincere and straightforward way , without attempting to be the biggest ever . ' Retaliation ' is no masterpiece , but it ’ s a movie whose fun doesn ’ t feel like a four @-@ letter word "
In a negative review , Betsey Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times panned the " overwhelmingly complicated , globe @-@ hopping , enemies within , enemies without story line " and 3D but noted that " the humor , when it works , offers ' Retaliation ' some redemption . " She ended with : " It 's convoluted . Frankly no one should have to think that hard to keep up with the Joes . " Another negative review came from Variety Magazine 's Justin Chang , who
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. There are also share taxis that run along some bus routes but do not have an official schedule . In 2006 , Haifa implemented a trial network of neighborhood mini @-@ buses – named " Shkhunatit " and run by Egged . In December 2012 , GetTaxi , an app and taxi service which allows users to hail a cab using their smartphone without contacting the taxi station by identifying and summoning the closest taxi . In the current initial phase , 50 taxis from the service are operating in Haifa .
Haifa and the Krayot suburbs also have a new Phileas concept bus rapid transit system called the Metronit . These buses , operating with hybrid engines , follow optical strips embedded in designated lanes of roads , providing tram @-@ like public transportation services . The Metronit consists of 100 18 @-@ meter buses , each with the capacity for 150 passengers , operating along 40 km ( 25 mi ) of designated roadways . The new system officially opened on 16 August 2013 serving three lines .
Haifa is one of the few cities in Israel where buses operate on Shabbat . Bus lines operate throughout the city on a reduced schedule from late Saturday morning onwards , and also connect Haifa with Nesher , Tirat Karmel , Yokneam , Nazareth , Nazareth Illit and intermediate communities . Since the summer of 2008 , night buses are operated by Egged in Haifa ( line 200 ) and the Krayot suburbs ( line 210 ) . During the summer of 2008 these lines operated 7 nights a week . During the winter their schedule is limited to Thursday , Friday and Saturday nights , making them the only buses in Israel to operate on Friday night . Haifa is also the only city in Israel to operate a Saturday bus service to the beaches during summer time . Egged lines run during Saturday mornings from many neighborhoods to the Dado and Bat Galim beaches , and back in the afternoon .
The Haifa underground railway system is called Carmelit . It is a subterranean funicular on rails , running from downtown Paris Square to Gan HaEm ( Mother 's Park ) on Mount Carmel . With a single track , six stations and two trains , it is listed in Guinness World Records as the world 's shortest metro line . The Carmelit accommodates bicycles .
Haifa also has a cable car . The Haifa Cable Car gondola lift consists of six cabins and connects Bat Galim on the coast to the Stella Maris observation deck and monastery atop Mount Carmel . It serves mainly tourists . There are currently plans to add a 4 @.@ 4 kilometre commuter cable car service to Haifa 's public transport system , running from HaMifratz Central Bus Station at the foot of Mount Carmel to the Technion , and then to the University of Haifa .
= = = Air and sea transport = = =
Haifa Airport serves domestic flights to Tel Aviv and Eilat as well as international charters to Cyprus , Greece and Jordan . The airliners that operates flights from Haifa are Arkia and Israir . There are currently plans to expand services from Haifa . Cruise ships operate from Haifa port primarily to destinations in the Eastern Mediterranean , Southern Europe and Black Sea .
= = = Roads = = =
Travel between Haifa and the center of the country is possible by road with Highway 2 , the main highway along the coastal plain , beginning at Tel Aviv and ending at Haifa . Furthermore , Highway 4 runs along the coast to the north of Haifa , as well as south , inland from Highway 2 . In the past , traffic along Highway 2 to the north of Haifa had to pass through the downtown area of the city ; the Carmel Tunnels , opened for traffic 1 December 2010 , now route this traffic under Mount Carmel , reducing congestion in the downtown area .
= = Sports = =
The main stadiums in Haifa are the 14 @,@ 002 @-@ seat Kiryat Eliezer Stadium and Thomas D 'Alesandro Stadium . Neve Sha 'anan Athletic Stadium seats 1 @,@ 000 . Construction of the Sammy Ofer Stadium , a UEFA @-@ approved 30 @,@ 820 seat stadium was completed in 2014 .
The city 's two main football clubs are Maccabi Haifa and Hapoel Haifa who both currently play in the Israeli Premier League and share the Sammy Ofer Stadium as their home pitch . Maccabi has won twelve Israeli titles , while Hapoel has won one .
The city also has an American football club , the Haifa Underdogs , that are a part of the Israeli Football League and play in Yoqneam Stadium . The team lost in the championship game of the league 's inaugural season , but won one title as part of American Football Israel , which merged with the Israeli Football League in 2005 .
The city has several clubs in the regional leagues , including Beitar Haifa in Liga Bet ( the fourth tier ) and Hapoel Ahva Haifa , F.C. Haifa Ruby Shapira and Maccabi Neve Sha 'anan Eldad in Liga Gimel ( the fifth tier ) .
Haifa has a professional basketball club , Maccabi Haifa . Maccabi Haifa was recently promoted to Israeli Basketball Super League , the top division . The team plays at Romema Arena , which seats 5 @,@ 000 .
The Haifa Hawks are an ice hockey team based out of the city of Haifa . They participate in the Israeli League , the top level of Israeli ice hockey .
In 1996 , the city hosted the World Windsurfing Championship . The Haifa Tennis Club , near the southwest entrance to the city , is one of the largest in Israel . John Shecter , Olympic horse breeder and owner of triple cup champion Shergar was born here .
= = Twin towns - sister cities = =
Haifa is twinned with the following cities :
= New York State Route 185 =
New York State Route 185 ( NY 185 ) is an east – west state highway in Essex County , New York , in the United States . It serves as a connector between NY 9N and NY 22 in Crown Point and the Lake Champlain Bridge , by which the highway enters Vermont and becomes Vermont Route 17 ( VT 17 ) . NY 185 , named Bridge Road , passes through Crown Point State Historic Site and runs the entire length of Crown Point , a peninsula protruding into Lake Champlain .
NY 185 was assigned on April 4 , 2008 , as a signed replacement for New York State Route 910L , an unsigned reference route . It is the third signed designation that Bridge Road has carried , preceded by New York State Route 347 ( during the early 1930s ) and NY 8 ( 1930s to the 1960s ) . NY 185 originally connected to the Champlain Bridge on its east end ; however , that structure was closed and demolished in late 2009 . Its replacement opened to traffic in November 2011 .
= = Route description = =
NY 185 begins at an intersection with NY 9N and NY 22 in Crown Point . The route progresses eastward as a two @-@ lane highway named Bridge Road . Heading away from the western terminus , there is a fork in the road : to the left is NY 185 , and to the right is a road to a housing development . Most of NY 185 runs along the lowlands around Lake Champlain , making curves at intersections , and heading on relatively flat elevations . As the highway approaches the lake , it makes a curve to the north . There , it intersects with County Route 48 ( Lake Road ) and begins to follow the lake shore .
The highway passes to the east of the Crown Point State Historic Site and its campground before ascending up the approach to the Lake Champlain Bridge . After making a final curve to the northeast , NY 185 begins to cross Lake Champlain by way of the bridge . The route ends at the Vermont state line at the bridge 's midpoint , and the roadway continues into Vermont as VT 17 .
= = History = =
The Champlain Bridge was built in 1929 , connecting Crown Point in New York to Chimney Point in Vermont . A short connector highway between the bridge — which connected to VT 17 in Vermont — and NY 22 in Crown Point , named Bridge Road , was originally designated as NY 347 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . NY 347 became part of an extended NY 8 c . 1934 .
NY 8 was truncated south to Hague c . 1968 , eliminating a lengthy overlap with NY 22 and NY 9N . Its former routing along Bridge Road became NY 903 , an unsigned reference route . The NY 903 designation was later replaced with NY 910L when a new numbering system for reference routes was adopted by the New York State Department of Transportation , and NY 910L itself was redesignated and signed as NY 185 on April 4 , 2008 .
On October 16 , 2009 , the Champlain Bridge was closed to traffic due to structural concerns . The bridge was demolished on December 28 , 2009 , as a result of those concerns , temporarily reducing NY 185 in purpose to a spur route linking NY 9N and NY 22 to Crown Point . Its replacement , the Lake Champlain Bridge , opened to traffic on November 7 , 2011 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Crown Point , Essex County .
= Fernando Torres =
Fernando José Torres Sanz ( Spanish pronunciation : [ ferˈnando ˈtores ] ; born 20 March 1984 ) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a striker for La Liga club Atlético Madrid .
Torres started his career with Atlético Madrid , progressing through their youth system to the first team squad . He made his first team debut in 2001 and finished his time at the club having scored 75 goals in 174 La Liga appearances . Prior to his La Liga debut , Torres played two seasons in the Segunda División for Atlético Madrid , making 40 appearances and scoring seven goals .
Torres joined Premier League club Liverpool in 2007 , after signing for a club record transfer fee . He marked his first season at Anfield by being Liverpool 's first player since Robbie Fowler in the 1995 – 96 season to score more than 20 league goals in a season . The most prolific goalscoring spell of his career , he became the fastest player in Liverpool history to score 50 league goals . He was named in the FIFA World XI in 2008 and 2009 . Torres left the club in January 2011 to join Chelsea for a British record transfer fee of £ 50 million , which made him the most expensive Spanish player in history . In his first full season at Chelsea , Torres won the FA Cup and the UEFA Champions League , despite receiving criticism for a comparatively low goal @-@ scoring record . The following season he scored in the final of the 2012 – 13 UEFA Europa League , helping Chelsea to win the competition for the first time .
Torres is a Spanish international and made his debut against Portugal in 2003 . He has been capped over 100 times and is his country 's third @-@ highest goalscorer of all time . With Spain he has participated in six major tournaments ; UEFA Euro 2004 , the 2006 FIFA World Cup , UEFA Euro 2008 , the 2010 FIFA World Cup , UEFA Euro 2012 and the 2014 FIFA World Cup . Spain won the three tournaments from 2008 to 2012 , with Torres scoring in the finals of both Euro 2008 and Euro 2012 .
= = Early career = =
Born in Fuenlabrada , Community of Madrid , Torres became interested in football as a child and joined his first team , Parque 84 , at the age of five . His father José Torres worked during Torres ' childhood , and his mother Flori Sanz travelled daily with him to training sessions . His grandfather was not a passionate football fan , but took pride in being an Atlético Madrid supporter , and Torres inherited his love for the club .
Torres started playing football as a goalkeeper , the position his brother played in . When he was seven years old , however , he started playing regularly as a striker in an indoor league for the neighbourhood club , Mario 's Holland , using the characters from the anime Captain Tsubasa as inspiration . Three years later , aged 10 , he progressed to an 11 @-@ side team , Rayo 13 . He scored 55 goals in a season and was one of three Rayo 13 players to earn a trial with Atlético . He impressed the scouts and joined the club 's youth system at the age of 11 in 1995 .
= = Club career = =
= = = Atlético Madrid = = =
After progressing through the ranks , Torres won his first important youth title in 1998 . Atlético sent an under @-@ 15 team to compete in the Nike Cup , in Spain and Europe , to play against youth teams from other clubs ; Atlético won the tournament . He was later voted the best player in Europe for the age group . In 1999 , at the age of 15 , Torres signed his first professional contract with Atlético . He spent his first year playing in the youth team and participated in the Honor Division when he was 16 . The 2000 – 01 season had started badly , as Torres suffered from a cracked shinbone which kept him out until December . Torres trained with the first team to get prepared for pre @-@ season , but eventually made his debut for the team on 27 May 2001 , at the Vicente Calderón Stadium , against CD Leganés . A week later , he scored his first goal for the club against Albacete Balompié and the season finished with Atlético narrowly missing out on promotion to La Liga .
Atlético were promoted to La Liga at the end of the 2001 – 02 season , although Torres did not perform well in the season , as he netted only 6 times in 36 appearances in the Segunda División . Torres ' first season in La Liga , 2002 – 03 , was better , however , as he scored 13 goals in 29 appearances , with Atlético finishing in 11th place . In July 2003 , soon after his takeover of the club , Chelsea owner Roman Abramovich had a £ 28 million bid for Torres rejected by Atlético 's board . In the 2003 – 04 season , his second in La Liga , Torres made further strides , scoring 19 league goals in 35 appearances , meaning he finished as joint third highest scorer in the league . At the age of 19 , Torres was named Atlético 's captain . Atlético narrowly missed out on qualification for the UEFA Cup , but by finishing in seventh place in the 2003 – 04 season , they qualified for the 2004 UEFA Intertoto Cup , giving Torres a first taste of a competition at the European level . He scored two goals in the two fourth round matches against OFK Beograd , with one coming in each leg . Atlético reached the Final , but lost 3 – 1 on a penalty shoot @-@ out to Villarreal CF following a 2 – 2 draw on aggregate . FA Premier League champions Chelsea were believed to be interested in signing Torres during the summer of 2005 , but Atlético president Enrique Cerezo said that they had " no chance " of signing him . Cerezo later said in January 2006 that the club was willing to listen to offers for Torres , and Torres claimed Newcastle United of the FA Premier League had made a bid to sign him in March .
He stated after the 2006 FIFA World Cup that he had turned down an offer to join Chelsea at the end of the 2005 – 06 season . Torres scored 14 league goals in the 2006 – 07 season . The English media reported that he was the main transfer target of Premier League Liverpool , but Cerezo stated " We 've received no offer from Liverpool or any other club or player " . However , a few days later , new reports suggested Atlético had agreed a deal with Liverpool for Torres ; the fee was rumoured to be £ 25 million with Luis García moving to Atlético in a separate transfer deal . On 30 June , Atlético announced a deal to sign Diego Forlán from Villarreal , in what was seen as a move to replace Torres before his departure became official . On 2 July , it was reported that Torres had cut short a vacation to fly back to Madrid to finalise the move to Liverpool . The following day , Torres passed a medical at Liverpool 's Melwood training ground . He held a press conference in Madrid on 4 July to bid farewell to the Atlético fans , before completing his move to Liverpool on a six @-@ year contract . The transfer fee was the highest in Liverpool 's history . In March 2008 , manager Rafael Benítez stated in an interview with The Times that Torres was acquired for around £ 20 million , although this figure takes into account García 's move to Atlético .
= = = Liverpool = = =
= = = = 2007 – 08 season = = = =
Torres made his competitive debut for Liverpool against Aston Villa in a 2 – 1 win on 11 August 2007 . He made his first appearance in the UEFA Champions League four days past his first performance in a 1 – 0 victory over Toulouse , after coming on as a 79th minute substitute . His first Premier League goal came on his Anfield debut on 19 August 2007 , in the 16th minute in a 1 – 1 draw against Chelsea . His first hat @-@ trick came in a 4 – 2 victory over Reading in the League Cup on 25 September 2007 , with all of his goals coming in the second half . His first goals in the Champions League came on his third appearance in the competition as Liverpool beat Porto 4 – 1 on 28 November 2007 , as he scored twice .
Torres was named the Premier League Player of the Month for February 2008 , during which he scored four goals in four appearances , including a hat @-@ trick against Middlesbrough on 23 February 2008 . This hat @-@ trick and another in a 4 – 0 victory over West Ham United on 5 March 2008 meant he became the first Liverpool player since Jack Balmer in November 1946 to score a hat @-@ trick in successive home matches . Later in March , after he scored a 47th @-@ minute header against Reading at Anfield , becoming the first Liverpool player since Robbie Fowler in the 1995 – 96 season to score 20 league goals in a season . In April , he scored another Champions League goal , this time against Arsenal in the quarter @-@ final second leg , as Liverpool advanced to the semi @-@ final . This goal took him onto 29 goals for the 2007 – 08 season in all competitions , eclipsing Michael Owen 's personal record for goals in a season . On 11 April 2008 , it was announced Torres had made a six @-@ man shortlist for the PFA Players ' Player of the Year award , which was eventually won by Cristiano Ronaldo of Manchester United . The Spanish international was also nominated for the PFA Young Player of the Year Award , which was won by Cesc Fàbregas of Arsenal and was named in the PFA Team of the Year . In May , he finished second to Ronaldo for the FWA Footballer of the Year award .
On 4 May 2008 , Torres scored a 57th @-@ minute winner against Manchester City , which equalled the consecutive Anfield league goal record of eight games set by Roger Hunt . After scoring his 24th league goal in the final game of the season , a 2 – 0 win against Tottenham Hotspur , he set a new record for the most prolific foreign goal scorer in a debut season in England , eclipsing Ruud van Nistelrooy 's 23 goals . He ended the season in joint second place with Emmanuel Adebayor in the race for the Premier League golden boot . Torres was subject to media speculation that Chelsea were willing to pay £ 50 million to sign him but Torres responded by saying it would be " many years " before he left Liverpool . Liverpool co @-@ owner Tom Hicks also negated the idea of a transfer , saying he would not allow Torres to leave the club at any price .
= = = = 2008 – 09 season = = = =
Torres made a scoring start to the 2008 – 09 Premier League season with a 25 yard shot into the bottom right @-@ hand corner away at Sunderland , which was the only goal in a 1 – 0 win on 16 August 2008 . He suffered a hamstring tear in a 0 – 0 draw against Aston Villa , which would keep him out for two to three weeks . Torres made his return in a 2 – 1 victory against Marseille in the Champions League and went on to score two goals in the Merseyside derby against Everton on 27 September 2008 to give Liverpool a 2 – 0 win . He followed this up with another two goals the following weekend against Manchester City in a 3 – 2 win away at the City of Manchester Stadium as Liverpool came back from a two @-@ goal deficit . The first of these was the thousandth Liverpool goal to be scored in the Premier League . Torres picked up a hamstring injury during a 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifier , meaning he was likely to miss three games for Liverpool . On 22 October 2008 , Liverpool played Torres ' former club Atlético in the Champions League at the Vicente Calderón Stadium , but his injury meant he missed out on the game . The Atlético president , Enrique Cerezo , had given him a VIP invitation to watch the game , but he declined this to continue his rehabilitation from injury in Merseyside . He was named in the FIFPro World XI team for the 2007 – 08 season on 27 October 2008 .
Torres made his return for Liverpool on 8 November 2008 after coming on as a 72nd @-@ minute substitute in a 3 – 0 victory against West Bromwich Albion ( West Brom ) . He said he would be interested in returning to former club Atlético eventually , saying " I don 't know if I will retire there , but I would like to go back and finish some things that are left to do . " He was ruled out of action for two to three weeks following Liverpool 's 1 – 0 victory over Marseille in the Champions League in November , where he picked up a hamstring strain , which was later extended to at least four weeks by specialists . He was named on the shortlist for the FIFA World Player of the Year award in December , and eventually came in third place behind Ronaldo and Lionel Messi . Torres returned to action on 3 January 2009 as a substitute with a goal in the 2 – 0 win over Preston North End ; his first in the FA Cup . He scored two late goals for Liverpool to secure a 2 – 0 victory over Chelsea on 1 February 2009 . Despite having spent a year and a half at the club , Torres was chosen as number 50 in The Times 's list of " The 50 greatest Liverpool players " , reinforcing the impact he had made at Liverpool in such a short period of time .
Torres faced his old rivals Real Madrid on 10 March 2009 in the Champions League last 16 and due to an ankle injury , he had a painkilling injection before the game to enable him to play . He scored the first goal of the game , which ended as a 4 – 0 victory , meaning Liverpool progressed to the quarter @-@ finals 5 – 0 on aggregate . Four days later he lined up against Manchester United at Old Trafford and he scored the equaliser in a game that finished as a 4 – 1 victory . He was named in the PFA Team of the Year for the second season running in April 2009 . Torres scored his 50th goal for Liverpool on 24 May 2009 against Tottenham on the final day of the 2008 – 09 season , which was his 84th appearance .
= = = = 2009 – 10 season = = = =
Following the end of the season , he agreed a new contract with Liverpool , which he signed on 14 August . By signing this contract , Torres had the option of a one @-@ year extension after the contract 's expiration in 2013 . Torres scored two goals in a 3 – 2 win over West Ham United on 19 September 2009 , a result that took Liverpool to third in the Premier League . A week later he scored his first hat @-@ trick of the 2009 – 10 Premier League season in a 6 – 1 victory over Hull City at Anfield . He was named Premier League Player of the Month for September , after scoring five goals during the month and becoming the Premier League 's top goalscorer . On 25 October 2009 , he scored the first goal in a 2 – 0 victory for Liverpool over Manchester United , after which Benítez praised Torres ' performance , saying " We were waiting for that final pass . When it came we knew he would score . " Torres was named in the FIFPro World XI for the second successive season in December 2009 . His stoppage @-@ time winning goal against Aston Villa on 29 December 2009 made him the fastest Liverpool player ever to score 50 league goals . He was substituted on 65 minutes in a 1 – 1 draw with Birmingham City on 4 April 2010 , which Benítez justified by saying Torres was " exhausted " . Torres made his last appearance of the season scoring twice in a 4 – 1 victory over Benfica in the Europa League on 8 April 2010 , and it was announced on 18 April that he would miss the rest of the season to undergo knee surgery . This meant that Torres finished the season with 22 goals in 32 games in all competitions , finishing as Liverpool 's top scorer for the second time .
= = = = 2010 – 11 season = = = =
Following Roy Hodgson 's appointment as Liverpool manager he stated that Torres would not be sold by the club , saying " He is not for sale and we don 't welcome any offers for him . We want to keep him . " Hodgson dismissed reports Torres was set to leave Liverpool by saying " He has told us that he is looking forward to Monday , to getting back to work and looking forward to playing for Liverpool next season . That is what I know so other reports , I would suggest , are erroneous . " Torres stated his commitment to Liverpool on 3 August , saying " My commitment and loyalty to the club and to the fans is the same as it was on my first day when I signed . "
He made his first appearance of the 2010 – 11 season in the opening game , a 1 – 1 draw with Arsenal on 14 August 2010 , entering the game as a substitute in the 74th minute . He scored his first goal of the season with the winner in a 1 – 0 victory over West Brom on 29 August 2010 , which was his 50th goal at Anfield in all competitions . Torres scored the winning goal in a 2 – 1 victory at home to Blackburn Rovers on 24 October 2010 , which was his first goal since August . He scored his final goals for Liverpool in a 3 – 0 win away at Wolverhampton Wanderers on 22 January 2011 .
= = = Chelsea = = =
On 27 January 2011 , Torres was the subject of a £ 40 million bid from Chelsea , which was rejected by Liverpool . He subsequently handed in an official transfer request to Liverpool the next day , which was rejected . Torres completed his move to Chelsea on a five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract on 31 January 2011 for an undisclosed fee reported to be £ 50 million , which set a new record for a British transfer and made him the sixth most expensive footballer in history . He made his Chelsea debut on 6 February 2011 in a 1 – 0 home defeat to former club Liverpool . On 23 April 2011 , Torres scored his first goal for Chelsea against West Ham United in a 3 – 0 victory , which ended a run of 903 minutes of football without a goal . This was his only goal for Chelsea in the 2010 – 11 season , having made 18 appearances for his new club .
= = = = 2011 – 12 season = = = =
Torres got the 2011 – 12 season underway in Chelsea 's 0 – 0 draw away against Stoke City on 14 August 2011 , in which his " link @-@ up play was sharp , plus he was willing to make intelligent runs into space to receive the ball " . He scored his second goal at Chelsea , and his first of the season , on 18 September 2011 , during an away game against Manchester United , which was the side 's only goal in a 3 – 1 defeat . He scored his second goal of the season at home to Swansea City in a 4 – 1 victory . However , 10 minutes after his goal , a two @-@ footed challenge on Mark Gower resulted in his first red card in English football and a three @-@ match domestic suspension . On 19 October 2011 , Torres scored two goals in a 5 – 0 victory against Genk in the Champions League , his first in Europe since the quarter @-@ final of the 2008 – 09 Champions League with his old club Liverpool , against Chelsea . His next Chelsea goals came after scoring twice and also assisting two others against Championship side Leicester City in an FA Cup quarter @-@ final on 18 March 2012 , ending a goal drought that stretched 24 games . On 31 March 2012 , Torres scored his first Premier League goal since 24 September 2011 , against Aston Villa in a 4 – 2 away win .
Torres came on as a substitute for Didier Drogba on 24 April 2012 to score a last @-@ minute goal against FC Barcelona in the Champions League semi @-@ final , which gave Chelsea a 2 – 2 draw , and also eliminated Barcelona from the tournament , as Chelsea won 3 – 2 on aggregate . He scored the first hat @-@ trick of his Chelsea career in a 6 – 1 win against Queens Park Rangers at Stamford Bridge on 29 April 2012 . Torres came on in the second half of the 2012 UEFA Champions League Final on 19 May 2012 , directly after Bayern Munich 's opening goal , and following a 1 – 1 draw after extra time Chelsea won the penalty shoot @-@ out 4 – 3 . His first full season at Chelsea finished with 11 goals in 49 games .
= = = = 2012 – 13 season = = = =
Torres started the 2012 – 13 season in the 2012 FA Community Shield against Manchester City at Villa Park , where he scored the opening goal , as Chelsea lost 3 – 2 . On 19 August 2012 , he appeared in Chelsea 's first league match in a 2 – 0 away win against Wigan Athletic . Torres scored his first goal of the season in Chelsea 's next match on 22 August 2012 , a 4 – 2 home win against Reading , scoring the third goal to give his side the lead . He also scored against Newcastle United , Arsenal and Norwich City as Chelsea topped the table in the early weeks of the season .
Torres was sent off for receiving two yellow cards against Manchester United on 28 October 2012 , the second for diving , leaving Chelsea with nine men after teammate Branislav Ivanović was also sent off ; the team went on to lose 3 – 2 . Torres scored his first goal in the Champions League for the season after deflecting Shakhtar Donetsk goalkeeper Andriy Pyatov 's clearance into goal , as Chelsea needed a 94th @-@ minute winner from Victor Moses to secure a 3 – 2 victory on 7 November 2012 . On 21 November 2012 , Roberto Di Matteo was replaced as Chelsea manager by Rafael Benítez , who had previously coached Torres at Liverpool . It was reported that one reason for Benítez 's appointment was to help Torres return to his best form .
Torres ended a goal drought that stretched over 11 hours of game time with two goals in Chelsea 's 6 – 1 defeat of Nordsjælland in the Champions League on 5 December 2012 . Three days later he scored another two goals , ending a run of eight Premier League games without a goal , as Chelsea defeated Sunderland 3 – 1 . He then scored in Chelsea 's 2012 FIFA Club World Cup semi @-@ final 3 – 1 win against Monterrey of the Mexican Liga MX on 13 December 2012 , before playing in the 1 – 0 defeat to Brazilian Série A side Corinthians in the final three days later .
On 14 March 2013 , Torres scored the third goal as Chelsea defeated Steaua București 3 – 1 to advance 3 – 2 on aggregate to the quarter @-@ final of the Europa League . With this goal , Torres became the first player to score in seven different competitions in one season . In April 2013 , Torres acknowledged his struggles at Chelsea , saying : " I want to do the things I used to do . I did them at Atlético , I did them at Liverpool , but I am not doing them at Chelsea " , but he vowed to " try his heart out " to regain his best form . He scored twice against Rubin Kazan in the 3 – 1 win in the first leg of the Europa League quarter @-@ final on 4 April 2013 , before scoring again in the second leg 3 – 2 defeat , with Chelsea progressing to the semi @-@ final 5 – 4 on aggregate . Torres scored the opening goal in Chelsea 's 2 – 1 triumph over Benfica in the 2013 UEFA Europa League Final on 15 May 2013 . During the final game of the season , a 2 – 1 home win over Everton , he scored his first league goal of 2013 , and finished the season with 22 goals in 64 games .
= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =
Torres was selected to start by Chelsea 's new manager José Mourinho against Hull City on the opening day of the 2013 – 14 season , where he won a fifth minute penalty kick . He scored his first goal of the season in the 2013 UEFA Super Cup against Bayern Munich . On 28 September 2013 , he was sent off after receiving two yellow cards in Chelsea 's 1 – 1 Premier League draw with Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane .
Torres made his 100th start for Chelsea against Schalke 04 in a Champions League match on 22 October 2013 and marked the occasion by scoring two goals in a 3 – 0 win . His first Premier League goal of the season came on 27 October as he scored the winning goal in the 90th minute over title challengers Manchester City , while also providing the assist for André Schürrle 's opener .
= = = Milan = = =
Torres joined Serie A club Milan on a two @-@ year loan on 31 August 2014 . On his arrival he expressed a desire to emulate some of the club 's greatest strikers , stating he wanted , " My shirt to rank alongside [ Marco ] van Basten , [ George ] Weah and [ Filippo ] Inzaghi . " He debuted on 20 September 2014 , replacing Andrea Poli for the last 14 minutes of a 1 – 0 home defeat against Juventus and scored his first Milan goal with a looping header in their 2 – 2 draw with Empoli two days later .
= = = Return to Atlético Madrid = = =
On 27 December 2014 , it was announced that Torres ' move to Milan would be made permanent on 5 January 2015 , but two days later he agreed to rejoin La Liga club Atlético Madrid on loan until the end of the 2015 – 16 season . The loan was agreed after Alessio Cerci went the opposite way from Atlético to Milan on the same day ( 5 January 2015 ) . Torres ' unveiling at the Vicente Calderón Stadium on 4 January 2015 drew a crowd of 45 @,@ 000 . He played the first match of his second spell on 7 January 2015 , starting in the first leg of a Copa del Rey last 16 tie against Real Madrid . He had no shots on target and was replaced by Koke after 59 minutes , but Atlético won 2 – 0 . Eight days later in the second leg , he scored two goals — in the first minute of each half — as Atlético advanced , his first goals in an away Madrid derby . Torres scored in the first minute again in the quarter @-@ finals , albeit in a 2 – 3 home defeat against Barcelona .
On 17 March , Torres scored the winning kick in Atlético 's 3 – 2 penalty shoot @-@ out defeat of Bayer Leverkusen in the second leg of the teams ' Champions League round of 16 tie . On 21 March , he scored his first La Liga goal since his return in the third minute of a 2 – 0 win against Getafe CF .
After the departure of Mario Mandžukić , Torres changed his shirt number from 19 back to his usual 9 and is wearing it in the 2015 – 16 season .
On 6 February 2016 , Torres scored his 100th goal with Atlético Madrid in a 3 – 1 home league victory against SD Eibar on his 295th appearance for the club . The following month he marked the occasion of his 300th appearance for Atlético Madrid by scoring the winning goal in a 3 – 1 victory over Valencia .
On 5 April 2016 , Torres scored the opening goal of Atlético 's UEFA Champions League quarter @-@ final with FC Barcelona at Camp Nou , before being sent off ten minutes later in an eventual 2 – 1 loss .
On 5 July 2016 , Torres extended his contract to a permanent contract for one year with Atlético Madrid .
= = International career = =
In February 2001 , Torres won the Algarve Tournament with the Spain national under @-@ 16 team . The under @-@ 16s took part in the 2001 UEFA European Under @-@ 16 Championship in May , which they also won , with Torres scoring the only goal in the Final , as well as finishing as the tournament 's leading scorer , and was also named the player of the tournament . In September 2001 , Torres represented the under @-@ 17 team at the 2001 FIFA U @-@ 17 World Championship , but the team failed to progress through the group stage . In July 2002 , he won the 2002 UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Championship with the under @-@ 19 team and was again the only goalscorer in the Final . Also , he finished as top scorer and was named player of the tournament .
Torres made his debut for the senior team on 6 September 2003 in a friendly against Portugal . His first goal for Spain came against Italy on 28 April 2004 . He was selected for the Spanish squad for UEFA Euro 2004 . After appearing as a late substitute in Spain 's first two group games , he started for the deciding game against Portugal . Spain were losing 1 – 0 and , towards the end of the game , he hit the post .
He scored seven goals in 11 appearances in qualifying for the 2006 FIFA World Cup , making him Spain 's top scorer for qualification , including a vital two goals against Belgium and his first international hat @-@ trick against San Marino . At his first ever appearance in a FIFA World Cup finals at the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany , Torres scored the final goal in a 4 – 0 victory over Ukraine with a volley . In the second group match , Torres scored twice against Tunisia , first in the 76th minute to take Spain 2 – 1 into the lead , and then again from a penalty kick in the 90th . With three goals , he finished the tournament as Spain 's top scorer along with fellow striker David Villa .
He was called up for Spain 's UEFA Euro 2008 squad , where he set up Villa to score Spain 's first goal of the tournament in the first game in the group stage against Russia . Torres came under criticism for apparently refusing to shake the hand of Spanish manager , Luis Aragonés , after being substituted . He subsequently denied being angry with the coaching , saying that he was actually " irritated with himself " . He scored his first goal of the tournament in Spain 's next game , a 2 – 1 win over Sweden . Torres scored the winner and was named the man of the match in the final against Germany in a 1 – 0 victory . He said " It 's just a dream come true . This is my first title and I hope it 's the first of many . Victory in a Euro , it is almost as big as a World Cup . We are used to watching finals on television , but today we were here and we won . My job is to score goals . I want to win more titles and be the most important player in Europe and the world . " He was later named as a striker along with his striking partner Villa in the Team of the Tournament .
Torres made his 60th appearance for Spain in a 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification victory over Turkey on 28 March 2009 , becoming the youngest player to reach this milestone .
He was named in Spain 's team for the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup in June . He scored his second hat @-@ trick for Spain after 17 minutes into a Confederations Cup game against New Zealand on 14 June , thus recording the fastest hat @-@ trick by a player for Spain . He played for Spain as they were defeated 2 – 0 by the United States in the semi @-@ final , as well as the third @-@ place play @-@ off , which Spain won 3 – 2 against South Africa after extra time .
Having undergone knee surgery on 18 April 2010 , and missed the end of the Premier League season , Torres ' rehabilitation and fitness was closely monitored by Spain manager Vicente del Bosque . Although still out injured , Torres was selected for Spain 's 2010 FIFA World Cup squad in May . On 8 June , Torres made his first appearance on the field in exactly two months , coming on as a substitute on 66 minutes against Poland in a pre @-@ World Cup friendly .
He came on as a substitute on 61 minutes in Spain 's opening World Cup game on 16 June , a 1 – 0 defeat to Switzerland . He started the next two games against Honduras and Chile and although his performances in the group stage were described as below @-@ par , he received backing from manager Vicente del Bosque . Torres came on as a substitute on 105 minutes in the final as Spain won the FIFA World Cup for the first time following a 1 – 0 victory over the Netherlands on 11 July 2010 .
Torres was selected in Del Bosque 's UEFA Euro 2012 squad . In his first start of the tournament he netted two goals as Spain defeated the Republic of Ireland 4 – 0 to knock them out of the tournament . In the UEFA Euro 2012 Final , Torres came on as a substitute against Italy , scoring one goal and assisting another , as Spain won a second consecutive European Championship with a 4 – 0 victory . This secured him the Golden Boot for the tournament with three goals and one assist , having played fewer minutes than Mario Gómez , who also had three goals and one assist .
Torres won his 100th cap against Saudi Arabia on 7 September 2012 , making him the sixth highest capped player for Spain , and started the game as captain in Iker Casillas ' absence . He became the first person in history to score four goals in one game in a FIFA Confederations Cup match during a 10 – 0 win over Tahiti on 20 June 2013 in the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup . Torres also became the first player to score two hat @-@ tricks in the FIFA Confederations Cup , and with five goals and one assist won the tournament 's Golden Shoe , ahead of Fred having played fewer minutes .
In his first international for 11 months , Torres scored a penalty in a World Cup warm @-@ up match against Bolivia on 30 May 2014 . The day after , he was named in Spain 's final squad for the tournament , ahead of Álvaro Negredo and Fernando Llorente . After substitute appearances in the team 's opening two matches , Torres was named in the starting line @-@ up for the third group match with the team 's elimination already confirmed . He scored Spain 's second goal in a 3 – 0 defeat of Australia in Curitiba .
= = Style of play = =
Torres has been described as having " an eye for the spectacular and is capable of world @-@ class skill " and being a " technically proficient , highly successful striker " . He has the ability to find himself in goalscoring positions , using his pace and vision to get in behind defenders .
= = Personal life = =
Torres ' parents are José Torres and Flori Sanz . He has two older siblings , Israel ( born 1977 ) and María Paz ( born 1976 ) . He married Olalla Domínguez Liste on 27 May 2009 in a private ceremony with just two witnesses at the local town hall in El Escorial , Madrid . They had been a couple since 2001 and are thought to have met in the Galician seaside town of Estorde , Cee , where Torres would go on family holidays each year to escape the Spanish capital . The couple have two children , a daughter , Nora , born on 8 July 2009 at the Hospital La Rosaleda , in Santiago de Compostela , Galicia , and a son , Leo , born on 6 December 2010 at Liverpool Women 's Hospital , with Torres missing the fixture against Aston Villa at Anfield .
In 2009 , it was reported that Torres had amassed a personal fortune of £ 14 million . He features in the video for " Ya nada volverá a ser como antes " by Spanish pop rock group El Canto del Loco , whose singer , Dani Martín , shares a strong friendship with the footballer . He makes a cameo appearance in the 2005 comedy film Torrente 3 : El protector . In 2009 , he released an autobiography entitled Torres : El Niño : My Story . Torres is a keen admirer of the works of J. R. R. Tolkien and has a tattoo reading " Fernando " in Tengwar on his left forearm .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played 28 May 2016 .
= = = International = = =
As of match played 23 June 2014 .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Atlético Madrid
Segunda División : 2001 – 02
Chelsea
FA Cup : 2011 – 12
UEFA Champions League : 2011 – 12
UEFA Europa League : 2012 – 13
= = = International = = =
Spain U16
UEFA European Under @-@ 16 Championship : 2001
Spain U19
UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Championship : 2002
Spain
UEFA European Championship : 2008 , 2012
FIFA World Cup : 2010
FIFA Confederations Cup : Third place 2009 , Runner @-@ up 2013
= = = Individual = = =
UEFA European Under @-@ 16 Championship Player of the Tournament : 2001
UEFA European Under @-@ 16 Championship top scorer : 2001
UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Championship Player of the Tournament : 2002
UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Championship top scorer : 2002
Premier League PFA Team of the Year : 2007 – 08 , 2008 – 09
Premier League Player of the Month : February 2008 , September 2009
Premier League Goal of the Month : April 2009 @,@
UEFA Euro 2008 Final : Man of the Match
UEFA Euro Team of the Tournament : 2008
UEFA Team of the Year : 2008
FIFA FIFPro World XI : 2008 , 2009
ESM Team of the Year : 2007 – 08
FIFA World Player of the Year third place : 2008
Ballon d 'Or third place : 2008
FIFA Confederations Cup Silver Shoe : 2009
Marca Leyenda award : 2012
UEFA Euro Golden Boot : 2012
FIFA Confederations Cup Golden Shoe : 2013
Decorations
Prince of Asturias Award for Sports : 2010
Gold Medal of the Royal Order of Sports Merit : 2011
= Mark Stockwell =
Mark William Stockwell ( born 5 July 1963 ) is an Australian former competition swimmer and three @-@ time Olympic medallist . Stockwell is a Queensland native who specialised in freestyle sprint events , and had a successful international swimming career during the mid @-@ 1980s , including the Olympics , Pan Pacific Championships , and Commonwealth Games . Following his retirement from competitive swimming , he has become a successful business executive and has been active in the administration of national sports organisations in Australia .
= = Early years and education = =
Stockwell was born and raised in Brisbane , Queensland , the son of Bill and Necia Stockwell . He is a 1980 graduate of St Laurence 's College , a Roman Catholic boys ' high school in Brisbane . Stockwell was an Australian Institute of Sport scholarship holder from 1982 to 1984 , and again in 1987 . He undertook commerce and engineering studies at the University of Queensland , and economics coursework at the Australian National University . He also attended the University of Florida in the United States .
= = Swimming career = =
Stockwell won three medals at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles . In the men 's 100 @-@ metre freestyle , Stockwell finished in 50 @.@ 24 seconds and claimed a silver medal behind American swimmer Rowdy Gaines ' Olympic record time of 49 @.@ 80 seconds . The outcome was controversial , however , because of a premature starter gun and a quick start by Gaines . Gaines ' coach , Richard Quick , knew of starter Frank Silvestri 's tendency to fire the starter gun almost immediately when the competitors mounted the blocks . Gaines gained about a metre 's head start on the competition ; he held Stockwell off to claim the gold medal . Video of the event confirmed that Stockwell had not been set when the starter pulled the trigger . Stockwell and the Australian Olympic Federation lodged an official protest , but it was denied .
Stockwell , along with teammates Greg Fasala , Neil Brooks and Michael Delany , won another silver medal in the men 's 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle relay , finishing in 3 : 19 @.@ 68 – just 0 @.@ 63 of a second behind the Americans ' new world record of 3 : 19 @.@ 05 . He also teamed up with Mark Kerry ( backstroke ) , Peter Evans ( breaststroke ) , and Glenn Buchanan ( butterfly ) , swimming the freestyle anchor leg to win the bronze medal in the 4 × 100 @-@ metre medley relay ( 3 : 43 @.@ 25 ) behind the Americans ( 3 : 39 @.@ 30 ) and Canadians ( 3 : 43 @.@ 25 ) . He and his freestyle relay teammates were dubbed the " Mean Machine " by the Australian media . Stockwell was the only Australian athlete to win three Olympic medals in 1984 .
After the Olympics , Stockwell attended the University of Florida in Gainesville , Florida , United States , where he swam for coach Randy Reese 's Florida Gators swimming and diving team in National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) and Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) competition during the 1984 – 85 school year . He won three SEC titles ( 50- and 100 @-@ yard freestyle , 400 @-@ yard freestyle relay ) , and received All @-@ American honours in the same three events . While attending the university , he dated his future wife , Tracy Caulkins , who was also a Florida Gators swimmer . He and Caulkins had met in the warm @-@ up pool at the 1984 Olympics .
He followed his Olympic performance with a bronze medal for his third @-@ place finish in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle ( 23 @.@ 44 ) , and a fourth in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle ( 51 @.@ 64 ) at the 1985 Pan Pacific Championships in Tokyo . By the time the 1986 Commonwealth Games were held in Edinburgh , Stockwell had fallen back from his Olympic times in Los Angeles . He claimed a gold medal with his Australian teammates Fasala , Matthew Renshaw and Neil Brooks in the 4 × 100 @-@ metre relay ( 3 : 21 @.@ 58 ) , and finished seventh in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle ( 51 @.@ 61 ) . He retired from competitive swimming in 1986 . In December 1989 , The Age newspaper recognized Stockwell as one of the three best Australian swimmers of the 1980s .
= = Life after swimming = =
Stockwell married American competition swimmer Tracy Caulkins , a three @-@ time Olympic gold medallist , in her hometown of Nashville , Tennessee in 1991 . He lives in Brisbane , with his wife and their five children . He received an Australian Sports Medal for his swimming achievements in 2000 . Stockwell was inducted into the Queensland Sport Hall of Fame in 2009 .
He is the managing director of the family @-@ owned property development , investment and management firm , W. A. Stockwell Pty Ltd , based in Queensland . He and his brother @-@ in @-@ law Mike Kelso are co @-@ owners of the company that was established as a construction firm by his parents more than sixty years ago . The firm has had successful development ventures in residential , leisure , retail , commercial and industrial property , and has undertaken a phased AU $ 350 million residential development in Brisbane 's West End . He and his family members were included among the 14 new entries on the 2014 " Rich List , " with a combined estimated net worth of AU $ 101 million .
He serves on the board of directors of the Australian Sports Commission , and is the deputy chairman of the board . He is also the chairman of the Australian Sports Foundation , a non @-@ profit company that raises money for Australian sport projects . He previously served as the chairman of the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Organising Committee , having led the committee through its successful application process , but was sacked by Campbell Newman . He is the chairman of Trade and Investment Queensland , the Queensland state government 's foreign investment and export program , and a past president of the Queensland division of the Property Council of Australia , and previously served on its national board .
Stockwell is the past chairman and a trustee of the St Laurence 's Old Boys ' Foundation , which funds need @-@ based scholarships for boys whose families cannot otherwise afford the tuition and fees at his high school , St Laurence 's College . He is a Trustee of the Stockwell Foundation , a charitable organisation established by him and his wife to benefit at @-@ risk children .
= Dota 2 =
Dota 2 is a free @-@ to @-@ play multiplayer online battle arena ( MOBA ) video game developed and published by Valve Corporation . The game is the stand @-@ alone sequel to Defense of the Ancients ( DotA ) , a mod for the 2002 video game Warcraft III : Reign of Chaos and its expansion pack , The Frozen Throne . Dota 2 was released for Microsoft Windows , OS X , and Linux in July
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found the address and learns that her brain still contains some of John 's memories . Wishing to discover what else John knew and prevent any further visions from occurring , Olivia insists on returning to Walter ’ s sensory deprivation tank . Inside the tank , Olivia sees a memory of John in a restaurant . Despite Walter 's vehement protest that it is impossible , Olivia is convinced that John Scott saw her . Afterwards , she sees John meeting with Mark and two other unidentified men . After Mark and another man leave , John kills the other man . Olivia believes the group were looking to sell the compound as a street drug , and is able to track down the other man , George Morales ( Yul Vazquez ) . Once apprehended , he denies killing Mark and demands immunity and protection from Massive Dynamic , who he believes was responsible for Mark 's death as well as other recent fringe events . Olivia confronts Nina Sharp ( Blair Brown ) about her suspicions , but George is murdered before he can be of further help to them . Later that night , Olivia gets another email from John Scott simply saying , " I SAW YOU . IN THE RESTAURANT . "
Meanwhile , Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) is contacted by Tess ( Susan Misner ) , a woman from his past who warns him to leave Boston . When he meets her , Peter intuits that she is being abused by her boyfriend Michael ( David Vadim ) . He ambushes Michael and warns him not to touch Tess again . Michael then informs local crime boss Worth ( Tom Riis Farrell ) that Peter is back in town .
= = Production = =
" The Dreamscape " , the season 's ninth episode , was co @-@ written by staff writer Zack Whedon and playwright Julia Cho . It was Whedon 's first contribution to the series , and Cho 's second . In an interview fifteen days before the broadcast of " The Dreamscape " , showrunner and executive producer Jeff Pinkner stated that it and several surrounding episodes would be " stand @-@ alone in quality , but at the same time we [ will ] start to peel back another layer of the onion " to transition the second half of the season into a " new chapter . " Anna Torv later commented that she wished for Olivia to " lighten up " during the first season , " but every time she did , something would happen . " The writers inputted small scenes to shine more light on her character , which included Olivia dressing up for a night out but then " the phone rings . It ’ s Broyles , and she wipes the lipstick off , puts on a coat , and goes out . That ’ s it . You ’ re on call . She breaks my heart . "
Fred Toye served as the episode director , his second after directing " The Ghost Network " six installments earlier . To create the opening scene of character Mark Young being " attacked " by butterflies , Toye shot it in multiple phases . Series co @-@ creator Roberto Orci preferred the opening scene to involve a " more subtle " death , so Young was made to die from falling out a window , which was " a real thing , something that 's not imagined or whimsical " . VFX coordinator Christopher Stollard stated that his crew " relied entirely on actor performance , " with guest actor Ptolemy Slocum communicating often with the crew during filming . He shot his scenes in short bursts . Slocum summarized that he " would experience the [ butterfly ] cut and then we would freeze , apply make @-@ up [ to create the cut on his skin ] , and then unfreeze and move on " filming . On his first day , Slocum stated that he wore more than 75 individual prosthetics over his entire chest and arms .
Stollard wished the butterflies to be as realistic as possible , and modeled them after mounted butterfly specimens his team studied . The butterflies were computer generated animations and added later in post @-@ production . To create the illusion of Young falling through the window , the visual effects crew placed small explosive charges on the tempered glass window ; Slocum 's stuntman Jared Burke then jumped through while they triggered the glass to explode . Two cameras , one high and one profile , were positioned to shoot the fall , and were composited together later into a matte painting of the World Trade Building . The fall was filmed multiple times with a green screen , with the stuntman falling on a cushion . While on @-@ set , Toye explained of the shoot , " with all the pieces put together with the visual effects and with the performance we got with our actor Ptolemy , it 's going to be fabulous . " A crewman believed that the addition of music to Young 's fall made the scene " far more elegant and more of a statement . " In a December 2012 interview , actress Jasika Nicole stated that she developed a fear of butterflies as a result of this episode .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings and marketing = = =
" The Dreamscape " first aired on November 25 , 2008 in the United States on the Fox network . With its timeslot dominated by the Dancing With the Stars season finale , Fringe attracted an estimated 8 @.@ 73 million viewers , down from the previous week 's audience of 9 @.@ 36 million . This placed it in third place in its timeslot , behind The Mentalist . The episode also came in third place among viewers aged 18 – 49 , as it earned a 3 @.@ 9 / 10 ratings share ; this means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast .
Fringe 's marketing team designed and launched www.massivedynamic.com near the beginning of the first season . Parts of the website can be seen in " The Dreamscape " , including on Olivia 's computer as she researches the company .
= = = Reviews = = =
Noel Murray of The A. V. Club was generally favorable to the episode , giving it a B + . He wrote , " Much like Fringe fan favorite ' The Arrival ' ( not a favorite of mine , sorry to say ) , ' The Dreamscape ' is an episode more involved with insinuation and mythology @-@ building than with telling a complete @-@ in @-@ one story . But perhaps because I 've come to trust Fringe more over its recent run of entertaining episodes , I enjoyed it fairly well , and found myself trying to figure out what kind of thematic connections I could make using the notion of the body reacting to mere thoughts . " Travis Fickett of IGN rated the episode 7 @.@ 8 / 10 , explaining that it " certainly moves in the right direction " . Fickett found the " coolest moment " to be when Olivia witnesses John Scott 's memory , and he also appreciated Peter 's backstory ( " It 's more than Peter usually gets , but what we know isn 't much and isn 't very exciting . " ) . Fickett criticized Olivia however for leaving the man at the hospital unsuitably protected .
SFScope reviewer Sarah Stegall enjoyed Peter 's sideplot and hoped to learn more of his past , but thought the " cute in @-@ jokes " were meant to distract the audience from a " thin " plot " full of holes " . She added that " the shallow , cookie @-@ cutter plotting " was starting to annoy her , and noted that while the series had the potential to become " a breakout show like The X @-@ Files or Lost ... its major weakness is the continual reliance on the worn @-@ out cliché of the Big Bad Corporation , " which had become " stale and dry . "
Jane Boursaw of AOL 's TV Squad wrote , " Another great episode tonight , and some of the little symbols we see leading into commercials were actually in tonight 's episode , " referring specifically to the hallucinatory butterflies and the frogs / toads found in the basement . Andrew Hanson of the Los Angeles Times took notice here of the pattern of Easter eggs teasing the next episode of the series . This feature of the show had earlier been touched on in an interview with showrunner Jeff Pinkner . As an example , the previous episode " The Equation " had contained a shot of a butterfly on a trashcan , foreshadowing the hallucinated butterfly attack in this episode .
In a 2016 retrospective of the series , A.V. Club writer Joshua Alston considered " The Dreamscape " as a strong example of Fringe 's " monster of the week " episodes that predominated the first season , showing " how much effort and imagination went into the self @-@ contained stories " .
= True Blue ( Madonna song ) =
" True Blue " is a song by American singer Madonna . It is the title track from her third studio album True Blue ( 1986 ) , and was released as the album 's third single on September 29 , 1986 by Sire Records . Written and produced by Madonna and Steve Bray , the song deals with the feelings of Madonna for her then @-@ husband Sean Penn . A dance @-@ pop song , it features instrumentation from a rhythm guitar , a synthesizer , keyboards , and drums . The main chorus is backed by an alternate one , incorporating a chord progression generally found in doo @-@ wop music .
Received by the critics as a light @-@ hearted and cute retro song , " True Blue " topped the charts in UK , Ireland and Canada and became another consecutive top ten song in U.S. for Madonna by reaching number three on the Billboard Hot 100 . The original music video portrayed her again with a new look , leaner and sporting platinum blond bushy hair . An alternate video was made through the " Make My Video " contest on MTV . The final selected videos had a similar theme of a 1950s @-@ inspired setting and the storyline following the lyrics of the song . " True Blue " has been performed on the Who 's That Girl World Tour ( 1987 ) and the Rebel Heart Tour ( 2015 – 16 ) .
= = Writing and composition = =
Madonna wrote and produced the song with Steve Bray . According to her , " True Blue " takes its title from a favourite expression of her then husband Sean Penn and to his very pure vision of love and was a direct tribute to him as well as the album , which was as a whole inspired by her " unabashed valentine " for Penn . In an interview , Bray said , " She [ Madonna ] was very much in love . It was obvious if she 's in love she 'll write love songs . If she 's not in love she definitely won 't be writing love songs . " In 2015 , Madonna said that " True Blue " is " a song about true love . I didn 't know what I was talking about when I wrote it . "
" True Blue " is a dance @-@ pop song inspired by the Motown 's girl groups from the 1960s which are considered the direct antecedents of Madonna 's musical sound . The song is composed in the key of B major . It is set in compound quadruple meter , commonly used in doo @-@ wop , and has a moderate tempo of 118 beats per minute . " True Blue " features instrumentation from a rhythm guitar , a synthesizer , keyboards , and drums for the bassline , with a basic sequence of I – vi – IV – V ( B – G ♯ m – E – F ♯ ) as its main chord progression .
Madonna 's vocal range spans a bit less than one and a half octaves , from F ♯ 3 to B4 . The chorus is backed by sounds of bells ringing , an alternate verse — " This time I know it 's true " — which is sung by three back @-@ up singers during the interlude , and a bass counter melody which introduces her vocals during the second chorus . The lyrics are constructed in a verse @-@ chorus form , with the theme being Madonna 's feelings for Sean Penn ; it even uses the archaic love word " dear " in the line " Just think back and remember , dear " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Davitt Sigerson from Rolling Stone magazine in a review of the album True Blue said that the song " squanders a classic beat and an immensely promising title " , LAUNCHcast 's Bill Holdship said that " True Blue " is " Madonna 's wonderful tribute to the late ' 50s / early ' 60s " girl groups " . In his book Madonna : An Intimate Biography , journalist J. Randy Taraborrelli described the song as " the light @-@ hearted , fun track of the whole True Blue album project having a retro 1950 's feel to it " . In the book Rock ' n ' Roll Gold Rush which contains information about various artists and their singles , author Maury Dean said that the song as a " masterwork of simplicity interwoven with secret complexity " adding that " on one hand , it 's just a basic steetcorner ditty , with four basic chords . In another context , it 's a counterpoint harmonic blanket , twirling with star @-@ spangled timbre and dynamic drive . " Rikky Rooksby , in his book The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , said that " True Blue " is " a song that is merely cute and not really up to being the title track of an album " .
The Wichita Eagle did not like the song , believing that it was " sassless and neutered " as compared to the other songs on the record . However , Daniel Brogan of The Chicago Tribune believed the song was good , calling it " impressive " like the rest of the album , and Jan DeKnock of the same paper believed it was " charming " . Steve Morse of The Boston Globe , when describing the song , said that it was a " bid to be an ' 80s Helen of Troy " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" True Blue " was released in the United States in October 1986 . It debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 40 , six weeks later it reached its peak of number three , remaining at the position for three consecutive weeks , and spent a total of 16 weeks on the chart . The song performed equally well on the other Billboard charts , peaking at number five on Adult Contemporary , and number six on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . In October 1998 , the single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies . In Canada , the song debuted at number 84 the RPM singles chart on September 27 , 1986 , reached the top for one week in November 1986 , and stayed on the chart for 23 weeks . It ended at the 37th position of the year @-@ end chart .
In the United Kingdom , " True Blue " was released on September 29 , 1986 . It debuted at number three on the UK Singles Chart , before climbing to number one the next week , becoming Madonna 's third number @-@ one single there . It was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) in October 1986 . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold 545 @,@ 000 copies there . The song peaked at number one for two weeks in October 1986 in Ireland , making it her fourth number @-@ one single on the Irish Singles Chart . Both in Australia and New Zealand , the song reached the top five , and was certified platinum in the former region by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for sales of 70 @,@ 000 copies of the single . In Europe " True Blue " also topped the Eurochart Hot 100 for one week in October 1986 . It peaked in the top five in Belgium , Italy , and the Netherlands , and in the top ten in Austria , France , Germany , and Switzerland .
= = Music videos = =
= = = Official version = = =
" True Blue " had two music videos to accompany it . Shot in early September 1986 in New York , Madonna 's own video for the song was directed by James Foley , who worked with Madonna in her videos for " Live to Tell " and " Papa Don 't Preach " , produced by Robert Colesberry and David Massar with photography by Michael Ballhaus . The Foley version features Madonna with three dancers and a 1950s car in an all @-@ blue diner . Madonna changes her hairstyle from short @-@ cropped in " Papa Don 't Preach " to a bushy platinum blonde hairdo and sings the song in choreographed moves backed by her dancers . It displays a flashing back to fifties rock 'n'roll youth culture .
The blue background changes to a sunny one as she sings " The sun is bursting right out of the sky " to go @-@ along with the lyrical meaning of the song . Two of Madonna 's close friends , Erika Belle and Debi Mazar appear in the video . The video was released at a time when she was going through a failed marriage with then husband actor Sean Penn . During this period , Madonna focused on more traditional fashion and attitudes and tried to appear more respectful of traditional gender roles . After shedding her trampy sex @-@ kitten and boy @-@ toy image with the " Live to Tell " music video , Madonna again adopted a new look for this video . Madonna attended aerobics classes at Hollywood health centre The Sports Connection , which was responsible for her toned down look in the video .
= = = " Make My Video " contest = = =
Sire Records decided to opt for a promotional device in the United States that would involve MTV viewers to make their own videos for " True Blue " . In the fall of 1986 , MTV asked its viewers to submit their own videos . The contest was known as " Madonna 's ' Make My Video ' Contest " . The winner was awarded a trip to MTV 's New York studio where Madonna presented a $ 25 @,@ 000 check live on MTV . Thousands of viewers submitted their recorded tapes which were mainly made using home @-@ made video equipment and featured themselves or relatives as the actors . MTV publicist Peter Danielson said that many of the submissions featured teenagers imitating Madonna . All the entries were shown in a continuous run on MTV as promised . The same song was played over and over for the whole day , but each time with a different video made by the finalists . Author Lisa A. Lewis said that this event emphasized the effect Madonna had on different kind of audiences due to the popularity and response to the contest . MTV selected ten finalists based mainly on a standard of popularity rather than slickness of production or concept creativity .
The concepts used in the videos were wide ranging and included a number of different ideas to interpret the lyrical meaning of the song . The final three entries selected , portrayed a fifties @-@ style production referring to the thematic content of the song . The song 's narration about " True Love " formed the basis of the rest of the semi @-@ finalist videos but was used in very different ways . The videos were choreographed featuring heterosexual romance , though no particular male or female protagonist was singled out . Some even adopted a kind of literal montage technique rather than structuring the video around a narrative line .
The winning entry was by Angel Gracia and Cliff Guest and it showed the female protagonist ( played by the director 's sister Anabel Garcia ) being supported and guided by her girlfriends who introduce her with the male protagonist . The girl even goes to the boy 's door to gift him flowers , thereby reversing the usual gender @-@ directed pattern of gift @-@ giving . The male protagonist is portrayed as a " perfect boy " ( played by William Fitzgibbon ) having the sensibilities like attentiveness , cuteness , playfulness like a friend ( after the lyrics " You 're my best friend " ) and not sexual overtones . The video in @-@ turn contrasts him with a self @-@ centered boy who puts on sunglasses , throws his leather jacket over his shoulder and walks away from the girl . Other videos portrayed a girl pining for her sailor , U.S.-Soviet relations and an arguing couple with the girl in a scene inspired by the music video of Tina Turner 's 1984 single " What 's Love Got to Do with It " .
= = Live performances = =
Madonna first performed the song on her 1987 " Who 's That Girl World Tour " . She came up on the stage wearing a blue dress to sing the song after finishing a performance of " Lucky Star " . In a similar setting to the original music video of the song , Madonna is backed up by her singers who play her girlfriends . At the end of the song Madonna is asked to dance again by the dancer playing her man in the performance . Her dance in the performance ( and also some other performances in the tour ) was choreographed by Jeffrey Hornaday from Flashdance . Two different performances of the song on the tour were included on two live video releases : Who 's That Girl : Live in Japan , filmed in Tokyo , Japan , on June 22 , 1987 , and Ciao Italia : Live from Italy , filmed in Turin , Italy , on September 4 , 1987 .
Madonna did not perform the song again until 2015 , as part of her Rebel Heart Tour . She performed an acoustic , ukulele @-@ driven version of the song sitting on top of a tire stack while asking the crowd to sing along with her . Writing for the Daily News , Jim Farber felt that during the performance " [ Madonna ] emphasized a rare sincerity " while Jordan Zivitz from the Montreal Gazette opined that " it was both endearingly quaint and , supersized by an unprompted singalong from more than 16 @,@ 000 voices , a goosebumps moment that felt more grandiose in its way than the showpieces surrounding it " . Newsday 's Glenn Gamboa gave a similar feedback , saying that the " lovely acoustic version of " True Blue " was a rare bow to romance , the sweetest of Madonna sentiments " .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – lyrics , producer , vocals
Steve Bray – drums , keyboards , lyrics , producer
Bruce Gaitsch – rhythm guitar
Fred Zarr – additional keyboards
Steve Peck – engineer
Shep Pettibone – remixing
Herb Ritts – photography
Jeri McManus – design / artwork
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Invisible rail =
The invisible rail , Wallace 's rail , or drummer rail ( Habroptila wallacii ) is a large flightless rail that is endemic to the island of Halmahera in North Maluku , Indonesia , where it inhabits impenetrable sago swamps adjacent to forests . Its plumage is predominantly dark slate @-@ grey , and the bare skin around its eyes , the long , thick bill , and the legs are all bright red . Its call is a low drumming sound which is accompanied by wing @-@ beating . The difficulty of seeing this shy bird in its dense habitat means that information on its behaviour is limited .
Recorded dietary items include sago shoots and insects , and it also swallows small stones to help break up its food . It is apparently monogamous , but little else is known of its courtship behaviour . The only known nest was a shallow bowl in the top of a rotting tree stump that was lined with wood chips and dry leaves . The two young chicks were entirely covered in black down typical of precocial newly hatched rails . The estimated population of 3 @,@ 500 – 15 @,@ 000 birds and the restricted range mean that the invisible rail is classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . Habitat loss has occurred through the harvesting of sago and conversion of the wetlands to rice cultivation , and the rail is eaten by local people . The described nest was in an area frequented by local villagers , so the rail may be more adaptable to habitat changes than had been thought .
= = Taxonomy = =
The rails are a large and very widespread family , with nearly 150 species . They are small to medium @-@ sized , terrestrial or wetland birds , and their short bodies are often flattened laterally to help them move through dense vegetation . Island species readily become flightless ; of 53 extant or recently extinct taxa restricted to islands , 32 have lost the ability to fly .
The invisible rail , first classified by English zoologist George Robert Gray in 1860 , is the only member of the monotypic genus Habroptila . The genus name Habroptila derives from the Greek habros , " delicate , pretty , splendid " and ptilon , " feather , wing " ; wallacii commemorates British zoologist Alfred Russel Wallace . Local names include " soisa " , " tibiales " and " rèie " .
This rail is related to the New Guinea flightless rail , Megacrex inepta , and the chestnut rail , Eulabeornis castaneoventris , all three Australasian genera probably being derived from Amaurornis ancestors . Storrs Olson argued that the genus Megacrex was so similar to Habroptila that Megacrex should be considered a junior synonym of Habroptila , resulting in two species in the genus . This was further lumped in Sidney Dillon Ripley 's 1977 monograph of the Rallidae ; he included Habroptila within the large genus Rallus . This suggestion was , however , not accepted by Gerlof Fokko Mees , who pointed out distinct differences in the shape and structure of the bill . A molecular phylogenetic analysis based on mitochondrial DNA sequence similarity found that Habroptila is part of evolutionary radiation within the broad genus Gallirallus that took place around 400 @,@ 000 years ago in the region .
= = Description = =
The invisible rail is a large , 33 to 40 cm ( 13 – 16 in ) long , flightless bird . The adult has a mainly dark slate @-@ grey body , dark brown plumage on the lower back , rump and wings , and a black uppertail . Its underparts are slightly paler slate @-@ grey than the back , and the bare skin around the eye , the long , thick bill and the strong legs are bright red . It has a small spine at the bend of the wings . The sexes are identical in appearance ; the plumage of fledged immature birds has not been described .
The invisible rail is superficially similar to the purple swamphen , Porphyrio porphyrio , which has recently been found in Halmahera , but that species is larger , with a short , thick red bill and a red forehead shield ; it also has purple underparts and a white undertail . The invisible rail is different from the Calayan rail , Gallirallus calayanensis , in that it is larger and lacks the barred plumage of that species ; there is no overlap between the ranges of the two species .
The call is a low drumming , accompanied by a tuk , tuk , tuk made with the wings . The nature of the vocalisation led to a local legend that the sound is made by the bird beating on a hollow tree or branch with its feet . Gerd Heinrich noted the local name " soisa " , meaning drum , and described the call as being a subdued drumming purre – purre – purre – purre – purre which sometimes ends in a loud shrill scream . The bird also produced a dull hum similar to the voice of the banded pig ( Sus scrofa vittatus ) and reminiscent of the call of the snoring rail ( Aramidopsis plateni ) . Calling is most frequent in the early morning or late evening , and a human tapping a sago stem with a machete may elicit a response from the bird . A quieter version of the call is given at the nest . Other sounds attributed to this rail , such as loud screams , may be incorrect , since they are like those produced by the pale @-@ vented bush @-@ hen ( Amaurornis moluccana ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The invisible rail inhabits the dense , spiky sago swamps of Halmahera , particularly where forest adjoins the boggy areas . Claims that the rail occurs in alang @-@ alang grass are thought to have arisen from confusion with the pale @-@ vented bush @-@ hen . German ornithologist Gerd Heinrich , who prepared for his Halmahera trip by rolling in stinging nettles , wrote of the sago swamp habitat in the 1930s :
I am solidly confident no European has ever seen this rail alive , for that requires such a degree of toughening and such demands on oneself as I cannot so easily attribute to others . Habroptila is shielded by the awful thorns of the sago swamps ... In this thorn wilderness , I walked barefoot and half @-@ naked for weeks .
Sightings of the rail from 1950 to 2003 were from a restricted area of West Halmahera Regency , at the base of the western peninsula of the island , but it was recorded prior to 1950 as far as the southern point of Halmahera . More recent records showed that it is still present in a significantly larger area , including the northeast of the island , and locals claim that it also occurs in the swamps near Kao , in the northwest .
= = Behaviour = =
The difficult habitat and retiring nature of the invisible rail mean that information on its lifestyle is sparse , and there are few confirmed sightings . Recorded food items include sago shoots and insects . It also feeds at cut sago plants , although it is unclear whether it is eating the decaying plant or searching for other edible items . It swallows small stones , as do all rails , to help break up its food in the gizzard .
The invisible rail is thought to be monogamous , but little else is known of its courtship behaviour prior to nesting . A report of 4 – 5 striped chicks was long thought to be incorrect , since such a plumage is not normal for rails . In this family , chicks are typically precocial , downy and black , with any ornamentation confined to the head , bare flesh , or specially modified plume feathers .
The issue was resolved in November 2010 when a nest was found in the top of a rotting tree stump , 1 m ( 39 in ) above ground level and 46 m ( 151 ft ) in from the edge of a dry swamp forest in Aketajawe @-@ Lolobata National Park . The nest depression was 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in depth , with a lower layer of small wood chips at its base and a lining of dead leaves . The egg shells were brownish @-@ white with dark brown and black markings of different sizes . The two very young chicks were entirely covered in black down , contrasting with a white pollux ( the equivalent of the thumbnail on a human hand ) and pink index nail . The bill was black with a white tip , and the legs were black @-@ streaked brown . The eyes had grey irises and blue pupils . Rail chicks leave the nest soon after hatching , so the chicks were assumed to be only a day or two old .
= = Status = =
Bird species with a restricted range are especially vulnerable to human activities , and eight of the 26 bird species occurring only in the Northern Maluku Endemic Bird Area are threatened , including the invisible rail . Almost a quarter of all rail species have conservation concerns , and flightless island species are particularly at risk , at least 15 species having become extinct since 1600 . The estimated population of the invisible rail is 3 @,@ 500 – 15 @,@ 000 birds , and its restricted range and small population mean that the species is classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) , although this rail is so poorly known that it may be more common than the estimates suggest .
Habitat loss has occurred through commercial harvesting of the sago , or conversion to rice cultivation and fishponds . The rail is a prized food for local people who catch it with traps made from strings of bark and hunt it with dogs . The only described nest was in an area well @-@ used by local villagers , and the rail may be more adaptable to habitat changes than had been thought . There were also several sightings in northeast Halmahera in 2008 and 2011 , extending the area in which this bird has been seen in recent years .
= Project Chanology =
Project Chanology ( also called Operation Chanology ) was a protest movement against the practices of the Church of Scientology by members of Anonymous , a leaderless Internet @-@ based group that defines itself as ubiquitous . The project was started in response to the Church of Scientology 's attempts to remove material from a highly publicized interview with Scientologist Tom Cruise from the Internet in January 2008 .
The project was publicly launched in the form of a video posted to YouTube , " Message to Scientology " , on January 21 , 2008 . The video states that Anonymous views Scientology 's actions as Internet censorship , and asserts the group 's intent to " expel the church from the Internet " . This was followed by distributed denial @-@ of @-@ service attacks ( DDoS ) , and soon after , black faxes , prank calls , and other measures intended to disrupt the Church of Scientology 's operations . In February 2008 , the focus of the protest shifted to legal methods , including nonviolent protests and an attempt to get the Internal Revenue Service to investigate the Church of Scientology 's tax exempt status in the United States .
Reactions from the Church of Scientology regarding the protesters ' actions have varied . Initially , one spokesperson stated that members of the group " have got some wrong information " about Scientology . Another referred to the group as a group of " computer geeks " . Later , the Church of Scientology started referring to Anonymous as " cyberterrorists " perpetrating " religious hate crimes " against the church .
Detractors of Scientology have also criticized the actions of Project Chanology , asserting that they merely provide the Church of Scientology with the opportunity to " play the religious persecution card " . Other critics such as Mark Bunker and Tory Christman initially questioned the legality of Project Chanology 's methods , but have since spoken out in support of the project as it shifted towards nonviolent protests and other legal methods .
= = Background = =
The Church of Scientology has a history of conflict with groups on the Internet . In 1995 , attorneys for the Church of Scientology attempted to get the newsgroup alt.religion.scientology ( a.r.s. ) removed from Usenet . This attempt backfired and generated a significant amount of press for a.r.s. The conflict with a.r.s led the hacker group Cult of the Dead Cow to declare war on the Church of Scientology . The Church of Scientology mounted a 10 @-@ year legal campaign against Dutch writer Karin Spaink and several Internet service providers after Spaink and others posted documents alleged to be secret teachings of the organization . The Church of Scientology 's efforts ended in a legal defeat in a Dutch court in 2005 . This series of events is often referred to as " Scientology versus the Internet " .
= = = Tom Cruise video = = =
On January 14 , 2008 , a video produced by the Church of Scientology featuring an interview with Tom Cruise was posted on YouTube . In the video , music from Cruise 's Mission : Impossible films plays in the background , and Cruise makes various statements , including saying that Scientologists are the only people who can help after a car accident , and that Scientologists are the authority on getting addicts off drugs . According to The Times , Cruise can be seen in the video " extolling the virtues of Scientology " . The Daily Telegraph ( Australia ) characterized Cruise as " manic @-@ looking " during the interview , " gush [ ing ] about his love for Scientology " .
The Church of Scientology asserted that the video material that had been leaked to YouTube and other websites was " pirated and edited " and taken from a three @-@ hour video produced for members of Scientology . YouTube removed the Cruise video from their site under threat of litigation . The web site Gawker.com did not take down their copy of the Tom Cruise video , and other sites have posted the entire video . Lawyers for the Church of Scientology sent a letter to Gawker.com requesting the removal of the video , but Nick Denton of Gawker.com stated : " It 's newsworthy and we will not be removing it . "
= = = Formation = = =
Project Chanology was formulated by users of the English @-@ speaking imageboards 711chan.org and 4chan , the associated partyvan.info wiki , and several Internet Relay Chat channels , all part of a group collectively known as Anonymous , on January 16 , 2008 after the Church of Scientology issued a copyright violation claim against YouTube for hosting material from the Cruise video . The effort against Scientology has also been referred to by group members as " Operation Chanology " . A webpage called " Project Chanology " , part of a larger wiki , is maintained by Anonymous and chronicles planned , ongoing and completed actions by project participants . The website includes a list of suggested guerrilla tactics to use against the Church of Scientology . Members use other websites as well to coordinate action , including Encyclopedia Dramatica and the social networking site Facebook , where two groups associated with the movement had 3 @,@ 500 members as of February 4 , 2008 . A member of Anonymous told the Los Angeles Times that , as of February 4 , 2008 , the group consisted of " a loose confederation of about 9 @,@ 000 people " who post anonymously on the Internet . A security analyst told The Age that the number of people participating anonymously in Project Chanology could number in the thousands : " You can 't pin it on a person or a group of people . You 've thousands of people engaged to do anything they can against Scientology . "
Members of Project Chanology say their main goal is " to enlighten the Church of Scientology ( CoS ) by any means necessary . " Their website states : " This will be a game of mental warfare . It will require our talkers , not our hackers . It will require our dedicated Anon across the world to do their part . " Project Chanology 's stated goals include the complete removal of the Church of Scientology 's presence from the Internet and to " save people from Scientology by reversing the brainwashing " . Project Chanology participants plan to join the Church of Scientology posing as interested members in order to infiltrate the organization .
Andrea Seabrook of National Public Radio 's All Things Considered reported Anonymous was previously known for " technologically sophisticated pranks " such as spamming chat rooms online and " ordering dozens of pizzas for people they don 't like " . Ryan Singel of Wired appeared on the program on January 27 , 2008 , and told Seabrook that members of Anonymous were motivated by " the tactics the Church of Scientology uses to control information about itself " rather than the " controversial nature of Scientology itself " .
= = Activities = =
= = = Internet activities = = =
Project Chanology began its campaign by organizing and delivering a series of denial @-@ of @-@ service attacks against Scientology websites and flooding Scientology centers with prank calls and black faxes . The group was successful in taking down local and global Scientology websites intermittently from January 18 , 2008 until at least January 25 , 2008 . Anonymous had early success rendering major Scientology websites inaccessible and leaking documents allegedly stolen from Scientology computers . This resulted in a large amount of coverage on social bookmarking websites .
The denial @-@ of @-@ service attacks on Scientology.org flooded the site with 220 megabits of traffic , a mid @-@ range attack . Speaking with SCMagazineUS.com , a security strategist for Top Layer Networks , Ken Pappas said that he thought that botnets were involved in the Anonymous operation : " There are circles out there where you could take ownership of the bot machines that are already owned and launch a simultaneous attack against [ something ] like the church from 50 @,@ 000 PCs , all at the same time " .
In response to the attacks , on January 21 , 2008 the Scientology.org site was moved to Prolexic Technologies , a company specializing in safeguarding web sites from denial @-@ of @-@ service attacks . Attacks against the site increased , and CNET News reported that " a major assault " took place at 6 p.m. EST on January 24 , 2008 . Anonymous escalated the attack on Scientology on January 25 , 2008 and on January 25 , 2008 , the Church of Scientology 's official website remained inaccessible .
On January 21 , 2008 , Anonymous announced its goals and intentions via a video posted to YouTube entitled " Message to Scientology " , and a press release declaring " War on Scientology " , against both the Church of Scientology and the Religious Technology Center . In the press release , the group stated that the attacks against the Church of Scientology would continue in order to protect freedom of speech and to end what they characterized as the financial exploitation of church members .
The Tom Cruise video is referred to specifically at the start of the Anonymous YouTube video posting , and is characterized as a " propaganda video " . The video utilizes a synthesized voice and shows floating cloud images using a time lapse method as the speaker addresses the leaders of Scientology directly : " We shall proceed to expel you from the Internet and systematically dismantle the Church of Scientology in its present form ... " The video goes on to state : " We recognize you as serious opponents , and do not expect our campaign to be completed in a short time frame . However , you will not prevail forever against the angry masses of the body politic . Your choice of methods , your hypocrisy , and the general artlessness of your organization have sounded its death knell . You have nowhere to hide because we are everywhere ... We are Anonymous . We are Legion . We do not forgive . We do not forget . Expect us . " By January 25 , 2008 , only four days after its release , the video had been viewed 800 @,@ 000 times , and by February 8 , 2008 had been viewed over 2 million times . Author Warren Ellis called the video " creepy in and of itself " and a " manifesto , declaration of war , sharp political film " .
In a different video posted to YouTube , Anonymous addresses news organizations covering the conflict and criticizes media reporting of the incident . In the video , Anonymous criticizes the media specifically for not mentioning objections by the group to certain controversial aspects of the history of the Church of Scientology , and cited past incidents including the death of Lisa McPherson : " We find it interesting that you did not mention the other objections in your news reporting . The stifling and punishment of dissent within the totalitarian organization of Scientology . The numerous , alleged human rights violations . Such as the treatment and events that led to the deaths of victims of the cult such as Lisa McPherson . " Lisa McPherson was a Scientologist who died in 1995 under controversial circumstances . Initially , the Church of Scientology was held responsible and faced felony charges in her death . The charges were later dropped and a civil suit brought by McPherson 's family was settled in 2004 . This second video was removed on January 25 , 2008 , YouTube citing a " terms of use violation " . Organizers of the February 10 , 2008 , Project Chanology protests against the Church of Scientology told the St. Petersburg Times the event was timed to coincide with the birthday of Lisa McPherson .
In addition to DDoS attacks against Church of Scientology websites , Anonymous also organized a campaign on one of their websites to " begin bumping Digg " , referring to an attempt to drive up Scientology @-@ related links on the website Digg.com. On January 25 , 2008 , eight of the top ten stories on Digg.com were about either Scientology @-@ related controversies or Anonymous and attempts to expose Scientology . Digg CEO Jay Adelson told PC World that Anonymous had not manipulated the site 's algorithm system to prevent artificial poll results , stating : " They must have done a very good job of bringing in a diverse set of interests ... It just happened to hit a nerve that the Digg community was interested in . " Adelson said two other instances which similarly have dominated the Digg main page in the past were the Virginia Tech Massacre in the aftermath of the incident and the " 7 / 7 " London bombings in 2005 . Adelson commented on the popularity of Scientology theme within the Digg community : " In the history of Digg , there 's no question that the topic of Scientology has been of great interest to the community ... I can 't explain why . "
On January 29 , 2008 , Jason Lee Miller of WebProNews reported that a Google bomb technique had been used to make the Scientology.org main website the first result in a Google search for " dangerous cult " . Miller wrote that Anonymous was behind the Google bomb , and that they had also tried to bump Scientology up as the first result in Google searches for " brainwashing cult " , and to make the Xenu.net website first result in searches for " scientology " . Rob Garner of MediaPost Publications wrote : " The Church of Scientology continues to be the target of a group called Anonymous , which is using Google bombs and YouTube as its tools of choice . "
In a February 4 , 2008 , article , Scientology spokeswoman Karin Pouw told the Los Angeles Times that Church of Scientology 's websites " have been and are online . " Danny McPherson , chief research officer at Arbor Networks , claimed 500 denial @-@ of @-@ service attacks had been observed on the Scientology site in the week prior to February 4 , some of which were strong enough to bring the website down . Calling Anonymous a " motley crew of internet troublemakers " , Wired blogger Ryan Singel said that , while attempting to bypass the Prolexic servers protecting the Church of Scientology website , users of a misconfigured DDoS tool inadvertently and briefly had targeted the Etty Hillesum Lyceum , a Dutch secondary school in Deventer . Another hacking group associated with the project , calling themselves the " g00ns " , mistakenly targeted a 59 @-@ year @-@ old man from Stockton , California . They posted his home telephone number , address and his wife 's Social Security number online for other people to target . They believed that he was behind counter @-@ attacks against Project Chanology @-@ related websites by the Regime , a counter @-@ hack group who crashed one of the Project Chanology planning websites . The group allegedly attempted to gain personal information on people involved in Project Chanology to turn that information over to the Church of Scientology . After discovering they had wrongly targeted the couple , one of the members of the g00ns group called and apologized .
= = = Protests planned = = =
A new video entitled " Call to Action " appeared on YouTube on January 28 , 2008 , calling for protests outside Church of Scientology centers on February 10 , 2008 . As with the previous videos , the two @-@ minute video used a synthesized computer voice and featured stock footage of clouds and sky . The video was accompanied by a text transcript with British English spelling . The video denied that the group was composed of " super hackers " , stating : " Contrary to the assumptions of the media , Anonymous is not ' a group of super hackers . ' ... Anonymous is everyone and everywhere . We have no leaders , no single entity directing us . " The video said that Project Chanology participants include " individuals from all walks of life ... united by an awareness that someone must do the right thing . " Specific controversies involving the CoS were cited in the video as the explanation for actions by Anonymous .
In an email to CNET News , Anonymous stated that coordinated activities were planned for February 10 , 2008 , in many major cities around the world . Anonymous hoped to use " real world " protests to rally public opinion to their cause . According to the Associated Press , the protests were meant to draw attention to what the group refers to
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en collected the stories into a bound volume , and published it on July 16 , 1995 .
In 2003 , Tokyopop announced that it had licensed The One I Love for an English @-@ language translation , along with four other manga by Clamp ; it published The One I Love on October 12 , 2004 . However , on May 31 , 2011 , Tokyopop shut down its publishing branch in North America , with all of its Japanese manga licenses returned . Viz Media digitally republished the manga on February 10 , 2015 . The One I Love has also been translated into other languages , including French by Editions Tonkam , and German by Egmont Manga & Anime .
= = Reception = =
A reviewer for Anime News Network , Mikhail Koulikov wrote that readers would have various reactions to The One I Love : he felt that some would regard it as " charming " and others would find it upsetting that the female protagonists were primarily defined by their worry over their relationships . While considering it one of Clamp 's minor works , he stated that it was " unusual " for including some colored pages when the majority of manga is printed in black and white ; being a slice @-@ of @-@ life manga ; and featuring Tsubaki Nekoi 's art , as prior to the time of his review , most of their works translated into English had been drawn by another member of Clamp . Koulikov wrote that " insecurity and self @-@ doubt " served as the theme of the anthology . Johanna Draper Carlson , a reviewer for Publishers Weekly , wrote that some of the stories were worrisome , particularly one that she felt " justifies having an interest in whatever your boyfriend likes , " and contained stereotypes as a result of limited space . She also stated that the essays included generalizations about women and " quickly become redundant . " In Manga : The Complete Guide , Mason Templar suggested a possible theme of being one 's self in relationships , but felt that it appeared " almost anti @-@ feminist in execution , " as only the female characters underwent a change in behavior . Templar rated the series one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars , and criticized it as a naïve take on romance ; Templar suggested Cardcaptor Sakura , Chobits , or Man of Many Faces as better examples of Clamp 's romantic manga . A reviewer of the French edition wrote that repetitive nature of the stories detracted from the manga 's appeal , and made for a " laborious " reading experience , although the reviewer felt that a " romantic " reader would not mind this . Conversely , another reviewer for Anime News Network , Liann Cooper , wrote that the stories were " incredibly sweet and touching " and were best read a few stories at a time . According to Cooper , The One I Love would appeal to fans of Clamp or shōjo , manga targeted towards girls .
= Hurricane Abby ( 1960 ) =
Hurricane Abby was the only tropical cyclone in the Caribbean Sea during the 1960 Atlantic hurricane season . The second tropical cyclone and first named storm season , Abby developed on July 10 from a tropical wave in the vicinity of the Lesser Antilles . Abby rapidly intensified into a hurricane after being a tropical storm for less than six hours . It briefly peaked as a category 2 hurricane before weakening back . Abby rapidly weakened to a minimal tropical storm a few days thereafter . The storm re @-@ strengthened into a hurricane as it began to parallel the coast of Honduras . Hurricane Abby made landfall in British Honduras ( present @-@ day Belize ) on July 15 . Abby dissipated over Mexico later the next day . The remnants of Abby ultimately became Hurricane Celeste in the Pacific Ocean . Despite passing through or near several countries , Hurricane Abby had a relatively light impact on land , resulting in just $ 640 @,@ 500 ( 1960 USD , $ 5 @.@ 16 million 2016 USD ) in damage and six fatalities .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Abby were possibly from a tropical wave that moved in the vicinity of the Lesser Antilles in early July 1960 . Ships and a few weather stations on July 9 reported the existence of a tropical cyclone . On July 9 , it had operationally been classified as a tropical storm upon formation , though a later analysis revealed that it was only a tropical depression . The depression passed near Barbados early on July 10 before rapidly intensifying into a hurricane . Hurricane Abby accelerated toward the west and made landfall in St. Lucia as a minimal category 1 hurricane . Abby emerged into the Caribbean Sea a few hours later . As it headed generally westward , it also gradually strengthened . By July 11 , Hurricane Abby had attained peak intensity as a 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) category 2 hurricane .
The intensity of Abby began to gradually level off , though it re @-@ intensified slightly in the Caribbean , before eventually weakening further . Abby was downgraded to a tropical storm on the morning of July 13 ; it was center roughly 222 mi ( 357 km ) south of Kingston , Jamaica at the time . Just six hours thereafter , Abby had maximum sustained winds of only 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Abby re @-@ intensified at a relatively quick pace , as it was near hurricane status again when it passed just to the north of Honduras on July 14 .
Late on July 14 , Abby had re @-@ intensified into a hurricane . A few hours later , Abby passed over the island of Roatán at about midnight ( EDT ) on July 15 . It made a third and final landfall on July 15 when it moved inland over British Honduras ( presently known as Belize ) as a minimal hurricane . Abby quickly weakened and was downgraded to a tropical storm only a few hours later over land . While Abby approached the border of Guatemala and Mexico , it had weakened further to a tropical depression . Abby dissipated while situated over the Mexican state of Tabasco on July 16 . The remnants crossed over Mexico into the Pacific Ocean and regenerated into Hurricane Celeste on July 20 . Hurricane Celeste lasted for two days in the Pacific before it dissipated on July 22 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Lesser Antilles = = =
There were many watches and warning issued during the passage of Hurricane Abby throughout the Caribbean . Some gale warnings were issued from the Grenadines to Guadeloupe starting on July 10 . Around 1600 UTC later that day , a hurricane watch was issued for the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico . Several hours later , the watch was extended to include Dominican Republic and Haiti . All warnings were discontinued later , after the storm passed by .
Hurricane Abby bypassed Barbados a tropical depression , which resulted in minimal effects . Maximum sustained winds on Barbados were reported at 23 mph ( 57 km / h ) , while gusts were recorded up to 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) . There are no other effects known on Barbados . St. Lucia had borne the brunt of the storm when Hurricane Abby made landfall as a category 1 hurricane . Rainfall on the island totaled at 6 @.@ 80 in ( 172 @.@ 7 mm ) . Tropical storm force winds were recorded on the island for the passage of Hurricane Abby on July 10 , though there were no hurricane force winds reported . In addition , a roof collapsed in on a house , killing six of the residents living there . The passage of Hurricane Abby also resulted in $ 435 @,@ 000 ( 1960 USD , $ 3 @.@ 48 million 2016 USD ) of damage on St. Lucia . Martinique was near the path of Hurricane Abby , which resulted in some effects . The Martinique Aimé Césaire International Airport in Fort @-@ de @-@ France recorded rainfall at nearly three inches ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) , while rain in another village was measured at nearly four inches ( 101 @.@ 2 mm ) . Winds on Martinique were also at least tropical storm force during the passage of Hurricane Abby . However , wind gusts on Martinique were around 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , greater than that which was observed on St. Lucia . There were also damaged roads and bridges , mainly due to landslides . The island nation of Dominica was also affected by Hurricane Abby . Hurricane Abby produced nearly six in ( 152 @.@ 4 mm ) of rain on the island . Winds were also similar to those that were measured on Barbados . Hurricane Abby left about $ 65 @,@ 000 ( 1960 USD , $ 520 thousand 2016 USD ) in damage to Dominica .
= = = Greater Antilles and Central America = = =
It was initially believed that Abby would affect Jamaica with gale force winds and heavy rainfall , and the U.S. Weather Bureau noted that " interests " on the island should monitor the progress of the storm . However , Abby remained far south of the island , and the impact it had on the island , if any , is unknown . Citizens of the Cayman Islands , Central America , and the Yucatan Peninsula were also to remain on alert during the passage of Abby . The U.S. Weather Bureau later warned citizens in British Honduras and Honduras to " take all precautions for the protection of life and property against dangerous winds and abnormally high seas " .
Hurricane Abby also produced 1 @.@ 62 in ( 41 @.@ 14 mm ) of rain on Swan Island . On the islands north of Honduras , reports were received until winds reached 52 mph ( 83 @.@ 7 km / h ) , and then communications were lost . In Belize City , which was 75 mi ( 120 @.@ 7 km ) north of where Abby made landfall , wind gusts were reported to 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . Minor property damage was reported in British Honduras , totaling to BZ $ 6 @,@ 000 ( approximately $ 3 @,@ 000 1960 USD ; $ 24 thousand 2016 USD ) . In addition , agricultural losses reached BZ $ 75 @,@ 000 ( about $ 37 @,@ 500 1960 USD ; $ 300 thousand 2016 USD ) . Although Abby nearly made landfall in Honduras and eventually entered Mexico , no effects were reported , but the U.S. Weather Bureau believed that flooding and there were seas of at least 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above normal .
Throughout its path , Abby caused only about $ 600 @,@ 000 ( 1960 USD , $ 4 @.@ 8 million 2016 USD ) in damage and six fatalities .
= 2010 Alabama Crimson Tide football team =
The 2010 Alabama Crimson Tide football team ( variously " Alabama " , " UA " , " Bama " or " The Tide " ) represented the University of Alabama in the 2010 NCAA Division I FBS football season . It was the Crimson Tide 's 116th overall season , 77th as a member of the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) and its 19th within the SEC Western Division . The team was led by head coach Nick Saban , in his fourth year , and played their home games at Bryant – Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa , Alabama . They finished the season with a record of ten wins and three losses ( 10 – 3 , 5 – 3 in the SEC ) and defeated Michigan State 49 – 7 in the Capital One Bowl .
Alabama entered the season as defending national champions , and began the 2010 season as the preseason number one team in both the AP and Coaches ' Polls . Favored to win a second consecutive SEC championship and be in contention for the national championship , the Crimson Tide opened the season with five consecutive victories over San Jose State , Penn State , Duke , Arkansas and Florida . However , Alabama completed the regular season with only nine victories and losses to South Carolina , LSU and Auburn and finished fourth in the Western Division . After the regular season , the Crimson Tide accepted an invitation to compete in the Capital One Bowl in Orlando . Against Big Ten co @-@ champions Michigan State , Alabama won by a final score of 49 – 7 and captured both a third straight ten win season and top ten finish .
= = Before the season = =
During the 2009 campaign , the Crimson Tide finished the season undefeated , 14 – 0 , with wins over several ranked opponents that included No. 7 Virginia Tech , No. 20 Ole Miss , No. 22 South Carolina , No. 9 LSU , No. 1 Florida in the SEC Championship , and No. 2 Texas in the BCS National Championship Game . They finished the season as the consensus National Champions , being voted No. 1 in the AP and Coaches ' Polls in securing Alabama 's first national title since 1992 . In addition to the national title , sophomore running back Mark Ingram became the first Alabama player to win the Heisman Trophy .
In February 2010 , eighteen players each signed an individual National Letter of Intent to play college football at Alabama . The 2010 recruiting class was ranked nationally in the top five by several recruiting services including Rivals , Scout , ESPNU and CBS College Sports . Spring practice began on March 12 and concluded with the annual A @-@ Day game on April 17 . Televised live by ESPN , the Crimson team of offensive starters defeated the White team of defensive starters by a final score of 23 – 17 before 91 @,@ 312 fans in Bryant – Denny Stadium . The game was decided after the end of regulation when Brandon Gibson caught a 39 @-@ yard touchdown pass from AJ McCarron in sudden death . For their performances , Marcell Dareus earned the Dwight Stephenson Lineman of the A @-@ Day Game Award and Mark Ingram earned the Dixie Howell Memorial Most Valuable Player of the A @-@ Day Game Award .
By August , Alabama had a combined 21 players on 12 different preseason award watch lists . These included both Mark Barron , Marcell Dareus and Dont ’ a Hightower for the Chuck Bednarik Award ; Julio Jones for the Fred Biletnikoff Award ; Hightower and Nico Johnson for the Butkus Award ; Ingram for the Walter Camp Award ; James Carpenter , Dareus and Hightower for the Lombardi Award ; Ingram and Greg McElroy for the Maxwell Award ; Barron , Dareus and Hightower for the Bronko Nagurski Trophy ; McElroy for the Davey O 'Brien Award ; Carpenter and Barrett Jones for the Outland Trophy ; William Vlachos for the Rimington Trophy ; Barron for the Jim Thorpe Award ; and Ingram for the Doak Walker Award .
= = = Returning starters = = =
Alabama had 10 returning starters from the previous season , including eight on offense and two on defense . The most notable departures from the previous year were linebackers Eryk Anders , Rolando McClain and Cory Reamer ; cornerbacks Javier Arenas , Kareem Jackson and Marquis Johnson ; defensive ends Brandon Deaderick and Lorenzo Washington ; nose tackle Terrence Cody ; safety Justin Woodall ; offensive linemen Drew Davis and Mike Johnson ; and tight end Colin Peek . Additionally , all of special teams players were replaced following the departures of punter P.J. Fitzgerald , placekicker Leigh Tiffin , long snapper Brian Selman and Arenas as the return specialist .
= = = Recruiting class = = =
Alabama 's recruiting class was highlighted by eight players from the " ESPN 150 " : No. 16 DeMarcus Milliner ( CB ) ; No. 32 Phillip Sims ( QB ) ; No. 36 John Fulton ( CB ) ; No. 54 Adrian Hubbard ( DE ) ; No. 74 Chad Lindsay ( OG ) ; No. 89 Keiwone Malone ( WR ) ; No. 99 C.J. Mosley ( OLB ) ; and No. 132 Brian Vogler ( TE ) . Alabama signed the No. 5 recruiting class according to Rivals and the No. 4 recruiting class according to Scout . The football program received 18 letters of intent on National Signing Day , February 3 , 2010 .
= = Schedule = =
The 2010 schedule was officially released on September 2 , 2009 . In accordance with conference rules , Alabama faced all five Western Division opponents : Arkansas , Auburn , LSU , Mississippi State , and Ole Miss . They also faced three Eastern Division opponents : official SEC rival Tennessee , Florida , and South Carolina . Alabama did not play SEC opponents Georgia , Kentucky and Vanderbilt . The contest against Ole Miss served as the 2010 homecoming game .
Alabama also played four non @-@ conference games . The game against Penn State was originally scheduled as part of the 2004 season , however the series was moved back at the request of Alabama due to fallout from NCAA sanctions being levied on the program . The non @-@ conference schedule also included games against San Jose State of the Western Athletic Conference , Duke of the Atlantic Coast Conference and Georgia State of the Football Championship Subdivision ( FCS ) . On December 5 , it was announced Alabama would face Big Ten co @-@ champion Michigan State in the Capital One Bowl . In what was the first meeting between the programs , the Tide defeated the Spartans 49 – 7 and secured their third consecutive ten @-@ win season .
Alabama played six of its SEC opponents the week following the opponents ' bye week . These SEC teams who scheduled a bye week before facing the Crimson Tide included South Carolina , Ole Miss , Tennessee , LSU , Mississippi State and Auburn . Georgia State also had a bye week prior to playing Alabama , for a total of seven consecutive opponents playing Alabama the week following their bye . On July 1 , 2010 , the game against Georgia State was moved from Saturday , November 20 to Thursday , November 18 to give Alabama additional time to prepare for its game against Auburn . The Sagarin computer ratings calculated Alabama 's 2010 strength of schedule to be the fifth most difficult out of the 245 Division I teams . The Cosgrove Computer Rankings calculated it as the 12th most difficult out of the 120 Division I FBS teams in its rankings .
Source : Rolltide.com All @-@ time Football Results : 2010 Season
= = Coaching staff = =
The only change to the coaching staff from the 2009 season was the departure of James Willis , an associate head and outside linebackers coach , to become the defensive coordinator at Texas Tech . Willis was replaced on the staff with Jeremy Pruitt on January 15 . Other assistants that declined positions at other programs included Jim McElwain declining an offer to become San Jose State 's head coach and Kirby Smart declining an offer to become Georgia 's defensive coordinator .
= = Game notes = =
= = = San Jose State = = =
The Crimson Tide began their defense of their 2010 BCS championship at home against the San Jose State Spartans , and before a record crowd in a newly expanded Bryant – Denny Stadium , Alabama was victorious 48 – 3 . Alabama scored a touchdown on their first possession on a one @-@ yard Trent Richardson run to complete an eight @-@ play , 71 @-@ yard drive . The Spartans responded on the next drive with their only points of the game on a 31 @-@ yard Harrison Waid field goal to make the score 7 – 3 . On the ensuing drive the Alabama extended their lead to 14 – 3 with a 48 @-@ yard Greg McElroy touchdown pass to Marquis Maze . Alabama again reached the endzone early in the second quarter on a 39 @-@ yard Richardson run and a 29 @-@ yard AJ McCarron pass to Julio Jones to make the score 28 – 3 . Cade Foster scored the final points of the half as time expired on a 31 @-@ yard field goal to bring the halftime score to 31 – 3 .
Alabama opened the second half by scoring on their first two possessions . Eddie Lacy scored on a 37 @-@ yard run and Foster hit a 24 @-@ yard field goal to extend the Crimson Tide lead to 41 – 3 . Lacy scored the final points of the game with a 10 @-@ yard run to make the final score 48 – 3 . Both McElroy and McCarron combined to pass for 334 yards on 22 completions and a pair of touchdowns . For the game , the Alabama outgained San Jose in total offense by a margin of 591 – 175 . The 101 @,@ 821 in attendance marked the first crowd of over 100 @,@ 000 to attend a football game in the state of Alabama .
= = = Penn State = = =
With ESPN 's College GameDay in town , Alabama defeated the Penn State Nittany Lions 24 – 3 in a renewal of their historic rivalry . Alabama scored first on a 36 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Greg McElroy to Kevin Norwood in the first quarter . The Crimson Tide added to their lead in the second quarter with a 14 @-@ yard McElroy touchdown pass to Preston Dial and a 31 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal to take a 17 – 0 lead at the half . After a scoreless third , Trent Richardson scored on a one @-@ yard run and Penn State 's Collin Wagner hit a 36 @-@ yard field goal to make the final score to 24 – 3 .
Richardson led the team in rushing with 144 yards on 22 carries , and was also the first back to gain over 100 yards on the ground against Penn State since their 2008 game against Iowa . The defense also stood out with Mark Barron , Robert Lester and Will Lowery each making an interception and Alabama only allowing 283 yards of total offense . After compiling 207 all @-@ purpose yards and scoring a touchdown , Richardson was named Co @-@ SEC Offensive Player of the Week with South Carolina 's Marcus Lattimore . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Nittany Lions to 9 – 5 .
= = = Duke = = =
In Alabama 's first @-@ ever trip to Duke , the Crimson Tide defeated the Blue Devils by a final score of 62 – 13 in front of the largest crowd at Wallace Wade Stadium since the 1994 season . Playing in his first game of the 2010 season following knee surgery , Mark Ingram ran for a team high 152 yards on nine carries with two touchdowns .
Greg McElroy completed 14 of 20 passes for 258 yards , with three touchdowns and one interception . In the second quarter Trent Richardson scored Alabama 's first special teams touchdown of the season with a 96 @-@ yard kickoff return . Other offensive highlights included Richardson gaining 66 yards on seven carries and Eddie Lacy gaining 53 yards on seven carries with each scoring a touchdown on the ground . Through the air , Julio Jones led the team with 106 receiving yards on six catches with he , Darius Hanks and Preston Dial each making a touchdown reception .
The game also marked the return of Marcell Dareus following a two @-@ game suspension from the NCAA for receiving improper benefits . After allowing 13 points in the first half , the Alabama defense shut out the Duke offense in the second half . The 62 points scored by the Tide were the most since a 62 – 0 victory over Tulane during the 1991 season , and the 45 points scored in the first half were the most scored in one half since scoring 45 in the second half of the 1973 victory over California . The 626 yards of total offense were the most amassed by an Alabama team since gaining 644 against LSU in 1989 . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Blue Devils to 3 – 1 .
= = = Arkansas = = =
In the first game played between two teams ranked in the top ten at Donald W. Reynolds Razorback Stadium since the 1979 season , Alabama was victorious with a 24 – 20 come @-@ from @-@ behind victory . After Ryan Mallett connected on an early touchdown to take a 7 – 0 lead , Alabama responded with a 54 @-@ yard Mark Ingram touchdown run to tie the game at 7 – 7 . Arkansas retook the lead with a field goal and a one @-@ yard Mallett run to take a 17 – 7 lead at the half . Midway through the third , Arkansas extended their lead to 20 – 7 .
Alabama brought the score to 20 – 14 late in the third after a 20 @-@ yard Trent Richardson touchdown reception from Greg McElroy . The Arkansas lead was then cut to three after a 36 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal with just over 6 : 00 remaining in the fourth . After Robert Lester intercepted a Mallett pass and returned it to the 12 @-@ yard line , Ingram took the next three snaps that culminated in a one @-@ yard touchdown run to take a 24 – 20 lead . After a late Dre Kirkpatrick interception , McElroy gained a first down on a fourth and inches quarterback sneak to seal the victory for the Crimson Tide . Ingram led the team with 157 yards rushing on 24 carries and Richardson finished with 85 yards on eight carries . Kirkpatrick led the defense with nine tackles and an interception . For his five @-@ tackle , two @-@ interception performance , Robert Lester was recognized as both the FWAA / Bronko Nagurski National Defensive Player of the Week and the SEC Defensive Player of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Razorbacks to 11 – 8 ( 14 – 7 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = Florida = = =
In a rematch of the previous two SEC Championship Games , Alabama defeated the Florida Gators 31 – 6 . Alabama opened the scoring with a 28 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal in the first , and then scored a trio of second @-@ quarter touchdowns . Mark Ingram scored on runs of six and one — yard with the third coming on a 19 @-@ yard Marquis Maze touchdown pass to Michael Williams on a wide receiver pass . Florida got on the board late in the second with a 39 @-@ yard Chas Henry field goal to bring the halftime score to 24 – 3 . After a second Henry field goal , C. J. Mosley returned an interception 35 @-@ yards for a touchdown to make the final score 31 – 6 .
Although Florida outgained the Crimson Tide in total offense 281 to 273 yards , their three turnovers resulted in 21 Alabama points . In addition to Mosley , Nico Johnson intercepted Trey Burton in the end zone and Dre Kirkpatrick intercepted a John Brantley pass . The game marked the first time Florida had been held without a touchdown since their previous visit to Tuscaloosa in 2005 , and resulted in Alabama leading the nation in scoring defense by allowing only 45 points through five games . Courtney Upshaw was named the SEC Defensive Player of the Week after making seven total tackles , with four for losses , a fumble recovery and two pass deflections . Chance Warmack was recognized as the SEC 's Offensive Lineman of the Week for his performance . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Gators to 21 – 14 ( 22 – 14 without the NCAA vacation of the 2005 victory ) .
= = = South Carolina = = =
With ESPN 's College GameDay in town and in front of a sold out Williams – Brice , Alabama was upset by the South Carolina Gamecocks 35 – 21 . After Alabama scored on its opening drive with a 32 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal , South Carolina responded with three consecutive touchdowns . Stephen Garcia threw three touchdown passes , with the first to Marcus Lattimore for nine @-@ yards followed by strikes of 26 and 15 @-@ yards to Alshon Jeffery , to give South Carolina a 21 – 3 lead in the second quarter . Alabama reached the end zone late in the second on a nine @-@ yard Greg McElroy pass to Julio Jones to make the halftime score 21 – 9 after the extra point failed .
On the first play from scrimmage in the third quarter , Garcia threw the ball out of the end zone for a safety following a bad snap . After the free kick , Alabama scored on a 39 @-@ yard Shelley field goal , to make the score 21 – 14 . After a one @-@ yard Lattimore touchdown run , Alabama answered with a 51 @-@ yard Darius Hanks touchdown reception from McElroy , to make the score 28 – 21 . However , Lattimore scored on a two @-@ yard touchdown run late in the fourth to give the Gamecocks a 35 – 21 victory . The win marked South Carolina 's first all @-@ time victory over a team ranked number one in the AP poll .
For the game , McElroy set a career high in passing for 315 yards on 27 of 34 passes , and Jones had a team high 118 yards on eight catches . Marcell Dareus was recognized as an honorable mention SEC Defensive Player of the Week for his eight tackle performance . The 34 points allowed by the Crimson Tide defense were the most allowed since giving up 41 to LSU in 2007 . The loss also marked the end of a 29 @-@ game regular season win streak , an overall 19 @-@ game win streak , and an 18 @-@ game regular season conference winning streak . It was Alabama 's first overall loss since being defeated by Utah in the 2009 Sugar Bowl and their first regular season and regular season conference loss since losing to Auburn in 2007 . The loss brought Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Gamecocks to 10 – 4 ( 12 – 3 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = Ole Miss = = =
A week after their first regular season loss since the 2007 season , Alabama defeated their long @-@ time rival , the Ole Miss Rebels on homecoming in Tuscaloosa 23 – 10 . The Crimson Tide took a 10 – 0 lead in the first quarter on a seven @-@ yard Greg McElroy touchdown pass to Preston Dial and a 49 @-@ yard Cade Foster field goal . Scoring continued in the second quarter with Alabama 's Jeremy Shelley and Foster connecting on field goals of 19 and 44 @-@ yards . Mississippi 's Bryson Rose connected on a 22 @-@ yard field goal to make the halftime score 16 – 3 . In the third quarter , McElroy connected with Trent Richardson for an 85 @-@ yard touchdown reception . The catch was the fourth longest touchdown reception in school history . Later in the quarter , Jeremiah Masoli connected with Melvin Harris on a 15 @-@ yard touchdown reception to make the final score 23 – 10 .
On special teams , Marquis Maze totaled 125 yards on six punt returns and was named SEC Co @-@ Special Teams Player of the Week for his performance . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Rebels to 44 – 9 – 2 ( 48 – 8 – 2 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = Tennessee = = =
In the 93rd edition of the Third Saturday in October , the Crimson Tide defeated the Tennessee Volunteers 41 – 10 . Tennessee scored first , on a 59 @-@ yard Tauren Poole touchdown run to take an early 7 – 0 lead . Alabama responded by scoring on its next two drives : a 36 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal , and a one @-@ yard Greg McElroy touchdown run to take a 10 – 7 lead . The second quarter closed with a 42 @-@ yard Shelley field goal and a 33 @-@ yard field goal by Michael Palardy of Tennessee to make the halftime score 13 – 10 .
Alabama opened the second half by driving 70 yards in four plays , with Julio Jones having receptions of 38 and 19 yards and Mark Ingram punching in the touchdown from one @-@ yard out to extend their lead to 20 – 10 . After Palardy missed a 52 @-@ yard field goal , Trent Richardson ran the ball 65 yards for a touchdown on the second play of the ensuing drive for a 27 – 10 Alabama lead . Later , Robert Lester intercepted a Matt Simms pass , and Alabama extended its lead to 34 – 10 , after an 80 @-@ yard drive with Ingram scoring from one @-@ yard out . Alabama scored the final points of the evening in the fourth quarter when AJ McCarron hit Richardson for a five @-@ yard touchdown reception to make the final score 41 – 10 . It was Alabama 's most lopsided victory over Tennessee since defeating the Volunteers 35 – 0 in 1963 .
For the game , Julio Jones set a school record with 221 receiving yards , eclipsing the previous mark of 217 yards set by David Palmer against Vanderbilt in 1993 . Ingram and Richardson finished with 88 and 119 yards on the ground respectively . For his performance , left tackle James Carpenter was selected as the SEC Offensive Lineman of the Week . With his 117 yards on 14 carries , Tauren Poole ended Alabama 's 41 @-@ game streak of not allowing a 100 @-@ yard rusher dating back to BenJarvus Green @-@ Ellis 's 131 yard performance for Ole Miss in 2007 . The game also marked the first between Nick Saban and Derek Dooley who previously worked for Saban as an assistant coach at LSU and with the Miami Dolphins . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Volunteers to 47 – 38 – 7 ( 48 – 37 – 8 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = LSU = = =
Coming off their bye week and in what was dubbed by some as " Saban Bowl IV , " Alabama was upset by their long @-@ time rival , the LSU Tigers 24 – 21 . LSU scored first on a 45 @-@ yard Josh Jasper field goal to take a 3 – 0 lead . Alabama scored their first points early in the second quarter on a one @-@ yard Greg McElroy touchdown pass to Trent Richardson to take a 7 – 3 lead at the half .
Both teams traded touchdowns in the third . The Tigers scored first on a 75 @-@ yard Rueben Randle reception from Jordan Jefferson , and the Crimson Tide responded with a five @-@ yard Mark Ingram touchdown run . LSU scored 14 fourth quarter points to secure the victory with a pair of Jasper field goals and a one @-@ yard Stevan Ridley touchdown run and a successful two @-@ point conversion . Alabama responded with a nine @-@ yard Julio Jones touchdown reception , but was unable to get a defensive stop late in the game preserving the 24 – 21 LSU victory . Turnovers proved costly for Alabama with LSU scoring field goals on drives after a McElroy interception in the first and fumble in the fourth . The loss brought Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Tigers to 45 – 24 – 5 .
= = = Mississippi State = = =
A week after being upset by LSU , Alabama returned to Bryant – Denny and began a three @-@ game homestand to end the season by defeating long @-@ time rival Mississippi State 30 – 10 . The Crimson Tide took a 6 – 3 lead in the first quarter by trading field goals with the Bulldogs on a 36 @-@ yarder from Jeremy Shelley , a 24 @-@ yarder from Derek DePasquale and a 45 @-@ yarder from Cade Foster . In the second , Alabama reached the end zone for the first time on the evening after Greg McElroy hit Marquis Maze for a 45 @-@ yard touchdown reception and a 13 – 3 lead . After a punt on the next Bulldog series , an 80 @-@ yard Maze touchdown return was called back as a result of an illegal block on the play by Alex Watkins . On the next play , Mark Ingram took a short bubble screen pass from McElroy 78 @-@ yards for a 20 – 3 lead at the half .
On their first offensive possession of the second half , and on the third consecutive offensive play , Alabama scored on a long touchdown play . This time Julio Jones ran the ball 56 @-@ yards for a touchdown to extend the Alabama lead to 27 – 3 . Shelley scored Alabama 's final points in the fourth on a 28 @-@ yard field goal with State scoring their lone touchdown late on a 27 @-@ yard Chad Bumphis touchdown reception from Tyler Russell . The Alabama defense allowed only 149 rushing yards , registered five sacks and two interceptions .
In this game , the Crimson Tide wore Nike Pro Combat uniforms for the first time . These uniforms featured crimson jerseys with grey and white houndstooth numbers , a houndstooth stripe on the helmet , houndstooth gloves and an American flag sewn into one of the sleeves in honor of Veterans Day . The houndstooth design was chosen as a tribute to former Alabama coach Bear Bryant who was known for wearing a houndstooth fedora during games . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Bulldogs to 73 – 18 – 3 ( 75 – 17 – 3 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = Georgia State = = =
Originally scheduled to be played on November 20 , in July 2010 this game was moved to Thursday , November 18 to give the Crimson Tide extra time to prepare for its game against Auburn . In the first ever meeting against the Georgia State Panthers , the Crimson Tide was victorious 63 – 7 . Alabama scored first on an eight @-@ yard Greg McElroy pass to Julio Jones . After a Mark Barron interception ended the first Georgia State drive , Alabama responded with a 71 @-@ yard drive capped by a one @-@ yard Mark Ingram touchdown run to take a 14 – 0 lead .
In the second quarter , Alabama scored on a defensive play when C. J. Mosley returned a Drew Little interception 41 @-@ yards for a touchdown . Alabama then extended their lead to 28 – 0 on a ten @-@ yard Jones touchdown reception from McElroy . At the end of the Panthers next possession , Chavis Williams blocked a Bo Schlechter punt that was returned 22 @-@ yards for a touchdown by Brandon Gibson . On the following kickoff , an Albert Wilson fumble was recovered by Gibson to give the Tide possession deep in Panther territory . Four plays later , Alabama extended their lead to 42 – 0 on a three @-@ yard Eddie Lacy touchdown run . On the ensuing kickoff , the Panthers scored their only points on the evening when Wilson returned the kickoff 97 @-@ yards for a touchdown and a halftime score of 42 – 7 .
With the game in hand midway through the second quarter , Alabama played many of its reserve players in the second half . The Tide scored in the third quarter first on a seven @-@ yard AJ McCarron touchdown pass to Chris Underwood and again on an one @-@ yard Demetrius Goode touchdown run after a Chris Jordan interception to take a 56 – 7 lead into the final period . In the fourth , Jalston Fowler scored on a 36 @-@ yard touchdown run to make the final score 63 – 7 .
After he completed 12 of 13 passes , McElroy set a new single @-@ game Alabama record for completion percentage of 92 @.@ 3 percent to break the previous record he set against North Texas in 2009 . The game also marked the first time Alabama played on a Thursday night since defeating Southern Miss in 2001 , and the return of both former Alabama head coach Bill Curry as the Panthers ' head coach and quarterback Star Jackson who transferred to Georgia State prior to the 2010 season . The 63 points were the most scored by an Alabama team since defeating Vanderbilt 63 – 3 in 1979 .
= = = Auburn = = =
In the 75th edition of the Iron Bowl , the Auburn Tigers overcame a 24 @-@ point deficit to defeat the Crimson Tide 28 – 27 . Alabama opened a 21 – 0 lead after the first quarter with touchdown scores on their first three offensive possessions . Touchdowns were scored on a nine @-@ yard Mark Ingram run , a 68 @-@ yard Julio Jones reception from Greg McElroy and on a 12 @-@ yard Darius Hanks reception from McElroy . The lead was pushed to 24 – 0 in the second quarter after a 20 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal before the Tigers began their comeback .
Auburn scored their first points late in the second on a 36 @-@ yard Cam Newton pass to Emory Blake to bring the score to 24 – 7 at the half . With the only Alabama points in the third scored on a 32 @-@ yard Shelley field goal , Auburn brought the margin to 27 – 21 entering the fourth on a 70 @-@ yard Cam Newton touchdown pass to Terrell Zachery and a one @-@ yard Newton run . The Tigers took a 28 – 27 lead in the fourth on a seven @-@ yard Philip Lutzenkirchen reception from Newton that held to the end of regulation .
With his 10 catch , 199 yard performance , Julio Jones set Alabama single @-@ season records for both receptions and receiving yards in eclipsing the previous marks of 67 receptions by D. J. Hall in 2007 and 1 @,@ 056 yards by Hall in 2006 . The loss ended a 20 @-@ game home winning streak for the Tide dating back to the 2007 loss to Louisiana – Monroe , and brought Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Tigers to 40 – 34 – 1 . The CBS telecast of this game earned a 7 @.@ 5 rating , the highest for any game of the 2010 college football season through week 13 .
= = = Michigan State = = =
On December 5 , Capital One Bowl officials announced Alabama would face the Big Ten co @-@ champion Michigan State Spartans in the 2011 Capital One Bowl . In a strong defensive performance where the Spartans were held to a total of minus @-@ 48 yards rushing , Alabama was victorious 49 – 7 . Alabama scored touchdowns on their first four offensive possessions . Mark Ingram scored first on an one @-@ yard touchdown run to complete a 13 @-@ play , 79 @-@ yard drive on Alabama 's first possession . After a Robert Lester interception of a Kirk Cousins pass on the Spartans ' opening drive , the Tide scored on an eight @-@ yard Trent Richardson touchdown run . Alabama extended their lead to 28 – 0 at the half following touchdown runs of six and 35 @-@ yards by Ingram and Julio Jones .
After holding Michigan State to a three @-@ and @-@ out to open the third quarter , Alabama scored its fifth touchdown in six offensive possessions when Marquis Maze scored on a 37 @-@ yard Greg McElroy pass . Up by 35 points late in the third , the Crimson Tide pulled many of their starters that resulted in many players seeing action from deep in the depth chart . Eddie Lacy extended the lead to 49 – 0 with touchdown runs of twelve @-@ yards in the third and 62 @-@ yards in the fourth quarter . Michigan State scored their only points late in the fourth on a 49 @-@ yard Bennie Fowler touchdown reception from Keith Nichol to make the final score 49 – 7 . The 42 @-@ point margin of victory was Alabama 's largest in a bowl game since defeating Syracuse 61 – 6 in the 1953 Orange Bowl .
The minus @-@ 48 yards rushing allowed by the Alabama defense was the fewest ever allowed in a bowl game and the second fewest allowed all @-@ time only eclipsed by a minus @-@ 49 yard performance against Houston in 1962 . With his pair of touchdowns , Mark Ingram established a new Alabama record for career rushing touchdowns with 42 to eclipse the previous mark of 41 set by Shaun Alexander . The contest also marked both Nick Saban 's and Bobby Williams ' first game against the Spartans since their respective terms as Michigan State 's head coach between 1995 – 1999 and 2000 – 2002 .
= = Depth chart = =
Starters and backups .
= = Rankings = =
Entering the 2010 season , the Crimson Tide was ranked No. 1 in the AP and Coaches ' Preseason Polls . The No. 1 preseason ranking was the first for Alabama since the 1978 season . In week six , Alabama dropped to the No. 8 ranking in both the AP and Coaches ' Poll following their loss to South Carolina . The Tide rebounded in the rankings though week nine , rising to No. 5 before dropping to No. 11 in the AP and No. 12 in the Coaches ' Poll following their loss at LSU . After their loss to Auburn , Alabama dropped to No. 15 in the AP , No. 18 in the Coaches ' Poll and No. 16 in the final BCS standings . Following the victory over Michigan State in the Capital One Bowl , Alabama finished No. 10 in the final AP , No. 11 in the final Coaches ' Polls .
= = After the season = =
As part of the A @-@ Day celebrations on April 16 , the 2010 team captains Greg McElroy , Dont 'a Hightower and Mark Barron were honored at the Walk of Fame ceremony at the base of Denny Chimes . Later that day , as recognition for becoming the fifth Alabama head coach to win a national championship with the 2009 squad , the University unveiled a statue of coach Saban along the Walk of Champions outside Bryant – Denny Stadium .
= = = Final statistics = = =
After their victory over Michigan State in the Capitol One Bowl , Alabama 's final team statistics were released . On the defensive side of the ball , they ranked third in scoring defense ( 13 @.@ 54 points per game ) , fifth in total defense ( 286 @.@ 38 yards per game ) , tenth in rushing defense ( 110 @.@ 15 yards per game ) and thirteenth in passing defense ( 176 @.@ 23 yards per game ) . They were also the conference leaders in both scoring and total defense . On offense , nationally the Crimson Tide ranked 18th in scoring offense ( 35 @.@ 69 points per game ) , 22nd in total offense ( 444 @.@ 08 yards per game ) , 27th in passing offense ( 261 @.@ 15 yards per game ) and 29th in rushing offense ( 182 @.@ 92 yards per game ) . Individually , Robert Lester led the SEC with an average of 0 @.@ 62 interceptions per game .
= = = Awards = = =
In the weeks following the SEC Championship Game , multiple Alabama players were recognized for their on @-@ field performances with a variety of awards and recognitions . At the team awards banquet on December 6 , Mark Barron , Dont 'a Hightower , and Greg McElroy were each named the permanent captains of the 2010 squad . At that time Julio Jones was named the 2010 most valuable players with Dont 'a Hightower and Mark Barron named defensive players of the year and Greg McElroy and Mark Ingram named the offensive players of the year .
The SEC recognized several players for their individual performances with various awards . Defensive back Mark Barron , wide receiver Julio Jones and offensive guard Barrett Jones were all named to the AP All @-@ SEC First Team . Offensive lineman James Carpenter , defensive lineman Marcell Dareus , running back Mark Ingram , linebacker Dont 'a Hightower and defensive back Robert Lester were all named to the AP All @-@ SEC Second Team . Quarterback Greg McElroy and center William Vlachos were each named AP All @-@ SEC Honorable Mention . Four players were named to the Coaches ' All @-@ SEC First Team including Barron , James Carpenter , Marcell Dareus and Julio Jones . Barrett Jones , William Vlachos , Mark Ingram , Dont 'a Hightower , return specialist Trent Richardson and defensive backs Robert Lester and Dre Kirkpatrick were named to the Coaches ' All @-@ SEC Second Team . Four players were named to the Freshman All @-@ SEC Coaches ' Team including offensive lineman D.J. Fluker , linebacker C.J. Mosley , defensive back Dee Milliner and punter Cody Mandell .
In addition to the conference awards , several players were also named to various national All @-@ American Teams . Julio Jones and Mark Barron were named to the AP All @-@ American Second Team and Marcell Dareus and Barrett Jones were named to the AP All @-@ American Third Team . Barron was also named to the All @-@ America team by the Football Writers Association of America ( FWAA ) . Quarterback Greg McElroy , tight end Preston Dial and offensive lineman James Carpenter were all selected to play in the Under Armour Senior Bowl .
= = = Coaching changes = = =
In the week following the Capitol One Bowl victory , several changes were made to the Alabama coaching staff . Defensive line coach Bo Davis resigned his position to serve as the defensive tackles coach for Texas . The following day , Chris Rumph was hired by Coach Saban from Clemson to replace Davis as defensive line coach . On January 12 , assistant head coach and offensive line coach Joe Pendry announced his retirement . The following day , former Miami interim head coach Jeff Stoutland was hired to replace Pendry as offensive line coach . On January 21 , wide receivers coach and recruiting coordinator Curt Cignetti resigned his position to accept the head coaching job at Indiana University of Pennsylvania . On February 7 , Mike Groh was hired a Cignetti 's replacement as wide receivers coach and recruiting coordinator .
= = = NFL Draft = = =
Of all the draft @-@ eligible juniors , Mark Ingram , Julio Jones and Marcell Dareus declared their eligibility for the 2011 NFL Draft on January 7 . At the time of their announcement , each was projected as a first round pick . Five Alabama players , two seniors and three juniors , were invited to the NFL Scouting Combine . The invited players were offensive lineman James Carpenter , quarterback Greg McElroy , defensive end Marcell Dareus , running back Mark Ingram , and wide receiver Julio Jones . In the draft , Alabama set a school record with four players selected in the first round . The first round selections were Dareus ( 3rd Buffalo Bills ) , Jones ( 6th Atlanta Falcons ) , Carpenter ( 25th Seattle Seahawks ) and Ingram ( 28th New Orleans Saints ) . McElroy was selected in the seventh round ( 208th New York Jets ) . Preston Dial signed as an undrafted free agent with the Detroit Lions in July 2011 after the NFL labor dispute was resolved .
= James Robert Baker =
James Robert Baker ( October 18 , 1946 – November 5 , 1997 ) was an American author of sharply satirical , predominantly gay @-@ themed transgressional fiction . A native Californian , his work is set almost entirely in Southern California . After graduating from UCLA , he began his career as a screenwriter , but became disillusioned and started writing novels instead . Though he garnered fame for his books Fuel @-@ Injected Dreams and Boy Wonder , after the controversy surrounding publication of his novel , Tim and Pete , he faced increasing difficulty having his work published . According to his life partner , this was a contributing factor in his suicide .
Baker 's work has achieved cult status in the years since his death , and two additional novels have been posthumously published . First @-@ edition copies of his earlier works have become collector 's items . His novel Testosterone was adapted to a film of the same name , though it was not a financial success . Two other books have been optioned for films , but they have not been produced .
= = Early life = =
Baker was born in Long Beach , California and raised in what he considered a " stifling , Republican Southern Californian household " . Rebelling against his parents , he became attracted to the fringe elements of society , including beatniks ( anyone living as a bohemian , acting rebelliously , or appearing to advocate a revolution in manners ) , artists and gays . In high school during the 1960s he explored his sexuality at underground gay teen nightclubs , while living in fear that his abusive father would find out . At one point , his father hired a private detective to follow him , when he suspected Baker was having an affair with a male neighbor . This family dynamic would be used in many of his novels , most extensively in Boy Wonder .
Baker began taking drugs , and became , in his own words , " an out of control , teenage speed freak " . He also began drinking heavily , attributing it to the fact that he was closeted . However , even after coming out , his substance abuse remained excessive and " still had a life of its own " . After sobering up , he attended UCLA film school , where he was one of the winners of the Samuel Goldwyn Writing Awards , and directed two films : Mouse Klub Konfidential and Blonde Death . Mouse Klub Konfidential , a film about a Mickey Mouse Club Mouseketeer who becomes a gay bondage pornographer , was a controversial entry in the 197
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= = = Lucha de Apuesta record = = =
= New York State Route 38 =
New York State Route 38 ( NY 38 ) is a north – south state highway in the Finger Lakes region of New York in the United States . Its southern terminus is at an intersection with NY 96 in the town of Owego in Tioga County . The northern terminus is at a junction with NY 104A in the town of Sterling in Cayuga County . NY 38 is a two @-@ lane local road for most of its length . The route is the main access road to parts of Auburn , Dryden , Newark Valley and Port Byron . It passes through mountainous terrain in Tioga and Cortland counties , but the terrain levels out as it heads through the Finger Lakes area and Cayuga County .
The route intersects several long @-@ distance highways , including NY 13 in Dryden , U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) and NY 5 in Auburn , and NY 31 in Port Byron . It passes over the New York State Thruway ( Interstate 90 or I @-@ 90 ) north of Port Byron ; however , there is no connection between the two . NY 38 has two suffixed routes . The first , NY 38A is an alternate route of NY 38 between Moravia and Auburn , while the other , NY 38B , is a simple east – west connector in the Southern Tier . While NY 38 runs along the western shore of Owasco Lake , NY 38A travels to Auburn along a routing east of the lake .
NY 38 passes along or near waterbodies for much of its length . From its southern end in Owego to the town of Harford , the route parallels Owego Creek or a branch of said creek . Between Groton and Mentz , it runs along the aforementioned Owasco Lake and its inlet ( south of the lake ) and outlet ( north of the lake ) . It also comes within 4 miles ( 6 km ) of Lake Ontario at its northern end .
In the 1920s , the portion of NY 38 between Owego and Freeville was designated as New York State Route 42 while the segment from Freeville to Moravia was the southern part of New York State Route 26 , a highway that continued north from Moravia to Syracuse . NY 38 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , utilizing all of pre @-@ 1930 NY 42 , the Freeville – Moravia portion of NY 26 , and a previously unnumbered highway north to Sterling . Originally , NY 38 extended south into the village of Owego by way of an overlap with NY 96 . It was truncated to its current southern terminus by 1994 .
= = Route description = =
All of NY 38 — save for two sections within the city of Auburn — is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) . In Auburn , the route is city @-@ maintained to the north and south of where the route meets US 20 and NY 5 in downtown Auburn . The portion of NY 38 that runs between and overlaps with those two routes is state @-@ maintained .
= = = Tioga and Cortland counties = = =
NY 38 begins at an intersection with NY 96 about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) north of the Owego village limits in the town of Owego . The road heads northeastward as a two @-@ lane highway , paralleling Owego Creek as it proceeds along the base of a valley surrounding the waterway . The Tioga County portion of NY 38 passes through mostly rural , forested areas with only small , scattered pockets of development . The route continues toward the hamlet of Flemingville , where the Owego Creek splits into western and eastern branches . NY 38 does not enter the community ; instead , it bypasses it to the southeast and follows the eastern branch of Owego Creek into the town of Newark Valley .
The amount of homes along the route begins to increase as NY 38 approaches the village of Newark Valley . Just south of the village limits , NY 38 intersects NY 38B , a spur leading to NY 26 in Maine . The route continues into the small village as South Main Street and passes by several blocks of homes and commercial buildings . At Water Street , NY 38 becomes North Main Street ; however , from this point north , most of the village is situated on the opposite bank of Owego Creek . As a result , NY 38 continues through the village limits but passes very few buildings before seamlessly exiting the community and entering another rural area .
The route continues on , crossing over Owego Creek and passing the Newark Valley Country Club about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Newark Valley village before entering the town of Berkshire . In Berkshire , NY 38 serves the hamlet of Berkshire , a small community situated directly on the highway . The route continues on through the narrowing creek valley into the town of Richford and the hamlet of the same name , where it meets NY 79 in the community 's center . After Richford , the valley continues to narrow for just under 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) before reversing course as the route heads into Cortland County and the town of Harford .
NY 38 clips the extreme southwestern corner of Cortland County ; as a result , only 3 @.@ 38 miles ( 5 @.@ 44 km ) of the route is located within the county . Just north of the county line , the route meets NY 200 in the hamlet of Harford Mills . NY 200 is little more than an alternate route to NY 221 , which NY 38 meets in the hamlet of Harford 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the northeast . In between Harford Mills and Harford , the east branch of Owego Creek separates from NY 38 and heads north to follow NY 221 instead . NY 38 continues northwest out of Harford hamlet and into Tompkins County .
= = = Tompkins County = = =
Upon entering the border town of Dryden , NY 38 emerges from the valley and becomes Dryden – Harford Road as it heads northwestward through a more low @-@ lying but still undeveloped area . The highway gradually curves to the north toward the village of Dryden , where the route changes names to South Street upon entering the village limits . It continues north across Virgil Creek and past three blocks of homes to the commercial village center , where it intersects both NY 13 and NY 392 . The latter begins here and heads off to the east while the former joins NY 38 along North Street .
The overlap between NY 13 and NY 38 ends at the northern village line . At this point , NY 13 continues north while NY 38 forks to the west , running along the village limits on Freeville Road for about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) through an area with only a handful of homes . While doing so , the route passes to the south of the Dryden Middle and High School complex . NY 38 heads onward through an open , undeveloped area , curving to the northwest and eventually to the north as it approaches the village of Freeville , where it serves the William George Agency for Children 's Services at the southern village line . It remains on Freeville Road until Railroad Street , where it turns west and proceeds into the densely populated village center . Here , it intersects the eastern terminus of NY 366 at a junction situated adjacent to Fall Creek .
NY 38 proceeds out of Freeville , passing over Fall Creek and heading north along Groton Road through a lightly populated area of the town of Dryden . The route passes by a mixture of open fields , forests , and isolated homes on its way to the Dryden – Groton town line , where it meets the southern terminus of NY 34B southeast of the hamlet of Peruville . NY 38 parallels the Owasco Inlet into Groton and the village of the same name , becoming Peru Road at the southern village line . It continues north , following South and Main Streets through the densely populated village to an intersection with NY 222 's western terminus at Cortland Street . At this point , NY 38 becomes Cayuga Street and winds its way northward along the Owasco Inlet and out of the village . Now known as Locke Road , NY 38 heads the northwest through another rural , largely undeveloped area into Cayuga County .
= = = Cayuga County = = =
Cayuga County , located in the Finger Lakes region of New York , has a highly unorthodox shape . Most of the county is only about 15 miles ( 24 km ) wide from its western border to its eastern edge . From north to south , however , it extends from Locke north to the Lake Ontario shoreline — a distance of about 55 miles ( 89 km ) . NY 38 passes through much of the county , ending about 4 miles ( 6 km ) south of the shoreline in Sterling . As a result , over half of NY 38 's routing is located in the county , with the midpoint located near the city of Auburn .
= = = = County line to Auburn = = = =
The route heads northwest from the county line , following the Owasco Inlet through open fields and past small patches of trees to the large hamlet of Locke . NY 38 heads north – south through the residential community as Main Street and intersects NY 90 at the center of the hamlet . North of the community , the highway crosses over the Owasco Inlet and enters another rural area dominated by fields situated amongst forests . Upon crossing into the town of Moravia , the amount of development along the highway increases as it passes Fillmore Glen State Park and approaches the village of Moravia .
In Moravia , a highly developed village comprising several blocks of homes and businesses , NY 38 is known as Main Street as it heads north into the village center . At Cayuga Street , NY 38 intersects NY 38A , the second of its two suffixed routes . NY 38A heads eastward from this point while NY 38 turns to follow West Cayuga Street across Owasco Inlet and out of the village . Past the inlet , NY 38 curves to the north and runs along the western edge of the Owasco Flats , a wide , flat @-@ bottomed , undeveloped valley at the foot of Owasco Lake . The flats give way to the lake in Cascade , a hamlet in the town of Venice , at which point NY 38 begins to climb up the western edge of the lake valley . It reaches the lip of the valley 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) later in the town of Scipio .
For the next 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) , the route passes by open fields as it overlooks the lake to the east . The route gradually descends back into the valley as it heads further northward into the town of Fleming . Once in Fleming , NY 38 runs along the lakeshore and serves a long line of lakeside homes as it passes by a series of fields to the west . The amount of development along the route begins to increase at the northern end of the lake in the hamlet of Melrose Park , where NY 38 meets NY 437 by way of a traffic circle . At this point , NY 437 becomes the primary lakeside highway while NY 38 becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway and heads northwest as Lake Avenue toward the city of Auburn .
As NY 38 enters Auburn , it passes by Auburn High School before heading north through densely populated blocks filled with homes . The divided highway ends abruptly at Swift Street , where NY 38 turns west to follow the two @-@ lane undivided Swift Street west for seven blocks to NY 34 ( South Street ) . Here , NY 38 leaves Swift Street and joins NY 34 on South Street . The two routes follow South Street past the William H. Seward House into downtown Auburn , where the homes are replaced with businesses at Lincoln Street . Three blocks later , South Street intersects with the East Arterial ( eastbound US 20 and NY 5 ) . The overlap between NY 34 and NY 38 ends one block later at the West Arterial ( westbound US 20 and NY 5 ) , where NY 38 turns to follow the Arterial for a block to the west .
At State Street , NY 38 leaves US 20 and NY 5 and heads north through the city 's north side , crossing the Owasco Outlet and serving the Auburn Correctional Facility . The route passes through several blocks of commercial and residential development up to Grant Street , where it begins to taper off . It ceases almost entirely near the northern city line at York Street , where the homes along the highway become more sporadic and spaced apart .
= = = = North of Auburn = = = =
Now in the town of Throop , NY 38 follows the Owasco Outlet through open , mostly flat areas dotted with houses amongst fields and trees . Within Throop , it serves the small hamlet of Sawyers Corners , where NY 38 meets Turnpike Road ( County Route 10B or CR 10B ) . North of this junction , the houses give way to dense forests as the route continues along the waterway into the town of Mentz and the village of Port Byron a short distance north of the town line . It follows Main Street through a mostly commercial and industrial portion of the village to the village center , where it intersects NY 31 at Rochester and Utica Streets . NY 38 turns west , overlapping NY 31 along Rochester Street .
The two routes cross the Owasco Outlet and enter a more residential area of the community , where NY 38 splits from NY 31 and continues north along Canal Street . The route crosses over the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) as it leaves the village limits and heads north into a largely undeveloped area of forests and fields . At North Port Byron , a sparsely populated hamlet 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) north of Port Byron , NY 38 passes over the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Rochester Subdivision railroad line . The highway continues on , becoming Conquest Road and crossing the Seneca River ( Erie Canal ) at Mosquito Point , near where Owasco Outlet flows into the river . NY 38 enters the town of Conquest upon traversing the waterway .
NY 38 continues north as an unnamed highway to the hamlet of Conquest , a small community built up around the intersection of NY 38 and Fuller and Slayton Roads . It continues on into the town of Victory , where the undeveloped fields give way to cultivated fields used as farmland . The route heads through mostly desolate surroundings to the hamlet of Victory , a slightly larger community centered on NY 38 . The route proceeds through the hamlet , passing by several homes on its way to a junction with NY 370 just north of the community . Past this point , the homes cease again as NY 38 presses on through more fields and forests to the town of Sterling .
Just north of the town line in the small hamlet of North Victory , NY 38 intersects NY 104 . Past this point , the route heads through mostly undeveloped , forested areas on its way to the hamlet of Finches Corners . North of here , the forests cede slightly as the amount of fields along the highway increases . The highway continues on to the hamlet of Sterling , where it ends at an intersection with NY 104A ( the Seaway Trail ) just south of the hamlet 's center and 4 miles ( 6 km ) south of the Lake Ontario shoreline .
= = History = =
= = = Old roads = = =
Several portions of modern NY 38 were originally part of turnpikes and plank roads during the 1800s . On April 13 , 1819 , the New York State Legislature passed a law incorporating the Cortland and Owego Turnpike Company . The company was tasked with building a highway — the Cortland and Owego Turnpike — from Owego north to the then @-@ village of Cortland . It roughly followed what is now NY 38 north from Owego to the vicinity of Harford , where it turned north to access Virgil . It continued to Cortland by way of modern NY 215 .
On April 13 , 1825 , the legislature chartered the Auburn and Port Byron Turnpike Company . The Auburn and Port Byron Turnpike began at the Auburn State Prison in Auburn and proceeded northward along the routing of NY 38 to meet the north branch of the Seneca Turnpike in the town of Brutus ( now Throop ) . From there , the turnpike continued on NY 38 through Port Byron to the Seneca River , where it ended at a bridge crossing the river at Mosquito Point . In 1851 , the Auburn and Moravia Plank Road Company was incorporated . They were tasked with connecting Moravia to Auburn by way of a plank road along the western side of Owasco Lake ( now NY 38 ) .
= = = Designation = = =
When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the portion of what is now NY 38 from Freeville to Moravia became part of NY 26 , a north – south highway extending from Freeville to Syracuse via Skaneateles . By 1926 , the segment of current NY 38 between Freeville and Owego was designated as NY 42 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the entirety of NY 42 and the portion of NY 26 south of Moravia was incorporated into the new NY 38 , which extended north from Moravia to NY 3 ( modern NY 104A ) in Sterling . The section of the route adjacent to Owasco Lake was still being constructed at the time of NY 38 's assignment ; it was completed c . 1932 .
NY 38 originally overlapped with NY 96 ( designated as NY 15 in 1930 ) through Owego to a terminus at the modern junction of NY 96 and NY 434 south of the village . The overlap was extended slightly along Southside Drive to NY 17 exit 64 in the 1960s following the construction of the Southern Tier Expressway through the area . It was removed altogether when NY 38 was truncated to the northern end of the overlap by 1994 .
= = Suffixed routes = =
NY 38A ( 21 @.@ 91 miles or 35 @.@ 26 kilometres ) runs from Moravia to NY 359 , near Mandana and NY 41A in southwestern Onondaga County , and then towards Auburn . It was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .
NY 38B ( 7 @.@ 69 miles or 12 @.@ 38 kilometres ) is a short spur in Broome and Tioga counties connecting NY 38 in Newark Valley in the west to NY 26 in Maine in the east . It was assigned in the early 1950s .
= = Major intersections = =
= Westminster Assembly =
The Westminster Assembly of Divines was a council of theologians ( or " divines " ) and members of the English Parliament appointed to restructure the Church of England which met from 1643 to 1653 . Several Scots also attended , and the Assembly 's work was adopted by the Church of Scotland . As many as 121 ministers were called to the Assembly , with nineteen others added later to replace those who did not attend or could no longer attend . It produced a new Form of Church Government , a Confession of Faith or statement of belief , two catechisms or manuals for religious instruction ( Shorter and Larger ) , and a liturgical manual , the Directory for Public Worship , for the Churches of England and Scotland . The Confession and catechisms were adopted as doctrinal standards in the Church of Scotland and other Presbyterian churches , where they remain normative . Amended versions of the Confession were also adopted in Congregational and Baptist churches in England and New England in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries . The Confession became influential throughout the English @-@ speaking world , but especially in American Protestant theology .
The Assembly was called by the Long Parliament before and during the beginning of the First English Civil War . The Long Parliament was influenced by Puritanism , a religious movement which sought to further reform the church . They were opposed to the religious policies of King Charles I and William Laud , Archbishop of Canterbury . As part of a military alliance with Scotland , Parliament agreed that the outcome of the Assembly would bring the English Church into closer conformity with the Church of Scotland . The Scottish Church was governed by a system of elected assemblies of elders called presbyterianism , rather than rule by bishops , called episcopalianism , which was used in the English church . Scottish commissioners attended and advised the Assembly as part of the agreement . Disagreements over church government caused open division in the Assembly , despite attempts to maintain unity . The party of divines who favoured presbyterianism was in the majority , but political and military realities led to greater influence for the congregationalist party . Congregationalists favoured autonomy for individual congregations rather than the subjection of congregations to regional and national assemblies entailed in presbyterianism . Parliament eventually adopted a presbyterian form of government , but it lacked the power the presbyterian divines desired . During the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 , all of the documents of the Assembly were repudiated and episcopal church government was reinstated in England .
The Assembly worked in the Reformed Protestant theological tradition , also known as Calvinism . It took the Bible as the authoritative word of God , from which all theological reflection must be based . The divines were committed to the Reformed doctrine of predestination — that God chooses certain men to be saved and enjoy eternal life rather than eternal punishment . There was some disagreement at the Assembly over the doctrine of particular redemption — that Christ died only for those chosen for salvation . The Assembly also held to Reformed covenant theology , a framework for interpreting the Bible . The Assembly 's Confession is the first of the Reformed confessions to teach a doctrine called the covenant of works , which teaches that before the fall of man , God promised eternal life to Adam on condition that he perfectly obeyed God .
= = Background = =
Parliament called the Westminster Assembly during a time of increasing hostility between Charles I , monarch of England and Scotland , and the Puritans . Puritans could be distinguished by their insistence that worship practices be supported implicitly or explicitly by the Bible , while their opponents gave greater authority to traditional customs . They believed the Church of England , which had separated itself from the Catholic Church during the English Reformation , was still too heavily influenced by Catholicism . They sought to rid the church and nation of any of these remaining influences . This included the Church 's episcopal polity , or rule by a hierarchy of bishops . Puritans , unlike separatists , did not leave the established church . Under Charles , the Puritans ' opponents were placed in high positions of authority , most notably William Laud who was made Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633 , even though these " high churchmen " were in the minority . Puritans were forced to keep their views private or face fines and imprisonment . Laud promoted advocates of Arminianism , a theological perspective opposed to the Reformed theology of the Puritans . Worship practices such as kneeling at communion , bowing at the name of Christ , and the placement of communion tables at the East end of churches were also reinstated . To the Puritans , these seemed to be a step in the direction of Catholicism .
There were also conflicts between the king and the Scots , whose church was ruled by a system of elected assemblies called presbyterianism . James , Charles 's predecessor as King of Scotland , made it clear that he intended to impose elements of episcopal church government and the Book of Common Prayer on the Scots beginning in 1604 . The Scots considered this a reversion to Roman Catholicism . Charles furthered English impositions on the Church of Scotland in 1636 and 1637 . This led to the First Bishops ' War between Charles and the Scots in 1639 . Charles called what came to be known as the Short Parliament to raise funds for the war , but he soon dissolved it when it began voicing opposition to his policies . Following the Second Bishops ' War with the Scots in 1640 , Charles was forced to call another parliament to raise additional funds .
What came to be known as the Long Parliament also began to voice vague grievances against Charles , many of which were religious in nature . Parliament had many Puritans and Puritan @-@ sympathizing members , who generally opposed the existing episcopal system , but there was little agreement over what shape the church should take . Later in 1640 , the Root and Branch petition was presented to the House of Commons , the lower house of Parliament . It was signed by about 15 @,@ 000 Londoners and called for total elimination of the episcopal system . Committees were organized in the House of Commons to enact religious reforms , leading to the imprisonment of Archbishop Laud and his supporters in the Tower of London as retaliation for their repression of Puritans . The Court of High Commission and the Star Chamber , courts which had inflicted severe punishments on Puritan dissenters , were also abolished .
= = Calling the assembly = =
The idea of a national assembly of theologians to advise Parliament on further church reforms was first presented to the House of Commons in 1641 . Such a proposal was also included in the Grand Remonstrance , a list of grievances which Parliament presented to Charles on 1 December that year . Charles responded on 23 December that the church required no reforms . Undeterred , Parliament passed three bills in 1642 appointing an assembly and stipulating that its members would be chosen by Parliament . Charles , whose royal assent was required for the bills to become law , was only willing to consider such an assembly if the members were chosen by the clergy . This was the practice for selection of members of Convocation , the assembly of clergy of the Church of England .
Defying the king , between 12 February and 20 April 1642 , each county delegation of England in Commons chose two divines , in addition to two for each county of Wales , four for London , and two for each University ( Oxford and Cambridge ) . County delegations often chose divines from their own county , but not always . Commons chose the members in this way to ensure that their local constituencies were represented in the decision . The House of Lords , Parliament 's upper house , added another fourteen names on 14 May , to which Commons agreed . Meanwhile , relations continued to deteriorate between the king and Parliament . Charles raised the royal standard at Nottingham on 22 August , marking the beginning of the First English Civil War . The start of the war lent support to the cause of the Assembly in Parliament , because holding it would convince the Scots that Parliament was serious about reforming the church and induce the Scots to come to their aid . On the other hand , the war added strain to the already busy Parliament .
Parliament finally passed an ordinance to hold the assembly on its own authority without Charles 's assent on 12 June 1643 . It named as many as 121 ministers and thirty non @-@ voting parliamentary observers : twenty from Commons , and ten from the House of Lords . The Assembly was almost entirely English ; Parliament appointed Englishmen for the counties of Wales , but the French stranger churches ( churches of Protestant refugees from Catholic France ) sent two ministers in place of any from the Channel Islands . Many of the divines were internationally recognized scholars of the Bible , ancient languages , patristics , and scholastic theology . Many were also famous preachers . Most of these theologians had retained their positions in the Church during the tenure of William Laud . Some had been ejected from their churches or cited by ecclesiastical courts for their views . Some had fled to the Continent , and one to the American colonies . Nonetheless , they all considered themselves members of the Church of England and had received episcopal ordination . Most were conformists , meaning they agreed to follow the Act of Uniformity 1558 and the Book of Common Prayer .
The Assembly was strictly under the control of Parliament , and was only to debate topics which Parliament directed . Assembly members were not permitted to state their disagreements with majority opinions or share any information about the proceedings , except in writing to Parliament . Parliament chose William Twisse , an internationally respected theologian , to be the Assembly 's prolocutor or chairman . Due to Twisse 's ill health , Cornelius Burges , whom Parliament appointed as one of several assessors , served as prolocutor pro tempore for most of the Assembly . Twenty @-@ two appointed members of the Assembly died before 1649 , and they along with those who did not attend for other reasons were replaced by another nineteen members . Three non @-@ voting scribes were also added in 1643 .
= = Revising the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles = =
The Assembly 's first meeting began with a sermon by William Twisse in the nave of Westminster Abbey on 1 July 1643 . The nave was so full that the House of Commons had to send members ahead to secure seats . Following the sermon , the divines processed to the Henry VII Chapel , which would be their place of meeting until 2 October when they moved to the warmer and more private Jerusalem Chamber . After their initial meeting they adjourned for about a week , as Parliament had not yet given specific instructions .
On 6 July , they received a set of rules from Parliament and were ordered to examine the first ten of the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles , the current doctrinal standard of the Church of England , and " to free and vindicate the Doctrine of them from all Aspersions of false Interpretations " . After a day of fasting , the Assembly took a vow , as directed by Parliament , to " not maintain any thing in Matters of Doctrine , but what I think , in my conscience , to be truth " . The divines organized themselves into three standing committees , though each committee was open to any member of the Assembly . The committees would be assigned topics and prepare propositions for debate in the full Assembly following each morning of committee meetings . In addition , over 200 ad hoc committees were appointed for tasks such as examination of candidate preachers , college fellows , and suspected heretics .
The Assembly resolved , after some debate , that all the doctrines of the Thirty @-@ Nine articles would need to be proven from the Bible . Assembly members were prone to long speeches and they made slow progress , frustrating the leadership . The eighth of the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles recommended the Apostles ' Creed , Nicene Creed , and Athanasian Creed , considered to be basic statements of orthodoxy , to be received and believed . The Assembly was unable to resolve conflicts between those who would not be bound by creeds and those who wished to retain the existing language that the creeds be " thoroughly received and believed " . The " excepters " , who took the former position , argued that the articles only require the " matter " of the creeds be believed . On 25 August the article was put off until the rest of the articles could be dealt with . This early disagreement on fundamental issues revealed deep rifts between different factions of the assembly .
= = Debating church government = =
From the beginning of the First Civil War , the Long Parliament recognized that they would need assistance from the Scots . In return for a military alliance , the Scottish Parliament required the English to sign the Solemn League and Covenant in 1643 , which stipulated that the English would bring their church into greater conformity with the Church of Scotland . The Scottish Parliament sent commissioners to London to represent Scotland 's interests to the English Parliament . Eleven of these , four theologians and seven members of Parliament , were also invited to the Assembly . The commissioners were given the opportunity to become full voting members of the Assembly but declined , preferring to maintain their independence as commissioners of their own nation and church . Samuel Rutherford , George Gillespie , and Alexander Henderson were the most outspoken of the commissioners .
On 12 October 1643 , Parliament ordered the Assembly to cease work on the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles and to begin to frame a common form of church government for the two nations . The Assembly would spend a quarter of its full sessions on the subject of church government . The majority of the Assembly members supported presbyterian polity , or church government by elected assemblies of lay and clerical representatives , though many were not dogmatically committed to it . Several members of this group , numbering about twenty and including William Twisse , favoured a " primitive " episcopacy , which would include elements of presbyterianism and a reduced role for bishops .
There were also several congregationalists , who favoured autonomy for individual local churches . Their most influential divines were Thomas Goodwin , Philip Nye , Sidrach Simpson , Jeremiah Burroughs , and William Bridge . They were often called the " dissenting brethren " in the Assembly . They have sometimes been labelled " Independents " , but they rejected this term . The Assembly members for the most part reserved the label " Independent " for separatists who left the established church . The congregationalist divines cannot be equated with separatists and Brownists , as they had accepted episcopal ordination and remained in the Church of England . Their influence was assisted by the success of Oliver Cromwell and his New Model Army in the ongoing civil war . Cromwell and many others in the army supported congregationalism .
A third group of divines were known as Erastians , a term for those who believed that the state should have significant power over the church . The entire Assembly was Erastian in the sense that the body had been called by Parliament and was completely under state control . Those labelled " Erastian " at the Assembly believed the civil authority , rather than church officers , should hold the power of church discipline . This included the power to withhold communion from unrepentant sinners . They did not see any particular form of church government as divinely mandated , and because of this the dissenting brethren allied with them when it became clear that a presbyterian establishment would be much less tolerant of congregationalism than Parliament . There were only two divines at the Assembly who held the Erastian view , John Lightfoot and Thomas Coleman , but the presence of members of Parliament , especially John Selden , as well as the fact of parliamentary oversight of the Assembly , gave Erastian views disproportional influence .
Several episcopalians , supporters of the existing system of bishops , were also included in the summoning ordinance , but Parliament may have nominated them to lend greater legitimacy to the Assembly and not have expected them to attend because Charles had not approved of the Assembly . Only one , Daniel Featley , participated , and he only until his arrest for treason in October 1643 .
Debate on church officers began on 19 October . The Assembly began with the issue of ordination , as many of the divines were concerned about the rise of various sectarian movements and the lack of any mechanism for ordination of ministers of the established church . While some members did not seem to think ordination necessary for preachers ( though they should not administer the sacraments without it ) , a majority of the divines thought any regular preaching without ordination unacceptable and wished to erect a provisional presbytery for purposes of ordination . There was also debate at this early stage over the nature of the visible church . The congregationalists considered a church to be a single local congregation , while the majority considered the national church to be a unity and were alarmed at the prospect of a disintegrated English church . Despite these debates , up until the end of 1643 there was hope that a common church government could be framed that would be satisfactory to all parties involved .
On 3 or 4 January 1644 , the five leading dissenting brethren signalled a break with the rest of the Assembly when they published An Apologeticall Narration , a polemical pamphlet appealing to Parliament . It argued that the congregational system was more amenable to state control of religious matters than that of the presbyterians because they did not desire the church to retain any real power except to withdraw fellowship from aberrant congregations . By 17 January , the majority of the Assembly had become convinced that the best way forward was a presbyterian system similar to that of the Scots , but the dissenting brethren were allowed to continue to state their case in hope that they could eventually be reconciled . It was hoped that by avoiding asserting that presbyterianism was established by divine right , the congregationalists could be accommodated .
Despite these efforts , on 21 February it became clear just how fundamentally opposed the groups were . Philip Nye , one of the dissenting brethren , asserted in a speech that a presbytery set over local congregations would become as powerful as the state and was dangerous to the commonwealth , provoking vigorous opposition from presbyterians . The next day , the Assembly finally began to establish a prescription for presbyterian government . Owing to a strong belief in the unity of the church , the Assembly continued to try to find ways to reconcile the dissenting brethren with the majority throughout 1644 , including the establishment of a special committee for that purpose in March . However , on 15 November , the dissenting brethren presented their reasons for disagreement with the rest of the Assembly to Parliament , and on 11 December the majority submitted a draft of a presbyterian form of government .
= = Conflicts with Parliament = =
Relations between the Assembly and Parliament were already deteriorating in 1644 , when Parliament ignored the Assembly 's request that " grossly ignorant and notoriously profane " individuals be barred from communion . While members of Parliament agreed that the sacrament should be kept pure , many of them disagreed with the presbyterian majority in the Assembly over who had the final power of excommunication , taking the Erastian view that it was the state . Also , by 1646 , Oliver Cromwell 's New Model Army had won the war on behalf of Parliament . Cromwell , along with a majority of the army , was strongly in favour of religious toleration for all sorts of Christians even if the national church was to be presbyterian . His rise to power as a result of his military victories made the idea of a strictly presbyterian settlement without freedom of worship for others very unlikely . Parliament at least wanted to know which sins in particular were grave enough to trigger excommunication by the church ; the Assembly was reticent to provide such information , as the majority considered the power of the church in this area to be absolute .
In May 1645 , Parliament passed an ordinance allowing excommunicants to appeal the church 's sentences to Parliament . Another ordinance on 20 October contained a list of sins to which the church would be limited in its power to excommunicate . To the majority of the divines ' dismay , an even more Erastian ordinance was proposed in March 1646 . The Assembly published a protest , provoking the Commons to charge it with breach of privilege and to submit nine questions to the divines on the matter . Votes were to be included with the answers , an attempt to force the divines associated with the protest petition to reveal themselves .
The Nine Queries , as they came to be called , focused on the divine right ( jure divino ) of church government . While the presbyterian divines were capable of defending their vision for church government as established by divine right in the Bible , they were unwilling to answer the queries because doing so would further expose the disunity of the Assembly and weaken their case in Parliament . In July 1647 , the New Model Army invaded London and conservative members of Parliament were forced out . Parliament passed an ordinance establishing religious tolerance and ensuring that the Assembly 's vision of a national , compulsory presbyterian church would never come to fruition . In London , where support for presbyterianism was greatest , presbyteries were established in only sixty @-@ four of 108 city parishes , and regional presbyterian classes were only formed in fourteen of England 's forty counties . A planned national general assembly never met . Many presbyterians did , however , establish voluntary presbyteries in what was a de facto free church situation until the Restoration in 1660 , when a compulsory episcopal system was reinstated .
The new Form of Government was much more acceptable to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland . They passed it on 10 February 1645 , contingent on some particularities of presbyterian government which were expected to be worked out in a forthcoming Directory for Church Government . At the same time they announced their desire to formally unite the two churches . Following the rise of Cromwell and the secret Engagement of some Scots with Charles this hope was abandoned , and the documents were never formally adopted . The General Assembly ceased to function under Cromwell and the kings who succeeded him from 1649 to 1690 .
= = Confession , catechisms , and the Directory for Public Worship = =
During and after the debates over church government , the Assembly framed other documents which did not cause open rifts . The Directory for Public Worship , which was to replace the Book of Common Prayer , was swiftly written in 1644 and passed by Parliament on 3 January 1645 . The Directory , accepted by the Scots as well , took a middle course between the presbyterians and congregationalists . The presbyterians for the most part preferred a fixed liturgy while congregationalists favoured extemporaneous prayer . The Directory consisted of an order for services with sample prayers . The Assembly also recommended a psalter , translated by Francis Rous for use in worship .
A Confession of Faith to replace the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles was begun in August 1646 . While there is little record of the actions of the Assembly during the writing of the Confession , it is clear that there were significant debates in the Assembly over almost every doctrine found in it . The Confession was printed and sent to Parliament in December . The House of Commons requested scripture citations be added to the Confession , which were provided in April 1648 . Parliament approved the Confession with revisions to the chapters on church censures , synods and councils , and marriage on 20 June 1648 . The General Assembly of the Church of Scotland had already adopted the Confession without revision in 1647 . The restoration of Charles II in 1660 effectively made this legislation a nullity .
The Assembly had already done significant work on a catechism between December 1643 and January 1647 containing fifty @-@ five questions , before it decided to create two catechisms rather than one . The Larger Catechism , intended to assist ministers in teaching the Reformed faith to their congregations . The Shorter Catechism was based on the Larger Catechism but intended for use in teaching the faith to children . Parliament demanded scripture proofs for the catechisms as well . The Scots General Assembly approved both catechisms in 1648 .
The Assembly understood its mandate under the Solemn League and Covenant to have been fulfilled on 14 April 1648 when it delivered the scripture citations to Parliament , and the Scottish Commissioners had already left by the end of 1647 . The Assembly continued to meet primarily for the purpose of examination of ministers for ordination . Most of the divines were unhappy with the republican Commonwealth that emerged after Colonel Pride 's Purge of the Long Parliament in 1648 . As a result , a majority stopped attending rather than agree to the oath of Engagement to the Commonwealth that was imposed in 1649 . Newspapers continued to report on the meetings of the Assembly as late as March 1653 . The Assembly must have stopped meeting sometime between then and Cromwell 's dissolution of the Rump Parliament on 20 April 1653 .
= = Theology = =
The Assembly was a product of the British Reformed tradition , taking as a major source the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles as well as the theology of James Ussher and his Irish Articles of 1615 . The divines also considered themselves to be within the broader European Reformed tradition . They were in frequent correspondence with continental Reformed theologians , and sought their approval . They also drew upon the pre @-@ Reformation British theological tradition , which emphasized biblical knowledge and was influenced by the Augustinian theological tradition exemplified by Anselm , Thomas Bradwardine , and John Wycliffe . The recorded debates of the Assembly are full of citations of church fathers and medieval scholastic theologians .
The Confession starts with the doctrine of revelation , or how people can know about God . The divines believed knowledge of God was available to people through nature as well as the Bible , but they also believed that the Bible , or Scripture , is the only way in which people attain saving knowledge of God . The doctrine of Scripture was also a particularly important area of debate at the time . Scholars had begun to argue that the Hebrew vowel points , marks added to the text to aid in pronunciation , of the Old Testament were probably not part of the original . This caused significant debate between Reformed polemicists and Roman Catholics . Catholics argued that such a discovery demonstrated the need for an authoritative magisterium to interpret the Bible as opposed to the Protestant doctrine of perspicuity , that the essential teachings of the Bible could be interpreted by anyone . English Reformed writers in particular took up the work of defending the Reformed doctrine . The divines had a strong view of the inspiration of the Bible , and believed that God revealed himself in the propositions found in Scripture . While the issue of biblical inerrancy , the belief that there are no errors in the Bible , did not arise until the eighteenth century , the divines clearly did not believe the Bible to contain any errors . Many of the divines held a rather mechanical view of biblical inspiration , believing that not only the words and ideas but also the letters and vowel points of the Hebrew text were inspired by God . On the other hand , they acknowledged that the text was written by humans in their own styles . They did not make any distinction between essential and incidental matters with respect to biblical inspiration .
Puritans believed that God is sovereign over all of history and nature and that none of what were called his decrees would be frustrated . There was significant debate in the Assembly over the relationship of God 's decree of predestination , or choice to save some people , to the redemption purchased by Christ 's death . Many of the Reformed during this period taught that Christ died with the purpose only to save those who were eternally chosen to be saved , a doctrine called particular redemption . A vocal minority of the divines of the Assembly argued for a position known as hypothetical universalism . Edmund Calamy held such a view , and he argued that Christ 's death , as well as saving those who had been chosen , offered salvation to all people on condition that they believe . The Assembly 's Confession did not teach such a view , and its language is much more amenable to a particular redemption interpretation , but there is a general agreement among scholars that the Confession 's language allows an hypothetical universalist interpretation .
Covenant theology is an interpretive framework used by Reformed theologians which was significantly developed during the seventeenth century . Under this scheme , as articulated by the Assembly , God 's dealings with men are described in terms of two covenants : the covenant of works and covenant of grace . The Westminster Confession was the first major Reformed symbol to explicitly mention the covenant of works ( sometimes called the covenant of life ) , in which God offered Adam eternal life on condition of perfect obedience . In the fall of man , Adam broke the covenant of works by eating of the tree of knowledge of good and evil . To remedy this , God offered salvation apart from human initiative in what was called the covenant of grace . This covenant allowed man to enjoy eternal life despite his inability to obey God 's law perfectly . The idea of the covenant of grace was a much more common feature of orthodox Reformed theology . The Westminster divines set these two covenants against each other as the two major ways in which God deals with people .
The divines were even more strongly opposed to Catholicism than to William Laud and his followers , the Laudians . They associated both Catholicism and Laudianism with Arminianism and persecution . Before the civil war , the divines saw these two groups as the greatest threat to the church . With the rise of radical sectarian movements during the war , the divines became much more concerned with these groups than polemics against Catholicism . The divines were particularly concerned with those they labeled antinomians . This was a loose term for those who saw the moral law as in some way no longer relevant for Christians . The divines saw these groups as more immediately threatening than Catholicism .
= = Legacy = =
The work of the Westminster Assembly was repudiated by the Church of England during the Restoration in 1660 . The Act of Uniformity 1662 , a law requiring even greater adherence to the Book of Common Prayer and support for episcopalianism than had previously been required , forced Puritan ministers to leave the Church . Though some presbyterians continued to desire to be readmitted to the established church , restrictions on worship for non @-@ conformists led to presbyterians putting aside differences with congregationalists and adopting congregational church orders .
The Civil War brought with it the end of the consensus among English Protestants that there should be a single church imposed by the state , though there was still not complete freedom of religion . The ideals of the dissenting brethren of the Assembly were significant in the rise of denominationalism , the doctrine that the church is found in several institutions rather than a single one in a given location . Though Protestants already commonly recognized the validity of churches in different territories , the outcome of the Assembly 's debates marks the wider acceptance of the idea that several true churches may be found in the same territory .
The Confession produced by the Assembly was adopted with amendments by Congregationalists in England in the form of the 1658 Savoy Declaration , as well as by Particular Baptists in the form of the 1689 Baptist Confession . When the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland was reestablished in 1690 following the Glorious Revolution , it ratified the Westminster Confession , but not any other document produced at Westminster . The Confession remains , according to the 1929 Declaratory Articles , the Church of Scotland 's " principal subordinate standard " , subordinate to the Bible . Memorization of the Shorter Catechism has been made a requirement for children in many Presbyterian churches .
The migrations and missionary efforts of each of these groups lead to the widespread significance of the Westminster Assembly throughout the English @-@ speaking world . The Assembly 's Confession was particularly influential in American Protestant theology . It was included with congregationalist changes as part of the 1648 Cambridge Platform , a statement produced by ministers of colonial Massachusetts and the surrounding region , and again in colonial Connecticut as part of the 1708 Saybrook Platform . The Confession was modified for American Baptists in the 1707 Philadelphia Confession . The Adopting Act of 1729 required American Presbyterians to agree to the theology of the Assembly 's Confession , and the Confession remains a part of the Presbyterian Church ( USA ) ' s Book of Confessions . The Confession has been called " by far the most influential doctrinal symbol in American Protestant history " by the historian of religion Sydney E. Ahlstrom .
= The Goat Puzzle =
The Goat Puzzle , also known as The Infamous Goat Puzzle , The Infamous Goat , The Wretched Goat , The Goat of Lochmarne , or simply The Goat , is a puzzle featured in Revolution Software 's 1996 classic point and click adventure game Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars . In the puzzle , protagonist George Stobbart must gain access to an underground dig located in a castle in Lochmarne , Ireland , by avoiding getting butted by a fierce goat . It is often explained to be difficult due to challenging the player in a way different from previous puzzles in the game . It is also noted by many gamers and various publications as one of the hardest video game puzzles of all time . The puzzle was simplified in The Shadow of the Templars ' 2009 director 's cut .
= = Puzzle and solution = =
Revolution Software 's point and click adventure game Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars was first released in 1996 . While investigating a murder , protagonist and player character George Stobbart finds himself uncovering a dark mystery regarding the Knights Templar . A medieval manuscript which he obtained during the investigation leads him to a castle located in Lochmarne , Ireland . As he cannot enter the castle through the main entrance door , he climbs a haystack , which stops short of the top of the wall . He puts a sewer key which he obtained at the beginning of the game in a crack in the wall , which forms a step , allowing him to climb over the wall . Inside the castle , an entrance to an underground dig is located . A tied @-@ up goat is sitting near the entrance ; however , the chain to which it is tied is long enough to allow it to prevent George from reaching the entrance by butting him . An old piece of farming machinery is located at the left side of the screen , but George is unable to interact with it , as the goat continues to butt him . George must allow the goat to butt him when trying to reach the entrance , but while the goat is returning to its original position , the player must click on the farming machinery , which causes George to quickly jump up and run to the machinery and slightly reposition it . When returned to its original position , the goat again charges and butts George , but while doing so , gets its chain entangled with the machinery , due to its repositioning . This allows George to move freely and enter the dig .
= = Legacy = =
The puzzle is considered by many gamers and publications to be one of the most challenging video game puzzles of all time . Broken Sword creator and Revolution CEO Charles Cecil and Broken Sword designer Steve Ince , as well as publications which have covered it , explain that the puzzle was challenging because the player was not met with any " time critical " puzzle prior to this point in the game , which would mean they " would not necessarily make the connection that clicking on the machinery at a key moment would make this happen . "
Chris Csullion of Official Nintendo Magazine said that " if you 've played [ Broken Sword ] , the words ' the goat puzzle ' will probably make you break out in a cold sweat . " Geoff Thew of Hardcore Gamer wrote that Broken Sword was known for " intricate , challenging puzzles ( some infamously so ) . " The puzzle appeared on Computer and Video Games ' 2011 feature , " Gaming 's hardest puzzles " . In 2012 , it was listed on GameFront 's " 5 Crazy Difficult and Intricate Video Game Puzzles " . During a classic postmortem for The Shadow of the Templars at the European Game Developers Conference in August 2014 , when Cecil brought up the topic of difficult puzzles , a member of the audience shouted " That fucking goat ! " ; laughter ensued , and Cecil added : " It was very unfair , and it was absolutely bewildering . " He also continued , claiming he knew he had " made it " when a taxi driver once questioned him about his occupation : upon finding out he had written Broken Sword the driver exclaimed , " Ah , so you 're the one responsible for the goat puzzle ! "
The puzzle was simplified in The Shadow of the Templars ' 2009 director 's cut by , according to Cecil , adding a more logical solution . This version of the game includes a diary , in which the character takes notes ; After completing the goat puzzle , George 's diary reads : " So the ' ghost of Lochmarne ' is no more than a fierce Billy goat . For a moment I thought it was going to be incredibly awkward to get past , but in the end it was surprisingly simple . Who would have known ? " , as a reference to the original puzzle 's reputation . An easter egg involving a talking goat was included in The Shadow of the Templars ' sequel , Broken Sword II : The Smoking Mirror ( 1997 ) . A goat puzzle was featured in Broken Sword 5 : The Serpent 's Curse , in the beginning and ending of 2014 second and final episode of the title , as part of the achieved $ 800 @,@ 000 Kickstarter " stretch goal " .
= Sinclair Sovereign =
The Sinclair Sovereign was a high @-@ end calculator introduced by Clive Sinclair 's company Sinclair Radionics in 1976 . It was an attempt to escape from the unprofitable low end of the market , and one of the last calculators Sinclair produced . Made with a case of pressed steel that a variety of finishes , it cost between GB £ 30 and GB £ 60 at a time when other calculators could be purchased for under GB £ 5 . A number of factors meant that the Sovereign was not a commercial success , including the cost , high import levies on components , competition from cheaper calculators manufactured abroad , and the development of more power @-@ efficient designs using liquid @-@ crystal displays . Though it came with a five @-@ year guarantee , issues such as short battery life limited its usefulness . The company moved on to producing computers soon afterwards .
The design by John Pemberton won a Design Council award , and there are examples of the Sovereign in the Museum of Modern Art in New York . It had a Mostek MK50321N main integrated circuit and a small memory register , a LED display , and could perform a variety of a number of basic mathematical operations besides four @-@ function arithmetic .
= = History = =
The Sovereign was one of the last calculators produced during Sinclair 's foray into the calculator market that had started with the Sinclair Executive in September 1972 . The Executive had retailed for GB £ 80 when introduced , but in little over a year it was possible to purchase a Sinclair calculator for GB £ 20 and by November of 1976 a model was available for GB £ 4 @.@ 95 . Cheaper calculators with liquid @-@ crystal displays instead of light @-@ emitting diodes were becoming more popular , and had much longer battery lives of months or years . Such calculators were available for well under GB £ 10 , with all the functionality of the more expensive models . The impossibility of selling " simple " calculators profitibly led Sinclair to introduce models such as the Cambridge Scientific , introduced in August 1975 at a price of GB £ 29 @.@ 95 .
The Sovereign , released in 1976 , represented an attempt to move upmarket in an increasingly saturated market . In December 1976 , the chrome plated version of the Sovereign cost GB £ 30 and the gold @-@ plated version GB £ 60 , including VAT , but profit margins on the Sovereign were so small that Sinclair ended up selling the Sovereign at a loss , and it was not a commercial success . The Sovereign was made in England , like every other Sinclair calculator except the President .
Sinclair would shortly stop producing calculators and instead focus on computers , starting with the MK14 in 1977 . The loss of the calculator market was due in part to technological development leading to smaller and cheaper components , which put heavy pressure on profit margins . An import levy of up to 17 @.@ 5 % was placed on components , but the duty for calculators imported from Japan or Hong Kong could be as little as 5 % , making it unprofitable to produce calculators in the UK . Sinclair also had some problems with the reliability of earlier calculators that had adversely affected its reputation , but the Sovereign was sold with a " full and unconditional " five year guarantee .
= = Design = =
The Sovereign came in satin chrome and gold @-@ plated models , with leather pouches and fitted wooden cases . It had an 8 @-@ digit seven @-@ segment display that used red light @-@ emitting diodes , with a decimal point to the right of each digit that could be illuminated as necessary . Power was provided by two 1 @.@ 35 mercury button cells . The Sovereign measured 36 by 141 by 12 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 42 in × 5 @.@ 55 in × 0 @.@ 47 in ) , which made it small and sleek compared to other calculators of the time .
The Sovereign was unusual because the casing was made from pressed steel , which gave it a much higher quality feel compared to injection moulded plastic . This allowed a variety of paint and plating options , including black painted , chrome @-@ plated , silver @-@ plated , and gold @-@ plated , and a limited edition silver @-@ plated version , inscribed to commemorate the Silver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II in 1977 , were also produced . Asprey of London was rumoured to have produced two Sovereigns in solid gold , costing GB £ 2 @,@ 750 each .
The design , by John Pemberton , won the Design Council Award in 1977 , as the Executive had in 1973 , and there are examples in the collection of the Museum of Modern Art in New York . Sovereigns are highly collectible , and used models command high prices .
= = = Functions = = =
As well as addition , subtraction , multiplication and division , it had reciprocal and square @-@ root functions , and the ability to multiply by a fixed constant . With an eight @-@ digit display , the calculator could display positive numbers between 0 @.@ 0000001 and 99 @,@ 999 @,@ 999 , and negative numbers between -0.000001 and -9,999,999 . Calculators of the time tended to have displays of between 3 and 12 digits , as reducing the number of digits was an effective way of reducing the cost of the calculator . A number outside that range leads to an overflow , and the screen flashes and all keys except the clear key are rendered inoperable to inform the user of the error . A independent memory register could read information from the screen , and information could only be taken from the memory onto the screen . Five keys were used for memory operations .
The Sovereign used a Mostek MK50321N main integrated circuit , the same as the Sinclair Wrist Calculator and some variants of the Sinclair Cambridge . Clive Sinclair had assumed that people would prefer attractive illuminated LED displays to LCD displays , which incidentally also required more expensive CMOS chips . However , his calculators were designed with the assumption they would be turned off between calculations , which did not prove to be the case . Advertisements suggested that the batteries would last " about a year " under normal use , but in reality the small button cell batteries and comparatively high power consumption meant a short battery life compared to the competition .
= Survivor Series ( 1992 ) =
Survivor Series ( 1992 ) was the sixth annual Survivor Series pay @-@ per @-@ view professional wrestling event produced by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . It took place on November 25 , 1992 , at the Richfield Coliseum in Richfield Township , Ohio . The buildup to the pay @-@ per @-@ view consisted of feuds scripted by the WWF 's writers , and the matches that took place at the event had pre @-@ determined outcomes that had been decided by the company .
In the main event , Bret Hart retained his WWF World Heavyweight Championship against Shawn Michaels . The card also included a highly @-@ promoted match in which the team of Randy Savage and Mr. Perfect defeated the team of Ric Flair and Razor Ramon by disqualification ; The Ultimate Warrior was advertised for the show but left the company and was replaced by Perfect . Also featured were two speciality matches : The Undertaker won a coffin match against Kamala , and The Big Boss Man defeated Nailz in a nightstick on a pole match .
Some of the matches were changed after they were first announced , as several wrestlers left the WWF shortly before the event . Critics have praised the main event and the tag team match that was won by Savage and Perfect . Although the remaining bouts have received low ratings , critics have felt that those two matches made the event worth watching .
= = Background = =
In the storyline behind the match between The Big Boss Man and Nailz , Nailz claimed that while he was serving time in prison , the Big Boss Man , who was a guard at the prison , mistreated Nailz . In early 1992 , Nailz appeared in introductory vignettes to talk about his hatred of the Big Boss Man . Upon his debut in the WWF , Nailz attacked Bossman and stole his nightstick , which he used to attack his opponents over the following months .
Shortly after Tatanka 's debut in the WWF , he became involved in a feud with Rick Martel . They faced each other at WrestleMania VIII , and Tatanka defeated Martel . The following month , Martel gained revenge by attacking Tatanka with an atomizer of cologne and stealing the eagle feathers that Tatanka carried to symbolize his Lumbee heritage .
Ric Flair and his " executive consultant " Mr. Perfect had been allies in the WWF for much of 1992 . After Flair lost the WWF World Heavyweight Championship to Macho Man Randy Savage at WrestleMania VIII , Flair and Perfect initiated a feud with Savage . They interfered in Savage 's match at SummerSlam and caused him to lose by countout . The rivalry continued , and Flair received assistance from Perfect and Razor Ramon to win the title back from Savage on September 1 , which aired on the September 14 edition of WWF Prime Time Wrestling . The WWF planned for Savage to team with the Ultimate Warrior in a match against Flair and Ramon at Survivor Series . The Ultimate Warrior left the WWF , however , before the match could take place . Two possible reasons have been given for his departure . The first states that he was fired due to allegations of steroid abuse , while the other states that he was upset with the WWF 's future plans for his character . The WWF was forced to change the plan and decided to turn Perfect into a babyface ( fan favorite ) from a heel . Perfect and Flair began having conflicts while teaming together , and Perfect accepted Savage 's offer on the November 16 episode of WWF Prime Time Wrestling to team with him at Survivor Series .
Money Inc . ( " Million Dollar Man " Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster ) had been feuding with The Natural Disasters ( Earthquake and Typhoon ) since February 1992 when manager Jimmy Hart turned on Earthquake and Typhoon in favor of helping Money , Inc . With Hart 's assistance , Money , Inc. defeated the Legion of Doom for the WWF Tag Team Championship on February 7 , 1992 . Five months later , Earthquake and Typhoon defeated Money Inc. to win the championship . The Natural Disasters were also feuding with The Beverly Brothers ( Beau and Blake ) and defeated them in a title match at SummerSlam 1992 . A match was then announced for Survivor Series in which The Natural Disasters would team with The Bushwhackers ( Luke and Butch ) to face Money , Inc. and the Beverly Brothers . However , when The Nasty Boys ( Brian Knobbs and Jerry Sags ) , also managed by Hart , were scheduled to face The Natural Disasters for the title on October 13 , Hart replaced The Nasty Boys at the last minute with Money , Inc . , who went on to regain the championship with help from The Headshrinkers . This led to a break @-@ up between Hart and the Nasty Boys , who received the Bushwhackers ' spot in the Survivor Series match to get revenge against Jimmy Hart and Money , Inc .
At SummerSlam 1992 in August , The Undertaker defeated Kamala . Harvey Wippleman , Kamala 's manager wanted revenge , so a rematch was scheduled for Survivor Series . The match was promoted as the WWF 's first coffin match , in which the winner would place the loser in a coffin after the match .
The WWF also planned a match featuring The British Bulldog defending the WWF Intercontinental Championship against The Mountie at Survivor Series . The WWF released Smith due to steroid allegations , however , and he was made to drop the title belt to Shawn Michaels on the November 14 episode of Saturday Night
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's Main Event . Jake Roberts was set to challenge Bret Hart , who had won the WWF World Heavyweight Championship on October 12 , for his title , but the promotion could not come to terms with Roberts . Ultimately , the WWF neglected to include an Intercontinental Championship match on the card , instead pitting Michaels against Hart . In this match , Hart 's title was defended while Michaels ' title was not .
= = Event = =
Prior to the pay @-@ per @-@ view broadcast , Crush defeated the Repo Man via submission . In the first televised match , High Energy ( Owen Hart and Koko B. Ware ) faced The Headshrinkers ( Samu and Fatu ) . Samu used his strength advantage to control the opening of the match against Hart . Ware entered the match and gained the advantage over both opponents until he attempted to knock The Headshrinkers ' heads against each other . According to WWF storylines , Samoans like The Headshrinkers have thick skulls and cannot be hurt in the head ; as a result , The Headshrinkers no @-@ sold the attack . Afa , The Headshrinkers ' manager , attacked Ware while the referee was distracted . Samu and Fatu took turns attacking Ware , and Fatu performed a thrust kick on Ware . The Headshrinkers used rulebreaking tactics to control the match until Hart was able to enter the match . He performed dropkicks from the top rope against both Headshrinkers . As he tried to attack Samu from the top rope again , Samu caught him and powerslammed him before Fatu executed a diving splash to get the pinfall victory .
The next match , between The Big Boss Man and Nailz , was a nightstick on a pole match . A nightstick was suspended above the ring and could be used as a weapon once it was retrieved . Nailz began the match by attempting to get the nightstick , but Boss Man stopped him . Nailz choked Boss Man before making another unsuccessful attempt to climb the pole and obtain the nightstick . Boss Man punched Nailz and then tried to climb the pole . Nailz stopped him , performed a back body drop , and choked Boss Man again . Boss Man regained control but missed a splash , which gave Nailz another chance to retrieve the nightstick . Both men clotheslined each other , but Boss Man recovered first and got the nightstick . He hit Nailz with it , but Nailz took it and used it against Boss Man . Boss Man performed the Boss Man slam , his finishing move , before pinning Nailz to win the match .
Tatanka controlled the opening of the next match against " The Model " Rick Martel with several throws and dropkicks . Martel responded by wearing Tatanka down with a front facelock . Tatanka escaped , but Martel used another front facelock almost immediately . He performed a neckbreaker on Tatanka before going back to the same hold as before . Tatanka gained the advantage by performing a clothesline on Martel . Martel ran at Tatanka , but Tatanka moved out of the way and Martel hit his shoulder against the ring post . Tatanka focused on attacking Martel 's injured shoulder but eventually was thrown out of the ring by Martel . Martel 's advantage was short @-@ lived , as Tatanka performed a series of backhand chops and a Tomahawk chop from the top rope before nailing The Model with a Samoan drop . Tatanka got the pinfall victory and retrieved his feathers from Martel after the match . While the match was in progress , Doink the Clown , who had not yet been named or debuted as a wrestler in the WWF , stood in the aisle and made balloon animals before popping them to upset the children in the audience .
In the next contest , Ric Flair and Razor Ramon wrestled against Mr. Perfect and Randy Savage . Ramon and Perfect began the match , but Flair entered after Perfect insulted him . Perfect threw Flair into the corner , and Flair 's momentum carried him over the top rope to the ring apron . Savage attacked Flair and then took Perfect 's place in the ring to maintain the advantage over Flair . From outside the ring , Ramon hit Savage with his knee and Flair and Ramon took turns attacking Savage 's knee . While Ramon performed a half Boston crab on Savage , Perfect considered leaving the match and abandoning Savage . Savage recovered briefly by trying to pin Flair , but Ramon performed a chokeslam on Savage . Ric Flair attempted to attack Savage from the top rope , but Savage threw him to the ring floor instead . Perfect executed a neckbreaker and an atomic drop on Ramon . Outside of the ring , Flair attacked Savage with a chair . The referee was knocked unconscious , and Perfect tried to pin Ramon by performing a PerfectPlex . Because no referee was available to count the pinfall , a substitute referee came to the ring . The first referee recovered as Perfect attempted to pin Flair with a PerfectPlex . Flair escaped the pin attempt , and he and Ramon attacked Perfect until the referees were unable to keep the match under control . As a result , Ramon and Flair were disqualified , and the victory was awarded to Perfect and Savage .
In the next match , Virgil faced Yokozuna , who was billed at 505 pounds . Virgil was unable to knock Yokozuna down with several dropkicks . Yokozuna performed a savate kick on Virgil before throwing him to the ring floor twice . He executed a legdrop on Virgil , but Virgil regained the advantage when Yokozuna accidentally ran into the ring pole while trying to attack Virgil . Yokozuna won the match after a splash in the corner and a Banzai Drop .
The following match was a tag team elimination match , in which The Natural Disasters ( Earthquake and Typhoon ) teamed with the Nasty Boys ( Jerry Sags and Brian Knobbs ) to face Money Inc . ( Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster ) and the Beverly Brothers ( Beau and Blake ) . The rules stated that when any man was eliminated , his tag team partner would also be eliminated . Blake Beverly and Typhoon began the match , but Beau and Earthquake soon entered the ring as well . The Natural Disasters gained control of the match by attacking Blake Beverly , and the Nasty Boys entered the ring to assist the Disasters . Blake attacked Sags and tagged out of the match . Beau entered but was bodyslammed by Sags ; Sags got distracted , however , which allowed Beau to suplex him and bring DiBiase into the match . Money Inc. took turns attacking Sags until Earthquake entered the ring . Earthquake performed an Earthquake splash by sitting on Beau Beverly to pin him and eliminate both Beverly Brothers . Earthquake fought DiBiase , but both men eventually left the ring and were replaced by their partners . Typhoon performed a splash on Schyster but was tripped by DiBiase . Schyster pinned Typhoon to eliminate The Natural Disasters . While Schyster was celebrating , Sags quickly pinned him to win the match for the Nasty Boys .
The coffin match , in which The Undertaker faced Kamala , came next . Kamala began the match by running in fear from The Undertaker . He gained the early advantage , however , by suddenly turning around and attacking The Undertaker . Kamala bodyslammed The Undertaker three times and performed three splashes . In an attempt to revive The Undertaker , Paul Bearer , his manager , held up an urn that was said to be the source of The Undertaker 's power . Kim Chee , one of Kamala 's handler 's attacked Bearer . The Undertaker picked up the urn , which had rolled into the ring , and hit Kamala with it . The Undertaker pinned Kamala to win the match , placed him in a coffin , and nailed the lid shut .
In the main event of the card , Bret Hart defended his WWF World Heavyweight Championship against Shawn Michaels . Hart controlled the beginning of the match by repeatedly executing armdrags and armbars but Michaels gained the advantage when " The Hitman " missed a charge into the corner and collided shoulder @-@ first with the ring post . Michaels then threw Hart into another ring post and wore him down by executing a front facelock . Hart was able to avoid Michaels ' first attempt at his finisher , the modified back suplex , and rallied with his trademark moves including an elbow from the second rope , running bulldog and a superplex . Michaels recovered and performed a superkick on Hart and was able this time to apply his suplex , but Hart kicked out . After Hart missed a desperation crossbody and crotched himself on the ropes , Shawn attempted a dropkick from the middle rope but Hart grabbed Michaels ' legs and applied the Sharpshooter , his finishing move . He retained his championship by forcing Michaels to submit .
= = Aftermath = =
Ric Flair and Mr. Perfect continued their feud , although Flair legitimately requested to be released from his WWF contract in order to return to World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) . His request was granted on the condition that he help build up Perfect as a credible babyface . The two men attacked each other during the battle royal at Royal Rumble 1993 , and Perfect eliminated Flair from the match . The following night , Perfect defeated Flair in a loser leaves town match . Flair did not return to the WWF until McMahon purchased WCW in 2001 .
The Undertaker 's feud with Harvey Wippleman continued for several months after Survivor Series . At Royal Rumble 1993 , Wippleman introduced a new wrestler named Giant Gonzalez . Despite not being scheduled in the match , Gonzalez attacked The Undertaker and eliminated him from the Royal Rumble match . The two men faced each other at WrestleMania IX , where Gonzalez was disqualified for attacking The Undertaker with a rag soaked in chloroform . Wippleman led Gonzalez and Mr. Hughes in another attack on The Undertaker , in which Hughes stole The Undertaker 's urn . The feud was resolved at SummerSlam 1993 , when The Undertaker defeated Gonzalez in a Rest in Peace match .
Yokozuna 's push continued , and he won the battle royal main event at Royal Rumble 1993 to earn a WWF Championship match against Bret Hart at WrestleMania IX . At WrestleMania , he defeated Hart to win the title belt . He immediately challenged Hulk Hogan to a match however , and WrestleMania ended with Yokozuna losing the WWF Championship to Hogan in 21 seconds .
Kevin Wacholz , who had portrayed Nailz , left the WWF shortly after Survivor Series . Upset about his pay from SummerSlam 1992 , he confronted WWF owner Vince McMahon and reportedly attacked him physically . He later testified against McMahon during a trial in which McMahon was accused of distributing steroids to wrestlers . Wacholz ' statements have been reported as having a harmful effect on the prosecution 's case because his anger at McMahon overshadowed his testimony .
Shawn Michaels became involved in a feud with his former tag team partner , Marty Jannetty . The team had split up earlier in the year when Michaels attacked Jannetty . Michaels defeated Jannetty at Royal Rumble 1993 , but the two traded the Intercontinental Championship back and forth in subsequent rematches .
= = = Reception = = =
Survivor Series 1992 was attended by 17 @,@ 500 fans , the same number as the previous year . It drew more fans than any of the following three Survivor Series event would draw . The pay @-@ per @-@ view buyrate was 1 @.@ 4 , which means that 1 @.@ 4 percent of households to which the event was available purchased the pay @-@ per @-@ view . This was , to that point , the lowest buyrate in Survivor Series history and down more than one @-@ third from the previous year 's 2 @.@ 2 buyrate . The buyrate was higher than that of any of the following twelve Survivor Series events , however .
Writing for The History of WWE , Matt Pettycord stated that the event was " pretty decent " considering that The Mountie , Davey Boy Smith , and the Ultimate Warrior left the company shortly before the event . On a five @-@ star scale , he rated only the Flair / Ramon vs. Savage / Perfect match and the Hart vs. Michaels match higher than one star . He stated that the event is " recommended , but not required " , although the WWF Championship match was a " must @-@ see " .
Adam Gutschmidt , reviewing the event for Online Onslaught , gave a rating of one @-@ quarter star for the Nightstick on a Pole match and one @-@ half star each for the High Energy vs. The Headshrinkers match and the Yokozuna vs. Virgil match . He enjoyed the WWF Championship match , although he was disappointed by its lack of buildup prior to the event . He also felt that the Flair / Ramon vs. Savage / Perfect match was a good one until the ending got out of control . Pro Wrestling Torch columnist agreed , stating that the WWF Championship match was the best and that the Flair / Ramon vs. Savage / Perfect bout was also enjoyable , but he recommended fast @-@ forwarding through the rest of the show .
The event was released in North America on VHS by Coliseum Video on February 11 , 1993 . The VHS version was released in the United Kingdom on March 8 , 1993 . A DVD version is also available in the United Kingdom ; it was packaged together with Survivor Series 1991 as part of the WWE Tagged Classics line and released on November 7 , 2005 .
= = Results = =
= = = Survivor Series elimination match = = =
^ 1
= Ouw Peh Tjoa =
Ouw Peh Tjoa ( Chinese : 水淹金山 ; Hokkien for Black and White Snakes ) , also known by the Malay @-@ language title Doea Siloeman Oeler Poeti en Item ( meaning Two Snakes , One White and One Black ) , is a 1934 film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) . It was directed and produced by The Teng Chun . Adapted from Legend of the White Snake , a Chinese folktale , it follows a magical snake who passes as a human but ultimately dies . The film , now possibly lost , was followed by one sequel , Anaknja Siloeman Oeler Poeti , in 1936 .
= = Plot = =
After meditating for several hundred years , a magical white snake transforms into a beautiful woman . Her competitor , a black snake , does likewise . The two compete for the love of a man named Khouw Han Boen . Ultimately Khouw agrees to marry the ( former ) white snake , but when her true identity is revealed he attempts to cancel their wedding . The snake @-@ woman , crying , tells Khouw 's boss that they are to be married , and ultimately Khouw is guilted into marrying her .
As time passes , Khouw sees his wife occasionally transform into a snake . She is always , however , able to convince him otherwise . He falls further in love with her , and their marriage is a happy one . After several months he is accosted by a priest , Hoat Hae Sian Soe , who then leads an attempt to kill the snake @-@ woman . She escapes , pursued by the priests .
The priests catch the snake and prepare to kill her , but are stopped by the goddess Kwan Im , who tells the stunned pursuers that the snake is pregnant and thus must not be killed . A month after the snake gives birth , the priests return . The snake @-@ woman gives her child to Khouw and then surrenders herself to her fate . She is captured in a magical jar and brought away .
= = Production = =
Ouw Peh Tjoa was directed and produced by The Teng Chun for his company , Cino Motion Pictures . Since releasing Sam Pek Eng Tay in 1931 , based on the legend of the Butterfly Lovers , The Teng Chun had released a series of films based on Chinese legends and folktales , including Pat Bie To ( Eight Beautiful Women ; 1932 ) and Pat Kiam Hiap ( Eight Swordsmen ; 1933 ) . These stories were selected because the peranakan Chinese in the Indies were unable to understand Mandarin and Cantonese imports from China , but wanted to see films based on Chinese mythology . Overall , The Teng Chun 's films emphasised the martial art silat and were generally profitable , allowing him to dominate the industry .
The cast of this black @-@ and @-@ white film is unrecorded . The dialogue , captured by the film 's director @-@ cum @-@ producer , was in Malay . The snakes used in the production of this film came from The Teng Chun 's personal zoo .
= = Release and reception = =
According to The , in a 1970s interview , Ouw Peh Tjoa was released in 1934 . Newspaper advertisements show the film being screened by February 1935 . The film mostly targeted ethnic Chinese audiences . Advertising material , however , emphasised the use of spoken Malay and described the film as " full of astonishments and all forms of magic fights " ; through these action sequences , Ouw Peh Tjoa proved popular among native audiences . The film was exported to Singapore , part of the Straits Settlements , where there was a large ethnic Chinese population .
The success of Ouw Peh Tjoa allowed The Teng Chun to import new equipment for his studio ( renamed Java Industrial Film ) , which he used in his future productions . The film was followed in 1936 by a sequel , Anaknja Siloeman Oeler Poeti ( Child of the White Snake ) . The Teng Chun continued releasing films based on Chinese legends until 1937 , a year after Albert Balink 's Pareh changed domestic perceptions of profitable film storylines . The 's later films adapted stories closer to the native populace of the Indies and focussing on events that could happen in day @-@ to @-@ day life . Through 1940 and 1941 Java Industrial Films was the most productive studio in the Indies , until it was shut down during the Japanese occupation which began in March 1942 .
Screenings of Ouw Peh Tjoa continued until at least 1953 . The film is now likely lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . As such , the American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider writes that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= HMS Comet ( H00 ) =
HMS Comet was a C @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s . She saw service in the Home and Mediterranean Fleets and the ship spent six months during the Spanish Civil War in late 1936 in Spanish waters , enforcing the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict . Comet transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy ( RCN ) in 1938 and renamed HMCS Restigouche . During World War II , she served as a convoy escort in the battle of the Atlantic , on anti @-@ submarine patrols during the invasion of Normandy , and was employed as a troop transport after VE Day for returning Canadian servicemen , before being decommissioned in late 1945 . Restigouche was sold for scrap in 1946 .
= = Design and construction = =
Comet displaced 1 @,@ 375 long tons ( 1 @,@ 397 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 865 long tons ( 1 @,@ 895 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Comet carried a maximum of 473 long tons ( 481 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 145 officers and men .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Comet had a single QF 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt AA gun between her funnels , and two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on the aft end of her forecastle deck . The 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) AA gun was removed in 1936 and the 2 @-@ pounders were relocated to between the funnels . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . Three depth @-@ charge chutes were fitted , each with a capacity of two depth charges . After World War II began this was increased to 33 depth charges , delivered by one or two rails and two throwers .
The ship was ordered on 15 July 1930 from Portsmouth Dockyard under the 1929 Programme . Comet was laid down on 12 September 1930 , launched on 30 September 1931 , as the 14th ship to carry the name , and completed on 2 June 1932 .
= = Service history = =
After sea trials in May 1932 , Comet was commissioned for service in the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla , Home Fleet , in early June . On 21 July , she was damaged in a collision with her sister Crescent at Chatham and repaired at Chatham Dockyard between 28 July and 20 August . The ship was refitted at Chatham from 20 July to 3 September 1934 . Following the Italian invasion of Abyssinia , Comet was sent in August 1935 to the Red Sea with the other ships of the 2nd Flotilla to monitor Italian warship movements until March 1936 .
Comet returned to the UK in April 1936 and refitted at Sheerness between 23 April and 29 June before resuming duty with the Home Fleet . In July she was deployed for patrol duties off the Spanish coast in the Bay of Biscay to intercept shipping carrying contraband goods to Spain and to protect British flagged shipping during the first stages of the Spanish Civil War . On 9 August she assisted the crew of the crippled British yacht Blue Shadow off Gijon , after the small vessel was shelled by mistake by the Nationalist cruiser Almirante Cervera . The ship was briefly placed in reserve in late 1936 while discussions were held about transferring her to the Royal Canadian Navy . Two of her sisters were chosen instead and Comet was recommissioned for service with the Mediterranean Fleet as plane guard for the aircraft carrier Glorious on 29 December .
In April 1937 she returned to Portsmouth with Glorious , and on 20 May the ship participated in the Coronation Review of the fleet at Spithead by King George VI . Four days later , Comet began a refit at Portsmouth that lasted until 18 June . The ship resumed plane guard duties for Glorious in the Mediterranean . She began a major refit at Chatham on 26 May 1938 to bring her up to Canadian specifications that included the installation of Type 124 ASDIC .
= = = Transfer to the Royal Canadian Navy = = =
On 11 June she was commissioned by the RCN and renamed Restigouche , although her refit was not completed until 20 August . Restigouche was assigned to the Canadian Pacific Coast and arrived at Esquimalt on 7 November 1938 . She remained there until she was ordered to Halifax , Nova Scotia on 15 November 1939 where she escorted local convoys , including the convoy carrying half of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division to the UK on 10 December . Restigouche was ordered to Plymouth on 24 May 1940 and arrived there on 31 May . Upon arrival , the ship 's rear torpedo tube mount was removed and replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun and the 2 @-@ pounders were exchanged for quadruple Mark I mounts for the QF 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Vickers Mark III machine gun .
On 9 June , Restigouche was ordered to Le Havre , France to evacuate British troops , but none were to be found and the ship investigated the small port of Saint @-@ Valery @-@ en @-@ Caux some 40 miles ( 64 km ) northeast of Le Havre on 11 June . They found some elements of the 51st Infantry Division , but had not received any orders to evacuate and refused to do so . Whilst recovering her landing party , the ship was taken under fire by a German artillery battery , but she was not hit and returned fire . After returning to England , Restigouche escorted several troop convoys on the last legs of their journeys from Canada , Australia and New Zealand in mid @-@ June . On 23 June , the ship escorted the ocean liner SS Arandora Star to St. Jean de Luz to evacuate Polish troops and British refugees trapped by the German Army in south @-@ western France ( Operation Ariel ) . On 25 June 1940 , Restigouche , her sister HMCS Fraser , and the light cruiser HMS Calcutta were returning from St. Jean de Luz when Fraser was rammed by Calcutta in the Gironde estuary at night . Struck forward of the bridge by the cruiser 's bow , Fraser was cut in half , although the rear part of the ship did not immediately sink . All but 47 of the ship 's crew and evacuees were rescued by Restigouche and other nearby ships . The rear portion had to be sunk by Restigouche .
The ship was transferred to the Western Approaches Command afterwards for convoy escort duties . She sailed for Halifax at the end of August for a refit that lasted until October . Upon its completion , Restigouche remained at Halifax for local escort duties until January 1941 when she sailed for the UK where she was reassigned to the Western Approaches Command . The ship was ordered to St. John 's , Newfoundland on 30 May to reinforce escort forces in the Western Atlantic . Whilst guarding the battleship Prince of Wales at Placentia Bay on 8 August , Restigouche damaged her propellers when she struck bottom and required repairs that lasted until October . She was not out of dockyard hands for very long before she was badly damaged by a storm while en route to join Convoy ON @-@ 44 on 12 December . Repairs at Greenock lasted until 9 March 1942 and her director @-@ control tower and rangefinder above the bridge had been removed by this time in exchange for a Type 271 target indication radar .
Other changes made during the war ( exactly when these occurred is unknown ) included the replacement of ' A ' gun by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar , exchanging her two quadruple .50 @-@ calibre Vickers machine guns mounted between her funnels for two Oerlikon 20 mm AA guns , the addition of two Oerlikon guns to her searchlight platform , and the removal of her 12 @-@ pounder AA gun . Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar was also added . Two QF 6 pounder Hotchkiss guns were fitted on the wings of her bridge to deal with U @-@ boats at short ranges . ' Y ' gun was also removed to allow her depth charge stowage to be increased to at least 60 depth charges .
Restigouche was assigned to the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force when her refit was finished and served with a variety of escort groups . The ship was permanently assigned to Escort Group C4 in April 1943 and received a refit between August and December . She rejoined the escort group upon completion of the refit until she was transferred to 12th Escort Group in early 1944 for anti @-@ submarine operations in the Western Approaches . In June – July 1944 , Restigouche patrolled in the English Channel and the Bay of Biscay hunting for German submarines trying to sink Allied shipping . On the night of 5 – 6 July , the ship and the rest of the 12th Escort Group sank three small German patrol boats off Brest . The following month , the 12th Support Group , including Restigouche , engaged three minesweepers on 12 August , without sinking any . The ship was sent to Canada for a lengthy refit later in the month . After working up in Bermuda , she arrived at Halifax on 14 February 1945 and began escorting local convoys . This lasted until the end of the war in May , after which the ship was used to transfer returning troops from Newfoundland to mainland Canada until she was paid off on 5 October . Restigouche was sold for scrap in 1946 .
= = Ship 's bell = =
The Christening Bells Project at Canadian Forces Base Esquimalt Naval and Military Museum includes information about the baptism of babies in the ship 's bell . The bell is currently held by the Royal Canadian Legion , Lantzville , British Columbia .
= = Trans @-@ Atlantic convoys escorted = =
= History of artificial intelligence =
The history of artificial intelligence ( AI ) began in antiquity , with myths , stories and rumors of artificial beings endowed with intelligence or consciousness by master craftsmen ; as Pamela McCorduck writes , AI began with " an ancient wish to forge the gods . "
The seeds of modern AI were planted by classical philosophers who attempted to describe the process of human thinking as the mechanical manipulation of symbols . This work culminated in the invention of the programmable digital computer in the 1940s , a machine based on the abstract essence of mathematical reasoning . This device and the ideas behind it inspired a handful of scientists to begin seriously discussing the possibility of building an electronic brain .
The Turing test was proposed by British mathematician Alan Turing in his 1950 paper Computing Machinery and Intelligence , which opens with the words : " I propose to consider the question , ' Can machines think ? ' " The term ' Artificial Intelligence ' was created at a conference held at Dartmouth College in 1956 . Allen Newell , J. C. Shaw , and Herbert A. Simon pioneered the newly created artificial intelligence field with the Logic Theory Machine ( 1956 ) , and the General Problem Solver in 1957 . In 1958 , John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky started the MIT Artificial Intelligence lab with $ 50 @,@ 000 . John McCarthy also created LISP in the summer of 1958 , a programming language still important in artificial intelligence research .
In 1973 , in response to the criticism of James Lighthill and ongoing pressure from congress , the U.S. and British Governments stopped funding undirected research into artificial intelligence . Seven years later , a visionary initiative by the Japanese Government inspired governments and industry to provide AI with billions of dollars , but by the late 80s the investors became disillusioned and withdrew funding again .
= = Precursors = =
McCorduck ( 2004 ) writes " artificial intelligence in one form or another is an idea that has pervaded Western intellectual history , a dream in urgent need of being realized , " expressed in humanity 's myths , legends , stories , speculation and clockwork automatons .
= = = AI in myth , fiction and speculation = = =
Mechanical men and artificial beings appear in Greek myths , such as the golden robots of Hephaestus and Pygmalion 's Galatea . In the Middle Ages , there were rumors of secret mystical or alchemical means of placing mind into matter , such as Jābir ibn Hayyān 's Takwin , Paracelsus ' homunculus and Rabbi Judah Loew 's Golem . By the 19th century , ideas about artificial men and thinking machines were developed in fiction , as in Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein or Karel Čapek 's R.U.R. ( Rossum 's Universal Robots ) , and speculation , such as Samuel Butler 's " Darwin among the Machines . " AI has continued to be an important element of science fiction into the present .
= = = Automatons = = =
Realistic humanoid automatons were built by craftsman from every civilization , including Yan Shi , Hero of Alexandria , Al @-@ Jazari and Wolfgang von Kempelen . The oldest known automatons were the sacred statues of ancient Egypt and Greece . The faithful believed that craftsman had imbued these figures with very real minds , capable of wisdom and emotion — Hermes Trismegistus wrote that " by discovering the true nature of the gods , man has been able to reproduce it . "
= = = Formal reasoning = = =
Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the process of human thought can be mechanized . The study of mechanical — or " formal " — reasoning has a long history . Chinese , Indian and Greek philosophers all developed structured methods of formal deduction in the first millennium BCE . Their ideas were developed over the centuries by philosophers such as Aristotle ( who gave a formal analysis of the syllogism ) , Euclid ( whose Elements was a model of formal reasoning ) , Muslim mathematician al @-@ Khwārizmī ( who developed algebra and gave his name to " algorithm " ) and European scholastic philosophers such as William of Ockham and Duns Scotus .
Majorcan philosopher Ramon Llull ( 1232 – 1315 ) developed several logical machines devoted to the production of knowledge by logical means ; Llull described his machines as mechanical entities that could combine basic and undeniable truths by simple logical operations , produced by the machine by mechanical meanings , in such ways as to produce all the possible knowledge . Llull 's work had a great influence on Gottfried Leibniz , who redeveloped his ideas .
In the 17th century , Leibniz , Thomas Hobbes and René Descartes explored the possibility that all rational thought could be made as systematic as algebra or geometry . Hobbes famously wrote in Leviathan : " reason is nothing but reckoning " . Leibniz envisioned a universal language of reasoning ( his characteristica universalis ) which would reduce argumentation to calculation , so that " there would be no more need of disputation between two philosophers than between two accountants . For it would suffice to take their pencils in hand , down to their slates , and to say each other ( with a friend as witness , if they liked ) : Let us calculate . " These philosophers had begun to articulate the physical symbol system hypothesis that would become the guiding faith of AI research .
In the 20th century , the study of mathematical logic provided the essential breakthrough that made artificial intelligence seem plausible . The foundations had been set by such works as Boole 's The Laws of Thought and Frege 's Begriffsschrift . Building on Frege 's system , Russell and Whitehead presented a formal treatment of the foundations of mathematics in their masterpiece , the Principia Mathematica in 1913 . Inspired by Russell 's success , David Hilbert challenged mathematicians of the 1920s and 30s to answer this fundamental question : " can all of mathematical reasoning be formalized ? " His question was answered by Gödel 's incompleteness proof , Turing 's machine and Church 's Lambda calculus . Their answer was surprising in two ways .
First , they proved that there were , in fact , limits to what mathematical logic could accomplish . But second ( and more important for AI ) their work suggested that , within these limits , any form of mathematical reasoning could be mechanized . The Church @-@ Turing thesis implied that a mechanical device , shuffling symbols as simple as 0 and 1 , could imitate any conceivable process of mathematical deduction . The key insight was the Turing machine — a simple theoretical construct that captured the essence of abstract symbol manipulation . This invention would inspire a handful of scientists to begin discussing the possibility of thinking machines .
= = = Computer science = = =
Calculating machines were built in antiquity and improved throughout history by many mathematicians , including ( once again ) philosopher Gottfried Leibniz . In the early 19th century , Charles Babbage designed a programmable computer ( the Analytical Engine ) , although it was never built . Ada Lovelace speculated that the machine " might compose elaborate and scientific pieces of music of any degree of complexity or extent " . ( She is often credited as the first programmer because of a set of notes she wrote that completely detail a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers with the Engine . )
The first modern computers were the massive code breaking machines of the Second World War ( such as Z3 , ENIAC and Colossus ) . The latter two of these machines were based on the theoretical foundation laid by Alan Turing and developed by John von Neumann .
= = The birth of artificial intelligence 1952 – 1956 = =
In the 1940s and 50s , a handful of scientists from a variety of fields ( mathematics , psychology , engineering , economics and political science ) began to discuss the possibility of creating an artificial brain . The field of artificial intelligence research was founded as an academic discipline in 1956 .
= = = Cybernetics and early neural networks = = =
The earliest research into thinking machines was inspired by a confluence of ideas that became prevalent in the late 30s , 40s and early 50s . Recent research in neurology had shown that the brain was an electrical network of neurons that fired in all @-@ or @-@ nothing pulses . Norbert Wiener 's cybernetics described control and stability in electrical networks . Claude Shannon 's information theory described digital signals ( i.e. , all @-@ or @-@ nothing signals ) . Alan Turing 's theory of computation showed that any form of computation could be described digitally . The close relationship between these ideas suggested that it might be possible to construct an electronic brain .
Examples of work in this vein includes robots such as W. Grey Walter 's turtles and the Johns Hopkins Beast . These machines did not use computers , digital electronics or symbolic reasoning ; they were controlled entirely by analog circuitry .
Walter Pitts and Warren McCulloch analyzed networks of idealized artificial neurons and showed how they might perform simple logical functions . They were the first to describe what later researchers would call a neural network . One of the students inspired by Pitts and McCulloch was a young Marvin Minsky , then a 24 @-@ year @-@ old graduate student . In 1951 ( with Dean Edmonds ) he built the first neural net machine , the SNARC . Minsky was to become one of the most important leaders and innovators in AI for the next 50 years .
= = = Turing 's test = = =
In 1950 Alan Turing published a landmark paper in which he speculated about the possibility of creating machines that think . He noted that " thinking " is difficult to define and devised his famous Turing Test . If a machine could carry on a conversation ( over a teleprinter ) that was indistinguishable from a conversation with a human being , then it was reasonable to say that the machine was " thinking " . This simplified version of the problem allowed Turing to argue convincingly that a " thinking machine " was at least plausible and the paper answered all the most common objections to the proposition . The Turing Test was the first serious proposal in the philosophy of artificial intelligence .
= = = Game AI = = =
In 1951 , using the Ferranti Mark 1 machine of the University of Manchester , Christopher Strachey wrote a checkers program and Dietrich Prinz wrote one for chess . Arthur Samuel 's checkers program , developed in the middle 50s and early 60s , eventually achieved sufficient skill to challenge a respectable amateur . Game AI would continue to be used as a measure of progress in AI throughout its history .
= = = Symbolic reasoning and the Logic Theorist = = =
When access to digital computers became possible in the middle fifties , a few scientists instinctively recognized that a machine that could manipulate numbers could also manipulate symbols and that the manipulation of symbols could well be the essence of human thought . This was a new approach to creating thinking machines .
In 1955 , Allen Newell and ( future Nobel Laureate ) Herbert A. Simon created the " Logic Theorist " ( with help from J. C. Shaw ) . The program would eventually prove 38 of the first 52 theorems in Russell and Whitehead 's Principia Mathematica , and find new and more elegant proofs for some . Simon said that they had " solved the venerable mind / body problem , explaining how a system composed of matter can have the properties of mind . " ( This was an early statement of the philosophical position John Searle would later call " Strong AI " : that machines can contain minds just as human bodies do . )
= = = Dartmouth Conference 1956 : the birth of AI = = =
The Dartmouth Conference of 1956 was organized by Marvin Minsky , John McCarthy and two senior scientists : Claude Shannon and Nathan Rochester of IBM . The proposal for the conference included this assertion : " every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it " . The participants included Ray Solomonoff , Oliver Selfridge , Trenchard More , Arthur Samuel , Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon , all of whom would create important programs during the first decades of AI research . At the conference Newell and Simon debuted the " Logic Theorist " and McCarthy persuaded the attendees to accept " Artificial Intelligence " as the name of the field . The 1956 Dartmouth conference was the moment that AI gained its name , its mission , its first success and its major players , and is widely considered the birth of AI .
= = The golden years 1956 – 1974 = =
The years after the Dartmouth conference were an era of discovery , of sprinting across new ground . The programs that were developed during this time were , to most people , simply " astonishing " : computers were solving algebra word problems , proving theorems in geometry and learning to speak English . Few at the time would have believed that such " intelligent " behavior by machines was possible at all . Researchers expressed an intense optimism in private and in print , predicting that a fully intelligent machine would be built in less than 20 years . Government agencies like ARPA poured money into the new field .
= = = The work = = =
There were many successful programs and new directions in the late 50s and 1960s . Among the most influential were these :
= = = = Reasoning as search = = = =
Many early AI programs used the same basic algorithm . To achieve some goal ( like winning a game or proving a theorem ) , they proceeded step by step towards it ( by making a move or a deduction ) as if searching through a maze , backtracking whenever they reached a dead end . This paradigm was called " reasoning as search " .
The principal difficulty was that , for many problems , the number of possible paths through the " maze " was simply astronomical ( a situation known as a " combinatorial explosion " ) . Researchers would reduce the search space by using heuristics or " rules of thumb " that would eliminate those paths that were unlikely to lead to a solution .
Newell and Simon tried to capture a general version of this algorithm in a program called the " General Problem Solver " . Other " searching " programs were able to accomplish impressive tasks like solving problems in geometry and algebra , such as Herbert Gelernter 's Geometry Theorem Prover ( 1958 ) and SAINT , written by Minsky 's student James Slagle ( 1961 ) . Other programs searched through goals and subgoals to plan actions , like the STRIPS system developed at Stanford to control the behavior of their robot Shakey .
= = = = Natural language = = = =
An important goal of AI research is to allow computers to communicate in natural languages like English . An early success was Daniel Bobrow 's program STUDENT , which could solve high school algebra word problems .
A semantic net represents concepts ( e.g. " house " , " door " ) as nodes and relations among concepts ( e.g. " has @-@ a " ) as links between the nodes . The first AI program to use a semantic net was written by Ross Quillian and the most successful ( and controversial ) version was Roger Schank 's Conceptual dependency theory .
Joseph Weizenbaum 's ELIZA could carry out conversations that were so realistic that users occasionally were fooled into thinking they were communicating with a human being and not a program . But in fact , ELIZA had no idea what she was talking about . She simply gave a canned response or repeated back what was said to her , rephrasing her response with a few grammar rules . ELIZA was the first chatterbot .
= = = = Micro @-@ worlds = = = =
In the late 60s , Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert of the MIT AI Laboratory proposed that AI research should focus on artificially simple situations known as micro @-@ worlds . They pointed out that in successful sciences like physics , basic principles were often best understood using simplified models like frictionless planes or perfectly rigid bodies . Much of the research focused on a " blocks world , " which consists of colored blocks of various shapes and sizes arrayed on a flat surface .
This paradigm led to innovative work in machine vision by Gerald Sussman ( who led the team ) , Adolfo Guzman , David Waltz ( who invented " constraint propagation " ) , and especially Patrick Winston . At the same time , Minsky and Papert built a robot arm that could stack blocks , bringing the blocks world to life . The crowning achievement of the micro @-@ world program was Terry Winograd 's SHRDLU . It could communicate in ordinary English sentences , plan operations and execute them .
= = = The optimism = = =
The first generation of AI researchers made these predictions about their work :
1958 , H. A. Simon and Allen Newell : " within ten years a digital computer will be the world 's chess champion " and " within ten years a digital computer will discover and prove an important new mathematical theorem . "
1965 , H. A. Simon : " machines will be capable , within twenty years , of doing any work a man can do . "
1967 , Marvin Minsky : " Within a generation ... the problem of creating ' artificial intelligence ' will substantially be solved . "
1970 , Marvin Minsky ( in Life Magazine ) : " In from three to eight years we will have a machine with the general intelligence of an average human being . "
= = = The money = = =
In June 1963 , MIT received a $ 2 @.@ 2 million grant from the newly created Advanced Research Projects Agency ( later known as DARPA ) . The money was used to fund project MAC which subsumed the " AI Group " founded by Minsky and McCarthy five years earlier . DARPA continued to provide three million dollars a year until the 70s . DARPA made similar grants to Newell and Simon 's program at CMU and to the Stanford AI Project ( founded by John McCarthy in 1963 ) . Another important AI laboratory was established at Edinburgh University by Donald Michie in 1965 . These four institutions would continue to be the main centers of AI research ( and funding ) in academia for many years .
The money was proffered with few strings attached : J. C. R. Licklider , then the director of ARPA , believed that his organization should " fund people , not projects ! " and allowed researchers to pursue whatever directions might interest them . This created a freewheeling atmosphere at MIT that gave birth to the hacker culture , but this " hands off " approach would not last .
= = The first AI winter 1974 – 1980 = =
In the 70s , AI was subject to critiques and financial setbacks . AI researchers had failed to appreciate the difficulty of the problems they faced . Their tremendous optimism had raised expectations impossibly high , and when the promised results failed to materialize , funding for AI disappeared . At the same time , the field of connectionism ( or neural nets ) was shut down almost completely for 10 years by Marvin Minsky 's devastating criticism of perceptrons . Despite the difficulties with public perception of AI in the late 70s , new ideas were explored in logic programming , commonsense reasoning and many other areas .
= = = The problems = = =
In the early seventies , the capabilities of AI programs were limited . Even the most impressive could only handle trivial versions of the problems they were supposed to solve ; all the programs were , in some sense , " toys " . AI researchers had begun to run into several fundamental limits that could not be overcome in the 1970s . Although some of these limits would be conquered in later decades , others still stymie the field to this day .
Limited computer power : There was not enough memory or processing speed to accomplish anything truly useful . For example , Ross Quillian 's successful work on natural language was demonstrated with a vocabulary of only twenty words , because that was all that would fit in memory . Hans Moravec argued in 1976 that computers were still millions of times too weak to exhibit intelligence . He suggested an analogy : artificial intelligence requires computer power in the same way that aircraft require horsepower . Below a certain threshold , it 's impossible , but , as power increases , eventually it could become easy .
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95 % reduction in mole cricket numbers in northern Florida , with biological control agents spreading potentially to all parts of Florida . Efforts to use Larra bicolor as a biological control agent in Florida began by importing a stock from Puerto Rico . It became established in a small area of southeastern Florida but had little effect on Neoscapteriscus populations . A stock from Bolivia became established in northern Florida and spread widely ( with some help ) to most of the rest of the state and neighboring states . Its survival depends upon the availability of suitable nectar sources .
Once it was discovered that gravid female Ormia depleta flies are attracted to the song of Neoscapteriscus males in South America , a path to trap these flies at synthetic mole cricket song was opened . Experimentation then led to a rearing method . Laborious rearing of over 10 @,@ 000 flies on mole cricket hosts allowed releases of living fly pupae at many sites in Florida from the far northwest to the far south , mainly on golf courses , and mainly in 1989 @-@ 1991 . Populations were established , began to spread , and were monitored by use of synthetic mole cricket song . Eventually it was discovered that the flies had a continuous population from about 29 degrees North all the way south to Miami , but that the flies failed to survive the winter north of about 29 degrees . Shipment and release of the flies to states north of Florida was thus a wasted effort . As the flies had been imported from 23 degrees South in Brazil and could not overwinter north of 29 degrees North in Florida , it was investigated in 1999 whether flies from 30 degrees South in Brazil might survive better in northern Florida , but they did not .
The third biological control agent to target Neoscapteriscus in Florida was the South American nematode Steinernema scapterisci . Small @-@ scale releases proved it could persist for years in mole @-@ cricket @-@ infested sandy Florida soils . Its use as a biopesticide against Neoscapteriscus was patented , making it attractive to industry . Industrial @-@ scale production on artificial diet allowed large @-@ scale trial applications in pastures and on golf courses , which succeeded in establishing populations in several counties , and these populations spread , but sales were disappointing , and the product was withdrawn from the market in 2014 .
= = = As pests = = =
The main damage done by mole crickets is as a result of their burrowing activities . As they tunnel through the top few centimetres of soil they push the ground up in little ridges , increasing evaporation of surface moisture , disturbing germinating seeds and damaging the delicate young roots of seedlings . They are also injurious to turf- and pasture @-@ grasses as they feed on the roots of the grasses , leaving the plants prone to drying @-@ out and damage by use .
In their native lands , mole crickets have natural enemies that keep them under control . This is not the case when they have been accidentally introduced to other parts of the world . In Florida they are considered pests and are described as " a serious problem " . A University of Florida Entomology report suggests that South American Neoscapteriscus mole crickets may have entered the United States at Brunswick , Georgia in ship 's ballast from southern South America around 1899 , but were at that time mistakenly believed to be from the West Indies . One possible remedy is biological pest control using the parasitoidal wasps Larra bicolor . Another remedy that has been successfully applied is use of the parasitic nematode Steinernema scapterisci . When this is applied in strips across grassland , it spreads throughout the pasture within a few months and not only controls the mole crickets , but remains infective in the soil for future years .
= = In human culture = =
= = = Folklore = = =
In Zambia , Gryllotalpa africana is held to bring good fortune to anyone who sees it . In Latin America , Scapteriscus and Neocurtilla mole crickets are said to predict rain when they dig into the ground . In Japan in the past they seem to have been associated with the worms / corpses / bugs that announce a persons sins to heaven in the Koshin / Koushin belief — see the spirit ghoul shokera / shoukera .
= = = As food = = =
Gryllotalpa mole crickets have sometimes been used as food in West Java and Vietnam . In Thailand mole crickets ( Thai : กระชอน ) are valued as food in Isan . They are usually eaten fried along with sticky rice .
In the Philippines , they are served as a delicacy called Camaro in the province of Pampanga and are a tourist attraction . They are also served in parts of Northern Luzon .
= Maryland Route 194 =
Maryland Route 194 ( MD 194 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 23 @.@ 87 miles ( 38 @.@ 42 km ) from MD 26 in Ceresville north to the Pennsylvania state line near Taneytown , where the highway continues as Pennsylvania Route 194 ( PA 194 ) toward Hanover . MD 194 is the main highway between Frederick and Hanover ; the state highway connects the towns of Walkersville and Woodsboro in northeastern Frederick County with Keymar and Taneytown in northwestern Carroll County . MD 194 was blazed as a migration route in the 18th century and a pair of turnpikes in Frederick County in the 19th century , one of which was the last private toll road in Maryland . The state highway , which was originally designated MD 71 , was built as a modern highway in Frederick County in the mid @-@ 1920s and constructed as Francis Scott Key Highway in Carroll County in the late 1920s and early 1930s . MD 194 received its modern route number in 1956 as part of a three @-@ route number swap . The state highway 's bypasses of Walkersville and Woodsboro opened in the early 1980s and mid @-@ 1990s , respectively .
= = Route description = =
MD 194 begins at an intersection with MD 26 ( Liberty Road ) in Ceresville . The roadway continues south as MD 26 , which crosses the Monocacy River on its way toward Frederick . MD 26 heads east from the intersection as a two @-@ lane road toward Libertytown . MD 194 heads north as Woodsboro Pike , which starts as a four @-@ lane divided highway but reduces to two lanes as the highway passes through the suburban communities of Discovery and Spring Garden , where the state highway passes the historic Woodsboro and Frederick Turnpike Company Tollhouse . At Walkersville High School , the state highway enters the town of Walkersville and the highway 's old alignment , Frederick Street , splits to the north . MD 194 collects the other end of Frederick Street and passes between residential subdivisions before leaving the town at the highway 's intersection with Devilbiss Bridge Road and Daysville Road . The former road heads west toward the historic Harris Farm ; the latter highway leads to the 19th century Crum Road Bridge .
MD 194 parallels the Maryland Midland Railway 's north – south line , Israel Creek , and Laurel Hill north to Woodsboro . At the south end of the town , Main Street , which is unsigned MD 194A , continues straight north while MD 194 veers northeast to bypass the town . The state highway starts to run concurrently with MD 550 at Woodsboro Road , which heads east as MD 550 toward Libertytown . On the north side of town , MD 550 heads west as Woodsboro Creagerstown Road , which meets the northern end of Main Street before heading northwest toward Creagerstown and Thurmont . MD 194 veers northeast and has a grade crossing with the railroad track at New Midway , where the highway intersects Legore Road , which leads to the LeGore Bridge . The state highway passes through the village of Ladiesburg before crossing Little Pipe Creek , one of the tributaries of Double Pipe Creek , into Carroll County .
MD 194 continues as Francis Scott Key Highway through Keymar , where the north – south and east – west lines of the Maryland Midland Railway intersect . The state highway has a grade crossing of the east – west rail line and intersects Middleburg Road , which heads west as MD 77 . In the hamlet of Bruceville , MD 194 crosses Big Pipe Creek and intersects Keysville Bruceville Road , which heads northwest toward the village of Keysville and Terra Rubra , the birthplace of Francis Scott Key . The state highway passes the historic Winemiller Family Farm and Keefer @-@ Brubaker Farm on its way to Taneytown . MD 194 , which becomes Frederick Street , crosses a branch of Piney Creek and passes the Ludwick Rudisel Tannery House . In the center of the Taneytown Historic District , the state highway intersects MD 140 ( Baltimore Street ) , where MD 194 becomes York Street . After leaving Taneytown , the state highway becomes Francis Scott Key Highway again as it heads through farmland . MD 194 crosses Piney Creek before reaching its northern terminus at the Pennsylvania state line . The roadway continues north as PA 194 ( Frederick Pike ) toward Littlestown and Hanover .
MD 194 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from its southern terminus in Ceresville to Daysville Road in Walkersville and within the city of Taneytown .
= = History = =
In the 18th century , the corridor of what is now MD 194 was the Hanover – Frederick portion of the Monocacy Road , a migration route that connected Philadelphia and Winchester , Virginia via York , Frederick , Boonsboro , and Williamsport . The Frederick County portion of the highway later became the path of a pair of turnpikes . The Woodsboro and Double Pipe Creek Turnpike connected the namesake town and creek ; the Woodsboro and Frederick Turnpike extended from Woodsboro south to the junction with the Liberty and Frederick Turnpike in Ceresville . The two turnpikes issuing from Ceresville were connected to Frederick by the Frederick and Woodsboro Turnpike . The Woodsboro and Frederick Turnpike was the last privately maintained toll road in Maryland when it was purchased by the Maryland State Roads Commission , the predecessor to the Maryland State Highway Administration , in 1921 .
What is now MD 194 was originally designated MD 71 . The roads commission resurfaced the turnpikes ' macadam surface from Ceresville to Little Pipe Creek to a width of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) by 1926 . That same year , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of concrete road was constructed north from MD 32 ( now MD 140 ) in Taneytown . In 1930 , construction began to complete the concrete road that MD 71 would follow through Carroll County . The state highway was completed in five sections from a short distance north of Big Pipe Creek to the Pennsylvania state line in 1933 . The Carroll County section of MD 71 was dedicated as Francis Scott Key Highway in 1931 . The two sections of MD 71 were separated by a county @-@ maintained segment of highway through Keymar . This gap in the state road system remained through at least 1949 .
MD 71 received a new steel I @-@ beam bridge over Big Pipe Creek in 1940 ; this bridge was replaced in 2005 . The state highway was widened through Taneytown in 1948 . MD 71 's present steel I @-@ beam bridge over Little Pipe Creek at the county line was started in 1953 and completed in 1954 along with 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of approach roads . The state highway was reconstructed and widened from the Little Pipe Creek Bridge to New Midway in 1952 and 1953 . Reconstruction of the highway commenced from New Midway to Woodsboro in 1953 , from Woodsboro to Ceresville in 1956 , and from Taneytown to the Pennsylvania state line in 1957 .
In 1956 , MD 71 was involved in a three @-@ route number change involving highways in three different areas of the state . MD 71 was reassigned to the Blue Star Memorial Highway then under construction from Queenstown to the Delaware state line ; this designation lasted only three years before U.S. Route 301 was rerouted onto the highway in 1959 . MD 71 was designated MD 194 to match the adjacent numbered highway in Pennsylvania . MD 194 had previously been assigned to Flower Avenue in Takoma Park ; Flower Avenue was then designated MD 787 .
MD 194 's bypass of Walkersville was completed around 1981 . The state highway 's bypass of Woodsboro was under construction by 1995 and completed in 1997 ; Main Street through town was designated MD 194A . MD 550 , which ran concurrently with MD 194 along Main Street , joined the latter route on the new bypass and on a bypass section of its own at the north end of town . In conjunction with the reconstruction of MD 26 as a divided highway from Market Street ( then part of MD 355 ) in Frederick to Ceresville in 1997 , the MD 26 – MD 194 intersection was reconfigured so the primary movement through the intersection is between MD 26 to the west and MD 194 to the north ; the southernmost portion of MD 194 became an extension of the MD 26 divided highway . This configuration was chosen because two @-@ thirds of traffic passing through the intersection was between Frederick and Woodsboro .
= = Junction list = =
= = Auxiliary routes = =
MD 194 has four existing auxiliary routes and two that no longer exist . MD 194A and MD 194B are in Woodsboro . MD 194D and MD 194E are north of Taneytown . Former MD 194C and MD 194F were also north of Taneytown .
MD 194A is the designation for Main Street , which runs 1 @.@ 28 miles ( 2 @.@ 06 km ) between MD 194 on the south side of Woodsboro and MD 550 on the north side of Woodsboro . MD 194A is municipally maintained for 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) from Mt . Hope Cemetery north to Coppermine Road .
MD 194B is the designation for a 0 @.@ 09 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 14 km ) section of Main Street that is now a spur south from MD 194A just north of MD 194 's southern end at MD 194 .
MD 194C was the designation for an unnamed 0 @.@ 03 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 048 km ) connector between MD 194 and former MD 853D . MD 194C and MD 853D were removed from the state highway system in 2004 due to the roadway being overgrown .
MD 194D is the designation for an unnamed 0 @.@ 02 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 032 km ) connector between MD 194 and MD 853E , the old alignment that parallels the northbound direction of the modern highway south of Angell Road .
MD 194E is the designation for an unnamed 0 @.@ 02 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 032 km ) connector between MD 194 and MD 853A , the old alignment that parallels the southbound direction of the modern highway south of the Pennsylvania state line .
MD 194F was the designation for an unnamed 0 @.@ 02 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 032 km ) connector between MD 194 and former MD 853D . MD 194F and MD 853D were removed from the state highway system in 2004 due to the roadway being overgrown .
= Le souper de Beaucaire =
Le souper de Beaucaire was a political pamphlet written by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1793 . With the French Revolution into its fourth year , civil war had spread across France between various rival political factions . Napoleon was involved in military action , on the government 's side , against some rebellious cities of southern France . It was during these events , in 1793 , that he spoke with four merchants from the Midi and heard their views . As a loyal soldier of the Republic he responded in turn , set on dispelling the fears of the merchants and discouraging their beliefs . He later wrote about his conversation in the form of a pamphlet , calling for an end to the civil war .
= = Background = =
During the French Revolution the National Convention became the executive power of France , following the execution of King Louis XVI . With powerful members , such as Maximilien Robespierre and Georges Danton , the Jacobin Club , a French political party established in 1790 , at the birth of the revolution , managed to secure control of the government and pursue the revolution to their own ends , culminating in a " Reign of Terror " . Its repressive policies resulted in insurrection across much of France , including the three largest cities after Paris , namely Lyon , Marseille and Toulon , in the south of France .
Citizens in the south were opposed to a centralised government , and to the decrees of its rule , which resulted in rebellion . Prior to the revolution France had been divided into provinces with local governments . In 1790 the government , the National Constituent Assembly , reorganised France into administrative departments in order to rebalance the uneven distribution of French wealth , which had been subject to feudalism under the monarchical Ancien Régime .
= = Rebellion in Southern France = =
In July 1793 Captain Napoleon Bonaparte , an artillery officer , was placed under the command of Jean @-@ Baptiste Carteaux to deal with rebels from Marseille situated in Avignon , where army munitions required by the French Army of Italy were being stored . On 24 July , Carteaux 's troops attacked rebellious National Guardsmen , killing several citizens during the siege , before capturing the town and army supplies . Afterwards , Napoleon travelled to nearby Tarascon to find wagons with which to transport the munition . He visited Beaucaire , across the river from Tarascon , which had been holding an annual fair . Napoleon arrived on 28 July , the last day of the fair , and went to a tavern where he shared supper and conversation with four merchants – two from Marseille , one from Montpellier and another from Nîmes .
That evening Napoleon and the four merchants discussed the revolution , subsequent rebellions , and their consequences . Speaking as a pro @-@ Republican , Napoleon supported the Jacobin cause , and explained the benefits of the revolution , whilst defending Carteaux 's actions in Avignon . One of the merchants from Marseille expressed his moderate views regarding the revolution , and reasons for supporting civil war against a central government . The merchant stressed that Marseille did not fight for the Royalist cause , but opposed the nature of the Convention itself , condemning its decrees and deeming the execution of citizens as unlawful . Napoleon concluded that the people of Marseille should reject counter @-@ revolutionary ideals and adopt the constitution of the French Republic in order to end the civil war and allow the regular army to restore France .
Following their conversation the group drank champagne until two in the morning , paid for by the Marseillais merchant .
= = Publication and recognition = =
Shortly after the events , possibly on the 29 July whilst still in Beaucaire , Napoleon wrote a political pamphlet titled Le souper de Beaucaire ( The supper at Beaucaire ) in which a soldier speaks with four merchants and sympathetic to their opinions attempts to dissipate their counter @-@ revolutionary sentiments .
The pamphlet was read by Augustin Robespierre , brother of Maximilien Robespierre , who was impressed by the revolutionary context . The pamphlet itself had little effect against the rebellious forces , but served to advance Napoleon 's career . He soon became recognised for his political ambitions by a Corsica @-@ born politician , and family friend , Christophe Saliceti , who arranged to have it published and distributed . Christophe 's influence , along with fellow Convention deputy Augustin Robespierre , advanced Napoleon into the position of senior gunner , at Toulon .
In Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte , a biography by Napoleon 's private secretary , Louis de Bourrienne , he notes that Le souper de Beaucaire was reprinted as a book – the first edition issued at the cost of the Public Treasury in August 1798 , and a second edition in 1821 , following Napoleon 's death . He also states , " It was during my absence from France that Bonaparte , in the rank of ' chef de bataillon ' [ major ] , performed his first campaign , and contributed so materially to the recapture of Toulon . Of this period of his life I have no personal knowledge , and therefore I shall not speak of it as an eye @-@ witness . I shall merely relate some facts which fill up the interval between 1793 and 1795 , and which I have collected from papers which he himself delivered to me . Among these papers is a little production , entitled ' Le Souper de Beaucaire ' , the copies of which he bought up at considerable expense , and destroyed upon his attaining the Consulate . "
= Jin – Song Wars =
The Jin – Song Wars were a series of conflicts between the Jurchen Jin dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) and Han Chinese Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) . In 1115 , the Jurchens rebelled against their overlords , the Khitan Liao dynasty ( 907 – 1125 ) , and declared the formation of the Jin . Allying with the Song against their common enemy the Liao , the Jin promised to return to the Song the territories in northern China that had fallen under Liao control since 938 . The Jurchens ' quick defeat of the Liao combined with Song military failures made the Jin reluctant to cede these territories . After a series of failed negotiations that embittered both sides , the Jurchens attacked the Song in November 1125 , dispatching one army towards Taiyuan and the other towards Kaifeng , the Song capital .
Surprised by the news of an invasion , the Song general stationed in Taiyuan retreated from the city , which was besieged and later captured . As the second Jin army approached the capital , Emperor Huizong of the Song abdicated and fled south . A new emperor , Qinzong , was enthroned . The Jurchens began a siege against Kaifeng in 1126 , but Qinzong negotiated for their retreat from the capital after he agreed to pay a large annual indemnity . Qinzong reneged on the deal and ordered Song forces to defend the prefectures instead of fortifying the capital . The Jin resumed their war against the Song and again besieged Kaifeng in 1127 . The Chinese emperor was captured in an event known as the Jingkang Incident , the capital was looted , and the Song lost northern China to the Jin . Remnants of the Song retreated to southern China and , after brief stays in several temporary capitals , eventually relocated to Hangzhou . The retreat of the Song court marked the end of the Northern Song era and the beginning of the Southern Song .
The Jurchens tried to conquer southern China in the 1130s , but they were bogged down by a pro @-@ Song insurgency in the north and a counteroffensive by the Song generals Yue Fei , Han Shizhong , and others . The generals regained some territories but retreated on the orders of the Southern Song emperor , who supported a peaceful resolution to the war . The Treaty of Shaoxing in 1142 settled the boundary between the two empires along the Huai River , but conflicts between the two dynasties continued until the fall of the Jin in 1234 . A campaign against the Song by the fourth Jin emperor , Wanyan Liang ( the Prince of Hailing ) , was unsuccessful . He lost the Battle of Caishi ( 1161 ) and was later assassinated by his own disaffected officers . An invasion of the Jin motivated by Song revanchism ( 1206 – 1208 ) was also unsuccessful . A decade later , the Jin launched an abortive military campaign against the Song in 1217 to compensate for the territory that they had lost to the invading Mongols . The Song formed an alliance with the Mongols in 1233 , and in the following year jointly captured Caizhou , the last refuge of the Jin emperor . The Jin dynasty collapsed that year in 1234 . After the demise of the Jin , the Song dynasty itself became a target of the Mongols , and fell in 1279 .
The wars engendered an era of technological , cultural , and demographic changes in China . Battles between the Song and Jin brought about the introduction of various gunpowder weapons . The siege of De 'an in 1132 was the first recorded appearance of the fire lance , an early ancestor of firearms . There were also reports of battles fought with primitive gunpowder bombs like the incendiary huopao or the exploding tiehuopao , incendiary arrows , and other related weapons . In northern China , the Jurchen tribes were the ruling minority of an empire that was predominantly inhabited by former subjects of the Northern Song . Jurchen migrants settled in the conquered territories and assimilated with the local culture . The Jin government instituted a centralized imperial bureaucracy modeled on previous Chinese dynasties , basing their legitimacy on Confucian philosophy . Song refugees from the north resettled in southern China . The north was the cultural center of China , and its conquest by the Jin diminished the international stature of the Song dynasty . The Southern Song , however , quickly returned to economic prosperity , and trade with the Jin was lucrative despite decades of warfare . The capital of the Southern Song , Hangzhou , expanded into a major city for commerce .
= = The fragile Song – Jin alliance = =
The Jurchens were a Tungusic @-@ speaking group of semi @-@ agrarian tribes inhabiting areas of northeast Asia that are now part of Northeast China . Many of the Jurchen tribes were vassals of the Liao dynasty ( 907 – 1125 ) , an empire ruled by the nomadic Khitans that included most of modern Mongolia , a portion of North China , Northeast China , northern Korea , and parts of the Russian Far East . To the south of the Liao lay the Han Chinese Song Empire ( 960 – 1276 ) . The Song and Liao were at peace , but since a military defeat to the Liao in 1005 , the Song paid its northern neighbor an annual indemnity of 200 @,@ 000 bolts of silk and 100 @,@ 000 ounces of silver .
In 1114 , the chieftain Wanyan Aguda ( 1068 – 1123 ) united the disparate Jurchen tribes and led a revolt against the Liao . In 1115 he named himself emperor of the Jin " golden " dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) . Informed by a Liao defector of the success of the Jurchen uprising , the Song emperor Huizong ( r . 1100 – 1127 ) and his highest military commander the eunuch Tong Guan saw the Liao weakness as an opportunity to recover the Sixteen Prefectures , a line of fortified cities and passes that the Liao had annexed from the Shatuo Turk Later Jin in 938 , and that the Song had repeatedly but unsuccessfully tried to reconquer . The Song thus sought an alliance with the Jin against their common enemy the Liao .
Because the land routes between the Song and Jin were controlled by the Liao , diplomatic exchanges had to occur by traveling across the Bohai Sea . Negotiations for an alliance began secretly under the pretense that the Song wanted to acquire horses from the Khitans . Song diplomats traveled to the Jin court to meet Aguda in 1118 , while Jurchen envoys arrived in the Song capital Kaifeng the next year . At the beginning the two sides agreed to keep whatever Liao territory they would seize in combat . In 1120 , Aguda agreed to cede the Sixteen Prefectures to the Song in exchange for transfer to the Jin of the annual tributary payments that the Song had been giving the Liao . By the end of 1120 , however , the Jurchens had seized the Liao Supreme Capital , and offered the Song only parts of the Sixteen Prefectures . Among other things , the Jin would keep the Liao Western Capital of Datong at the western end of the Sixteen Prefectures . The two sides agreed that the Jin would now attack the Liao Central Capital , whereas the Song would seize the Liao Southern Capital , Yanjing ( modern day Beijing ) .
The joint attack against the Liao had been planned for 1121 , but it was rescheduled for 1122 . In February 23 of that year , the Jin captured the Liao Central Capital as promised . The Song delayed their entry into the war because it diverted resources to fighting the Western Xia in the northwest and suppressing a large popular rebellion in the south . When a Song army under Tong Guan 's command finally attacked Yanjing in May 1122 , the smaller forces of the weakened Liao repelled the invaders with ease . Another attack failed in the fall . Both times , Tong was forced to retreat back to Kaifeng . After the first attack , Aguda changed the terms of the agreement and only promised Yanjing and six other prefectures to the Song . In early 1123 it was Jurchen forces that easily took the Liao Southern Capital . They sacked it and enslaved its population .
The quick collapse of the Liao led to more negotiations between the Song and the Jin . Jurchen military success and their effective control over the Sixteen Prefectures gave them more leverage . Aguda grew increasingly frustrated as he realized that despite their military failures the Song still intended to seize most of the prefectures . In the spring of 1123 the two sides finally set the terms of the first Song – Jin treaty . Only seven prefectures ( including Yanjing ) would be returned to the Song , and the Song would pay an annual indemnity of 300 @,@ 000 packs of silk and 200 @,@ 000 taels of silver to the Jin , as well as a one @-@ time payment of one million strings of copper coins to compensate the Jurchens for the tax revenue they would have earned had they not returned the prefectures . In May 1123 Tong Guan and the Song armies entered the looted Yanjing .
= = War against the Northern Song = =
= = = The collapse of the Song – Jin alliance = = =
Barely one month after the Song had recovered Yanjing , Zhang Jue ( 張覺 ) , who had served as military governor of the Liao prefecture of Pingzhou about 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) east of Yanjing , killed the main Jin official in that city and turned it over to the Song . The Jurchens defeated his armies a few months later and Zhang took refuge in Yanjing . Even though the Song agreed to execute him in late 1123 , this incident put tension between the two states , because the 1123 treaty had explicitly forbidden both sides from harboring defectors . In 1124 , Song officials further angered the Jin by asking for the cession of nine more border prefectures . The new Jin emperor Taizong ( r . 1123 – 1135 ) , Aguda 's brother and successor , hesitated , but warrior princes Wanyan Zonghan and Wanyan Zongwang ( 完颜宗望 ) vehemently refused to give them any more territory . Taizong eventually granted two prefectures , but by then the Jin leaders were ready to attack their southern neighbor .
Before they could invade the Song , the Jurchens reached a peace agreement with their western neighbors the Tangut Western Xia in 1124 . The following year near the Ordos Desert , they captured Tianzuo , the last emperor of the Liao , putting an end to the Liao dynasty for good . Ready to end their alliance with the Song , the Jurchens began preparations for an invasion .
= = = First campaign = = =
In November 1125 Taizong ordered his armies to attack the Song . The defection of Zhang Jue two years earlier served as the casus belli . Two armies were sent to capture the major cities of the Song .
= = = = Siege of Taiyuan = = = =
The western army , led by Wanyan Zonghan , departed from Datong and headed towards Taiyuan through the mountains of Shanxi , on its way to the Song western capital Luoyang . The Song forces were not expecting an invasion and were caught off guard . The Chinese general Tong Guan was informed of the military expedition by an envoy he had sent to the Jin to obtain the cession of two prefectures . The returning envoy reported that the Jurchens were willing to forgo an invasion if the Song ceded control of Hebei and Shanxi to the Jin . Tong Guan retreated from Taiyuan and left command of his troops to Wang Bing . Jin armies besieged the city in mid January 1126 . Under Wang Bing 's command , Taiyuan held on long enough to stop the Jurchen troops from advancing to Luoyang .
= = = = First siege of Kaifeng = = = =
Meanwhile , the eastern army , commanded by Wanyan Zongwang , was dispatched towards Yanjing ( modern Beijing ) and eventually the Song capital Kaifeng . It did not face much armed opposition . Zongwang easily took Yanjing , where Song general and former Liao governor Guo Yaoshi ( 郭藥師 ) switched his allegiances to the Jin . When the Song had tried to reclaim the Sixteen Prefectures , they had faced fierce resistance from the Han Chinese population , yet when the Jurchens invaded that area , the Han Chinese did not oppose them at all . By the end of December 1125 , the Jin army had seized control of two prefectures and re @-@ established Jurchen rule over the Sixteen Prefectures . The eastern army was nearing Kaifeng by early 1126 .
Fearing the approaching Jin army , Song emperor Huizong planned to retreat south . The emperor deserting the capital would have been viewed as an act of capitulation , so court officials convinced him to abdicate . There were few objections . Rescuing an empire in crisis from destruction was more important than preserving the rituals of imperial inheritance . In January 1126 , a few days before the New Year , Huizong abdicated in favor of his son and was demoted to the ceremonial role of Retired Emperor . The Jurchen forces reached the Yellow River on January 27 , 1126 , two days after the New Year . Huizong fled Kaifeng the next day , escaping south and leaving the newly enthroned emperor Qinzong ( r . 1126 – 1127 ) in charge of the capital .
Kaifeng was besieged on January 31 , 1126 . The commander of the Jurchen army promised to spare the city if the Song submitted to Jin as a vassal ; forfeited the prime minister and an imperial prince as prisoners ; ceded the Chinese prefectures of Hejian , Taiyuan , and Zhongshan ; and offered an indemnity of 50 million taels of silver , 5 million taels of gold , 1 million packs of silk , 1 million packs of satin , 10 @,@ 000 horses , 10 @,@ 000 mules , 10 @,@ 000 cattle , and 1 @,@ 000 camels . This indemnity was worth about 180 years of the annual tribute the Song had been paying to the Jin since 1123 .
With little prospect of help from afar arriving , infighting broke out in the Song court between the officials who supported the Jin offer and those who opposed it . Opponents of the treaty like Li Gang ( 李剛 ; 1083 – 1140 ) rallied around the proposal of remaining in defensive positions until reinforcements arrived and Jurchen supplies ran out . They botched an ambush against the Jin that was carried out at night , and were replaced by officials who supported peace negotiations . The failed attack pushed Qinzong into meeting the Jurchen demands , and his officials convinced him to go through with the deal . The Song recognized Jin control over the three prefectures . The Jurchen army ended the siege in March after 33 days .
= = = Second campaign = = =
Almost as soon as the Jin armies had left Kaifeng , Emperor Qinzong reneged on the deal and dispatched two armies to repel the Jurchen troops attacking Taiyuan and bolster the defenses of Zhongshan and Hejian . An army of 90 @,@ 000 soldiers and another of 60 @,@ 000 were defeated by Jin forces by June . A second expedition to rescue Taiyuan was also unsuccessful .
Accusing the Song of violating the agreement and realizing the weakness of the Song , the Jin generals launched a second punitive campaign , again dividing their troops into two armies . Wanyan Zonghan , who had withdrawn from Taiyuan after the Kaifeng agreement and left a small force in charge of the siege , came back with his western army . Overwhelmed , Taiyuan fell in September 1126 , after 260 days of siege . When the Song court received news of the fall of Taiyuan , the officials who had advocated defending the empire militarily fell from favor again and were replaced by counselors who favored appeasement . In mid December the two Jurchen armies converged on Kaifeng for the second time that year .
= = = = Second siege of Kaifeng = = = =
After the defeat of several Song armies in the north , Emperor Qinzong wanted to negotiate a truce with the Jin , but he committed a massive strategic blunder when he commanded his remaining armies to protect prefectural cities instead of Kaifeng . Neglecting the importance of the capital , he left Kaifeng defended with fewer than 100 @,@ 000 soldiers . The Song forces were dispersed throughout China , powerless to stop the second Jurchen siege of the city .
The Jin assault commenced in mid December 1126 . Even as fighting raged on , Qinzong continued to sue for peace , but Jin demands for territory were enormous : they wanted all provinces north of the Yellow River . After more than twenty days of heavy combat against the besieging forces , Song defenses were decimated and the morale of Song soldiers was on the decline . On January 9 , 1127 , the Jurchens broke through and started to loot the conquered city . Emperor Qinzong tried to appease the victors by offering the remaining wealth of the capital . The royal treasury was emptied and the belongings of the city 's residents were seized . The Song emperor offered his unconditional surrender a few days later .
Qinzong , the former emperor Huizong , and members of the Song court were captured by the Jurchens as hostages . They were taken north to Huining ( modern Harbin ) , where they were stripped of their royal privileges and reduced to commoners . The former emperors were humiliated by their captors . They were mocked with disparaging titles like " Muddled Virtue " and " Double Muddled " . In 1128 the Jin made them perform a ritual meant for war criminals . The harsh treatment of the Song royalty softened after the death of Huizong in 1135 . Titles were granted to the deceased monarch , and his son Qinzong was promoted to Duke , a position with a salary .
= = = Reasons for Song failure = = =
Many factors contributed to the Song 's repeated military blunders and subsequent loss of northern China to the Jurchens . Traditional accounts of Song history held the venality of Huizong 's imperial court responsible for the decline of the dynasty . These narratives condemned Huizong and his officials for their moral failures . Early Song emperors were eager to enact political reforms and revive the ethical framework of Confucianism , but the enthusiasm for reforms gradually died after the reformist Wang Anshi 's expulsion as chancellor in 1076 . Corruption marred the reign of Huizong , who was more skilled as a painter than as a ruler . Huizong was known for his extravagance , and funded the costly construction of gardens and temples while rebellions threatened the state 's grip on power .
A modern analysis by Ari Daniel Levine places more of the blame on deficiencies in the military and bureaucratic leadership . The loss of northern China was not inevitable . The military was overextended by a government too assured of its own military prowess . Huizong diverted the state 's resources to failed wars against the Western Xia . The Song insistence on a greater share of Liao territory only succeeded in provoking their Jin allies . Song diplomatic oversights underestimated the Jin and allowed the unimpeded rise of Jurchen military power . The state had plentiful resources , with the exception of horses , but managed its assets poorly during battles . Unlike the expansive Han and Tang empires that preceded the Song , the Song did not have a significant foothold in Central Asia where a large proportion of its horses could be bred or procured . As Song general Li Gang noted , without a consistent supply of horses the dynasty was at a significant disadvantage against Jurchen cavalry : " the Jin were victorious only because they used iron @-@ shielded cavalry , while we opposed them with foot soldiers . It is only to be expected that [ our soldiers ] were scattered and dispersed . "
= = Wars with the Southern Song = =
= = = Southern retreat of the Song court = = =
= = = = The enthronement of Emperor Gaozong = = = =
The Jin leadership had not expected or desired the fall of the Song dynasty . Their intention was to weaken the Song in order to demand more tribute , and they were unprepared for the magnitude of their victory . The Jurchens were preoccupied with strengthening their rule over the areas once controlled by Liao . Instead of continuing their invasion of the Song , an empire with a military that outnumbered their own , they adopted the strategy of " using Chinese to control the Chinese " . The Jin hoped that a proxy state would be capable of administering northern China and collecting the annual indemnity without requiring Jurchen interventions to quell anti @-@ Jin uprisings . In 1127 , the Jurchens installed a former Song official , Zhang Bangchang ( 張邦昌 ; 1081 – 1127 ) , as the puppet emperor of the newly established " Da Chu " ( Great Chu ) dynasty . The puppet government did not deter the resistance in northern China , but the insurgents were motivated by their anger towards the Jurchens ' looting rather than by a sense of loyalty towards the inept Song court . A number of Song commanders , stationed in towns scattered across northern China , retained their allegiance to the Song , and armed volunteers organized militias opposed to the Jurchen military presence . The insurgency hampered the ability of the Jin to exert control over the north .
Meanwhile , one Song prince , Zhao Gou , had escaped capture . He had been held up in Cizhou while on a diplomatic mission , and never made it back to Kaifeng . He was not present in the capital when the city fell to the Jurchens . The future Emperor Gaozong managed to evade the Jurchen troops tailing him by moving from one province to the next , traveling across Hebei , Henan , and Shandong . The Jurchens tried to lure him back to Kaifeng where they could finally capture him , but did not succeed . Zhao Gou finally arrived in the Song Southern Capital at Yingtianfu ( 應天府 ; modern Shangqiu ) in early June 1127 . For Gaozong ( r . 1127 – 1162 ) , Yingtianfu was the first in a series of temporary capitals called xingzai 行在 . The court moved to Yingtianfu because of its historical importance to Emperor Taizu of Song , the founder of the dynasty , who had previously served in that city as a military governor . The symbolism of the city was meant to secure the political legitimacy of the new emperor , who was enthroned there on June 12 .
After reigning for barely one month , Zhang Bangchang was persuaded by the Song to step down as emperor of the Great Chu and to recognize the legitimacy of the Song imperial line . Li Gang pressured Gaozong to execute Zhang for betraying the Song . The emperor relented and Zhang was coerced into suicide . The killing of Zhang showed that the Song was willing to provoke the Jin , and that the Jin had yet to solidify their control over the newly conquered territories . The submission and abolition of Chu meant that Kaifeng was now back under Song control . Zong Ze ( 宗澤 ; 1059 – 1128 ) , the Song general responsible for fortifying Kaifeng , entreated Gaozong to move the court back to the city , but Gaozong refused and retreated south . The southward move marked the end of the Northern Song and the beginning of the Southern Song era of Chinese history .
The descendant of Confucius at Qufu , the Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to Quzhou , while the newly established Jin dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou 's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng . Zhang Xuan 張選 , a great @-@ grandson of Zhang Zai , also fled south with Gaozong .
= = = = The move south = = = =
The Song disbandment of the Great Chu and execution of Zhang Bangchang antagonized the Jurchens and violated the treaty that the two parties had negotiated . The Jin renewed their attacks on the Song and quickly reconquered much of northern China . In late 1127 Gaozong moved his court further south from Yingtianfu to Yangzhou , south of the Huai River and north of the Yangtze River , by sailing down the Grand Canal . The court spent over a year in the city . When the Jurchens advanced to the Huai River , the court was partially evacuated to Hangzhou in 1129 . Days later , Gaozong narrowly escaped on horseback , just a few hours ahead of Jurchen vanguard troops . After a coup in Hangzhou almost dethroned him , in May 1129 he moved his capital back north to Jiankang ( modern @-@ day Nanjing ) on the south bank of the Yangtze . One month later , however , Zong Ze 's successor Du Chong ( 杜充 ) vacated his forces from Kaifeng , exposing Jiankang to attack . The emperor moved back to Hangzhou in September , leaving Jiankang in Du Chong 's hands . The Jin eventually captured Kaifeng in early 1130 .
From 1127 to 1129 , the Song sent thirteen embassies to the Jin to discuss peace terms and to negotiate the release of Gaozong 's mother and Huizong , but the Jin court ignored them . In December 1129 , the Jin started a new military offensive , dispatching two armies across the Huai River in the east and west . On the western front , an army invaded Jiangxi , the area where the Song dowager empress resided , and captured Hongzhou ( 洪州 , present @-@ day Nanchang ) . They were ordered to retreat a few months later when the eastern army withdrew .
Meanwhile , on the eastern front , Wuzhu commanded the main Jin army . He crossed the Yangtze southwest of Jiankang and took that city when Du Chong surrendered . Wuzhu set out from Jiankang and advanced rapidly to try to capture Gaozong . The Jin seized Hangzhou ( January 22 , 1130 ) and then Shaoxing further south ( February 4 ) , but general Zhang Jun 's ( 1086 – 1154 ) battle with Wuzhu near Ningbo gave Gaozong time to escape . By the time Wuzhu resumed pursuit , the Song court was fleeing on ships to islands off the coast of Zhejiang , and then further south to Wenzhou . The Jin sent ships to chase after Gaozong , but failed to catch him . They gave up the pursuit and the Jurchens retreated north . After they plundered the undefended cities of Hangzhou and Suzhou , they finally started to face resistance from Song armies led by Yue Fei and Han Shizhong . The latter even inflicted a major defeat on Jurchen forces and tried to prevent Wuzhu from crossing back to the north bank of the Yangtze . The small boats of the Jin army were outmatched by Han Shizhong 's fleet of seagoing vessels . Wuzhu eventually managed to cross the river when he had his troops use incendiary arrows to neutralize Han 's ships by burning their sails . Wuzhu 's troops came back south of the Yangtze one last time to Jiankang , which they pillaged , and then headed north . Yet the Jin had been caught off guard by the strength of the Song navy , and Wuzhu never tried to cross the Yangtze River again . In early 1131 , Jin armies between the Huai and the Yangtze were repelled by bandits loyal to the Song . Zhang Rong ( 張榮 ) , the leader of the bandits , was given a government position for his victory against the Jin .
After the Jin incursion that almost captured Gaozong , the sovereign ordered pacification commissioner Zhang Jun ( 1097 – 1164 ) , who was in charge of Shaanxi and Sichuan in the far west , to attack the Jin there to relieve pressure on the court . Zhang put together a large army , but was defeated by Wuzhu near Xi 'an in late 1130 . Wuzhu advanced further west into Gansu , and drove as far south as Jiezhou ( 階州 , modern Wudu ) . The most important battles between Jin and Song in 1131 and 1132 took place in Shaanxi , Gansu , and Sichuan . The Jin lost two battles at Heshan Yuan in 1131 . After failing to enter Sichuan , Wuzhu retreated to Yanjing . He returned to the western front again from 1132 to 1134 . The Jin attacked Hubei and Shaanxi in 1132 . Wuzhu captured Heshan Yuan in 1133 , but his advance was halted by a defeat at Xianren Pass . He gave up on taking Sichuan , and no more major battles were fought between the Jin and Song for the rest of the decade .
The Song court returned to Hangzhou in 1133 , and the city was renamed Lin 'an . The imperial ancestral temple was built in Hangzhou later that same year , a sign that the court had in practice established Hangzhou as the Song capital without a formal declaration . It was treated as a temporary capital . Between 1130 and 1137 , the court would sporadically move to Jiankang , and back to Hangzhou . There were proposals to make Jiankang the new capital , but Hangzhou won out because the court considered it a more secure city . The natural barriers that surrounded Hangzhou , including lakes and rice paddies , made it more difficult for the Jurchen cavalry to breach its fortifications . Access to the sea made it easier to retreat from the city . In 1138 , Gaozong officially declared Hangzhou the capital of the dynasty , but the label of temporary capital would still be in place . Hangzhou would remain the capital of the Southern Song for the next 150 years , growing into a major commercial and cultural center .
= = = Da Qi invades the Song = = =
Qin Hui , an official of the Song court , recommended a peaceful solution to the conflict in 1130 , saying that , " If it is desirable that there will be no more conflicts under Heaven , it is necessary for the southerners to stay in the south and the northerners in the north . " Gaozong , who considered himself a northerner , initially rejected the proposal . There were gestures toward peace in 1132 , when the Jin freed an imprisoned Song diplomat , and in 1133 , when the Song offered to become a Jin vassal , but a treaty never materialized . The Jin requirement that the border between the two states be moved south from the Huai River to the Yangtze was too large of a hurdle for the two sides to reach an agreement .
The continuing insurgency of anti @-@ Jin forces in northern China hampered the Jurchen campaigns south of the Yangtze . Reluctant to let the war drag on , the Jin decided to create Da Qi ( the " Great Qi " ) , their second attempt at a puppet state in northern China . The Jurchens believed that this state , nominally ruled by someone of Han Chinese descent , would be able to attract the allegiance of disaffected members of the insurgency . The Jurchens also suffered from a shortage of skilled manpower , and controlling the entirety of northern China was not administratively feasible . In the final months of 1129 , Liu Yu ( 劉豫 ; 1073 – 1143 ) won the favor of the Jin emperor Taizong . Liu was a Song official from Hebei who had been a prefect of Jinan in Shandong before his defection to the Jin in 1128 . Da Qi was formed late in 1130 , and the Jin enthroned Liu as its emperor . Daming in Hebei was the first capital of Qi , before its move to Kaifeng , former capital of the Northern Song . The Qi government instituted military conscription , made an attempt at reforming the bureaucracy , and enacted laws that enforced the collection of high taxes . It
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contract with Motown Records . However , as the group 's Steeltown contract had not yet expired , the new contract could not be fully executed until March 11 , 1969 . Motown Records tried to get the group out of their Steeltown contract , and ultimately succeeded with a financial settlement .
= = Rediscovery = =
The master tapes to " Big Boy " were thought to be lost , but in 1994 , Jackson family friend Ben Brown found the tapes in his parents ' kitchen pantry . Brown reissued the record in 1995 , on the Inverted Records label — a week before Michael Jackson 's HIStory album was issued . He also remastered the song , selling it by mail order , along with an instrumental version , in a limited edition package consisting of a compact disc and cassette tape — the package could be purchased at a cost of approximately $ 30 . The reissue of " Big Boy " was promoted with a music video . In 2009 , Gordon Keith put items from the Steeltown era up for auction , including " a sizable number of mint @-@ condition copies of ' Big Boy ' " in 45 rpm format and 100 copies of " We Don 't Have To Be Over 21 ( to Fall in Love ) " . Keith stated , " I could use the money ... I got these guys off the ground ... I didn 't truly get real money for it " .
= Chagas disease =
Chagas disease , also known as American trypanosomiasis , is a tropical parasitic disease caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi . It is spread mostly by insects known as Triatominae or kissing bugs . The symptoms change over the course of the infection . In the early stage , symptoms are typically either not present or mild , and may include fever , swollen lymph nodes , headaches , or local swelling at the site of the bite . After 8 – 12 weeks , individuals enter the chronic phase of disease and in 60 – 70 % it never produces further symptoms . The other 30 to 40 % of people develop further symptoms 10 to 30 years after the initial infection , including enlargement of the ventricles of the heart in 20 to 30 % , leading to heart failure . An enlarged esophagus or an enlarged colon may also occur in 10 % of people .
T. cruzi is commonly spread to humans and other mammals by the blood @-@ sucking " kissing bugs " of the subfamily Triatominae . These insects are known by a number of local names , including : vinchuca in Argentina , Bolivia , Chile and Paraguay , barbeiro ( the barber ) in Brazil , pito in Colombia , chinche in Central America , and chipo in Venezuela . The disease may also be spread through blood transfusion , organ transplantation , eating food contaminated with the parasites , and by vertical transmission ( from a mother to her fetus ) . Diagnosis of early disease is by finding the parasite in the blood using a microscope . Chronic disease is diagnosed by finding antibodies for T. cruzi in the blood .
Prevention mostly involves eliminating kissing bugs and avoiding their bites . Other preventative efforts include screening blood used for transfusions . A vaccine has not been developed as of 2013 . Early infections are treatable with the medication benznidazole or nifurtimox . Medication nearly always results in a cure if given early , but becomes less effective the longer a person has had Chagas disease . When used in chronic disease , medication may delay or prevent the development of end – stage symptoms . Benznidazole and nifurtimox cause temporary side effects in up to 40 % of people including skin disorders , brain toxicity , and digestive system irritation .
It is estimated that 7 to 8 million people , mostly in Mexico , Central America and South America , have Chagas disease as of 2013 . In 2006 , Chagas was estimated to result in 12 @,@ 500 deaths per year . Most people with the disease are poor , and most people with the disease do not realize they are infected . Large @-@ scale population movements have increased the areas where Chagas disease is found and these include many European countries and the United States . These areas have also seen an increase in the years up to 2014 . The disease was first described in 1909 by Carlos Chagas after whom it is named . It affects more than 150 other animals .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The human disease occurs in two stages : an acute stage , which occurs shortly after an initial infection , and a chronic stage that develops over many years .
The acute phase lasts for the first few weeks or months of infection . It usually occurs unnoticed because it is symptom @-@ free or exhibits only mild symptoms that are not unique to Chagas disease . These can include fever , fatigue , body aches , muscle pain , headache , rash , loss of appetite , diarrhea , nausea , and vomiting . The signs on physical examination can include mild enlargement of the liver or spleen , swollen glands , and local swelling ( a chagoma ) where the parasite entered the body .
The most recognized marker of acute Chagas disease is called Romaña 's sign , which includes swelling of the eyelids on the side of the face near the bite wound or where the bug feces were deposited or accidentally rubbed into the eye . Rarely , young children , or adults may die from the acute disease due to severe inflammation / infection of the heart muscle ( myocarditis ) or brain ( meningoencephalitis ) . The acute phase also can be severe in people with weakened immune systems .
If symptoms develop during the acute phase , they usually resolve spontaneously within three to eight weeks in approximately 90 % of individuals . Although the symptoms resolve , even with treatment the infection persists and enters a chronic phase . Of individuals with chronic Chagas disease , 60 – 80 % will never develop symptoms ( called indeterminate chronic Chagas disease ) , while the remaining 20 – 40 % will develop life @-@ threatening heart and / or digestive disorders during their lifetime ( called determinate chronic Chagas disease ) . In 10 % of individuals , the disease progresses directly from the acute form to a symptomatic clinical form of chronic Chagas disease .
The symptomatic ( determinate ) chronic stage affects the nervous system , digestive system and heart . About two @-@ thirds of people with chronic symptoms have cardiac damage , including dilated cardiomyopathy , which causes heart rhythm abnormalities and may result in sudden death . About one @-@ third of patients go on to develop digestive system damage , resulting in dilation of the digestive tract ( megacolon and megaesophagus ) , accompanied by severe weight loss . Swallowing difficulties ( secondary achalasia ) may be the first symptom of digestive disturbances and may lead to malnutrition .
20 % to 50 % of individuals with intestinal involvement also exhibit cardiac involvement . Up to 10 % of chronically infected individuals develop neuritis that results in altered tendon reflexes and sensory impairment . Isolated cases exhibit central nervous system involvement , including dementia , confusion , chronic encephalopathy and sensory and motor deficits .
The clinical manifestations of Chagas disease are due to cell death in the target tissues that occurs during the infective cycle , by sequentially inducing an inflammatory response , cellular lesions , and fibrosis . For example , intracellular amastigotes destroy the intramural neurons of the autonomic nervous system in the intestine and heart , leading to megaintestine and heart aneurysms , respectively . If left untreated , Chagas disease can be fatal , in most cases due to heart muscle damage .
= = Transmission = =
In Chagas @-@ endemic areas , the main mode of transmission is through an insect vector called a triatomine bug . A triatomine becomes infected with T. cruzi by feeding on the blood of an infected person or animal . During the day , triatomines hide in crevices in the walls and roofs .
The bugs emerge at night , when the inhabitants are sleeping . Because they tend to feed on people 's faces , triatomine bugs are also known as " kissing bugs " . After they bite and ingest blood , they defecate on the person . Triatomines pass T. cruzi parasites ( called trypomastigotes ) in feces left near the site of the bite wound .
Scratching the site of the bite causes the trypomastigotes to enter the host through the wound , or through intact mucous membranes , such as the conjunctiva . Once inside the host , the trypomastigotes invade cells , where they differentiate into intracellular amastigotes . The amastigotes multiply by binary fission and differentiate into trypomastigotes , which are then released into the bloodstream . This cycle is repeated in each newly infected cell . Replication resumes only when the parasites enter another cell or are ingested by another vector . ( See also : Life cycle and transmission of T. cruzi )
Dense vegetation ( such as that of tropical rainforests ) and urban habitats are not ideal for the establishment of the human transmission cycle . However , in regions where the sylvatic habitat and its fauna are thinned by economic exploitation and human habitation , such as in newly deforested areas , piassava palm culture areas , and some parts of the Amazon region , a human transmission cycle may develop as the insects search for new food sources .
T. cruzi can also be transmitted through blood transfusions . With the exception of blood derivatives ( such as fractionated antibodies ) , all blood components are infective . The parasite remains viable at 4 ° C for at least 18 days or up to 250 days when kept at room temperature . It is unclear whether T. cruzi can be transmitted through frozen @-@ thawed blood components .
Other modes of transmission include organ transplantation , through breast milk , and by accidental laboratory exposure . Chagas disease can also be spread congenitally ( from a pregnant woman to her baby ) through the placenta , and accounts for approximately 13 % of stillborn deaths in parts of Brazil .
Oral transmission is an unusual route of infection , but has been described . In 1991 , farm workers in the state of Paraíba , Brazil , were infected by eating contaminated food ; transmission has also occurred via contaminated açaí palm fruit juice and garapa . A 2007 outbreak in 103 Venezuelan school children was attributed to contaminated guava juice .
Chagas disease is a growing problem in Europe , because the majority of cases with chronic infection are asymptomatic and because of migration from Latin America .
= = Diagnosis = =
The presence of T. cruzi is diagnostic of Chagas disease . It can be detected by microscopic examination of fresh anticoagulated blood , or its buffy coat , for motile parasites ; or by preparation of thin and thick blood smears stained with Giemsa , for direct visualization of parasites . Microscopically , T. cruzi can be confused with Trypanosoma rangeli , which is not known to be pathogenic in humans . Isolation of T. cruzi can occur by inoculation into mice , by culture in specialized media ( for example , NNN , LIT ) ; and by xenodiagnosis , where uninfected Reduviidae bugs are fed on the patient 's blood , and their gut contents examined for parasites .
Various immunoassays for T. cruzi are available and can be used to distinguish among strains ( zymodemes of T.cruzi with divergent pathogenicities ) . These tests include : detecting complement fixation , indirect hemagglutination , indirect fluorescence assays , radioimmunoassays , and ELISA . Alternatively , diagnosis and strain identification can be made using polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) .
= = Prevention = =
There is currently no vaccine against Chagas disease . Prevention is generally focused on decreasing the numbers of the insect that spreads it ( Triatoma ) and decreasing their contact with humans . This is done by using sprays and paints containing insecticides ( synthetic pyrethroids ) , and improving housing and sanitary conditions in rural areas . For urban dwellers , spending vacations and camping out in the wilderness or sleeping at hostels or mud houses in endemic areas can be dangerous ; a mosquito net is recommended . Some measures of vector control include :
A yeast trap can be used for monitoring infestations of certain species of triatomine bugs ( Triatoma sordida , Triatoma brasiliensis , Triatoma pseudomaculata , and Panstrongylus megistus ) .
Promising results were gained with the treatment of vector habitats with the fungus Beauveria bassiana .
Targeting the symbionts of Triatominae through paratransgenesis can be done .
A number of potential vaccines are currently being tested . Vaccination with Trypanosoma rangeli has produced positive results in animal models . More recently , the potential of DNA vaccines for immunotherapy of acute and chronic Chagas disease is being tested by several research groups .
Blood transfusion was formerly the second @-@ most common mode of transmission for Chagas disease , but the development and implementation of blood bank screening tests has dramatically reduced this risk in the 21st century . Blood donations in all endemic Latin American countries undergo Chagas screening , and testing is expanding in countries , such as France , Spain and the United States , that have significant or growing populations of immigrants from endemic areas . In Spain , donors are evaluated with a questionnaire to identify individuals at risk of Chagas exposure for screening tests .
The US FDA has approved two Chagas tests , including one approved in April 2010 , and has published guidelines that recommend testing of all donated blood and tissue products . While these tests are not required in US , an estimated 75 – 90 % of the blood supply is currently tested for Chagas , including all units collected by the American Red Cross , which accounts for 40 % of the U.S. blood supply . The Chagas Biovigilance Network reports current incidents of Chagas @-@ positive blood products in the United States , as reported by labs using the screening test approved by the FDA in 2007 .
= = Management = =
There are two approaches to treating Chagas disease : antiparasitic treatment , to kill the parasite ; and symptomatic treatment , to manage the symptoms and signs of the infection . Management uniquely involves addressing selective incremental failure of the parasympathetic nervous system . Autonomic disease imparted by Chagas may eventually result in megaesophagus , megacolon and accelerated dilated cardiomyopathy . The mechanisms that explain why Chagas targets the parasympathetic autonomic nervous system and spares the sympathetic autonomic nervous system remain poorly understood .
= = = Medication = = =
Antiparasitic treatment is most effective early in the course of infection , but is not limited to cases in the acute phase . Drugs of choice include azole or nitro derivatives , such as benznidazole or nifurtimox . Both agents are limited in their capacity to completely eliminate T. cruzi from the body ( parasitologic cure ) , especially in chronically infected patients , and resistance to these drugs has been reported .
Studies suggest antiparasitic treatment leads to parasitological cure in more than 90 % of infants but only about 60 – 85 % of adults treated in the first year of acute phase Chagas disease . Children aged six to 12 years with chronic disease have a cure rate of about 60 % with benznidazole . While the rate of cure declines the longer an adult has been infected with Chagas , treatment with benznidazole has been shown to slow the onset of heart disease in adults with chronic Chagas infections .
Treatment of chronic infection in women prior to or during pregnancy does not appear to reduce the probability the disease will be passed on to the infant . Likewise , it is unclear whether prophylactic treatment of chronic infection is beneficial in persons who will undergo immunosuppression ( for example , organ transplant recipients ) or in persons who are already immunosuppressed ( for example , those with HIV infection ) .
= = = Complications = = =
In the chronic stage , treatment involves managing the clinical manifestations of the disease . For example , pacemakers and medications for irregular heartbeats , such as the anti @-@ arrhythmia drug amiodarone , may be life saving for some patients with chronic cardiac disease , while surgery may be required for megaintestine . The disease cannot be cured in this phase , however . Chronic heart disease caused by Chagas disease is now a common reason for heart transplantation surgery . Until recently , however , Chagas disease was considered a contraindication for the procedure , since the heart damage could recur as the parasite was expected to seize the opportunity provided by the immunosuppression that follows surgery .
= = Epidemiology = =
Chagas disease affects 8 to 10 million people living in endemic Latin American countries , with an additional 300 @,@ 000 – 400 @,@ 000 living in nonendemic countries , including Spain and the United States . An estimated 41 @,@ 200 new cases occur annually in endemic countries , and 14 @,@ 400 infants are born with congenital Chagas disease annually. in 2010 it resulted in approximately 10 @,@ 300 deaths up from 9 @,@ 300 in 1990 .
The disease is present in 18 countries on the American continents , ranging from the southern United States to northern Argentina . Chagas exists in two different ecological zones . In the Southern Cone region , the main vector lives in and around human homes . In Central America and Mexico , the main vector species lives both inside dwellings and in uninhabited areas . In both zones , Chagas occurs almost exclusively in rural areas , where triatomines breed and feed on the more than 150 species from 24 families of domestic and wild mammals , as well as humans , that are the natural reservoirs of T. cruzi .
Although Triatominae bugs feed on them , birds appear to be immune to infection and therefore are not considered to be a T. cruzi reservoir . Even when colonies of insects are eradicated from a house and surrounding domestic animal shelters , they can re @-@ emerge from plants or animals that are part of the ancient , sylvatic ( referring to wild animals ) infection cycle . This is especially likely in zones with mixed open savannah , with clumps of trees interspersed by human habitation .
The primary wildlife reservoirs for Trypanosoma cruzi in the United States include opossums , raccoons , armadillos , squirrels , woodrats , and mice . Opossums are particularly important as reservoirs , because the parasite can complete its life cycle in the anal glands of this animal without having to re @-@ enter the insect vector . Recorded prevalence of the disease in opossums in the U.S. ranges from 8 @.@ 3 % to 37 @.@ 5 % .
Studies on raccoons in the Southeast have yielded infection rates ranging from 47 % to as low as 15 @.@ 5 % . Armadillo prevalence studies have been described in Louisiana , and range from a low of 1 @.@ 1 % to 28 @.@ 8 % . Additionally , small rodents , including squirrels , mice , and rats , are important in the sylvatic transmission cycle because of their importance as bloodmeal sources for the insect vectors . A Texas study revealed 17 @.@ 3 % percent T. cruzi prevalence in 75 specimens representing four separate small rodent species .
Chronic Chagas disease remains a major health problem in many Latin American countries , despite the effectiveness of hygienic and preventive measures , such as eliminating the transmitting insects . However , several landmarks have been achieved in the fight against it in Latin America , including a reduction by 72 % of the incidence of human infection in children and young adults in the countries of the Southern Cone Initiative , and at least three countries ( Uruguay , in 1997 , and Chile , in 1999 , and Brazil in 2006 ) have been certified free of vectorial and transfusional transmission . In Argentina , vectorial transmission has been interrupted in 13 of the 19 endemic provinces , and major progress toward this goal has also been made in both Paraguay and Bolivia .
Screening of donated blood , blood components , and solid organ donors , as well as donors of cells , tissues , and cell and tissue products for T. cruzi is mandated in all Chagas @-@ endemic countries and has been implemented . Approximately 300 @,@ 000 infected people live in the United States , which is likely the result of immigration from Latin American countries , and there have been only 23 human cases of domestically acquired vector @-@ borne Chagas disease reported between 1955 and 2014 . With increased population movements , the possibility of transmission by blood transfusion became more substantial in the United States . Transfusion blood and tissue products are now actively screened in the U.S. , thus addressing and minimizing this risk .
= = History = =
The disease was named after the Brazilian physician and epidemiologist Carlos Chagas , who first described it in 1909 . The disease was not seen as a major public health problem in humans until the 1960s ( the outbreak of Chagas disease in Brazil in the 1920s went widely ignored ) . Dr Chagas discovered that the intestines of Triatomidae ( now Reduviidae : Triatominae ) harbored a flagellate protozoan , a new species of the Trypanosoma genus , and was able to demonstrate experimentally that it could be transmitted to marmoset monkeys that were bitten by the infected bug . Later studies showed squirrel monkeys were also vulnerable to infection .
Chagas named the pathogenic parasite as Trypanosoma cruzi and later that year as Schizotrypanum cruzi , both honoring Oswaldo Cruz , the noted Brazilian physician and epidemiologist who successfully fought epidemics of yellow fever , smallpox , and bubonic plague in Rio de Janeiro and other cities in the beginning of the 20th century . Chagas was also the first to unknowingly discover and illustrate the parasitic fungal genus Pneumocystis , later infamously linked to PCP ( Pneumocystis pneumonia in AIDS victims ) . Confusion between the two pathogens ' life @-@ cycles led him to briefly recognize his genus Schizotrypanum , but following the description of Pneumocystis by others as an independent genus , Chagas returned to the use of the name Trypanosoma cruzi .
In Argentina , the disease is known as mal de Chagas @-@ Mazza , in honor of Salvador Mazza , the Argentine physician who in 1926 began investigating the disease and over the years became the principal researcher of this disease in the country . Mazza produced the first scientific confirmation of the existence of Trypanosoma cruzi in Argentina in 1927 , eventually leading to support from local and European medical schools and Argentine government policy makers .
It has been hypothesized that Charles Darwin might have suffered from Chagas disease as a result of a bite of the so @-@ called great black bug of the Pampas ( vinchuca ) ( see Charles Darwin 's illness ) . The episode was reported by Darwin in his diaries of the Voyage of the Beagle as occurring in March 1835 to the east of the Andes near Mendoza . Darwin was young and generally in good health , though six months previously he had been ill for a month near Valparaiso , but in 1837 , almost a year after he returned to England , he began to suffer intermittently from a strange group of symptoms , becoming incapacitated for much of the rest of his life . Attempts to test Darwin 's remains at Westminster Abbey by using modern PCR techniques were met with a refusal by the Abbey 's curator .
= = Research = =
Several experimental treatments have shown promise in animal models . These include inhibitors of oxidosqualene cyclase and squalene synthase , cysteine protease inhibitors , dermaseptins collected from frogs in the genus Phyllomedusa ( P. oreades and P. distincta ) , the sesquiterpene lactone dehydroleucodine ( DhL ) , which affects the growth of cultured epimastigote @-@ phase Trypanosoma cruzi , inhibitors of purine uptake , and inhibitors of enzymes involved in trypanothione metabolism . Hopefully , new drug targets may be revealed following the sequencing of the T. cruzi genome .
Chagas disease has a serious economic impact on the United States and the world . The cost of treatment in the United States alone , where the disease is not indigenous , is estimated to be $ 900 million annually , which includes hospitalization and medical devices such as pacemakers . The global cost is estimated at $ 7 billion .
Megazol in a study seems more active against Chagas than benznidazole but has not been studied in humans . Fexinidazole , an old drug rediscovered for this purpose is being tested in phase 2 clinical trials . A Chagas vaccine ( TcVac3 ) has been found to be effective in mice with plans for studies in dogs . It is hoped that it will be commercially available by 2018 .
= Diamond stingray =
The diamond stingray ( Dasyatis dipterura ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae . It is found in the coastal waters of the eastern Pacific Ocean from southern California to northern Chile , and around the Galápagos and Hawaiian Islands . This bottom @-@ dweller generally inhabits sandy or muddy flats near rocky reefs and kelp forests , to a depth of 30 m ( 98 ft ) , though off Hawaii it may range considerably deeper . As its common name suggests , this species has an angular , diamond @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc that is plain brown or gray above , with rows of tubercles along the midline and on the " shoulders " . The long , whip @-@ like tail has both dorsal and ventral fin folds , which distinguish this ray from the closely similar longtail stingray ( D. longa ) . It typically grows to 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) across .
When searching for food , diamond stingrays may form groups of up to hundreds of individuals . It is most active at night and preys mainly on burrowing invertebrates and small bony fishes , which are extracted from the bottom via suction or digging . This species is aplacental viviparous : once the embryos exhaust their yolk supply , they are nourished by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . Females bear 1 – 4 pups every summer in estuaries ; mating is followed by a ten @-@ month period of either sperm storage or arrested embryonic development , after which the embryos rapidly mature over 2 – 3 months . The slowest @-@ growing stingray known , this species is not resilient against fishing pressure . It is caught for food by artisanal fishers in Latin America , particularly in Mexico where it is one of the most economically important rays . This has led it to be assessed as Near Threatened in Mexico by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) , while the species as a whole is listed as Data Deficient . Though innocuous towards humans , the diamond stingray 's long , venomous tail spine is potentially dangerous .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
In 1880 , the diamond stingray was described twice by three American ichthyologists : as Dasybatus dipterurus by David Starr Jordan and Charles Henry Gilbert in Proceedings of the United States National Museum , and as Trygon brevis by Samuel Garman in Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology . Jordan and Gilbert 's account was published in May while Garman 's was published in October , making dipterurus ( feminine dipterura ) the correct name as it was published first . However , when Garman synonymized the two in 1913 he inappropriately gave precedence to brevis , leading to long @-@ standing confusion . Both Dasybatus and Trygon were later synonymized with the genus Dasyatis , but many authors still listed D. brevis in place of or in addition to D. dipterura . Garman also synonymized the Hawaiian stingray ( D. hawaiensis ) with D. dipterura in 1913 , which has since been followed by most authors but requires more study for confirmation .
The species syntypes were collected from San Diego Bay , California . The specific epithet dipterura is derived from the Latin di ( " two " ) , ptero ( " wing " ) , and ura ( " tail " ) , referring to the fin folds on both sides of its tail . Rat @-@ tailed stingray is a former common name for this species . Lisa Rosenberger 's 2001 phylogenetic analysis , based on morphology , determined the diamond stingray and the bluntnose stingray ( D. say ) of the western Atlantic Ocean to be sister species , that likely diverged before or with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama ( c . 3 Ma ) . In addition , the two were found to be the second @-@ most basal taxa in their genus , after the common stingray ( D. pastinaca ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The diamond stingray is found in the eastern Pacific Ocean from southern California to northern Chile , as well as around the Galápagos and Hawaiian Islands ; it is very abundant around Baja California and in the Gulf of California . At the northern and southern extremes of its range , it is generally only present during periods of suitably warm water brought about by El Niño . There is a record of this ray from off British Columbia , which is unconfirmed and would be highly anomalous as it is known to be a tropical and warm @-@ temperate species .
A bottom @-@ dwelling inhabitant of inshore waters , the diamond stingray favors sandy or muddy bottoms , often near rocky reefs or kelp forests . Off southern California , it usually occurs from the intertidal zone to a depth of 7 m ( 23 ft ) during the summer , shifting to depths of 13 – 18 m ( 43 – 59 ft ) during late fall and winter . For unknown reasons , it prefers to overwinter in kelp forests rather than sandy flats . Off Chile , the diamond stingray occurs at a similar depth of 3 – 30 m ( 10 – 100 ft ) . On the other hand , this species has been reported from as far down as 355 m ( 1 @,@ 165 ft ) off Hawaii , which if accurate would suggest that it utilizes a much greater range of depths than previously realized .
= = Description = =
The diamond stingray attains a disc width of 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) or possibly 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) ; females grow larger than males . Its pectoral fin disc is rhomboid in shape , slightly wider than long , with angular outer corners and subtly convex margins . The snout is blunt @-@ angled and non @-@ projecting . The eyes are fairly large and immediately followed by the spiracles ( paired respiratory openings ) . The mouth is strongly curved , containing 21 – 37 upper tooth rows and 23 – 44 lower tooth rows ; the teeth are small and blunt , and arranged into flattened surfaces . Three or five papillae ( nipple @-@ like structures ) are found in a row across the floor of the mouth .
The whip @-@ like tail generally measures up to one and half times the length of the disc , and bears one ( more if replacements have grown in ) long , slender , serrated spine on the upper surface , closer to the base than the tip . Behind the spine , there are long dorsal and ventral fin folds that rise gradually , reaching a relatively high apex before sloping down abruptly . The presence of the upper fin fold separates this species from the similar longtail stingray ( D. longa ) , which shares most of its range . However , the tail is often damaged , in which case differentiating the two species in the field becomes all but impossible . Young rays have completely smooth skin , while adults develop a row of low tubercles along the midline of the back , flanked by two shorter rows on the " shoulders " . The tail also becomes covered in prickles . This species is a uniform olive to brown to gray above , darkening to black on the tail , and off @-@ white below .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The diamond stingray is most active at night , spending much of the day buried in sand with only its eyes protruding . When foraging for food , it may be solitary but more commonly forms groups numbering up to the hundreds . There is strong segregation by sex and age . This species feeds on crustaceans , molluscs , and other invertebrates , as well as small bony fishes ; its powerful jaws and molar @-@ like teeth allow it to crush hard @-@ shelled prey . It mainly targets burrowing organisms , but may also take prey exposed on the bottom . There is a record of a female 69 cm ( 27 in ) across , that had gorged herself on at least 30 small crabs . In the Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex , Baja California Sur , its most important source of food are pea crabs , followed by the razor clam Solyema valvulus , and then polychaete worms .
The typical hunting strategy of the diamond stingray is to cruise just above the sea floor , landing atop any prey encountered . It then quickly levers its body up @-@ and @-@ down with its disc , producing negative pressure to extract the prey from its burrow . This ray has also been known to excavate large pits by undulating its disc and spitting jets of water , so as to uncover buried prey . Diamond stingrays are frequently trailed by smaller fishes , including Mexican hogfish ( Bodianus diplotaenia ) , Galapagos porgies ( Calamus taurinus ) , greybar grunts ( Haemulon sexfasciatum ) , spinster wrasses ( Halichoeres nichols ) , and long @-@ spine porcupinefish ( Diodon holocanthus ) , which take advantage of the invertebrates stirred up by the ray 's activities . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Acanthobothrium bullardi , A. dasi , A. rajivi , and A. soberoni , Anthocephalum currani , Parachristianella tiygonis , and Pseudochristianello elegantissima , the flukes Anaporrhutum euzeti and Probolitrema mexicana , and the monogenean Listrocephalos kearni .
Like other stingrays , the diamond stingray is aplacental viviparous : the embryos are initially nourished by yolk , and later by histotroph ( " uterine milk " , rich in proteins and lipids ) produced by the mother . Only the left ovary and uterus are functional in adult females . Several bays along the Pacific coast of Baja California are known to serve as nurseries . Most of the life history information available on this species has come from Bahía Magdalena , where females bear one litter of 1 – 4 pups per year . Courtship and mating occurs in late summer from July to August , but due to a ten @-@ month period of either sperm storage or diapause ( wherein the embryo becomes dormant ) , embryonic development does not begin until the following year and is completed within 2 – 3 months . Birthing takes place in summer from July to September in shallow estuaries ; the newborns measure 18 – 23 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) across . During El Niño years , the higher temperatures appear to shift the timing of birth forward . The diamond stingray has the lowest growth rate of any stingray species yet studied . Males reach sexual maturity at around 43 – 47 cm ( 17 – 19 in ) across and 7 years of age , while females grow slower still , reaching maturity at around 57 – 66 cm ( 22 – 26 in ) across and 10 years of age . The maximum lifespan has been estimated at least 19 years for males and 28 years for females .
= = Human interactions = =
At least one fatality off southern California has resulted from the long , venomous tail spine of the diamond stingray . However , it is not aggressive and will usually flee given the opportunity . This ray is not found off the United States in sufficient numbers to be economically important . Elsewhere in its range , it is caught in substantial numbers for human consumption , both intentionally and as bycatch ; the pectoral fins or " wings " are sold fresh or filleted and salted . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) notes that the diamond stingray 's low reproductive productivity renders it susceptible to population depletion , but currently lacks enough biological and fishery data to assess it beyond Data Deficient overall , or in the U.S. , Central , and South American parts of its range .
In Mexico , the diamond stingray is one of the most important components of Pacific artisanal shark and ray fisheries , comprising around a tenth of the total annual catch . Its significance is likely underestimated , as Mexican fishery reports frequently suffer from misidentifications and a lack of species @-@ specific data . It is mainly caught during summer and fall , being the most common ray landed in Bahía Magdalena , and second most common ray landed off Sonora state . Demersal gillnets are the main fishing gear employed ; both adult and juvenile rays easily become entangled in the mesh by their tail spines , with juveniles known to have comprised most of the Bahía Magdalena catch in 1998 – 2000 . This species is also often caught incidentally in bottom trawls , on longlines , and in fish traps . In the future , habitat degradation from increasing numbers of shrimp farms may pose an additional threat to this species in the region . As a result of these pressures , the IUCN has assessed the diamond stingray as Near Threatened in Mexican waters . No management schemes have yet been enacted for this species .
= George Calvert , 1st Baron Baltimore =
George Calvert , 1st Baron Baltimore ( 1579 – 15 April 1632 ) was an English politician and colonizer . He achieved domestic political success as a Member of Parliament and later Secretary of State under King James I. He lost much of his political power after his support for a failed marriage alliance between Prince Charles and the Spanish House of Habsburg royal family . Rather than continue in politics , he resigned all of his political offices in 1625 except for his position on the Privy Council and declared his Catholicism publicly . He was created Baron Baltimore in the Irish peerage upon his resignation . Baltimore Manor was located in County Longford , Ireland .
Calvert took an interest in the British colonization of the Americas , at first for commercial reasons and later to create a refuge for English Catholics . He became the proprietor of Avalon , the first sustained English settlement on the southeastern peninsula on the island of Newfoundland ( off the eastern coast of modern Canada ) . Discouraged by its cold and sometimes inhospitable climate and the sufferings of the settlers , Sir George looked for a more suitable spot further south and sought a new royal charter to settle the region , which would become the state of Maryland . Calvert died five weeks before the new Charter was sealed , leaving the settlement of the Maryland colony to his son Cecil , ( 1605 @-@ 1675 ) . His second son Leonard Calvert , ( 1606 @-@ 1647 ) , was the first colonial governor of the Province of Maryland . Historians have long recognized George Calvert as the founder of Maryland , in spirit if not in fact .
= = Family and early life = =
Little is known of the ancestry of the Yorkshire branch of the Calverts . At George Calvert 's knighting , it was claimed that his family originally came from Flanders ( a Dutch @-@ speaking area today across the English Channel in modern @-@ day Kingdom of Belgium ) . Calvert 's father , ( an earlier ) Leonard was a country gentleman who had achieved some prominence as a tenant of Lord Wharton , and was wealthy enough to marry a " gentlewoman " of a noble line , Alicia or Alice Crossland ( or sometimes spelled : " Crosland " ) . He established his family on the estate of the later @-@ built Kiplin Hall , near Catterick in Richmondshire , of Yorkshire . George Calvert was born at Kiplin in late 1579 ( birth month and day yet to be researched ) . His mother Alicia / Alice died on 28 November 1587 , when he was fifteen years old . His father then married Grace Crossland ( or sometimes spelled : " Crosland " ) , Alicia 's first cousin .
In 1569 , Sir Thomas Gargrave had described Richmondshire as a territory where all gentlemen were " evil in religion " , by which he meant predominately Roman Catholic ; it appears Leonard Calvert was no exception . During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I , continuing the changes wrought in the previous century by her father , King Henry VIII making the Monarch , the supreme authority of the Christian Church in England , continuing the pace Protestant Reformation from the Continent of Europe , with the political , spiritual and temporal separation from the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope / Papacy in Rome , therefore the Royal Government exerted authority over the matters of religious faith , practices and the Church . Acts mandating compulsory religious uniformity were enacted by Parliament and enforced through penal laws . The Acts of Supremacy and the Uniformity Act of 1559 also included an oath of allegiance to the Queen ( Henrietta Maria , wife of Charles I ) and an implicit denial of the Pope 's ( then Pope Paul IV ) authority over the English Church . This oath was required of any common " subject " ( synamous for citizen ) , who wished to hold high office , attend university , or take advantage of opportunities controlled by the state ( king / kingdom ) .
The Calvert household suffered the intrusion of the Elizabethan @-@ era religious laws . From the year of George 's birth onwards , his father , Leonard Calvert was subjected to repeated harassment by the Yorkshire authorities , who in 1580 extracted a promise of conformity from him , compelling his attendance at the Church of England services . In 1592 , when George was twelve , the authorities denounced one of his tutors for teaching " from a popish primer " and instructed Leonard and Grace to send George and his brother Christopher to a Protestant tutor , and , if necessary , to present the children before the commission " once a month to see how they perfect in learning " . As a result , the boys were sent to a Protestant tutor called Mr. Fowberry at Bilton . The senior Calvert had to give a " bond of conformity " ; he was banned from employing any Catholic servants and forced to purchase an English Bible , which was to " ly open in his house for everyone to read " .
In 1593 , records show that Grace Calvert was committed to the custody of a " pursuivant " , an official responsible for identifying and persecuting Catholics , and in 1604 , she was described as the " wife of Leonard Calvert of Kipling , non @-@ communicant at Easter last " .
George Calvert went up to Trinity College , at Oxford University matriculating in 1593 / 94 , where he studied foreign languages and received a bachelor 's degree in 1597 . As the oath of allegiance was compulsory after the age of sixteen , he would almost certainly have pledged conformity while at Oxford . The same pattern of conformity , whether pretended or sincere , continued through Calvert 's early life . After Oxford , he moved to London in 1598 , where he studied municipal law at Lincoln 's Inn for three years .
= = Marriage and family = =
In November 1604 , he married Anne Mynne in a Protestant , Church of England ceremony at St Peter 's , Cornhill , where his address was registered as St Martin in the Fields . His children , including his eldest son and heir , Cecil , who was born in the winter of 1605 – 06 , were all baptized as Christian Protestants . When Anne died on 8 August 1622 , she was buried at Calvert 's local Protestant parish church , St Martin in the Fields .
Calvert had a total of thirteen children : Cecil , who succeeded his father as the 2nd Baron Baltimore , Leonard , Anne , Mary , Dorothy , Elizabeth , Grace , Francis , George , Helen , Henry , John , and Philip .
= = Political success = =
Calvert named his son " Cecilius " ( 1605 @-@ 1675 ) for Sir Robert Cecil , first Earl of Salisbury , ( 1563 @-@ 1612 ) . Spymaster to Queen Elizabeth , whom Calvert had met during an extended trip to Europe between 1601 and 1603 , after which he became known as a specialist in foreign affairs . Calvert carried a packet for Cecilius from Paris , and so entered the service of the principal engineer on behalf of King James VI of Scotland 's succession to the English throne in 1603 , ( who then also assumed the title of King James I of England . )
King James rewarded Robert Cecil , whom he made a privy councillor and secretary of state , with the granting of the title of Earl of Salisbury in 1605 , and Lord High Treasurer in 1608 , making him the most powerful man at the royal court . As Cecil rose , Calvert rose with him . Calvert 's foreign languages , legal training , and discretion made him an invaluable aide to Robert Cecil , who , no lover of Catholics , seems to have accepted Calvert 's conformity as beyond question . Working at the center of court politics , Calvert exploited his influence by selling favors , an accepted practice for the times . Calvert accumulated a number of small offices , honors , and sinecures . In August 1605 , he attended the King at Oxford , and received an honorary master @-@ of @-@ arts degree in an elaborate ceremony at which the Duke of Lennox ( Ludovic Stewart ) , the earls of Oxford and Northumberland , and Cecilius received degrees . Given the prestige of the other graduates , Calvert 's was the last awarded , but his presence in such company signaled his growing stature .
In 1606 , the king made Calvert " clerk of the Crown " and " Assizes in Connaught " , County Clare , Ireland , his first royal appointment . In 1609 , James appointed him a " clerk of the Signet office " , a post which required the preparation of documents for the royal signature and brought Calvert into close contact with the king . Calvert also served in James 's First Parliament as a member for the borough of Bossiney , in the county of Cornwall , installed there by Cecil to support his policies . In 1610 , Calvert was appointed a " clerk of the Privy Council " . Each of these positions would have required an oath of allegiance .
With Robert Cecil 's support , George Calvert came into his own as an advisor and supporter of King James . In 1610 and 1611 , Calvert undertook missions to the continent on behalf of the King , visiting a number of embassies in Paris , Holland , and the Duchy of Cleves , and acting as an ambassador to the French Royal Court during the coronation of King Louis XIII , ( 1601 @-@ 1643 ) , in 1610 . A correspondent from France reported that Calvert gave " everyone great contentment with his discreet conversation . " In 1615 , James sent him to the continental Electorate of the Palatinate ( German ) , in the Holy Roman Empire , whose impoverished elector , Frederick V , Elector Palatine , ( 1596 @-@ 1632 ) , had married James 's daughter Elizabeth of Bohemia , ( 1596 @-@ 1662 ) , in 1613 . Calvert had to convey the King 's disapproval that Elizabeth , for lack of money , had given away expensive jewels to a gentlewoman leaving her employ . Elector Frederick 's decision in 1619 to accept the throne of Bohemia triggered a war with the powerful neighboring Habsburgs dynasty of Austria to the southwest in Vienna , which James attempted to end through a proposed alliance with the Kingdom of Spain .
In 1611 , James employed Calvert to research and transcribe his tract against the Dutch Protestant theologian Conrad Vorstius , ( 1569 @-@ 1622 ) . The following year , Cecil died , and Calvert acted as one of the four executors of his will . The king 's favourite , Sir Robert Carr , first Earl of Somerset , ( 1587 @-@ 1645 ) , Viscount Rochester , assumed the duties of secretary of state and recruited Calvert to assist with foreign policy , in particular the Latin and Spanish correspondence . Carr , soon raised to the earldom of Somerset , was not a success in the job , and fell from favour partly as a result of the murder of Thomas Overbury , ( 1581 @-@ 1613 ) , to which Carr 's wife , Frances , the former Countess of Essex and later Somerset , ( 1590 @-@ 1632 ) , pleaded guilty in 1615 . Carr 's place as James 's principal favorite was now taken by the handsome George Villiers , 1st Duke of Buckingham , ( 1592 @-@ 1628 ) , with whom James was said to have been infatuated .
In 1613 , the King commissioned Calvert to investigate Roman Catholic grievances in Ireland , along with Sir Humphrey Wynch , ( 1555 @-@ 1625 ) , Sir Charles Cornwallis , ( XXX ? -1629 ) and Sir Roger Wilbraham , ( 1553 @-@ 1616 ) . The commission spent almost four months in Ireland , and its final report , partly drafted by Calvert , concluded that religious conformity should be enforced more strictly in Ireland , Catholic schools be suppressed , and bad priests removed and punished . The King resolved not to reconvene the Parliament of Ireland until the Catholics " shall be better disciplined " . In 1616 , James endowed Calvert with the manor of Danby Wiske in Yorkshire , which brought him into contact with Sir Thomas Wentworth , 1st Earl of Strafford , ( 1593 @-@ 1641 ) , who became his closest friend and political ally . Calvert was now wealthy enough to buy the " Kiplin Hall " estate in his home parish . ( Today , the University of Maryland operates a research centre there , while the main building is a house museum owned by the Kiplin Hall Trust . ) in his home parish ; and in 1617 , his social status received a further boost when he was knighted , then becoming " Sir George Calvert " .
In 1619 , Calvert completed his rise to power when James appointed him as one of the two principal secretaries of state . This followed the dismissal of Sir Thomas Lake , ( 1567 @-@ 1630 ) , due to scandals , including his wife 's indiscretions with state secrets . Not emerging as a candidate until the end of the selection process , Calvert 's appointment surprised him and most observers . Assuming he owed his promotion to the king 's increasingly powerful favourite , George Villiers , ( 1592 @-@ 1628 ) , later first Duke of Buckingham ) , he sent him a great jewel as a token of thanks . Villiers returned the jewel , however , saying he had had nothing to do with the matter . Calvert 's personal fortune was secured when he was additionally appointed a " commissioner of the treasury " with a pension of £ 1 @,@ 000 pounds sterling and a subsidy on imported raw silk , which would later be converted to another £ 1 @,@ 000 pension .
= = Secretary of State = =
In Parliament , a political crisis developed over the king 's policy of seeking a Spanish wife for Charles , Prince of Wales , as part of a proposed alliance with the Habsburgs . In the Parliament of 1621 , it fell to Calvert to advocate the " Spanish match " , as it came to be called , against the majority of Parliament , who feared an increase in Catholic influence on the state . As a result of his pro @-@ Spanish stance and defence of relaxations in the penal laws against Catholics , Calvert became estranged from many in the Commons , who were suspicious of his close familiarity with the Spanish ambassador 's court . Calvert also faced difficulties in his private life : his wife 's death on 8 August 1622 left him the single father of ten children , the oldest of whom , Cecil , was sixteen years old .
Although King James rewarded Calvert in 1623 for his loyalty by granting him a 2 @,@ 300 @-@ acre ( 9 @.@ 3 km2 ) estate in County Longford , in the central Ireland region of Leinster , where his seat was known as the " Manor of Baltimore " , Calvert was increasingly isolated from court circles as the Prince of Wales , ( heir to the Throne ) and the first Duke of Buckingham ( George Villiers ) wrested control of policy from the ageing James . Without consulting the diplomatically astute Calvert , the prince and the duke travelled to Spain to negotiate the Spanish marriage for themselves , with disastrous results . Instead of securing an alliance , the visit provoked a hostility between the two courts which quickly led to war . In a reversal of policy , Buckingham dismissed the treaties with Spain , summoned a war council , and sought a French marriage for the Welsh Prince .
= = Resignation and conversion to Catholicism = =
As the chief parliamentary spokesman for an abandoned policy , Calvert no longer served a useful purpose to the English Royal Court , and by February 1624 his duties had been restricted to placating the Spanish ambassador . The degree of his disfavour was shown when he was reprimanded for supposedly delaying diplomatic letters . Calvert bowed to the inevitable . On the pretext of ill health , he began negotiations for the sale of his position , finally resigning the secretariat in February 1625 .
No disgrace was attached to Calvert 's departure from office : the King , to whom he had always remained personally loyal , confirmed his place on the Privy Council and appointed him " Baron Baltimore " , in County Longford in Leinster of central Ireland . Immediately after Calvert resigned , he converted to Roman Catholicism .
The connection between Calvert 's resignation and his conversion to Roman Catholicism was a complex one . George Cottington , a former employee of Calvert , suggested in 1628 that Calvert 's conversion had been in progress a long time before it was made public . George Abbot , ( 1562 @-@ 1633 ) , the reigning Archbishop of Canterbury , ( and ecclesiastical head of the independent Church of England ) , reported that political opposition to Calvert , combined with his loss of office , had " made him discontented and , as the saying is , " Desperatio facit monachum " , so hee apparently did turne papist , which hee now professeth , this being the third time that he hath bene to blame that way [ sic ] " . Godfrey Goodman , the Bishop of Gloucester , later claimed Calvert had been a secret Catholic all along ( " infinitely addicted to the Catholic faith " ) , which explained his support for lenient policies towards Catholics and for the Spanish match .
However , no one had questioned Calvert 's conformity at the time , and if he had indeed been secretly Catholic , he had hidden it well . It seems more likely Calvert converted in late 1624 . At the time , Simon Stock , a Discalced Carmelite priest reported to the Congregation Propaganda Fide in Rome on November 15 that he had converted two Privy Councillors to Catholicism , one of whom historians are certain was Calvert . Calvert , who had probably met Stock at the Spanish embassy in London , later worked with the priest on a plan for a Catholic mission in his new first Newfoundland colony ( off modern Canada ) .
When King James I ( and VI of Scotland ) died in March 1625 , his successor King Charles I maintained Calvert 's barony but not his previous place on the Privy Council . Calvert then turned his attention to his Irish estates and his overseas investments . He was not entirely forgotten at court . After Buckingham 's dabblings in wars against Spain and France had ended in failure , he recalled Baltimore to court , and for a while may have considered employing him in the peace negotiations with Spain . Though nothing came of Baltimore 's recall , he renewed his rights over the silk @-@ import duties , which had lapsed with the death of James I , and secured Charles ' blessing for his venture in the " New Found Land " .
= = Colony of Avalon ( Newfoundland ) = =
Calvert had long maintained an interest in the exploration and settlement of the New World , beginning with his investment of twenty @-@ five pounds in the second Virginia Company in 1609 , and a few months later a more substantial sum in the East India Company , which he increased in 1614 . In 1620 , Calvert purchased a tract of land in Newfoundland from Sir William Vaughan , ( 1575 @-@ 1641 ) , a Welsh writer and colonial investor , who had earlier failed to establish a colony on the large sub @-@ Arctic island off the eastern coast of North America . He named the area of the peninsula as Avalon , after the legendary spot where Christianity was supposedly introduced to Roman Britain in ancient times . The plantation lay on what is now called the Avalon Peninsula and included the fishing station at " Ferryland " . Calvert almost certainly had a fishery project in mind at this stage .
Calvert dispatched Captain Edward Wynne and a group of Welsh colonists to Ferryland , where they landed in August 1621 , and set about constructing a settlement . Wynne sent positive reports concerning the potential for local fisheries and for the production of salt , hemp , flax , tar , iron , timber and hops . Wynne also praised the climate , declaring , " It is better and not so cold as England " and predicted that the colony would become self @-@ sufficient after one year . Others corroborated Wynne 's reports : for example , Captain Daniel Powell , who delivered a further party of settlers to Ferryland , wrote : " The land on which our Governor Calvert and / or Wynne planted is so good and commodious , that for the quantity , I think there is no better in many parts of England " ; but he added ominously that Ferryland was " the coldest harbour in the land " . Wynne and his men began work on various building projects , including a substantial house and the shoring up of the harbour . To protect them against marauding French warships , a recent hazard in the area , since the recent founding of New France in the interior ( modern Lower Canada of the 18th and 19th Centuries , Province of Quebec and Dominion of Canada ) along the St. Lawrence River , Calvert employed the pirate John Nutt .
The settlement appeared to be progressing so well that in January 1623 , Calvert obtained a concession from King James for the whole of Newfoundland , though the grant was soon reduced to cover only the southeastern Avalon peninsula , owing to competing claims from other English colonists . The final Charter constituted the province as a " county palatinate " , officially titled the " Province of Avalon " , under Calvert 's personal rule .
After resigning the Royal secretariat of state in 1625 , the new Baron Baltimore made clear his intention to visit the colony : " I intend shortly , " he wrote in March , " God willing , a journey for Newfoundland to visit a plantation which I began there some few years since . " His plans were disrupted by the death of King James I , and by the crackdown on Catholics with which King Charles I began his reign in order to appease his opponents . The new King required all privy councillors to take the oaths of supremacy and allegiance ; and since Baltimore , as a Catholic , had to refuse , he was obliged to step down from that cherished office . Given the new religious and political climate , and perhaps also to escape a serious outbreak of plague in England , Baltimore moved to his estates in Ireland . His expedition to Newfoundland had set sail without him in late May 1625 under Sir Arthur Aston , who became the new provincial Governor of Avalon .
A reference by David Rothe , bishop of Ossary , in Ireland , to a " Joane [ also recorded as Jane ] Baltimore now wife " of Calvert , reveals that Baltimore had recently remarried .
From the time of his conversion in 1625 onwards , Baltimore took care to cater for the religious needs of his colonists , both Catholic and Protestant . He had asked Simon Stock to provide priests for the 1625 expedition , but Stock 's recruits arrived in England after Aston had sailed . Stock 's own ambitions for the colony appear to have exceeded Baltimore 's : in letters to De Propaganda Fide in Rome , Stock claimed the Newfoundland settlement could act as a springboard for the conversion of natives not only in the New World but also in China , the latter via a passage he believed existed from the east coast to the Pacific Ocean .
= = Baltimore in Avalon = =
Baltimore was determined to visit his colony in person . In May 1626 , he wrote to Wentworth :
Aston 's return to England in late 1626 , along with all the Catholic settlers , failed to deter Baltimore , who finally sailed for Newfoundland in 1627 , arriving on July 23 and staying only two months before returning to England . He had taken both Protestant and Catholic settlers with him , as well as two secular priests , Thomas Longville and Anthony Pole ( also known as Smith ) , the latter remaining behind in the colony when Baltimore departed for England . The land Baltimore had seen was by no means the paradise described by some early settlers , being only marginally productive ; as the summer climate was deceptively mild , his brief visit gave Baltimore no reason to alter his plans for the colony .
In 1628 , he sailed again for Newfoundland , this time with his second wife Jane , most of his children , and 40 more settlers , to officially take over as Proprietary Governor of Avalon . He and his family moved into the house at Ferryland built by Wynne , a sizeable structure for the time , by colonial standards , and the only one in the settlement large enough to accommodate religious services for the community .
Matters connected to religion were to bedevil Baltimore 's stay in " this remote part of the worlde where I have planted my selfe [ sic ] " . He sailed at a time when English military preparations were underway to relieve the Huguenots at La Rochelle . He was dismayed to find that the war with France had spread to Newfoundland , and that he had to spend most of his time fighting off French attacks on English fishing fleets with his own ships the Dove and the Ark . As he wrote to Buckingham , " I came to builde , and sett , and sowe , but I am falne to fighting with Frenchmen [ sic ] " . His settlers were so successful against the French that they captured several ships , which they escorted back to England to help with the war effort . Baltimore was granted the loan of one of the ships to aid in his defence of the colony , as well as a share of the prize money .
Adopting a policy of free religious worship in the colony , Baltimore allowed the Catholics to worship in one part of his house and the Protestants in another . This novel arrangement proved too much for the resident Anglican priest , Erasmus Stourton — " that knave Stourton " , as Baltimore referred to him — who , after altercations with Baltimore , was placed on a ship for England , where he lost no time in reporting Baltimore 's practices to the authorities , complaining that the Catholic priests Smith and Hackett said mass every Sunday and " doe use all other ceremonies of the church of Rome in as ample a manner as tis used in Spayne [ sic ] " . and that Baltimore had the son of a Protestant forcibly baptised as a Catholic . Although Stourton 's complaints were investigated by the Privy Council , due to Baltimore 's support in high places , the case was dismissed .
Baltimore had become disenchanted with conditions in " this wofull country " , and he wrote to his old acquaintances in England lamenting his troubles . The final blow to his hopes was dealt by the Newfoundland winter of 1628 – 9 , which did not release its grip until May . Like others before them , the residents of Avalon suffered terribly from the cold and from malnutrition . Nine or ten of Baltimore 's company died that winter , and with half the settlers ill at one time , his house had to be turned into a hospital . The sea froze over , and nothing would grow before May . " Tis not terra Christianorum " , Baltimore wrote to Wentworth . He confessed to the king : " I have found ... by too deare bought experience [ that which other men ] always concealed from me ... that there is a sad face of wynter upon all this land " .
Baltimore solicited a new charter from the king . In order to found an alternative colony in a less hostile climate further south , he requested " a precinct " in Virginia , where he could grow tobacco . He wrote to his friends Francis Cottington and Thomas Wentworth enlisting their support for this new proposal , admitting the impression his abandonment of Avalon might make in England : " I shall rayse a great deal of talke and discourse and be censured by most men of giddiness and levity [ sic ] " . The king , perhaps guided by Baltimore 's friends at court , replied expressing concern for Baltimore 's health and gently advising him to forget colonial schemes and return to England , where he would be treated with every respect : " Men of your condition and breeding are fitter for other imployments than the framing of new plantations , which commonly have rugged & laborious beginnings , and require much greater meanes , in managing them , than usually the power of one private subject can reach unto " .
Baltimore sent his children home to England in August . By the time the king 's letter reached Avalon , he had departed with his wife and servants for Virginia .
= = Attempt to found a Mid @-@ Atlantic colony = =
In late September or October 1629 , Baltimore arrived in Jamestown , where the Virginians , who suspected him of designs on some of their territory and vehemently opposed Catholicism , gave him a cool welcome . They gave him the oaths of supremacy and allegiance , which he refused to take , so they ordered him to leave . After no more than a few weeks in the colony , Baltimore left for England to pursue the new charter , leaving his wife and servants behind . In early 1630 , he procured a ship to fetch them , but it foundered off the Irish coast , and his wife was drowned . Baltimore described himself the following year as " a long time myself a Man of Sorrows " .
Baltimore spent the last two years of his life constantly lobbying for his new charter , though the obstacles proved difficult . The Virginians , led by William Claiborne , who sailed to England to make the case , campaigned aggressively against separate colonising of the Chesapeake , claiming they possessed the rights to that area . Baltimore was short of capital , having exhausted his fortune , and was sometimes forced to depend on the assistance of his friends . To make matters worse , in the summer of 1630 , his household was infected by the plague , which he survived . He wrote to Wentworth : " Blessed be God for it who hath preserved me now from shipwreck , hunger , scurvy and pestilence ... "
His health declining , Baltimore 's persistence over the charter finally paid off in 1632 . The king first granted him a location south of Jamestown , but Baltimore asked the king to reconsider in response to opposition from other investors interested in settling the new land of Carolina into a sugar plantation . Baltimore eventually compromised by accepting redrawn boundaries to the north of the Potomac River , on either side of the Chesapeake Bay . The charter was about to pass when the fifty @-@ two @-@ year @-@ old Baltimore died in his lodgings at Lincoln 's Inn Fields , on 15 April 1632 . Five weeks later , on 20 June 1632 , the charter for Maryland passed the seals .
= = Legacy = =
In his will , written the day before he died , Baltimore beseeched his friends Wentworth and Cottington to act as guardians and supervisors to his first son Cecil , who inherited the title of Lord Baltimore and the imminent grant of Maryland . Baltimore 's two colonies in the New World continued under the proprietorship of his family . Avalon , which remained a prime spot for the salting and export of fish , was expropriated by Sir David Kirke , with a new royal charter which Cecil Calvert vigorously challenged , and it was finally absorbed into Newfoundland in 1754 . Although Baltimore 's failed Avalon venture marked the end of an early era of attempts at proprietary colonisation , it laid the foundation upon which permanent settlements developed in that region of Newfoundland .
Maryland became a prime tobacco exporting colony in the mid @-@ Atlantic and , for a time , a refuge for Catholic settlers , as George Calvert had hoped . Under the rule of the Lords Baltimore , thousands of British Catholics emigrated to Maryland , establishing some of the oldest Catholic communities in what later became the United States . However Catholic rule in Maryland was eventually nullified by the re @-@ assertion of royal control over the colony .
140 years after its first settlement , Maryland joined twelve other British colonies along the Atlantic coast in declaring their independence from British rule and the right to freedom of religion for all citizens in the new United States .
= Draining and development of the Everglades =
The history of draining and development of the Everglades dates back to the 19th century . During the Second Seminole War beginning in 1836 , the United States military 's mission was to seek out Seminole people in the Everglades and capture or kill them . Those missions gave the military the opportunity to map land that seemed to frustrate and confound them at every turn . A national push for expansion and progress toward the latter part of the 19th century stimulated interest in draining the Everglades for agricultural use . According to historians , " From the middle of the nineteenth century to the middle of the twentieth century , the United States went through a period in which wetland removal was not questioned . Indeed , it was considered the proper thing to do . "
A pattern of political and financial motivation , and a lack of understanding of the geography and ecology of the Everglades have plagued the history of drainage projects . The Everglades are a part of a massive watershed that originates near Orlando and drains into Lake Okeechobee , a vast and shallow lake . As the lake exceeds its capacity in the wet season , the water forms a flat and very wide river , about 100 miles ( 160 km ) long and 60 miles ( 97 km ) wide . As the land from Lake Okeechobee slopes gradually to Florida Bay , water flows at a rate of half a mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) a day . Before human activity in the Everglades , the system comprised the lower third of the Florida peninsula . The first attempt to drain the region was made by real estate developer Hamilton Disston in 1881 . Disston 's sponsored canals were unsuccessful , but the land he purchased for them stimulated economic and population growth that attracted railway developer Henry Flagler . Flagler built a railroad along the east coast of Florida and eventually to Key West ; towns grew and farmland was cultivated along the rail line .
During his 1904 campaign to be elected governor , Napoleon Bonaparte Broward promised to drain the Everglades , and his later projects were more effective than Disston 's . Broward 's promises sparked a land boom facilitated by blatant errors in an engineer 's report , pressure from real estate developers , and the burgeoning tourist industry throughout south Florida . The increased population brought hunters who went unchecked and had a devastating impact on the numbers of wading birds ( hunted for their plumes ) , alligators , and other Everglades animals .
Severe hurricanes in 1926 and 1928 caused catastrophic damage and flooding from Lake Okeechobee that prompted
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sued to stop it ; more than $ 14 million had been spent on canals and they were ineffective in taking away excess water or delivering it when needed .
= = = 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane = = =
The weather was unremarkable for two years . In 1928 , construction was completed on the Tamiami Trail , named because it was the only road spanning between Tampa and Miami . The builders attempted to construct the road several times before they blasted the muck down to the limestone , filled it with rock and paved over it . Hard rains in the summer caused Lake Okeechobee to rise several feet ; this was noticed by a local newspaper editor who demanded it be lowered . However , on September 16 , 1928 came a massive storm , now known as the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane . Thousands drowned when Lake Okeechobee breached its levees ; the range of estimates of the dead spanned from 1 @,@ 770 ( according to the Red Cross ) to 3 @,@ 000 or more . Many were swept away and never recovered . The majority of the dead were black migrant workers who had recently settled in or near Belle Glade . The catastrophe made national news , and although the governor again refused aid , after he toured the area and counted 126 bodies still unburied or uncollected a week after the storm , he activated the National Guard to assist in the cleanup , and declared in a telegram : " Without exaggeration , the situation in the storm area beggars description " .
= = = Herbert Hoover Dike = = =
The focus of government agencies quickly shifted to the control of floods rather than drainage . The Okeechobee Flood Control District , financed by both state and federal funds , was created in 1929 . President Herbert Hoover toured the towns affected by the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane and , an engineer himself , ordered the Army Corps of Engineers to assist the communities surrounding the lake . Between 1930 and 1937 , a dike 66 miles ( 106 km ) long was built around the southern edge of the lake , and a shorter one around the northern edge . It was 34 feet ( 10 m ) tall and 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) thick on the lake side , 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) thick on the top , and 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) thick toward land . Control of the Hoover Dike and the waters of Lake Okeechobee were delegated to federal powers : the United States declared legal limits of the lake to be 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) and 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) .
A massive canal 80 feet ( 24 m ) wide and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) deep was also dug through the Caloosahatchee River ; when the lake rose too high , the excess water left through the canal to the Gulf of Mexico . Exotic trees were planted along the north shore levee : Australian pines , Australian oaks , willows , and bamboo . More than $ 20 million was spent on the entire project . Sugarcane production soared after the dike and canal were built . The populations of the small towns surrounding the lake jumped from 3 @,@ 000 to 9 @,@ 000 after World War II .
= = Drought = =
The effects of the Hoover Dike were seen immediately . An extended drought occurred in the 1930s , and with the wall preventing water leaving Lake Okeechobee and canals and ditches removing other water , the Everglades became parched . Peat turned to dust , and salty ocean water entered Miami 's wells . When the city brought in an expert to investigate , he discovered that the water in the Everglades was the area 's groundwater — here , it appeared on the surface . Draining the Everglades removed this groundwater , which was replaced by ocean water seeping into the area 's wells . In 1939 , 1 million acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km2 ) of Everglades burned , and the black clouds of peat and sawgrass fires hung over Miami . Underground peat fires burned roots of trees and plants without burning the plants in some places . Scientists who took soil samples before draining had not taken into account that the organic composition of peat and muck in the Everglades was mixed with bacteria that added little to the process of decomposition underwater because they were not mixed with oxygen . As soon as the water was drained and oxygen mixed with the soil , the bacteria began to break down the soil . In some places , homes had to be moved on to stilts and 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) of topsoil was lost .
= = = Conservation attempts = = =
Conservationists concerned about the Everglades have been a vocal minority ever since Miami was a young city . South Florida 's first and perhaps most enthusiastic naturalist was Charles Torrey Simpson , who retired from the Smithsonian Institution to Miami in 1905 when he was 53 . Nicknamed " the Sage of Biscayne Bay " , Simpson wrote several books about tropical plant life around Miami . His backyard contained a tropical hardwood hammock , which he estimated he showed to about 50 @,@ 000 people . Though he tended to avoid controversy regarding development , in Ornamental Gardening in Florida he wrote , " Mankind everywhere has an insane desire to waste and destroy the good and beautiful things this nature has lavished upon him " .
Although the idea of protecting a portion of the Everglades arose in 1905 , a crystallized effort was formed in 1928 when Miami landscape designer Ernest F. Coe established the Everglades Tropical National Park Association . It had enough support to be declared a national park by Congress in 1934 , but there was not enough money during the Great Depression to buy the proposed 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @,@ 100 km2 ) for the park . It took another 13 years for it to be dedicated on December 6 , 1947 . One month before the dedication of the park , the former editor of The Miami Herald and freelance writer Marjory Stoneman Douglas published her first book , The Everglades : River of Grass . After researching the region for five years , she described the history and ecology of the south of Florida in great detail , characterizing the Everglades as a river instead of a stagnant swamp . Douglas later wrote , " My colleague Art Marshall said that with [ the words " River of Grass " ] I changed everybody 's knowledge and educated the world as to what the Everglades meant " . The last chapter was titled " The Eleventh Hour " and warned that the Everglades were approaching death , although the course could be reversed . Its first printing sold out a month after its release .
= = Flood control = =
Coinciding with the dedication of Everglades National Park , 1947 in south Florida saw two hurricanes and a wet season responsible for 100 inches ( 250 cm ) of rain , ending the decade @-@ long drought . Although there were no human casualties , cattle and deer were drowned and standing water was left in suburban areas for months . Agricultural interests lost about $ 59 million . The embattled head of the Everglades Drainage District carried a gun for protection after being threatened .
= = = Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project = = =
In 1948 Congress approved the Central and Southern Florida Project for Flood Control and Other Purposes ( C & SF ) and consolidated the Everglades Drainage District and the Okeechobee Flood Control District under this . The C & SF used four methods in flood management : levees , water storage areas , canal improvements , and large pumps to assist gravity . Between 1952 and 1954 in cooperation with the state of Florida it built a levee 100 miles ( 160 km ) long between the eastern Everglades and suburbs from Palm Beach to Homestead , and blocked the flow of water into populated areas . Between 1954 and 1963 it divided the Everglades into basins . In the northern Everglades were Water Conservation Areas ( WCAs ) , and the Everglades Agricultural Area ( EAA ) bordering to the south of Lake Okeechobee . In the southern Everglades was Everglades National Park . Levees and pumping stations bordered each WCA , which released water in drier times and removed it and pumped it to the ocean or Gulf of Mexico in times of flood . The WCAs took up about 37 percent of the original Everglades .
During the 1950s and 1960s the South Florida metropolitan area grew four times as fast as the rest of the nation . Between 1940 and 1965 , 6 million people moved to south Florida : 1 @,@ 000 people moved to Miami every week . Urban development between the mid @-@ 1950s and the late 1960s quadrupled . Much of the water reclaimed from the Everglades was sent to newly developed areas . With metropolitan growth came urban problems associated with rapid expansion : traffic jams ; school overcrowding ; crime ; overloaded sewage treatment plants ; and , for the first time in south Florida 's urban history , water shortages in times of drought .
The C & SF constructed over 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) of canals , and hundreds of pumping stations and levees within three decades . It produced a film , Waters of Destiny , characterized by author Michael Grunwald as propaganda , that likened nature to a villainous , shrieking force of rage and declared the C & SF 's mission was to tame nature and make the Everglades useful . Everglades National Park management and Marjory Stoneman Douglas initially supported the C & SF , as it promised to maintain the Everglades and manage the water responsibly . However , an early report by the project reflected local attitudes about the Everglades as a priority to people in nearby developed areas : " The aesthetic appeal of the Park can never be as strong as the demands of home and livelihood . The manatee and the orchid mean something to people in an abstract way , but the former cannot line their purse , nor the latter fill their empty bellies . "
Establishment of the C & SF made Everglades National Park completely dependent upon another political entity for its survival . One of the C & SF 's projects was Levee 29 , laid along the Tamiami Trail on the northern border of the park . Levee 29 featured four flood control gates that controlled all the water entering Everglades National Park ; before construction , water flowed in through open drain pipes . The period from 1962 to 1965 was one of drought for the Everglades , and Levee 29 remained closed to allow the Biscayne Aquifer — the fresh water source for South Florida — to stay filled . Animals began to cross Tamiami Trail for the water held in WCA 3 , and many were killed by cars . Biologists estimate the population of alligators in Everglades National Park was halved ; otters nearly became extinct . The populations of wading birds had been reduced by 90 percent from the 1940s . When park management and the U.S. Department of the Interior asked the C & SF for assistance , the C & SF offered to build a levee along the southern border of Everglades National Park to retain waters that historically flowed through the mangroves and into Florida Bay . Though the C & SF refused to send the park more water , they constructed Canal 67 , bordering the east side of the park and carrying excess water from Lake Okeechobee to the Atlantic .
= = = Everglades Agricultural Area = = =
The C & SF established 470 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 900 km2 ) for the Everglades Agricultural Area — 27 percent of the Everglades before development . In the late 1920s , agricultural experiments indicated that adding large amounts of manganese sulfate to Everglades muck produced profitable vegetable harvests . Adding 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) of the compound was more cost effective than adding 1 short ton ( 0 @.@ 91 t ) of manure . The primary cash crop in the EAA is sugarcane , though sod , beans , lettuce , celery , and rice are also grown . Sugarcane became more consolidated an industry than did any other crop ; in 1940 the coalition of farms was renamed U.S. Sugar and this produced 86 percent of Everglades sugar . During the 1930s the sugarcane farmers ' coalition came under investigation for labor practices that bordered on slavery . Potential employees — primarily young black men — were lured from all over the U.S. by the promise of jobs , but they were held financially responsible for training , transportation , room and board and other costs . Quitting while debts were owed was punishable with jail time . By 1942 , U.S. Sugar was indicted for peonage in federal court , though the charges were eventually dismissed on a technicality . U.S. Sugar benefited significantly from the U.S. embargo on Cuban goods beginning in the early 1960s . In 1958 , before the Castro regime , 47 @,@ 000 acres ( 190 km2 ) of sugarcane were harvested in Florida ; by the 1964 – 1965 season , 228 @,@ 000 acres ( 920 km2 ) were harvested . From 1959 to 1962 the region went from two sugar mills to six , one of which in Belle Glade set several world records for sugar production .
Fields in the EAA are typically 40 acres ( 16 ha ) , on two sides bordered by canals that are connected to larger ones by which water is pumped in or out depending on the needs of the crops . The water level for sugarcane is ideally maintained at 20 inches ( 51 cm ) below the surface soil , and after the cane is harvested , the stalks are burned . Vegetables require more fertilizer than sugarcane , though the fields may resemble the historic hydrology of the Everglades by being flooded in the wet season . Sugarcane , however , requires water in the dry season . The fertilizers used on vegetables , along with high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus that are the by @-@ product of decayed soil necessary for sugarcane production , were pumped into WCAs south of the EAA , predominantly to Everglades National Park . The introduction of large amounts of these let exotic plants take hold in the Everglades . One of the defining characteristics of natural Everglades ecology is its ability to support itself in a nutrient @-@ poor environment , and the introduction of fertilizers began to change this ecology .
= = Turning point = =
A turning point for development in the Everglades came in 1969 when a replacement airport was proposed as Miami International Airport outgrew its capacities . Developers began acquiring land , paying $ 180 an acre in 1968 , and the Dade County Port Authority ( DCPA ) bought 39 square miles ( 100 km2 ) in the Big Cypress Swamp without consulting the C & SF , management of Everglades National Park or the Department of the Interior . Park management learned of the official purchase and agreement to build the jetport from The Miami Herald the day it was announced . The DCPA bulldozed the land it had bought , and laid a single runway it declared was for training pilots . The new jetport was planned to be larger than O 'Hare , Dulles , JFK , and LAX airports combined ; the location chosen was 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of the Everglades National Park , within WCA 3 . The deputy director of the DCPA declared : " This is going to be one of the great population centers of America . We will do our best to meet our responsibilities and the responsibilities of all men to exercise dominion over the land , sea , and air above us as the higher order of man intends . "
The C & SF brought the jetport proposal to national attention by mailing letters about it to 100 conservation groups in the U.S. Initial local press reaction condemned conservation groups who immediately opposed the project . Business Week reported real estate prices jumped from $ 200 to $ 800 an acre surrounding the planned location , and Life wrote of the expectations of the commercial interests in the area . The U.S. Geological Survey 's study of the environmental impact of the jetport started , " Development of the proposed jetport and its attendant facilities ... will inexorably destroy the south Florida ecosystem and thus the Everglades National Park " . The jetport was intended to support a community of a million people and employ 60 @,@ 000 . The DCPA director was reported in Time saying , " I 'm more interested in people than alligators . This is the ideal place as far as aviation is concerned . "
When studies indicated the proposed jetport would create 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ) of raw sewage a day and 10 @,@ 000 short tons ( 9 @,@ 100 t ) of jet engine pollutants a year , the national media snapped to attention . Science magazine wrote , in a series on environmental protection highlighting the jetport project , " Environmental scientists have become increasingly aware that , without careful planning , development of a region and the conservation of its natural resources do not go hand in hand " . The New York Times called it a " blueprint for disaster " , and Wisconsin senator Gaylord Nelson wrote to President Richard Nixon voicing his opposition : " It is a test of whether or not we are really committed in this country to protecting our environment . " Governor Claude Kirk withdrew his support for the project , and the 78 @-@ year @-@ old Marjory Stoneman Douglas was persuaded to go on tour to give hundreds of speeches against it . She established Friends of the Everglades and encouraged more than 3 @,@ 000 members to join . Initially the U.S. Department of Transportation pledged funds to support the jetport , but after pressure , Nixon overruled the department . He instead established Big Cypress National Preserve , announcing it in the Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972 Environmental Program . Following the jetport proposition , restoration of the Everglades became not only a statewide priority , but an international one as well . In the 1970s the Everglades were declared an International Biosphere Reserve and a World Heritage Site by UNESCO , and a Wetland of International Importance by the Ramsar Convention , making it one of only three locations on earth that have appeared on all three lists .
= DuMont Television Network =
The DuMont Television Network ( also known as the DuMont Network , simply DuMont / Du Mont , or ( incorrectly ) Dumont / duːmɒnt / ) was one of the world 's pioneer commercial television networks , rivalling NBC and CBS for the distinction of being first overall in the USA . It began operation in the United States in 1946 . It was owned by DuMont Laboratories , a television equipment and set manufacturer . The network was hindered by the prohibitive cost of broadcasting , by regulations imposed by the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) which restricted the company 's growth , and even by the company 's partner , Paramount Pictures . Despite several innovations in broadcasting and the creation of one of television 's biggest stars of the 1950s ( Jackie Gleason ) , the network never found itself on solid financial ground . Forced to expand on UHF channels during an era when UHF was not yet a standard feature on television sets , DuMont fought an uphill battle for program clearances outside of their three owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations in New York , Washington and Pittsburgh , finally ending network operations in 1956 .
DuMont 's latter @-@ day obscurity , caused mainly by the destruction of its extensive program archive by the 1970s , has prompted TV historian David Weinstein to refer to it as the " Forgotten Network " or " Network Is Long Gone " . A few popular DuMont programs , such as Cavalcade of Stars and Emmy Award winner Life Is Worth Living , appear in television retrospectives or are mentioned briefly in books about U.S. television history .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
DuMont Laboratories was founded in 1931 by Dr. Allen B. DuMont with only $ 1 @,@ 000 , and a laboratory in his basement . He and his staff were responsible for many early technical innovations , including the first consumer all @-@ electronic television set in 1938 . The company 's television sets soon became the gold standard of the industry . In 1942 , DuMont worked with the Army in developing radar technology during World War II . This ended up bringing in $ 5 million in capital for the company .
Early sales of television sets were hampered by the lack of regularly scheduled programming being broadcast . A few months after selling his first set in 1938 , DuMont opened his own New York area experimental television station ( W2XVT ) in Passaic , New Jersey . In 1940 , the station moved to Manhattan as W2XWV on channel 4 . Unlike CBS and NBC , which reduced their hours of television broadcasting during World War II , DuMont continued full @-@ scale experimental and commercial broadcasts throughout the war . In 1944 , W2XWV became WABD ( callsign derived from DuMont 's initials ) moving to channel 5 in 1945 , the third commercial television station in New York . On May 19 , 1945 , DuMont opened experimental W3XWT in Washington , DC . A minority shareholder in DuMont Laboratories was Paramount Pictures , which had advanced $ 400 @,@ 000 in 1939 for a 40 % share in the company . Paramount had television interests of its own , having launched experimental stations in Los Angeles in 1939 and Chicago in 1940 , and DuMont 's association with Paramount ultimately proved to be a mistake .
Soon after his experimental Washington station signed on , DuMont began experimental coaxial cable hookups between his laboratories in Passaic , New Jersey , and his two stations . It is said that one of those broadcasts on the hookup announced that the U.S. had dropped an atomic bomb on Nagasaki , Japan , on August 9 , 1945 . This was later considered to be the official beginning of the DuMont Network by both Thomas T. Goldsmith , the network 's chief engineer and DuMont 's best friend , and DuMont himself . Regular network service began on August 15 , 1946 , on WABD and W3XWT . In 1947 , W3XWT became WTTG , named after Goldsmith . The pair were joined in 1949 by WDTV ( channel 3 ) in Pittsburgh .
Although NBC in New York was known to have station @-@ to @-@ station television links as early as 1940 with WPTZ ( now KYW ) in Philadelphia and WRGB Schenectady , NY , DuMont received its station licenses before NBC resumed its previously sporadic network broadcasts after the war . ABC had just come into existence as a radio network in 1943 and did not enter network television until 1948 , when it signed on a flagship station in New York City , WJZ @-@ TV ( now WABC @-@ TV ) . CBS also waited until 1948 to begin network operations because it was waiting for the Federal Communications Commission to approve its color television system ( which it eventually did not ) . Other companies – including Mutual , the Yankee Network , and Paramount itself – were interested in starting television networks , but were prevented from successfully doing so by restrictive FCC regulations ; however , at least the Paramount Television Network actually did have some limited success in network operations in the late 1940s and early 1950s .
= = = Programming = = =
Despite no history of radio programming or stable of radio stars to draw on and perennial cash shortages , DuMont was an innovative and creative network . Without the radio revenues that supported mighty NBC and CBS , DuMont programmers relied on their wits and on connections with Broadway . Eventually , the network provided original programs that are remembered more than 60 years later .
The network largely ignored the standard business model of 1950s TV , in which one advertiser sponsored an entire show , enabling it to have complete control over its content . Instead , DuMont sold commercials to many different advertisers , freeing producers of its shows from the veto power held by sole sponsors . This eventually became the standard model for US television . Some commercial time was sold regionally on a co @-@ op basis , while other spots were sold network @-@ wide .
DuMont also holds another important place in American TV history . WDTV 's sign @-@ on made it possible for stations in the Midwest to receive live network programming from stations on the East Coast , and vice versa . Before then , the networks relied on separate regional networks in the two time zones for live programming , and the West Coast received network programming from kinescopes ( films shot directly from live television screens ) originating from the East Coast . On January 11 , 1949 , the coaxial cable linking East and Midwest ( known in television circles as " the Golden Spike , " in reference to the Golden spike that united the First Transcontinental Railroad ) was activated . The ceremony , hosted by DuMont and WDTV , was carried on all four networks . WGN @-@ TV ( channel 9 ) in Chicago and WABD in New York were able to share programs through a live coaxial cable feed when WDTV signed on in Pittsburgh , because the station completed the East Coast @-@ to @-@ Midwest chain , allowing stations in both regions to air the same program simultaneously , which is still the standard for US TV . It was another two years before the West Coast got live programming from the East ( and the East able to get live programming from the West ) , but this was the beginning of the modern era of network television .
The first broadcasts came from DuMont 's 515 Madison Avenue headquarters , and it soon found additional space , including a fully functioning theater , in the New York branch of Wanamaker 's department store at Ninth Street and Broadway . Later , a lease on the Adelphi Theatre on 54th Street and the Ambassador Theatre on West 49th Street gave the network a site for variety shows , and in 1954 , the lavish DuMont Tele @-@ Centre opened in the former Jacob Ruppert 's Central Opera House at 205 East 67th Street .
DuMont was the first network to broadcast a film production for TV : Talk Fast , Mister , produced by RKO in 1944 . DuMont also aired the first TV situation comedy , Mary Kay and Johnny , as well as the first network @-@ televised soap opera , Faraway Hill . Cavalcade of Stars , a variety show hosted by Jackie Gleason , was the birthplace of The Honeymooners ( Gleason took his variety show to CBS in 1952 , but filmed the " Classic 39 " Honeymooners episodes at DuMont 's Adelphi Theater studio in 1955 @-@ 56 ) . Bishop Fulton J. Sheen 's devotional program Life Is Worth Living went up against Milton Berle in many cities , and was the first show to compete successfully in the ratings against " Mr. Television " . In 1952 , Sheen won an Emmy Award for " Most Outstanding Personality " . The network 's other notable programs include :
Ted Mack 's The Original Amateur Hour , which began on radio in the 1930s under original host Edward Bowes
The Morey Amsterdam Show , a comedy / variety show hosted by Morey Amsterdam , which started on CBS before moving to DuMont in 1949
Captain Video and His Video Rangers , a hugely popular kids ' science fiction series
The Arthur Murray Party , a dance program
Down You Go , a popular panel show
Rocky King , Inside Detective , a private eye series starring Roscoe Karns
The Plainclothesman , a camera 's @-@ eye @-@ view detective series
Live coverage of boxing and professional wrestling , the latter featuring matches staged by the Capitol Wrestling Corporation , the predecessor to WWE
The Johns Hopkins Science Review , a Peabody Award @-@ winning education program
Cash and Carry , the first network @-@ televised game show
The Ernie Kovacs Show , the first truly innovative show in what was then visual radio , not television .
The network was a pioneer in TV programming aimed at minority audiences and featuring minority performers , at a time when the other American networks aired few television series for non @-@ whites . Among DuMont 's minority programs were The Gallery of Madame Liu @-@ Tsong , starring Asian American film actress Anna May Wong , the first US TV show to star an Asian American , and The Hazel Scott Show , starring pianist and singer Hazel Scott , the first US network TV series to be hosted by a black woman .
Although DuMont 's programming pre @-@ dated videotape , many DuMont offerings were recorded on kinescopes . These kinescopes were said to be stored in a warehouse until the 1970s . Actress Edie Adams , the wife of comedian Ernie Kovacs ( both regular performers on early television ) testified in 1996 before a panel of the Library of Congress on the preservation of television and video . Adams claimed that so little value was given to these films that the stored kinescopes were loaded into three trucks and dumped into Upper New York Bay . Nevertheless , a number of DuMont programs survive at The Paley Center for Media in New York City , the UCLA Film and Television Archive in Los Angeles , in the Peabody Awards Collection at the University of Georgia , and the Museum of Broadcast Communications in Chicago .
Although nearly the entire DuMont film archive was destroyed , several surviving DuMont shows have been released on DVD . A large number of episodes of Life Is Worth Living have been saved , and they are now aired weekly on Catholic @-@ oriented cable network , the Eternal Word Television Network , which also makes a collection of them available on DVD ( in the biographical information about Fulton J. Sheen added to the end of many episodes , a still image of Bishop Sheen looking into a DuMont Television camera can be seen ) . Several companies that distribute DVDs over the Internet have released a small number of episodes of Cavalcade of Stars and The Morey Amsterdam Show . Two more DuMont programs , Captain Video and His Video Rangers and Rocky King , Inside Detective , have had a small amount of surviving episodes released commercially by at least one major distributor of public domain programming .
= = = = Awards = = = =
DuMont programs were by necessity low @-@ budget affairs , and the network received relatively few awards from the TV industry . Most awards during the 1950s went to NBC and CBS , who were able to out @-@ spend other companies and draw on their extensive history of radio broadcasting in the relatively new television medium . DuMont , however , did win a number of awards during its years of operation .
During the 1952 – 53 TV season , Bishop Fulton J. Sheen , host of Life Is Worth Living , won an Emmy Award for Most Outstanding Personality . Sheen beat out CBS 's Arthur Godfrey , Edward R. Murrow and Lucille Ball , who were also nominated for the same award . Sheen was also nominated for – but did not win – consecutive Public Service Emmys in 1952 , 1953 , and 1954 .
DuMont received an Emmy nomination for Down You Go , a popular game show during the 1952 – 53 television season ( in the category Best Audience Participation , Quiz , or Panel Program ) . The network was nominated twice for its coverage of professional football during the 1953 – 54 and 1954 – 55 television seasons .
The Johns Hopkins Science Review , a DuMont public affairs program , was awarded a Peabody Award in 1952 in the Education category . Sheen 's Emmy and the Science Review Peabody were the only national awards the DuMont Network received . Though DuMont series and performers continued to win local TV awards , by the mid @-@ 1950s the DuMont network no longer had a national presence .
= = = = Ratings = = = =
The earliest measurements of TV audiences were performed by the C. E. Hooper company of New York . DuMont performed well in the Hooper ratings ; in fact , DuMont 's talent program , The Original Amateur Hour , was the most popular series of the 1947 – 48 season . Variety ranked DuMont 's popular variety series Cavalcade of Stars as the tenth most popular series two seasons later .
In February 1950 , Hooper 's competitor A. C. Nielsen bought out the Hooperatings system . DuMont did not fare well with the change : none of its shows appeared on Nielsen 's annual top 20 lists of the most popular series . One of the DuMont Network 's biggest hits of the 1950s , Life is Worth Living , received Nielsen ratings of up to 11 @.@ 1 , attracting more than 10 million viewers . Sheen 's one @-@ man program – in which he discussed philosophy , psychology and other fields of thought from a Christian perspective – was the most widely viewed religious series in the history of television . 169 local television stations aired Life , and for three years the program competed successfully against NBC 's popular The Milton Berle Show . The ABC and CBS programs which aired in the same timeslot were cancelled .
Life is Worth Living was not the only DuMont program to achieve double @-@ digit ratings . In 1952 , Time magazine reported that popular DuMont game show Down You Go had attracted an audience estimated at 16 million viewers . Similarly , DuMont 's summer 1954 replacement series , The Goldbergs , achieved audiences estimated at 10 million . Still , these series were only moderately popular compared to NBC 's and CBS 's highest @-@ rated programs .
Nielsen was not the only company to report TV ratings , however . Companies such as Trendex , Videodex and Arbitron had also measured TV viewership . The adjacent chart comes from Videodex 's August 1950 ratings breakdown , as reported in Billboard magazine .
= = = Disputes with AT & T and Paramount = = =
DuMont struggled to get its programs aired in many parts of the country , in part due to technical limitations of network lines maintained by the telephone company AT & T Corporation . During the 1940s and 1950s , television signals were sent between stations via coaxial cable and microwave links which were owned by AT & T. The service provider did not have enough cable lines and microwave circuits to provide signal relay service from all four networks to all of their affiliates at the same time , so AT & T allocated times when each network could offer live programs to their affiliates . In 1950 , AT & T allotted NBC and CBS each over 100 hours of live prime time network service , but gave ABC only 53 hours , and DuMont just 37 . AT & T also required each television network to lease both radio and television lines . DuMont was the only television network without a radio network , but was forced to pay for a service it did not use . DuMont protested AT & T 's actions with the Federal Communications Commission , and eventually received a compromise .
DuMont 's biggest corporate hurdle , however , may have been with the company 's own partner , Paramount . Relations between the two companies were strained as early as 1939 , when Paramount opened experimental television stations in Los Angeles and Chicago without DuMont . Dr. DuMont claimed that the original 1937 acquisition proposal required Paramount to expand its television interests " through DuMont " . Paramount representative Paul Raibourn , who also was a member of DuMont 's board of directors , denied that any such restriction had ever been discussed ( Dr. DuMont was vindicated on this point by a 1953 examination of the original draft document ) .
DuMont aspired to grow beyond its three stations , applying for new television station licenses in Cincinnati and Cleveland in 1947 . This would give the network five owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations ( O & Os ) , the maximum allowed by the FCC at the time . However , DuMont was hampered by Paramount 's two stations , KTLA ( channel 5 ) in Los Angeles and WBKB ( channel 4 , now WBBM @-@ TV on channel 2 ) in Chicago – the descendants of the two experimental stations that rankled DuMont in 1940 . Although these stations never carried DuMont programming ( with the exception of KTLA for one year from 1947 to 1948 ) , and in fact competed against DuMont 's affiliates in those cities , the FCC ruled that Paramount essentially controlled DuMont , which effectively placed the network at the five @-@ station cap . Paramount 's exertion of influence over the network 's management and the power of its voting stock brought the FCC to its conclusion . Thus , DuMont was unable to open additional stations as long as Paramount owned stations or owned a portion of DuMont . Paramount refused to sell .
In 1949 , Paramount Pictures launched the Paramount Television Network , a service which provided local television stations with filmed television programs ; Paramount 's network " undercut the company that it had invested in . " Paramount did not share its stars , big budgets or filmed programs with DuMont ; the company had stopped financially supporting DuMont in 1941 .
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just playing to people who agreed with us . " U2 's performance was later credited with inspiring a protest in the Chilean Parliament against Pinochet , who was in the process of becoming a Senator for life after relinquishing his position as head of the armed forces . The opposition party brought in the Madres , who again held pictures of their disappeared children and asked for information on the location of their bodies .
" Mothers of the Disappeared " has been covered several times . The Vitamin String Quartet included it on their 2004 tribute album The String Quartet Tribute to U2 's The Joshua Tree . Paddy Casey recorded a version for the tsunami relief album Even Better Than the Real Thing Vol . 3 in 2005 .
= = Personnel = =
= Katherine Pulaski =
Commander Katherine Pulaski is a fictional medical doctor in the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . She is the chief medical officer aboard the Federation starship USS Enterprise @-@ D. Her medical skills saved the lives of Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard and Commander William Riker , and she helped inspire Lt. Commander Data to create a hologram of Professor Moriarty that became self @-@ aware . Pulaski preferred to avoid the transporter , but was forced to rely on it to save her own life from an alien infection . Before arriving on the Enterprise @-@ D , she previously served on the USS Repulse . For a time , she was romantically involved with Kyle Riker , but they continued to remain friends .
Portrayed by American actress Diana Muldaur , Pulaski replaced the character of Commander Beverly Crusher for the second season after Gates McFadden 's contract was not renewed . Pulaski first appeared in the second season opener " The Child " , and made her final appearance in " Shades of Gray " . Before playing the role of Pulaski on The Next Generation , Muldaur appeared in Star Trek : The Original Series , playing different characters in the episodes " Return to Tomorrow " and " Is There in Truth No Beauty ? " She later worked with series creator Gene Roddenberry on a pilot for the series Planet Earth . McFadden returned to replace Muldaur in the third season , reprising her role as Dr. Crusher for the remainder of the series .
Reviewers criticized Pulaski 's approach , as well as her inability to fit in with the crew . Critics noted that her transporter phobia was reminiscent of Dr. Leonard McCoy from The Original Series , as was her relationship with Data ; Pulaski 's interaction with Data raised comparisons to that of McCoy and Spock from The Original Series . Episodes featuring Pulaski in a leading role , such as " Unnatural Selection " , produced divided opinions among critics , with some describing it as a key episode while others argued that it showed only the negative side of her role .
= = Concept and development = =
Towards the end of the first season of Star Trek : The Next Generation , staff members convinced Gene Roddenberry to drop Gates McFadden as Dr. Beverly Crusher from the show . Executive producer Rick Berman opposed this decision . To allow for McFadden 's return in the future , Roddenberry wrote Crusher 's character out rather than killing her . McFadden 's departure led to an opening for a new cast member . The producers contacted American actress Diana Muldaur , unaware of her past involvement with Roddenberry 's Star Trek and Planet Earth pilot . In The Original Series , Muldaur played the role of a doctor in two episodes : as Dr. Ann Mulhall in " Return to Tomorrow " , and as Dr. Miranda Jones in " Is There in Truth No Beauty ? " Muldaur also worked on the pilot for Planet Earth after getting to know Roddenberry and his wife , Majel Barrett , through their annual Star Trek Christmas parties .
Muldaur was not required to audition for the role of Pulaski . Instead , she was given 15 VHS cassettes of the first season . She found it " very exciting " , noting it " got better and better and better " as she watched it . Christina Pickles was also considered for the part of Pulaski , a decision Berman described as " very tough " . Muldaur finally agreed to play the role , but asked Roddenberry to change the name of the character to Kate , which became Katherine . The character of Katherine Pulaski was modeled on Doctor Leonard McCoy from The Original Series . Like McCoy , Pulaski feared transporters and disliked unemotional colleagues . The dynamic between McCoy and Spock was revisited with the relationship between Pulaski and Lieutenant Commander Data . Muldaur believed that Roddenberry deliberately created the parallel between the two characters on the two shows .
Katherine Pulaski debuted in the second season episode " The Child " , with Whoopi Goldberg making her first appearance of the series as Guinan in the same episode . Even though Muldaur was a regular character on The Next Generation , she was only listed in the opening credits as a " Special Guest Star " . Overall , Muldaur described her experience portraying Pulaski as " hard work " . She expected to be cast for just one season , but was unaware of who would succeed her after she left . Following production of the second season , Muldaur left the series and joined the cast of L.A. Law . She used footage of the episode " Unnatural Selection " to gain the part . Gates McFadden returned to continue her role as Dr. Crusher on The Next Generation for the remainder of the series .
= = Appearances = =
Pulaski 's background is touched upon in the episode " The Icarus Factor " . She was previously romantically involved with Commander William Riker 's father Kyle Riker ( Mitchell Ryan ) , after she was part of a rescue team responding to a Tholian attack on a Federation Starbase . She realised that a romantic relationship with Riker would not work , but they remained friends . Directly prior to serving on the Enterprise @-@ D , she served on the USS Repulse under Captain Taggart , who was sorry to lose her .
In , " Elementary , Dear Data " she challenges Lt. Cmdr Data to solve an original Sherlock Holmes mystery on the holodeck . He accepts her challenge , which results in the creation of a self @-@ aware hologram of Professor Moriarty ( Daniel Davis ) . Pulaski joins Data and Lieutenant Geordi La Forge ( LeVar Burton ) , but is captured by Moriarty who also takes over manual control of the Enterprise . Moriarty demands that they find a way to enable him to leave the holodeck , but is persuaded by Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) to release control and be stored within the ship 's computer memory until a means can be found to grant his wish . ( Years later , Moriarty is released from the computer and takes control of the ship 's computer , again demanding his freedom . He is finally tricked into thinking that his wish was granted , but remains trapped inside a computer simulation ( " Ship in a Bottle " ) . )
Pulaski 's apprehension at using the transporter was evident in " The Schizoid Man " , where Dr. Selar ( Suzie Plakson ) went with the away team instead of Pulaski , as it required her to beam over to a transport vessel . However , the transporter would later save Pulaski 's life in " Unnatural Selection " , after she was infected with a disease from the planet Gagarin IV that accelerated her aging process . She uses the transporters to remove the infection and is returned to health .
She demonstrates her medical expertise on several occasions . In " Time Squared " , Pulaski discovers that the duplicate Captain Picard is out of sync in time and will slowly improve until he returns to the point at which he left . In the episode " Pen Pals " , Picard orders Pulaski to wipe the memories of a young girl called Sarjenka , whom Data had been corresponding with and helping in violation of the Prime Directive . Whilst in " Samaritan Snare " , she is summoned to Starbase 515 to perform heart surgery on Captain Picard as she is the most experienced surgeon nearby . This is despite Picard 's wish for her not to perform the surgery , due to his concern with the image it might give to the crew .
When the Enterprise arrives at the lost colony of Mariposa in " Up the Long Ladder " , the Mariposans kidnap Pulaski and Commander William Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) and steal their DNA to clone new members of their colony . Although technologically advanced , the Mariposans lack genetic diversity . When Pulaski and Riker discover the clones , they destroy them . Picard helps resolve the dispute by suggesting the Mariposans allow the Bringloidi , a preindustrial , rural people whose colony was destroyed , to migrate to their world . The Mariposans , however , have relied on cloning for 300 years , and no longer sexually reproduce . Pulaski notes that with time , they will become familiar with the practice once again , and recommends that the Mariposans form large , group marriages with the Bringloidi to create a healthy population .
Following Data 's defeat at a game of Strategema in " Peak Performance " , Pulaski and Councillor Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) attempt to console him , but it is left to Captain Picard to convince Data that he is not malfunctioning . Pulaski 's final appearance on The Next Generation was in the episode " Shades of Gray " . When Commander Riker falls ill to a dangerous virus during an away team mission , Pulaski drives out the virus with a device that stimulates his memory centre . After she discovers that negative memories are more effective in removing the virus , she uses memories of fear and survival to save Riker 's life .
In the alternative future timeline portrayed in " Endgame " , the Star Trek : Voyager finale , Pulaski is said to have worked at the Starfleet Medical facility in San Francisco .
= = = Novels = = =
Pulaski appears in several books of the non @-@ canon novel series based on the adventures of the crew in The Next Generation and elsewhere in the same time period . In Peter David 's novel Vendetta ( 1991 ) , Pulaski is reassigned to the Repulse under Captain Taggart following her departure from the Enterprise . In Star Trek : Progress ( 2006 ) , a Starfleet Corps of Engineers book by Terri Osborne , Pulaski is on board the USS Progress when it visits Drema IV , as she wants to check up on the progress of Sarjenka , a young girl from The Next Generation episode " Pen Pals " . Pulaski also appeared alongside Wesley Crusher and Guinan in Michael Jan Friedman 's " All Good Things ... " ( 1994 ) , a novelisation of the The Next Generation series finale .
= = Reception and commentary = =
In their 1998 book , Star Trek 101 , Terry J. Erdmann and Paula M. Block called " Unnatural Selection " the key Pulaski episode . Science fiction writer Keith DeCandido felt that she displays all of her worst traits in this episode , including " her stubbornness , her intensity , her constant interrupting of people , her bitching out Data ( though at least this time she apologizes to him when he expresses concern over her health ) , and ... transporter @-@ phobia , because apparently she wasn 't enough like Dr. McCoy yet . " DeCandido described Pulaski as " annoying " and noted that this feeling was mirrored on screen by Captain Picard . In Science Fiction Television : A History , author M. Keith Booker observed that " Pulaski never quite meshed with the rest of the crew " .
The events of " Elementary Dear Data " led film professor Zoran Samardžija to suggest that Pulaski may have been inspired by the works of Friedrich Nietzsche . In Sherlock Holmes and Philosophy : The Footprints of a Gigantic Mind ( 2011 ) , Samardžija notes that Pulaski 's argument that Data lacks intuition is reminiscent of parts of Nietzsche 's 1878 work Human , All Too Human . The relationship between Pulaski and Data was further considered by Rhonda V. Wilcox in her article " Dating Data : Miscegenation in Star Trek : The Next Generation " ( 1993 ) . Wilcox notes that Pulaski " frequently challenges Data in terms of his machine nature , expressing scorn for his supposed insensitivity . " She compares Data 's emotionless state to slavery due to the reference in " The Child " to Maya Angelou 's 1969 work I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings .
= Noisy miner =
The noisy miner ( Manorina melanocephala ) is a bird in the honeyeater family , Meliphagidae , and is endemic to eastern and south @-@ eastern Australia . This miner is a grey bird , with a black head , orange @-@ yellow beak and feet , a distinctive yellow patch behind the eye and white tips on the tail feathers . The Tasmanian race has a more intense yellow panel in the wing , and a broader white tip to the tail . Males , females and juveniles are similar in appearance , though young birds are a brownish @-@ grey . As the common name suggests , the noisy miner is a vocal species with a large range of songs , calls , scoldings and alarms , and almost constant vocalizations particularly from young birds . One of four species in the genus Manorina , the noisy miner itself is divided into four subspecies . The separation of the Tasmanian M. m. leachi is of long standing , and the mainland birds were further split in 1999 .
Found in a broad arc from Far North Queensland through New South Wales and Victoria to Tasmania and southeastern South Australia , the noisy miner primarily inhabits dry , open eucalypt forests that lack understory shrubs . These include forests dominated by spotted gum , box and ironbark , as well as in degraded woodland where the understory has been cleared , such as recently burned areas , farming and grazing areas , roadside reserves , and suburban parks and gardens with trees and grass but without dense shrubbery . The density of noisy miner populations has significantly increased in many locations across its range , particularly human @-@ dominated habitats . The popularity of nectar @-@ producing garden plants such as the large @-@ flowered grevilleas was thought to play a role in its proliferation , but studies now show that the noisy miner has benefited primarily from landscaping practices that create open areas dominated by eucalypts .
Noisy miners are gregarious and territorial ; they forage , bathe , roost , breed and defend territory communally , forming colonies that can contain several hundred birds . Each bird has an ' activity space ' and birds with overlapping activity spaces form associations called ' coteries ' , the most stable units within the colony . The birds also form temporary flocks called ' coalitions ' for specific activities such as mobbing a predator . Group cohesion is facilitated not only by vocalizations , but also through ritualised displays which have been categorised as flight displays , postural displays , and facial displays . The noisy miner is a notably aggressive bird , and chasing , pecking , fighting , scolding , and mobbing occur throughout the day , targeted at both intruders and colony members .
Foraging in the canopy of trees and on trunks and branches and on the ground , the noisy miner mainly eats nectar , fruit and insects . Most time is spent gleaning the foliage of eucalypts , and it can meet most of its nutritional needs from manna , honeydew and lerp gathered from the foliage . The noisy miner does not use a stereotyped courtship display , but copulation is a frenzied communal event . It breeds all year long , building a deep cup @-@ shaped nest and laying two to four eggs . Incubation is by the female only , although up to twenty male helpers take care of the nestlings and fledglings . Noisy miners have a range of strategies to increase their breeding success including multiple broods and group mobbing of predators . The noisy miner 's population increase has been correlated with the reduction of avian diversity in human @-@ affected landscapes . Its territoriality means that translocation is unlikely to be a solution to its overabundance , and culling has been proposed , although the noisy miner is currently a protected species across Australia .
= = Taxonomy = =
English ornithologist John Latham described the noisy miner four times in his 1801 work Supplementum Indicis Ornithologici , sive Systematis Ornithologiae , seemingly not knowing it was the same bird in each case : the chattering bee @-@ eater ( Merops garrulus ) , black @-@ headed grakle ( Gracula melanocephala ) , hooded bee @-@ eater ( Merops cucullatus ) , and white @-@ fronted bee @-@ eater ( Merops albifrons ) . Early notes recorded its tendency to scare off prey as hunters were about to shoot . It was as the chattering bee @-@ eater that it was painted between 1792 and 1797 by Thomas Watling , one of a group known collectively as the Port Jackson Painter . John Gould treated the name Merops garrulus as the original description , and renamed it Myzantha garrula in his 1865 work Handbook to the Birds of Australia , giving it the common name of garrulous honeyeater , and noting the alternate name of chattering honeyeater . He noted the colonists of Tasmania called it a miner , and aboriginal people of New South Wales called it cobaygin . Que que gang was a local aboriginal name from the Blue Mountains .
In the early 20th century , Australian ornithologists started using the name Manorina melanocephala instead , because it was listed first by Latham in 1801 . This usage did not follow the letter of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , and in 2009 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature conserved the current name by formally suppressing the name M. garrula . The species name melanocephala is derived from the Ancient Greek words melas " black " , and kephale " head " , referring to its black crown . Other common names include Mickey miner and soldierbird . Four subspecies are recognised , including subspecies leachi found in eastern Tasmania . The mainland population was split into three subspecies in 1999 by Richard Schodde — titaniota from Cape York Peninsula in Queensland as far south as Mareeba , lepidota from central Queensland and inland New South Wales west of Nyngan , and the nominate subspecies melanocephala from southeastern New South Wales , Victoria , and southern South Australia . There are broad zones where birds are intermediate between subspecies . Further study is required to settle the taxonomic status of these populations .
The noisy miner is one of four species in the genus Manorina in the large family of honeyeaters known as Meliphagidae , the other three being the black @-@ eared miner ( M. melanotis ) , the yellow @-@ throated miner ( M. flavigula ) , and the bell miner ( M. melanophrys ) . One of the most obvious characteristics of the genus is a patch of bare yellow skin behind the eyes , which gives them an odd ' cross @-@ eyed ' look . Within the genus , the noisy , black @-@ eared and yellow @-@ throated miners form the subgenus Myzantha . The noisy miner occasionally hybridizes with the yellow @-@ throated miner . Molecular analysis has shown honeyeaters to be related to the Pardalotidae ( pardalotes ) , Acanthizidae ( Australian warblers , scrubwrens , thornbills , etc . ) , and the Maluridae ( Australian fairy @-@ wrens ) in a large Meliphagoidea superfamily .
= = Description = =
= = = Appearance = = =
The noisy miner is a large honeyeater , 24 – 28 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 4 – 11 @.@ 0 in ) in length , with a wingspan of 36 – 45 centimetres ( 14 – 18 in ) , and weighing 70 – 80 grams ( 2 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 8 oz ) . Male , female and juvenile birds all have similar plumage : grey on the back and tail and on the breast , and otherwise white underneath , with white scalloping on the nape and hind @-@ neck and on the breast ; off @-@ white forehead and lores ; a black band over the crown , bright orange @-@ yellow bill and a distinctive patch of yellow skin behind the eye ; a prominent white tip to the tail ; a narrow olive @-@ yellow panel in the folded wing ; and orange @-@ yellow legs and feet . A juvenile can be distinguished by softer plumage , a brownish tinge to the black on its head and the grey on its back , and a duller , greyish @-@ yellow skin patch behind the eye .
The noisy miner is similar in appearance to the yellow @-@ throated miner and the black @-@ eared miner ; it has a dull white forehead and a black crown , while the others have grey heads .
= = = = Geographical variations = = = =
Size variation in the noisy miner over its range follows Bergmann 's rule ; namely , birds tend to be larger where the climate is colder . Adults from central @-@ eastern and northern Queensland tend to have little or no olive @-@ yellow edging to the feathers of the back and wings , and have a wider white fringe on the feathers of the hind @-@ neck and back , giving birds from Queensland the appearance of having more distinctive scalloping than other populations . Wing length generally increases with latitude and M. m. leachi has measurably shorter wings than the nominate race , although no significant difference in wing length was found in a study of populations north of 30 ° S and south of the Murray River . The subspecies leachi also has finer scalloping on the hind @-@ neck than the nominate race , a more intense yellow tinge to the wing panels , and a slightly broader off @-@ white tip to the tail .
The far north Queensland subspecies titaniota has a shorter tail , paler crown , larger yellow skin patch , and paler upper parts without the yellow @-@ olive of the nominate race ; and lepidota , found in western New South Wales , is smaller than the nominate race with a black crown , and darker more mottled upperparts .
= = = Vocalisations = = =
As the common name suggests , the noisy miner is an unusually vocal species . Previously known as the garrulous honeyeater , it has a large and varied repertoire of songs , calls , scoldings and alarms . Most are loud and penetrating , and consist of harsh single notes . It has two broad @-@ frequency alarm calls that are used when mobbing intruders into their territory , or when predators ( including humans ) are sighted ; and a narrow @-@ frequency alarm call that is primarily used when airborne predators are seen , such as the brown falcon ( Falco berigora ) , or other large flying birds including the Australian magpie ( Cracticus tibicen ) and the pied currawong ( Strepera graculina ) . The aerial predator alarm call is a series of high @-@ pitched , slurred whistling notes . The broad @-@ frequency alarm calls are a series of ' churr ' notes , low pitched and harsh , occurring at low and high levels of intensity . The narrow @-@ band call is used in situations where the bird signals the presence of a predator and restricts information about its own location , while the broad @-@ band alarm is used to attract attention , and can initiate mobbing behaviour . These churring calls vary between individuals , and laboratory tests show noisy miners can distinguish calls by different birds . Hence , this may be integral to the complex social structure of the species .
Contact or social facilitation calls are low @-@ pitched sounds that carry long distances . ' Chip ' calls are given by individual birds when foraging , and a similar call is given by nestlings that call at an increased rate as the mother approaches the nest . Where there is a high level of social activity , such as during territorial disputes with conspecifics , calls are a series of quick , regular , single notes . The noisy miner has a mating display flight song , a soft warble of low @-@ frequency notes , given during short undulating flights by the male , and responded to by the female with a low @-@ frequency whistle . The noisy miner is found in open woodland habitats , where it is an advantage to call from the air so as to overcome sound attenuation . Another display call , described as ' yammer ' , is a rapid rhythmical series of notes that is uttered during open @-@ bill , wing @-@ waving displays . The noisy miner has a song described as the ' dawn song ' — a communal song of clear whistled notes emitted in chorus in the early hours of the morning from May through January . The dawn song , which is also sung at dusk , is audible over long distances and features duets that often involve antiphony .
A nestling begins to give the ' chip ' call soon after it emerges from the egg , and it calls frequently for the first two thirds of the nestling period and constantly for the last third . The call does not vary in the presence of an adult at the nest , so it seems likely that the call is not directed at the adult bird . The nestling becomes silent when an adult gives an alarm call , and makes a squealing sound when the adult delivers food . The begging call of a fledgling is similar to the call of the nestling , but significantly louder and covering a greater frequency range ( which may make it more directional ) . The rate of calling , on average , is 85 to 100 calls in a minute , and in open scrub the call can be heard up to a kilometre away . Subsong , a juvenile vocalization comprising elements of various calls , begins to be uttered when the fledgling is around thirty days old .
The noisy miner also produces non @-@ vocal sounds by clicking or snapping its bill , usually during antagonistic encounters with other bird species , or when mobbing a predator .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The noisy miner is endemic to eastern and south @-@ eastern Australia , occupying a broad arc from Far North Queensland where there are scattered populations , to New South Wales where it is widespread and common from the coast to a line from Angledool to Balranald , through Victoria into south @-@ eastern South Australia , and eastern Tasmania . Its range in South Australia has been steadily expanding since it was first recorded near Adelaide in the early 1890s . It is sedentary over its entire range . The noisy miner is territorial , and the territory of a colony is aggressively defended — which has led to a significant reduction in avian diversity in areas occupied by the noisy miner , with smaller species excluded .
The noisy miner primarily inhabits dry , open eucalypt forests without understory shrubs . It is commonly found in open sclerophyll forests , including those on coastal dunes or granite outcrops ; forests dominated by spotted gum on mountain ridges and exposed slopes ; box and ironbark forests on the foothills of the Great Dividing Range ; mixed forests of eucalypts and cypress ( Callitris ) ; forests dominated by yapunya , mulga , gidgee , brigalow or emu bush ; in stands of belah and scattered clumps of boree ; on the edges of woodlands of river red gum including swamp woodlands bordering floodplains , and areas dominated by exotic species such as European ash and willow . It regularly inhabits degraded patches of forest where the understory has been cleared , including recently burned areas , and modified habitats such as lightly @-@ timbered farming and grazing areas , roadside reserves , bushland remnants in towns and cities , and suburban parks and gardens with trees and grass but without dense shrubbery .
The noisy miner has benefited from the thinning of woodland on rural properties , heavy grazing that removes the understory , fragmentation of woodland that increases the percentage of edge habitat , and urban landscaping practices that increase open eucalypt environments . It has been described as a ' reverse keystone ' species , as it is colonizing an ever @-@ increasing range of human @-@ dominated habitats , and aggressively excluding smaller bird species from urban environments . This phenomenon has been also observed in rural areas . A field study across the South West Slopes of New South Wales , showed that the noisy miner 's presence corresponded with reduced numbers of insectivorous birds such as fantails , whistlers , the restless flycatcher ( Myiagra inquieta ) , and other honeyeater species , and that this decrease was most marked in sites with better access to water and nutrients . While it has been hypothesized that the proliferation of large @-@ flowering grevillea cultivars has contributed to the abundance of noisy miners , recent research has identified the proliferation of lightly treed open areas , and the presence of eucalypt species as the most significant factors in the population increase . Large @-@ flowered grevillea hybrids such as Grevillea ' Robyn Gordon ' can benefit the noisy miner , in that an abundance of resources is usually dominated by larger aggressive honeyeaters , and a continuous nectar source could provide an advantage for the non @-@ migratory species . A field study in box @-@ ironbark country in central Victoria found miner numbers were correlated with the occurrence of yellow gum ( Eucalyptus leucoxylon ) , which reliably produces flowers ( and nectar ) each year . The abundance of the noisy miner is primarily determined by habitat structure .
While the range of the noisy miner has not significantly expanded , the density of the population within that range has substantially increased . High densities of noisy miners are regularly recorded in forests with thick understory in southern Queensland , 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) or more from the forest / agricultural land edge . Many of these sites have extensive road networks used for forest management , and picnic areas and walking tracks for recreational use , and it has been found that these cleared spaces play a role in the abundance of noisy miners in the forests . There is evidence to suggest that higher road densities correspond with higher noisy miner population levels . Field work in Victoria showed noisy miners infiltrated anywhere from 150 to 300 m ( 490 to 980 ft ) into remnant woodland from the edges , with greater penetration occurring in less densely forested areas . This has implications for the size of woodland habitat needed to contain miner @-@ free areas — around 36 hectares ( 89 acres ) . Revegetation projects restoring buloke woodland , a species of she @-@ oak integral to the survival of the red @-@ tailed black cockatoo ( Calyptorynchus banksii ) , have been interplanted with a nurse species , usually fast @-@ growing eucalypts . Noisy miner populations were more likely in those buloke woodlands where eucalypts had been planted at densities of up to 16 per hectare ( 6 @.@ 4 per acre ) . The presence of noisy miners was accompanied by a substantial difference in number and types of other birds found in the woodland .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Social organization = = =
The noisy miner is a gregarious species , and the birds are rarely seen singly or in twos ; they forage , move and roost in colonies that can consist of several hundred birds
Within a colony , a male bird will occupy an ' activity space ' , which will overlap with the activity spaces of other males . Males with overlapping activity spaces form associations called ' coteries ' , usually consisting of 10 to 25 birds . Coteries are the most stable unit within the colony . The birds also form temporary flocks when engaged in the same activity . These flocks , called ' coalitions ' , usually comprise five to eight birds , although coalitions of up to 40 birds can occur when mobbing a potential predator . Membership of the coalition changes frequently as individuals leave the group as it passes beyond the boundary of their activity space , or the activity ends or changes , as when the breeding season begins . Females use activity spaces that overlap with those of male birds , but not other females , so that females will join coalitions with males in their area , but only rarely will there be more than one female in the coalition . The exclusivity of female activity spaces leads to young females being driven out of the colony in which they were born , and also makes it difficult for them to gain a place in a new colony . A study of banded nestlings that survived in one colony until the next breeding season , found that they were all male birds , suggesting that all female nestlings had died or left the colony . Emigration of males does not seem to occur until the population density of the colony reaches a critical level .
Looking after the young is communal , with males of the coterie bringing food to the nestlings and removing faecal sacs . Communal feeding increases after fledging , when males from nearby coteries may even bring food to the young birds if not driven off . Roosting is usually communal , with two to six adults and juveniles roosting in contact with each other , usually near the end of a hanging branch up to 20 metres ( 66 ft ) above ground , within their activity space . They select a new site each evening , often selecting and rejecting several sites , and engaging in aggressive calling and chasing as other birds attempt to join the group . They are often the last birds to roost at night , but appear to sleep soundly , undisturbed by torchlight . Noisy miners drink together at the edge of lakes and dams , and from cattle troughs , often perching on a submerged branch . They bathe by diving head first into water and , when almost totally submerged , flapping their wings vigorously and ducking their heads under the water . They shake excess water off and then fly to a nearby branch to preen . They have been observed using rain- or dew @-@ soaked foliage to bathe , and in dry weather will dust @-@ bathe in dry soil or fine litter such as grass clippings . Bathing is communal , with birds stimulated to participate by observing others . They are occasionally observed anting .
= = = = Flock behaviour = = = =
The noisy miner engages in most activities in a group . Roosting , foraging , preening , bathing and dust @-@ bathing or anting are communal activities . Dawn song is a communal chorus , particularly during the breeding season . The communal interaction is facilitated by ritualised displays that have been categorised as flight displays , postural displays , and facial displays . In ' long flight ' displays , initiated by either male or female birds , groups of up to twenty birds from more than one coterie fly about 40 metres ( 130 ft ) above the canopy for distances of up to 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) from the colony , constantly calling and not returning to the colony for about twenty minutes . As they return the remaining birds show signs of agitation , and sometimes fly up to join them . The ' short flight ' display is performed by the male , and may be analogous to the territorial advertising displays of other birds . In a ritualised movement , the noisy miner flies out from a perch across an open area , in a rhythmic undulating pattern , usually calling in flight . At the end of the clearing it turns on an upward swoop and flies silently back to a perch near the starting point . The ' head @-@ up flight ' is performed by the female during the nesting period , and may function to attract male helpers . In its most intense form the body and tail are held almost vertically , with legs dangling and the head held up and back . It is performed by the female when she is selecting the nest site , and when carrying nest @-@ building material , and probably has the function of indicating the location of the nest to other group members .
Postural displays include tall and low poses , pointing , open bill , and wing waving . The ' tall posture ' is used when in close contact with another bird and is a mild threat . The bird holds itself upright with neck and legs stretched , and it faces the other bird . The ' low posture ' is a submissive gesture ; the bird sits low on the perch with legs obscured by fluffed feathers and often faces away from the other bird . Fledglings threatened by adult birds will adopt a low posture and open their bill widely . ' Pointing ' is a threat display where the bird stretches out horizontally , with feathers sleeked and the bill pointed at the target of the aggression . A bill snap will sometimes accompany pointing . An ' open bill display ' is used by subordinates in encounters between two birds , and by a female on the nest when other birds approach . The ' trident bill display ' involves a fully open bill with the tongue raised and protruding and is a higher @-@ intensity submissive display . ' Wing waving ' is often performed at the same time as an open bill display . The wings are flexed and held slightly away from the body , and flapped out and up around three to six times . Wing waving may be accompanied by a yammer call . ' Eagle ' displays involve holding the wings and tail spread out , in either a vertical or horizontal position .
Eye displays are made by exposing or covering the bare yellow patch behind the eye — when the feathers are completely sleeked the entire patch is visible , and when they are fluffed the patch is hidden . Eye displays are used in conjunction with postural displays , with the yellow patch fully displayed by dominant birds using threat postures , and immature birds tending to reduce the size of the eye patch when under attack from other members of the coterie .
On occasion early in the breeding season , mass displays erupt , where twenty or thirty birds perform the various wing @-@ spreading displays , short flights , and constant calling . Displaying birds are attacked by others , and groups of silent but agitated birds watch the interactions . Mass displays are more common in the early morning , can last for up to 40 minutes , and seem to be a combination of sexual and agonistic behaviour .
A ' corroboree ' ( from the word for a ceremonial meeting of Aboriginal Australians ) is a group display where birds converge on adjacent branches and simultaneously pose hunchbacked , giving wing @-@ waving and open @-@ bill displays and the yammer call . A corroboree occurs when birds meet after a change in the social environment , such as a bird returning after an absence , or the repulsion of an intruder , or the coming together of different coteries . The corroboree appears to have a bonding function , and may involve all members of a colony .
= = = = Antagonistic behaviour = = = =
Described as " always at war with others of the feathered kind " in early notes , the noisy miner is one of the most aggressive of the honeyeaters . Much of the activity within a noisy miner colony is antagonistic with chasing , pecking , fighting , scolding , and mobbing occurring frequently throughout the day . The birds unite to attack predators and to defend the colony area against all other species of birds ; the species is also highly aggressive intraspecifically .
Female noisy miners are aggressive towards each other , and one cause of a male @-@ biased sex @-@ ratio in colonies may be the females ' greater intolerance for each other , driving immatures out of the colony and preventing the immigration of new females . Aggression at the nest is common between males . Adult males begin attacking juveniles when they are around 11 weeks old , and attackers can include males that previously cared for the fledgling . Adult females are less aggressive towards young birds , although mothers do occasionally attack their own offspring , and infanticide has been recorded . There is little male to female aggression other than the ' driving flights ' that form part of the mating ritual . In direct attacks of young birds pecks are directed at the eye patch . Agonistic behaviour has been observed among nestlings , with aggression intensifying after fledging and at times resulting in the death of a sibling .
The noisy miner colony unites to mob inter @-@ specific intruders and predators . The noisy miner will approach the threat closely and point , expose eye patches , and often bill @-@ snap . Five to fifteen birds will fly around the intruder , some birds diving at it and either pulling away or striking the intruder . The mobbing continues until the intruder remains still , as with a tawny frogmouth ( Podargus strigoides ) , or it leaves the area . Mobbing of snakes and goannas is particularly intense , and most species of bird , even non @-@ predators , entering the territory are immediately chased . The noisy miner has been recorded attacking an Australian owlet @-@ nightjar ( Aegotheles cristatus ) during the day , grebes , herons , ducks and cormorants on lakes at the edge of territories , crested pigeons ( Ocyphaps lophotes ) , pardalotes , and rosellas . Non @-@ predatory mammals such as bats , cattle , sheep , and wallabies are also attacked , though less vigorously than birds .
Noisy miner attacks are not limited to chasing the intruder , and aggressive incidents often result in the death of the trespasser . Reports include those of two noisy miners repeatedly pecking a house sparrow ( Passer domesticus ) at the base of its skull and killing it in six minutes ; one noisy miner grasping a striated pardalote ( Pardalotus striatus ) by the wing while another pecked it on the head until it died ; and a sacred kingfisher ( Todiramphus sanctus ) being chased and harassed for over five hours and then found dead with a fractured skull .
= = = = Response to threats = = = =
Noisy miners make louder alarm calls in noisier sections of urban environments , such as main roads . The most common initial response to alarm calls is to stay in the area and scan for threats , rather than withdraw . A study conducted in Melbourne and a nearby rural area found that noisy miners in urban areas were less likely to take flight , and when they did they flew shorter distances . It is unclear whether this is an adaptation or bolder miners had been the ones to settle in the city . A field study in Canberra found that superb fairywrens ( Malurus cyaneus ) that lived in areas frequented by noisy miners recognised miner alarm calls and took flight , and had learnt to ignore their non @-@ alarm calls , while those that live in areas not frequented by noisy miners did not respond to miner alarm calls . This suggests the species has adapted and learnt to discriminate and respond to another species ' vocalisations .
= = = Feeding = = =
The noisy miner primarily eats nectar , fruit and insects , and occasionally it feeds on small reptiles or amphibians . It is both arboreal and terrestrial , feeding in the canopy of trees and on trunks and branches and on the ground . It forages within the colony 's territory throughout the year , usually in groups of five to eight birds although hundreds may gather at a stand of flowering trees such as banksia . The noisy miner collects nectar directly from flowers , hanging upside down or straddling thin branches acrobatically to access the nectar ; it takes fruit from trees or fallen on the ground ; gleans or hawks for invertebrates ; and picks through leaf litter for insects . It has been recorded turning over the dried droppings of emu ( Dromaius novaehollandiae ) and eastern grey kangaroo ( Macropus giganteus ) searching for insects .
In a study of birds foraging in suburban gardens , the noisy miner was seen to spend more time in banksia , grevillea and eucalypt species , and when in flower , callistemon , than in other plants including exotics . Most time was spent gleaning the foliage of eucalypts , and noisy miners were significantly more abundant in sites where eucalypts were present . The noisy miner can meet most of its nutritional needs from manna , honeydew and lerp gathered from the foliage of eucalypts . Lower numbers of noisy miner were recorded at banksias and grevilleas than other large honeyeaters such as little wattlebird ( Anthochaera chrysoptera ) and red wattlebird ( Anthochaera carunculata ) .
Detailed studies of the diet of the noisy miner record it eating a range of foods including : spiders ; insects ( leaf beetles , ladybirds , stink bugs , ants , moth and butterfly larvae ) ; nectar ( from Jacaranda mimosifolia , Erythrina variegata , Lagunaria patersonia , Callistemon salignus , Callistemon viminalis , eucalypts Argyle apple , sugar gum , yellow gum , grey ironbark , and grey gum , Banksia ericifolia , B. integrifolia , B. serrata , Grevillea aspleniifolia , G. banksii , G. hookeriana , G. juniperina , G. rosmarinifolia , and flowering quince ) ; seeds from oats , wheat and pepper tree ; fruit from saltbush , mistletoe and crabapple ; frogs and skinks ; and other matter such as bread , pieces of meat and cheese , and food scraps .
In the first study to demonstrate different learning techniques in a single species , the noisy miner was found to employ different cognitive strategies depending upon the resource it was foraging . When searching for nectar , which does not move but is readily depleted , the noisy miner uses a spatial memory @-@ based strategy , identifying characteristics of the environment — a strategy that is efficient in new environments and is not affected by changes in the bird 's activities . When searching for invertebrates , it appears to employ a different strategy based on learned rules of insect movement ( they improve at finding invertebrates with practice ) . The two different strategies imply the existence of adapted cognitive mechanisms , capable of responding appropriately to different foraging contexts .
= = = Breeding = = =
The noisy miner does not use a stereotyped courtship display ; displays can involve ' driving ' where the male jumps or flies at the female from 1 – 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) away , and if she moves away he pursues her aggressively . The female may perform a ' bowed @-@ wing display ' where the wings and tail are spread and quivered , with the wings arched and the head pointing down . The male may adopt a vertical or horizontal ' eagle display ' with wings and tail spread wide and held still for several seconds . Copulation is frequent and conspicuous , with both males and females copulating with several birds , while other members of the colony display or otherwise interfere with the mating pair . Copulation usually occurs on larger , exposed branches close to the nest site and can occur at any time of the day , although slightly more often between 11 : 00 and 13 : 00 when communal activities are less frequent . The frenzied courtship activity had led to speculation that the female mates promiscuously to recruit males to help care for the young , but recent genetic testing shows that 96 @.@ 5 % of noisy miner broods result from monogamous mating and that multiple paternity is rare . An observation of banded birds noted that while females copulated repeatedly , it was always with the same male . Mate switching between broods is uncommon , with pairs staying together over several years .
The noisy miner breeds all year long , with most activity from July through November , though the peak period is subject to seasonal variations with sharp peaks in laying activity when conditions are particularly favourable for raising young . The nest is built in prickly or leafy trees , and the noisy miner is often recorded nesting in eucalypts , and also in wattles , Araucaria , Banksia , Bursaria , Hibiscus , mistletoe , Melaleuca , Pittosporum , Schinus and jacaranda . It seems to prefer moderately dense foliage for nesting , often near the end of drooping horizontal branches . Support for the nest may be the primary criterion of a suitable nest site , rather than characteristics of the vegetation or location . The female alone builds the nest , which is deep and cup @-@ shaped , woven of twigs and grasses with other plant material , animal hair and spider webs . Occasionally the nest will include man @-@ made materials such as twine , scraps of material , and tissue paper . It is lined with wool , hair , feathers , flowers or plant down , and padded with a circular mat woven from fibres pulled from the cocoons of the processional caterpillar . The female noisy miner walks around on the ground close to the nest site , picking up material . She gathers material from disused nests of other birds , or dismantles its most recent nest to build a new one . The female completes the nest in five or six days . On average nests have an external diameter of 15 – 17 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 0 in ) and an external depth of 9 – 11 @.@ 4 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 in ) . The internal depth of the nest is around 5 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) .
Eggs vary greatly in size , shape and markings , but are generally elongated ovals ; white to cream or pinkish or buff coloured ; freckled , spotted or blotched with reddish brown to chestnut or a purplish red , sometimes with underlying markings of violet or purplish grey . The clutch consists of two to four eggs . Incubation is by the female only , and the incubation period is around sixteen days . Hatching is asynchronous , with up to six days being recorded between the hatching of the first and last chicks in a clutch . Young are naked at hatching , and develop a cover of down within two to three days . The fledging period is around sixteen days , and young begin to find food for themselves between twenty @-@ six and thirty days after fledging , but are still regularly fed by adults to thirty @-@ five days . The young leave the nest before they are fully fledged , and only able to fly downwards , and scramble up . They do not go far from the nest , return to it at night , and take some weeks to completely leave the nest . Many fledglings are found on the ground and in low shrubs during this period , where they continue to be cared for until they can make their way up into the trees . These birds are often mistakenly " rescued " . The fledglings seek out siblings if separated , and huddle together for up to three weeks after fledging .
The noisy miner has some of the largest group sizes of any communally breeding bird , with up to twenty males and one female attending a single brood . Only males help with a nest , and while many birds may be associated with a particular brood , some males devote all their time to a single nest , while others spread their helping efforts across five or six nests . Behavioural evidence and genetic testing indicate that helpers are male offspring of the breeding pair , or full siblings of the male parent . Males nearly always bring food to the nestling singly , and if several arrive at once one will pass food to a nestling while the others wait . The female leaves the nest quickly when a male bird arrives , and never takes food from one of the helpers . Comm
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unal feeding of the young increases after fledging , and the young beg for food with constant ' chip chip ' calls and gaping mouths . The female rarely feeds the young birds after they have fledged .
= = = = Nest predation = = = =
Cooperative breeding has been described as a strategy for decreasing nest predation , although one study found no relationship between the number of helpers visiting a nest site and its success or failure . Noisy miners were seen to have a range of strategies to increase their breeding success including multiple broods , laying eggs early in the season , nesting low in the canopy and group mobbing of predators ; these measures did not guarantee against nest failure due to the diversity of potential predators in the noisy miner 's open woodland habitat .
= = Conservation status = =
Being abundant throughout its significant range , the noisy miner is considered of least concern for conservation , and its extreme population densities in some areas actually constitute a threat to other species . The strong correlation between the presence of noisy miners and the absence of avian diversity has been well documented . The role played by the noisy miner in the steep decline of many woodland birds , its impact on endangered species with similar foraging requirements , and the level of leaf damage leading to die @-@ back that accompanies the exclusion of insectivorous birds from remnant woodlands , means that any strategy to restore avian diversity will need to take account of the management of noisy miner populations . Some habitat restoration and revegetation projects have inadvertently increased the problem of the noisy miner by establishing the open eucalypt habit that they prefer . A focus of many regeneration projects has been the establishing of habitat corridors that connect patches of remnant forest , and the use of eucalypts as fast @-@ growing nurse species . Both practices have sound ecological value , but allow the noisy miner to proliferate , so conservation efforts are being modified by planting a shrubby understory with the eucalypts , and avoiding the creation of narrow protrusions , corners or clumps of trees in vegetation corridors . A field study conducted in the Southern Highlands found that noisy miners tended to avoid areas dominated by wattles , species of which in the study area had bipinnate leaves . Hence the authors proposed revegetation projects include at least 15 % Acacia species with bipinnate leaves if possible , as well as shrubby understory plants .
Translocation of noisy miners is unlikely to be a solution to their overabundance in remnant habitats . In a Victorian study where birds were banded and relocated , colonies moved into the now unpopulated area but soon returned to their original territories . The translocated birds did not settle in a new territory . They were not assimilated into resident populations of miners , but instead wandered up to 4 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 6 mi ) from the release point , moving through apparently suitable habitat occupied by other miners — at least for the first 50 days following translocation . Two birds with radio tracking devices travelled 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) back to their site of capture . Although noisy miners are protected across Australia , and a permit is required to cull them , culling has been proposed as the most humane and practical method of reducing their impact , particularly where combined with rehabilitation of the habitat to suit a wider variety of bird life . An unsanctioned cull took place on private rural property over 1991 and 1992 , which reportedly resulted in an increase in species diversity .
= Principe Amedeo @-@ class ironclad =
The Principe Amedeo class was a pair of ironclad warships built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1870s and 1880s . They were the culmination of a major naval construction program designed to give Italy a powerful fleet of ironclads . The two ships , Principe Amedeo and Palestro , were the last Italian ironclads to feature sailing rigs and wooden hulls . They were armed with a battery of six 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns and were capable of a speed in excess of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The ships had uneventful careers , spending much of it in Italy 's colonial empire . By the late 1880s , they were withdrawn from service and employed in secondary roles , first as headquarters ships for harbor defenses . Principe Amedeo was converted into a depot ship in 1895 and was discarded in 1910 , while Palestro was used as a training ship from 1894 to 1900 before being scrapped in 1902 – 04 .
= = Design = =
In 1862 , the Italian government under Prime Minister Urbano Rattazzi and his naval minister Carlo Pellion di Persano made the decision to build a fleet of ironclad warships . The Italian fleet had already acquired a pair of small , French @-@ built armored frigates of the Formidabile class , and two more vessels of the Re d 'Italia class had been ordered from the United States . Five more ironclads were ordered from foreign shipyards , three wooden steam frigates already under construction were converted into armored ships , and four more ironclads were ordered from Italian shipyards . The two Principe Amedeo @-@ class ships were the last two of this first generation of Italian ironclads . The design for Principe Amedeo was prepared by Inspector Engineer Giuseppe De Luca . He had initially planned on using entirely wooden hulls for the ships , but had changed to composite wood and iron construction by the time the ships were laid down .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The two ships differed slightly in size . Principe Amedeo was 79 @.@ 73 meters ( 261 @.@ 6 ft ) long between perpendiculars , while Palestro was 78 @.@ 82 m ( 258 @.@ 6 ft ) long . Principe Amedeo had a beam of 17 @.@ 4 m ( 57 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 9 m ( 26 ft ) ; Palestro 's beam measured 17 @.@ 3 m ( 57 ft ) , and she had a draft of 8 m ( 26 ft ) . Both ships displaced 5 @,@ 761 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 670 long tons ; 6 @,@ 350 short tons ) normally , but Principe Amedeo displaced 6 @,@ 020 t ( 5 @,@ 920 long tons ; 6 @,@ 640 short tons ) at full load and Palestro reached 3 @,@ 218 t ( 3 @,@ 167 long tons ; 3 @,@ 547 short tons ) . They had a crew of 548 officers and men .
The ships ' propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by six coal @-@ fired , cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers . The boilers were trunked into a single funnel . The lead ship 's engine produced a top speed of 12 @.@ 2 knots ( 22 @.@ 6 km / h ; 14 @.@ 0 mph ) at 6 @,@ 117 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 561 kW ) , while Palestro made 12 @.@ 85 kn ( 23 @.@ 80 km / h ; 14 @.@ 79 mph ) at the same horsepower . They could steam for 1 @,@ 780 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 050 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ships were barque @-@ rigged to supplement the steam engine ; Principe Amedeo and her sister were the last rigged ironclad to be built by Italy . The ships ' sail area were 36 @,@ 738 square feet ( 3 @,@ 413 @.@ 1 m2 ) for Principe Amedeo and 37 @,@ 361 sq ft ( 3 @,@ 471 @.@ 0 m2 ) for Palestro .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Palestro and Principe Amedeo were both armed with a main battery of six 10 in ( 254 mm ) guns , though they were mounted differently in each ship . Principe Amedeo carried hers in a single armored casemate located amidships , while Palestro 's guns were mounted in three armored casemates . The first was located forward , toward the bow , the second and third were placed close to the stern on each side of the ship . Both ships also carried an 11 in ( 279 mm ) gun that was mounted forward as a bow chaser . Later in her career , Principe Amedeo received a secondary battery of six 2 @.@ 9 in ( 74 mm ) guns and six machine guns , along with two torpedo tubes .
The two ships were protected by iron belt armor that was 8 @.@ 7 in ( 221 mm ) thick and extended for the entire length of the hull . The casemates were protected with 5 @.@ 5 in ( 140 mm ) of iron plating , and the small conning tower had 2 @.@ 4 in ( 61 mm ) thick iron plates .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
Neither ship had a particularly eventful career . They were completed too late to take part in the final stages of the wars of Italian unification . Instead , they were assigned to the Italian colonial empire , with occasional stints in the main Italian fleet . In 1880 , Palestro took part in a naval demonstration off Ragusa in an attempt to force the Ottoman Empire to comply with the terms of the Treaty of Berlin and turn over the town of Ulcinj to Montenegro . The following year , Principe Amedeo was involved in a collision with the ironclad Roma during a hurricane , though neither ship was damaged .
In the late 1880s , both ships were withdrawn from frontline service and employed as headquarters ships for the defense of Taranto — Principe Amedeo — and La Maddalena — Palestro . Principe Amedeo was stricken from the naval register in 1895 and used as an ammunition depot ship in Taranto until 1910 , when she was sold for scrap . Palestro was employed as a training ship between 1894 and 1900 , when she too was stricken from the register . She was broken up between 1902 and 1904 .
= Cell nucleus =
In cell biology , the nucleus ( pl. nuclei ; from Latin nucleus or nuculeus , meaning kernel ) is a membrane @-@ enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells . Eukaryotes usually have a single nucleus , but a few cell types , such as mammalian red blood cells , have no nuclei , and a few others have many .
Cell nuclei contain most of the cell 's genetic material , organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins , such as histones , to form chromosomes . The genes within these chromosomes are the cell 's nuclear genome and are structured in such a way to promote cell function . The nucleus maintains the integrity of genes and controls the activities of the cell by regulating gene expression — the nucleus is , therefore , the control center of the cell . The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope , a double membrane that encloses the entire organelle and isolates its contents from the cellular cytoplasm , and the nuclear matrix ( which includes the nuclear lamina ) , a network within the nucleus that adds mechanical support , much like the cytoskeleton , which supports the cell as a whole .
Because the nuclear membrane is impermeable to large molecules , nuclear pores are required that regulate nuclear transport of molecules across the envelope . The pores cross both nuclear membranes , providing a channel through which larger molecules must be actively transported by carrier proteins while allowing free movement of small molecules and ions . Movement of large molecules such as proteins and RNA through the pores is required for both gene expression and the maintenance of chromosomes . Although the interior of the nucleus does not contain any membrane @-@ bound sub compartments , its contents are not uniform , and a number of sub @-@ nuclear bodies exist , made up of unique proteins , RNA molecules , and particular parts of the chromosomes . The best @-@ known of these is the nucleolus , which is mainly involved in the assembly of ribosomes . After being produced in the nucleolus , ribosomes are exported to the cytoplasm where they translate mRNA .
= = History = =
The nucleus was the first organelle to be discovered . What is most likely the oldest preserved drawing dates back to the early microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek ( 1632 – 1723 ) . He observed a " lumen " , the nucleus , in the red blood cells of salmon . Unlike mammalian red blood cells , those of other vertebrates still contain nuclei .
The nucleus was also described by Franz Bauer in 1804 and in more detail in 1831 by Scottish botanist Robert Brown in a talk at the Linnean Society of London . Brown was studying orchids under microscope when he observed an opaque area , which he called the " areola " or " nucleus " , in the cells of the flower 's outer layer .
He did not suggest a potential function . In 1838 , Matthias Schleiden proposed that the nucleus plays a role in generating cells , thus he introduced the name " cytoblast " ( cell builder ) . He believed that he had observed new cells assembling around " cytoblasts " . Franz Meyen was a strong opponent of this view , having already described cells multiplying by division and believing that many cells would have no nuclei . The idea that cells can be generated de novo , by the " cytoblast " or otherwise , contradicted work by Robert Remak ( 1852 ) and Rudolf Virchow ( 1855 ) who decisively propagated the new paradigm that cells are generated solely by cells ( " Omnis cellula e cellula " ) . The function of the nucleus remained unclear .
Between 1877 and 1878 , Oscar Hertwig published several studies on the fertilization of sea urchin eggs , showing that the nucleus of the sperm enters the oocyte and fuses with its nucleus . This was the first time it was suggested that an individual develops from a ( single ) nucleated cell . This was in contradiction to Ernst Haeckel 's theory that the complete phylogeny of a species would be repeated during embryonic development , including generation of the first nucleated cell from a " monerula " , a structureless mass of primordial mucus ( " Urschleim " ) . Therefore , the necessity of the sperm nucleus for fertilization was discussed for quite some time . However , Hertwig confirmed his observation in other animal groups , including amphibians and molluscs . Eduard Strasburger produced the same results for plants in 1884 . This paved the way to assign the nucleus an important role in heredity . In 1873 , August Weismann postulated the equivalence of the maternal and paternal germ cells for heredity . The function of the nucleus as carrier of genetic information became clear only later , after mitosis was discovered and the Mendelian rules were rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century ; the chromosome theory of heredity was therefore developed .
= = Structures = =
The nucleus is the largest cellular organelle in animal cells . In mammalian cells , the average diameter of the nucleus is approximately 6 micrometres ( µm ) , which occupies about 10 % of the total cell volume . The viscous liquid within it is called nucleoplasm , and is similar in composition to the cytosol found outside the nucleus . It appears as a dense , roughly spherical or irregular organelle .
= = = Nuclear envelope and pores = = =
The nuclear envelope , otherwise known as nuclear membrane , consists of two cellular membranes , an inner and an outer membrane , arranged parallel to one another and separated by 10 to 50 nanometres ( nm ) . The nuclear envelope completely encloses the nucleus and separates the cell 's genetic material from the surrounding cytoplasm , serving as a barrier to prevent macromolecules from diffusing freely between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm . The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum ( RER ) , and is similarly studded with ribosomes . The space between the membranes is called the perinuclear space and is continuous with the RER lumen .
Nuclear pores , which provide aqueous channels through the envelope , are composed of multiple proteins , collectively referred to as nucleoporins . The pores are about 125 million daltons in molecular weight and consist of around 50 ( in yeast ) to several hundred proteins ( in vertebrates ) . The pores are 100 nm in total diameter ; however , the gap through which molecules freely diffuse is only about 9 nm wide , due to the presence of regulatory systems within the center of the pore . This size selectively allows the passage of small water @-@ soluble molecules while preventing larger molecules , such as nucleic acids and larger proteins , from inappropriately entering or exiting the nucleus . These large molecules must be actively transported into the nucleus instead . The nucleus of a typical mammalian cell will have about 3000 to 4000 pores throughout its envelope , each of which contains an eightfold @-@ symmetric ring @-@ shaped structure at a position where the inner and outer membranes fuse . Attached to the ring is a structure called the nuclear basket that extends into the nucleoplasm , and a series of filamentous extensions that reach into the cytoplasm . Both structures serve to mediate binding to nuclear transport proteins .
Most proteins , ribosomal subunits , and some DNAs are transported through the pore complexes in a process mediated by a family of transport factors known as karyopherins . Those karyopherins that mediate movement into the nucleus are also called importins , whereas those that mediate movement out of the nucleus are called exportins . Most karyopherins interact directly with their cargo , although some use adaptor proteins . Steroid hormones such as cortisol and aldosterone , as well as other small lipid @-@ soluble molecules involved in intercellular signaling , can diffuse through the cell membrane and into the cytoplasm , where they bind nuclear receptor proteins that are trafficked into the nucleus . There they serve as transcription factors when bound to their ligand ; in the absence of ligand , many such receptors function as histone deacetylases that repress gene expression .
= = = Nuclear lamina = = =
In animal cells , two networks of intermediate filaments provide the nucleus with mechanical support : The nuclear lamina forms an organized meshwork on the internal face of the envelope , while less organized support is provided on the cytosolic face of the envelope . Both systems provide structural support for the nuclear envelope and anchoring sites for chromosomes and nuclear pores .
The nuclear lamina is composed mostly of lamin proteins . Like all proteins , lamins are synthesized in the cytoplasm and later transported to the nucleus interior , where they are assembled before being incorporated into the existing network of nuclear lamina . Lamins found on the cytosolic face of the membrane , such as emerin and nesprin , bind to the cytoskeleton to provide structural support . Lamins are also found inside the nucleoplasm where they form another regular structure , known as the nucleoplasmic veil , that is visible using fluorescence microscopy . The actual function of the veil is not clear , although it is excluded from the nucleolus and is present during interphase . Lamin structures that make up the veil , such as LEM3 , bind chromatin and disrupting their structure inhibits transcription of protein @-@ coding genes .
Like the components of other intermediate filaments , the lamin monomer contains an alpha @-@ helical domain used by two monomers to coil around each other , forming a dimer structure called a coiled coil . Two of these dimer structures then join side by side , in an antiparallel arrangement , to form a tetramer called a protofilament . Eight of these protofilaments form a lateral arrangement that is twisted to form a ropelike filament . These filaments can be assembled or disassembled in a dynamic manner , meaning that changes in the length of the filament depend on the competing rates of filament addition and removal .
Mutations in lamin genes leading to defects in filament assembly cause a group of rare genetic disorders known as laminopathies . The most notable laminopathy is the family of diseases known as progeria , which causes the appearance of premature aging in its sufferers . The exact mechanism by which the associated biochemical changes give rise to the aged phenotype is not well understood .
= = = Chromosomes = = =
The cell nucleus contains the majority of the cell 's genetic material in the form of multiple linear DNA molecules organized into structures called chromosomes . Each human cell contains roughly two meters of DNA . During most of the cell cycle these are organized in a DNA @-@ protein complex known as chromatin , and during cell division the chromatin can be seen to form the well @-@ defined chromosomes familiar from a karyotype . A small fraction of the cell 's genes are located instead in the mitochondria .
There are two types of chromatin . Euchromatin is the less compact DNA form , and contains genes that are frequently expressed by the cell . The other type , heterochromatin , is the more compact form , and contains DNA that is infrequently transcribed . This structure is further categorized into facultative heterochromatin , consisting of genes that are organized as heterochromatin only in certain cell types or at certain stages of development , and constitutive heterochromatin that consists of chromosome structural components such as telomeres and centromeres . During interphase the chromatin organizes itself into discrete individual patches , called chromosome territories . Active genes , which are generally found in the euchromatic region of the chromosome , tend to be located towards the chromosome 's territory boundary .
Antibodies to certain types of chromatin organization , in particular , nucleosomes , have been associated with a number of autoimmune diseases , such as systemic lupus erythematosus . These are known as anti @-@ nuclear antibodies ( ANA ) and have also been observed in concert with multiple sclerosis as part of general immune system dysfunction . As in the case of progeria , the role played by the antibodies in inducing the symptoms of autoimmune diseases is not obvious .
= = = Nucleolus = = =
The nucleolus is a discrete densely stained structure found in the nucleus . It is not surrounded by a membrane , and is sometimes called a suborganelle . It forms around tandem repeats of rDNA , DNA coding for ribosomal RNA ( rRNA ) . These regions are called nucleolar organizer regions ( NOR ) . The main roles of the nucleolus are to synthesize rRNA and assemble ribosomes . The structural cohesion of the nucleolus depends on its activity , as ribosomal assembly in the nucleolus results in the transient association of nucleolar components , facilitating further ribosomal assembly , and hence further association . This model is supported by observations that inactivation of rDNA results in intermingling of nucleolar structures .
In the first step of ribosome assembly , a protein called RNA polymerase I transcribes rDNA , which forms a large pre @-@ rRNA precursor . This is cleaved into the subunits 5.8S , 18S , and 28S rRNA . The transcription , post @-@ transcriptional processing , and assembly of rRNA occurs in the nucleolus , aided by small nucleolar RNA ( snoRNA ) molecules , some of which are derived from spliced introns from messenger RNAs encoding genes related to ribosomal function . The assembled ribosomal subunits are the largest structures passed through the nuclear pores .
When observed under the electron microscope , the nucleolus can be seen to consist of three distinguishable regions : the innermost fibrillar centers ( FCs ) , surrounded by the dense fibrillar component ( DFC ) , which in turn is bordered by the granular component ( GC ) . Transcription of the rDNA occurs either in the FC or at the FC @-@ DFC boundary , and , therefore , when rDNA transcription in the cell is increased , more FCs are detected . Most of the cleavage and modification of rRNAs occurs in the DFC , while the latter steps involving protein assembly onto the ribosomal subunits occur in the GC .
= = = Other subnuclear bodies = = =
Besides the nucleolus , the nucleus contains a number of other non @-@ membrane @-@ delineated bodies . These include Cajal bodies , Gemini of coiled bodies , polymorphic interphase karyosomal association ( PIKA ) , promyelocytic leukaemia ( PML ) bodies , paraspeckles , and splicing speckles . Although little is known about a number of these domains , they are significant in that they show that the nucleoplasm is not a uniform mixture , but rather contains organized functional subdomains .
Other subnuclear structures appear as part of abnormal disease processes . For example , the presence of small intranuclear rods has been reported in some cases of nemaline myopathy . This condition typically results from mutations in actin , and the rods themselves consist of mutant actin as well as other cytoskeletal proteins .
= = = = Cajal bodies and gems = = = =
A nucleus typically contains between 1 and 10 compact structures called Cajal bodies or coiled bodies ( CB ) , whose diameter measures between 0 @.@ 2 µm and 2 @.@ 0 µm depending on the cell type and species . When seen under an electron microscope , they resemble balls of tangled thread and are dense foci of distribution for the protein coilin . CBs are involved in a number of different roles relating to RNA processing , specifically small nucleolar RNA ( snoRNA ) and small nuclear RNA ( snRNA ) maturation , and histone mRNA modification .
Similar to Cajal bodies are Gemini of Cajal bodies , or gems , whose name is derived from the Gemini constellation in reference to their close " twin " relationship with CBs . Gems are similar in size and shape to CBs , and in fact are virtually indistinguishable under the microscope . Unlike CBs , gems do not contain small nuclear ribonucleoproteins ( snRNPs ) , but do contain a protein called survival of motor neuron ( SMN ) whose function relates to snRNP biogenesis . Gems are believed to assist CBs in snRNP biogenesis , though it has also been suggested from microscopy evidence that CBs and gems are different manifestations of the same structure . Later ultrastructural studies have shown gems to be twins of Cajal bodies with the difference being in the coilin component ; Cajal bodies are SMN positive and coilin positive , and gems are SMN positive and coilin negative .
= = = = RAFA and PTF domains = = = =
RAFA domains , or polymorphic interphase karyosomal associations , were first described in microscopy studies in 1991 . Their function remains unclear , though they were not thought to be associated with active DNA replication , transcription , or RNA processing . They have been found to often associate with discrete domains defined by dense localization of the transcription factor PTF , which promotes transcription of small nuclear RNA ( snRNA ) .
= = = = PML bodies = = = =
Promyelocytic leukaemia bodies ( PML bodies ) are spherical bodies found scattered throughout the nucleoplasm , measuring around 0 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 0 µm . They are known by a number of other names , including nuclear domain 10 ( ND10 ) , Kremer bodies , and PML oncogenic domains . PML bodies are named after one of their major components , the promyelocytic leukemia protein ( PML ) . They are often seen in the nucleus in association with Cajal bodies and cleavage bodies . PML bodies belong to the nuclear matrix , an ill @-@ defined super @-@ structure of the nucleus proposed to anchor and regulate many nuclear functions , including DNA replication , transcription , or epigenetic silencing . The PML protein is the key organizer of these domains that recruits an ever @-@ growing number of proteins , whose only common known feature to date is their ability to be SUMOylated . Yet , pml- / - mice ( which have their PML gene deleted ) cannot assemble nuclear bodies , develop normally and live well , demonstrating that PML bodies are dispensable for most basic biological functions .
= = = = Splicing speckles = = = =
Speckles are subnuclear structures that are enriched in pre @-@ messenger RNA splicing factors and are located in the interchromatin regions of the nucleoplasm of mammalian cells . At the fluorescence @-@ microscope level they appear as irregular , punctate structures , which vary in size and shape , and when examined by electron microscopy they are seen as clusters of interchromatin granules . Speckles are dynamic structures , and both their protein and RNA @-@ protein components can cycle continuously between speckles and other nuclear locations , including active transcription sites . Studies on the composition , structure and behaviour of speckles have provided a model for understanding the functional compartmentalization of the nucleus and the organization of the gene @-@ expression machinery splicing snRNPs and other splicing proteins necessary for pre @-@ mRNA processing . Because of a cell 's changing requirements , the composition and location of these bodies changes according to mRNA transcription and regulation via phosphorylation of specific proteins . The splicing speckles are also known as nuclear speckles ( nuclear specks ) , splicing factor compartments ( SF compartments ) , interchromatin granule clusters ( IGCs ) , B snurposomes . B snurposomes are found in the amphibian oocyte nuclei and in Drosophila melanogaster embryos . B snurposomes appear alone or attached to the Cajal bodies in the electron micrographs of the amphibian nuclei . IGCs function as storage sites for the splicing factors .
= = = = Paraspeckles = = = =
Discovered by Fox et al. in 2002 , paraspeckles are irregularly shaped compartments in the nucleus ' interchromatin space . First documented in HeLa cells , where there are generally 10 – 30 per nucleus , paraspeckles are now known to also exist in all human primary cells , transformed cell lines , and tissue sections . Their name is derived from their distribution in the nucleus ; the " para " is short for parallel and the " speckles " refers to the splicing speckles to which they are always in close proximity .
Paraspeckles are dynamic structures that are altered in response to changes in cellular metabolic activity . They are transcription dependent and in the absence of RNA Pol II transcription , the paraspeckle disappears and all of its associated protein components ( PSP1 , p54nrb , PSP2 , CFI ( m ) 68 , and PSF ) form a crescent shaped perinucleolar cap in the nucleolus . This phenomenon is demonstrated during the cell cycle . In the cell cycle , paraspeckles are present during interphase and during all of mitosis except for telophase . During telophase , when the two daughter nuclei are formed , there is no RNA Pol II transcription so the protein components instead form a perinucleolar cap .
= = = = Perichromatin fibrils = = = =
Perichromatin fibrils are visible only under electron microscope . They are located next to the transcriptionally active chromatin and are hypothesized to be the sites of active pre @-@ mRNA processing .
= = Function = =
The nucleus provides a site for genetic transcription that is segregated from the location of translation in the cytoplasm , allowing levels of gene regulation that are not available to prokaryotes . The main function of the cell nucleus is to control gene expression and mediate the replication of DNA during the cell cycle .
The nucleus is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells . Inside its fully enclosed nuclear membrane , it contains the majority of the cell 's genetic material . This material is organized as DNA molecules , along with a variety of proteins , to form chromosomes .
= = = Cell compartmentalization = = =
The nuclear envelope allows the nucleus to control its contents , and separate them from the rest of the cytoplasm where necessary . This is important for controlling processes on either side of the nuclear membrane . In most cases where a cytoplasmic process needs to be restricted , a key participant is removed to the nucleus , where it interacts with transcription factors to downregulate the production of certain enzymes in the pathway . This regulatory mechanism occurs in the case of glycolysis , a cellular pathway for breaking down glucose to produce energy . Hexokinase is an enzyme responsible for the first the step of glycolysis , forming glucose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate from glucose . At high concentrations of fructose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate , a molecule made later from glucose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate , a regulator protein removes hexokinase to the nucleus , where it forms a transcriptional repressor complex with nuclear proteins to reduce the expression of genes involved in glycolysis .
In order to control which genes are being transcribed , the cell separates some transcription factor proteins responsible for regulating gene expression from physical access to the DNA until they are activated by other signaling pathways . This prevents even low levels of inappropriate gene expression . For example , in the case of NF @-@ κB @-@ controlled genes , which are involved in most inflammatory responses , transcription is induced in response to a signal pathway such as that initiated by the signaling molecule TNF @-@ α , binds to a cell membrane receptor , resulting in the recruitment of signalling proteins , and eventually activating the transcription factor NF @-@ κB . A nuclear localisation signal on the NF @-@ κB protein allows it to be transported through the nuclear pore and into the nucleus , where it stimulates the transcription of the target genes .
The compartmentalization allows the cell to prevent translation of unspliced mRNA . Eukaryotic mRNA contains introns that must be removed before being translated to produce functional proteins . The splicing is done inside the nucleus before the mRNA can be accessed by ribosomes for translation . Without the nucleus , ribosomes would translate newly transcribed ( unprocessed ) mRNA , resulting in malformed and nonfunctional proteins .
= = = Gene expression = = =
Gene expression first involves transcription , in which DNA is used as a template to produce RNA . In the case of genes encoding proteins , that RNA produced from this process is messenger RNA ( mRNA ) , which then needs to be translated by ribosomes to form a protein . As ribosomes are located outside the nucleus , mRNA produced needs to be exported .
Since the nucleus is the site of transcription , it also contains a variety of proteins that either directly mediate transcription or are involved in regulating the process . These proteins include helicases , which unwind the double @-@ stranded DNA molecule to facilitate access to it , RNA polymerases , which synthesize the growing RNA molecule , topoisomerases , which change the amount of supercoiling in DNA , helping it wind and unwind , as well as a large variety of transcription factors that regulate expression .
= = = Processing of pre @-@ mRNA = = =
Newly synthesized mRNA molecules are known as primary transcripts or pre @-@ mRNA . They must undergo post @-@ transcriptional modification in the nucleus before being exported to the cytoplasm ; mRNA that appears in the cytoplasm without these modifications is degraded rather than used for protein translation . The three main modifications are 5 ' capping , 3 ' polyadenylation , and RNA splicing . While in the nucleus , pre @-@ mRNA is associated with a variety of proteins in complexes known as heterogeneous ribonucleoprotein particles ( hnRNPs ) . Addition of the 5 ' cap occurs co @-@ transcriptionally and is the first step in post @-@ transcriptional modification . The 3 ' poly @-@ adenine tail is only added after transcription is complete .
RNA splicing , carried out by a complex called the spliceosome , is the process by which introns , or regions of DNA that do not code for protein , are removed from the pre @-@ mRNA and the remaining exons connected to re @-@ form a single continuous molecule . This process normally occurs after 5 ' capping and 3 ' polyadenylation but can begin before synthesis is complete in transcripts with many exons . Many pre @-@ mRNAs , including those encoding antibodies , can be spliced in multiple ways to produce different mature mRNAs that encode different protein sequences . This process is known as alternative splicing , and allows production of a large variety of proteins from a limited amount of DNA .
= = Dynamics and regulation = =
= = = Nuclear transport = = =
The entry and exit of large molecules from the nucleus is tightly controlled by the nuclear pore complexes . Although small molecules can enter the nucleus without regulation , macromolecules such as RNA and proteins require association karyopherins called importins to enter the nucleus and exportins to exit . " Cargo " proteins that must be translocated from the cytoplasm to the nucleus contain short amino acid sequences known as nuclear localization signals , which are bound by importins , while those transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm carry nuclear export signals bound by exportins . The ability of importins and exportins to transport their cargo is regulated by GTPases , enzymes that hydrolyze the molecule guanosine triphosphate to release energy . The key GTPase in nuclear transport is Ran , which can bind either GTP or GDP ( guanosine diphosphate ) , depending on whether it is located in the nucleus or the cytoplasm . Whereas importins depend on RanGTP to dissociate from their cargo , exportins require RanGTP in order to bind to their cargo .
Nuclear import depends on the importin binding its cargo in the cytoplasm and carrying it through the nuclear pore into the nucleus . Inside the nucleus , RanGTP acts to separate the cargo from the importin , allowing the importin to exit the nucleus and be reused . Nuclear export is similar , as the exportin binds the cargo inside the nucleus in a process facilitated by RanGTP , exits through the nuclear pore , and separates from its cargo in the cytoplasm .
Specialized export proteins exist for translocation of mature mRNA and tRNA to the cytoplasm after post @-@ transcriptional modification is complete . This quality @-@ control mechanism is important due to these molecules ' central role in protein translation . Mis @-@ expression of a protein due to incomplete excision of exons or mis @-@ incorporation of amino acids could have negative consequences for the cell
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; thus , incompletely modified RNA that reaches the cytoplasm is degraded rather than used in translation .
= = = Assembly and disassembly = = =
During its lifetime , a nucleus may be broken down or destroyed , either in the process of cell division or as a consequence of apoptosis ( the process of programmed cell death ) . During these events , the structural components of the nucleus — the envelope and lamina — can be systematically degraded . In most cells , the disassembly of the nuclear envelope marks the end of the prophase of mitosis . However , this disassembly of the nucleus is not a universal feature of mitosis and does not occur in all cells . Some unicellular eukaryotes ( e.g. , yeasts ) undergo so @-@ called closed mitosis , in which the nuclear envelope remains intact . In closed mitosis , the daughter chromosomes migrate to opposite poles of the nucleus , which then divides in two . The cells of higher eukaryotes , however , usually undergo open mitosis , which is characterized by breakdown of the nuclear envelope . The daughter chromosomes then migrate to opposite poles of the mitotic spindle , and new nuclei reassemble around them .
At a certain point during the cell cycle in open mitosis , the cell divides to form two cells . In order for this process to be possible , each of the new daughter cells must have a full set of genes , a process requiring replication of the chromosomes as well as segregation of the separate sets . This occurs by the replicated chromosomes , the sister chromatids , attaching to microtubules , which in turn are attached to different centrosomes . The sister chromatids can then be pulled to separate locations in the cell . In many cells , the centrosome is located in the cytoplasm , outside the nucleus ; the microtubules would be unable to attach to the chromatids in the presence of the nuclear envelope . Therefore , the early stages in the cell cycle , beginning in prophase and until around prometaphase , the nuclear membrane is dismantled . Likewise , during the same period , the nuclear lamina is also disassembled , a process regulated by phosphorylation of the lamins by protein kinases such as the CDC2 protein kinase . Towards the end of the cell cycle , the nuclear membrane is reformed , and around the same time , the nuclear lamina are reassembled by dephosphorylating the lamins .
However , in dinoflagellates , the nuclear envelope remains intact , the centrosomes are located in the cytoplasm , and the microtubules come in contact with chromosomes , whose centromeric regions are incorporated into the nuclear envelope ( the so @-@ called closed mitosis with extranuclear spindle ) . In many other protists ( e.g. , ciliates , sporozoans ) and fungi , the centrosomes are intranuclear , and their nuclear envelope also does not disassemle during cell division .
Apoptosis is a controlled process in which the cell 's structural components are destroyed , resulting in death of the cell . Changes associated with apoptosis directly affect the nucleus and its contents , for example , in the condensation of chromatin and the disintegration of the nuclear envelope and lamina . The destruction of the lamin networks is controlled by specialized apoptotic proteases called caspases , which cleave the lamin proteins and , thus , degrade the nucleus ' structural integrity . Lamin cleavage is sometimes used as a laboratory indicator of caspase activity in assays for early apoptotic activity . Cells that express mutant caspase @-@ resistant lamins are deficient in nuclear changes related to apoptosis , suggesting that lamins play a role in initiating the events that lead to apoptotic degradation of the nucleus . Inhibition of lamin assembly itself is an inducer of apoptosis .
The nuclear envelope acts as a barrier that prevents both DNA and RNA viruses from entering the nucleus . Some viruses require access to proteins inside the nucleus in order to replicate and / or assemble . DNA viruses , such as herpesvirus replicate and assemble in the cell nucleus , and exit by budding through the inner nuclear membrane . This process is accompanied by disassembly of the lamina on the nuclear face of the inner membrane .
= = = Disease @-@ related dynamics = = =
Initially , it has been suspected that immunoglobulins in general and autoantibodies in particular do not enter the nucleus . Now there is a body of evidence that under pathological conditions ( e.g. lupus erythematosus ) IgG can enter the nucleus .
= = Nuclei per cell = =
Most eukaryotic cell types usually have a single nucleus , but some have no nuclei , while others have several . This can result from normal development , as in the maturation of mammalian red blood cells , or from faulty cell division .
= = = Anucleated cells = = =
An anucleated cell contains no nucleus and is , therefore , incapable of dividing to produce daughter cells . The best @-@ known anucleated cell is the mammalian red blood cell , or erythrocyte , which also lacks other organelles such as mitochondria , and serves primarily as a transport vessel to ferry oxygen from the lungs to the body 's tissues . Erythrocytes mature through erythropoiesis in the bone marrow , where they lose their nuclei , organelles , and ribosomes . The nucleus is expelled during the process of differentiation from an erythroblast to a reticulocyte , which is the immediate precursor of the mature erythrocyte . The presence of mutagens may induce the release of some immature " micronucleated " erythrocytes into the bloodstream . Anucleated cells can also arise from flawed cell division in which one daughter lacks a nucleus and the other has two nuclei .
In flowering plants , this condition occurs in sieve tube elements .
= = = Multinucleated cells = = =
Multinucleated cells contain multiple nuclei . Most acantharean species of protozoa and some fungi in mycorrhizae have naturally multinucleated cells . Other examples include the intestinal parasites in the genus Giardia , which have two nuclei per cell . In humans , skeletal muscle cells , called myocytes and syncytium , become multinucleated during development ; the resulting arrangement of nuclei near the periphery of the cells allows maximal intracellular space for myofibrils . Multinucleated and binucleated cells can also be abnormal in humans ; for example , cells arising from the fusion of monocytes and macrophages , known as giant multinucleated cells , sometimes accompany inflammation and are also implicated in tumor formation .
A number of dinoflagelates are known to have two nuclei . Unlike other multinucleated cells these nuclei contain two distinct lineages of DNA : one from the dinoflagelate and the other from a symbiotic diatom . Curiously the mitochondrion and the plastid of the diatom remain functional .
= = Evolution = =
As the major defining characteristic of the eukaryotic cell , the nucleus ' evolutionary origin has been the subject of much speculation . Four major hypotheses have been proposed to explain the existence of the nucleus , although none have yet earned widespread support .
The first model known as the " syntrophic model " proposes that a symbiotic relationship between the archaea and bacteria created the nucleus @-@ containing eukaryotic cell . ( Organisms of the Archaea and Bacteria domain have no cell nucleus . ) It is hypothesized that the symbiosis originated when ancient archaea , similar to modern methanogenic archaea , invaded and lived within bacteria similar to modern myxobacteria , eventually forming the early nucleus . This theory is analogous to the accepted theory for the origin of eukaryotic mitochondria and chloroplasts , which are thought to have developed from a similar endosymbiotic relationship between proto @-@ eukaryotes and aerobic bacteria . The archaeal origin of the nucleus is supported by observations that archaea and eukarya have similar genes for certain proteins , including histones . Observations that myxobacteria are motile , can form multicellular complexes , and possess kinases and G proteins similar to eukarya , support a bacterial origin for the eukaryotic cell .
A second model proposes that proto @-@ eukaryotic cells evolved from bacteria without an endosymbiotic stage . This model is based on the existence of modern planctomycetes bacteria that possess a nuclear structure with primitive pores and other compartmentalized membrane structures . A similar proposal states that a eukaryote @-@ like cell , the chronocyte , evolved first and phagocytosed archaea and bacteria to generate the nucleus and the eukaryotic cell .
The most controversial model , known as viral eukaryogenesis , posits that the membrane @-@ bound nucleus , along with other eukaryotic features , originated from the infection of a prokaryote by a virus . The suggestion is based on similarities between eukaryotes and viruses such as linear DNA strands , mRNA capping , and tight binding to proteins ( analogizing histones to viral envelopes ) . One version of the proposal suggests that the nucleus evolved in concert with phagocytosis to form an early cellular " predator " . Another variant proposes that eukaryotes originated from early archaea infected by poxviruses , on the basis of observed similarity between the DNA polymerases in modern poxviruses and eukaryotes . It has been suggested that the unresolved question of the evolution of sex could be related to the viral eukaryogenesis hypothesis .
A more recent proposal , the exomembrane hypothesis , suggests that the nucleus instead originated from a single ancestral cell that evolved a second exterior cell membrane ; the interior membrane enclosing the original cell then became the nuclear membrane and evolved increasingly elaborate pore structures for passage of internally synthesized cellular components such as ribosomal subunits .
= = Gallery = =
= Until the Whole World Hears =
Until the Whole World Hears is the fourth studio album by American Christian rock band Casting Crowns . Released on November 27 , 2009 , the album was produced by Mark . A Miller and features a sound that has been described as ' pure American rock ' , ' soft adult contemporary ' , and ' CCM ' . Lyrically , the album discusses Christian subjects such as God , Jesus , and salvation , with several songs being reinventions of classic hymns . Until the Whole World Hears sold over 167 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , Casting Crowns ' highest sales week to date , and debuted at No. 4 on the Billboard 200 and at No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Albums chart . In the United States , the album ranked as the 37th best @-@ selling album of 2010 and the 137th best @-@ selling album of 2011 ; it ranked as the first and third best @-@ selling Christian album in those years , respectively . It has sold over 1 @.@ 1 million copies and been certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
Until the Whole World Hears received a mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reception from critics and was nominated for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year at the 42nd GMA Dove Awards . Three singles were released from the album : the title track , " If We 've Ever Needed You " , and " Glorious Day ( Living He Loved Me ) " . The title track and " Glorious Day ( Living He Loved Me ) " both peaked atop the Billboard Christian Songs chart , while the latter also peaked at No. 2 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart ; " If We 've Ever Needed You " peaked at No. 5 on the Christian Songs chart . Two album cuts , " To Know You " and " Joyful , Joyful " , also appeared on the Christian Songs chart , peaking at numbers 27 and 3 , respectively .
= = Background and songwriting = =
Casting Crowns ' lead vocalist Mark Hall has stated that the band 's songs " have always come from our ministry in the church . They start as messages on Wednesday night , things we 're teaching our teenagers and their families " ; Until the Whole World Hears retains that same formula . Hall also stated that the musical sound of their songs is written so as not to conflict or detract from the lyrics , comparing the musical elements of his songs to a plate that the ' meat ' , the lyrics , are served on . A philosophy that " fuels " the album is the idea of putting " faith in action " ; Hall stated that he wanted believers to become more active in their faith , and to " get out of their pews and get involved in what God is doing " . " Always Enough " was written when a member of Hall 's church was killed in Afghanistan ; the band was unable to attend his funeral , as they were on the other side of the United States and couldn 't cancel their tour dates . Another song on the album , the title track , was inspired by the Biblical character of John the Baptist . Several songs on the album are reinventions of hymns , which Hall enjoyed experimenting with ; Hall retained the lyrics of the songs while reworking their melodies .
Until the Whole World Hears was produced by Mark A. Miller ; its executive producer was Terry Hemmings . It was recorded by Sam Hewitt , Michael Hewitt , and Dale Oliver at Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee ; the string instrument tracks on the title track and " Always Enough " were recorded by Bobby Shin at Little Big Sound Studio in Nashville , Tennessee , while the string instrument tracks on " If We 've Ever Needed You " and " Joyful , Joyful " were recorded by John Painter and Leslie Richter at Ocean Way in Nashville . Crowd vocals on the title track and " Blessed Redeemer " were recorded by Carter Hassebroek , Darren Hughes and Billy Lord at Eagle 's Landing Baptist Church in McDonough , Georgia . Digital editing was handled by Michael Hewitt , while mixing was handled by Sam Hewitt . The album was mastered by Andrew Mendelson , Shelly Anderson , Natthaphol Abhigantaphand and Daniel Bacigalupi at Georgetown Masters in Nashville .
= = Composition = =
The overall sound of Until the Whole World Hears has been described as ' pure American rock ' , ' soft adult contemporary ' , and ' CCM ' . Robert Ham of Christianity Today regarded the album as comparable to the sound of rock bands Creed and Nickelback . One critic observed that most of the songs on the album " start off with chords plunked out on a piano or strummed slowly on a guitar , letting the song build slowly toward a massive wave of sound " . The title track has been described as having a " real rock vibe " infused by electric guitar riffs , while " Shadow of Your Wings " has been described as an " unashamed rock @-@ n @-@ roll jam " . " Joyful , Joyful " is driven by a " pulsing " and " driving " string section that " calls to mind Coldplay 's ' Viva la Vida ' " . " Mercy " and " Blessed Redeemer " feature female @-@ fronted vocals , the former sung by Megan Garrett and the latter sung by Melodee DeVevo ; on " At Your Feet " , Hector Cervantes and Juan DeVevo joining Mark Hall on vocals .
Every track on Until the Whole World Hears features references to Christian subjects such as God , Jesus , and salvation . " Joyful , Joyful " , " Blessed Redeemer " , and " Glorious Day ( Living He Loved Me ) " were adopted from classic hymns . " Holy One " and " Shadow of Your Wings " are taken almost word for word from the Book of Psalms . " If We 've Ever Needed You " and " Always Enough " are " darker inspirational anthems " , while other songs explore themes such as repentance and forgiveness .
= = Release and sales = =
Until the Whole World Hears had first @-@ week sales of 167 @,@ 000 copies , Casting Crowns ' best sales week to date ; the album 's high first @-@ week sales enabled a No. 4 debut on the Billboard 200 . It also debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Albums chart and at No. 12 on the Billboard Digital Albums chart . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the album Platinum , signifying shipments of over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies . By April 2011 Until the Whole World Hears had sold over 800 @,@ 000 copies , and as of March 2014 the album has sold 1 @.@ 1 million copies . Billboard magazine ranked Until the Whole World Hears as the best @-@ selling Christian album and the 37th best @-@ selling album overall of 2010 . It also ranked as the 3rd best @-@ selling Christian album and the 137th best @-@ selling album overall of 2011 .
Three singles were released from Until the Whole World Hears . The title track was released as the album 's lead single and peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Songs chart and at No. 23 on the Billboard Heatseekers Songs chart . " If We 've Ever Needed You " , the second single released from the album , peaked at No. 5 on the Christian Songs chart . " Glorious Day ( Living He Loved Me ) " was released as the third single off the album and peaked atop the Christian Songs chart . It also peaked at No. 2 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart and at No. 20 on the Heatseekers Songs chart . Two other songs off the album , " To Know You " and " Joyful , Joyful " , appeared on the Christian Songs chart ; they peaked at numbers 27 and 3 , respectively .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Until the Whole World Hears met with an overall mixed to positive response from critics . Several critics regarded the musical aspects of the album as mediocre or sub @-@ par , while others praised the album 's lyrical content . Jared Johnson of Allmusic gave the album four out of five stars and described it as a " powerful worship experience " , but also stated that " some might wonder how a little more variety would sound from such experienced professionals ... the band 's core sound continues to land in the AC cross hairs " . Andrew Greer of CCM Magazine commented that the album " ups the musical ante a bit , with some borderline poetic verses and interesting musical riffs " , but also commented that " many of these tracks still suffer from the ' Crowns Cliché Syndrome , ' using lyrical Christian @-@ ese to produce trite rhymes that seem hard @-@ pressed to energize a ready @-@ to @-@ worship crowd " . Robert Ham of Christianity Today criticized the album for using what he deemed as a repetitive musical formula , but also praised the song " Joyful , Joyful " , which he compared to Coldplay 's song " Viva la Vida " , as well as Megan 's Garrett 's vocals on " Mercy " . He concluded that Until the Whole World Hears " feels like a step backward creatively " . At Cross Rhythms , Tony Cummings rated the album seven out of ten squares , saying " this album is a little disappointing considering some of the glories that preceeded [ sic ] it . "
Debra Akins of Gospel Music Channel.com said the album " follows successfully in the footsteps of its predecessors " and " should further solidify Casting Crowns as a staple artist for Christian music fans everywhere " . Roger Gelwicks of Jesus Freak Hideout gave Until the Whole World Hears two out of five stars , opining that " Casting Crowns has come down to a whole new low , such that it could be their most unremarkable record to date " and that " it is almost insulting to the listener to believe that one is supposed to find this project profound or listenable " . Paul Asay of Plugged In stated that " With appropriate apologies to the many talented and successful acts that straddle the secular and spiritual with their tunes , it 's great to have a band that speaks to the Christian heart with such power and eloquence — without apology " .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
Until the Whole World Hears was nominated for the Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year at the 42nd GMA Dove Awards Two of its three singles also received award nominations ; its title track was nominated for Pop / Contemporary Record Song of the Year at the 41st GMA Dove Awards , and " Glorious Day ( Living He Loved Me ) " has been nominated for Song of the Year and Worship Song of the Year at the 43rd GMA Dove Awards . It was nominated for Top Christian Album at the 2012 Billboard Music Awards .
= = Track listing = =
( Credits lifted from the album liner notes )
= = Personnel = =
( Credits lifted from the album liner notes )
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Album charts = = =
= = = Song charts = = =
= = = Certifications = = =
| }
= Ceres ( dwarf planet ) =
Ceres ( / ˈsɪəriːz / ; minor @-@ planet designation : 1 Ceres ) is the largest object in the asteroid belt that lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter . Its diameter is approximately 945 kilometers ( 587 miles ) , making it the largest of the minor planets within the orbit of Neptune . The thirty @-@ third @-@ largest known body in the Solar System , it is the only one identified orbiting entirely within the orbit of Neptune that is a dwarf planet . Composed of rock and ice , Ceres is estimated to comprise approximately one third of the mass of the entire asteroid belt . Ceres is the only object in the asteroid belt known to be rounded by its own gravity . From Earth , the apparent magnitude of Ceres ranges from 6 @.@ 7 to 9 @.@ 3 , and hence even at its brightest , it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye , except under extremely dark skies .
Ceres was the first asteroid discovered , by Giuseppe Piazzi at Palermo on 1 January 1801 . It was originally considered a planet , but was reclassified as an asteroid in the 1850s when many other objects in similar orbits were discovered .
Ceres appears to be differentiated into a rocky core and icy mantle , and may have a remnant internal ocean of liquid water under the layer of ice . The surface is probably a mixture of water ice and various hydrated minerals such as carbonates and clay . In January 2014 , emissions of water vapor were detected from several regions of Ceres . This was unexpected , because large bodies in the asteroid belt do not typically emit vapor , a hallmark of comets .
The robotic NASA spacecraft Dawn entered orbit around Ceres on 6 March 2015 . Pictures with a resolution previously unattained were taken during imaging sessions starting in January 2015 as Dawn approached Ceres , showing a cratered surface . Two distinct bright spots ( or high @-@ albedo features ) inside a crater ( different from the bright spots observed in earlier Hubble images ) were seen in a 19 February 2015 image , leading to speculation about a possible cryovolcanic origin or outgassing . On 3 March 2015 , a NASA spokesperson said the spots are consistent with highly reflective materials containing ice or salts , but that cryovolcanism is unlikely . On 11 May 2015 , NASA released a higher @-@ resolution image showing that , instead of one or two spots , there are actually several . On 9 December 2015 , NASA scientists reported that the bright spots on Ceres may be related to a type of salt , particularly a form of brine containing magnesium sulfate hexahydrite ( MgSO4 · 6H2O ) ; the spots were also found to be associated with ammonia @-@ rich clays . In June 2016 , near @-@ infrared spectra of these bright areas were found to be consistent with a large amount of sodium carbonate , ( Na
2CO
3 ) , implying that recent geologic activity was probably involved in the creation of the bright spots .
In October 2015 , NASA released a true color portrait of Ceres made by Dawn .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery = = =
Johann Elert Bode , in 1772 , first suggested that an undiscovered planet could exist between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter . Kepler had already noticed the gap between Mars and Jupiter in 1596 . Bode based his idea on the Titius – Bode law — a now @-@ discredited hypothesis Johann Daniel Titius first proposed in 1766 — observing that there was a regular pattern in the semi @-@ major axes of the orbits of known planets , marred only by the large gap between Mars and Jupiter . The pattern predicted that the missing planet ought to have an orbit with a semi @-@ major axis near 2 @.@ 8 astronomical units ( AU ) . William Herschel 's discovery of Uranus in 1781 near the predicted distance for the next body beyond Saturn increased faith in the law of Titius and Bode , and in 1800 , a group headed by Franz Xaver von Zach , editor of the Monatliche Correspondenz , sent requests to twenty @-@ four experienced astronomers ( dubbed the " celestial police " ) , asking that they combine their efforts and begin a methodical search for the expected planet . Although they did not discover Ceres , they later found several large asteroids .
One of the astronomers selected for the search was Giuseppe Piazzi , a Catholic priest at the Academy of Palermo , Sicily . Before receiving his invitation to join the group , Piazzi discovered Ceres on 1 January 1801 . He was searching for " the 87th [ star ] of the Catalogue of the Zodiacal stars of Mr la Caille " , but found that " it was preceded by another " . Instead of a star , Piazzi had found a moving star @-@ like object , which he first thought was a comet . Piazzi observed Ceres a total of 24 times , the final time on 11 February 1801 , when illness interrupted his observations . He announced his discovery on 24 January 1801 in letters to only two fellow astronomers , his compatriot Barnaba Oriani of Milan and Bode of Berlin . He reported it as a comet but " since its movement is so slow and rather uniform , it has occurred to me several times that it might be something better than a comet " . In April , Piazzi sent his complete observations to Oriani , Bode , and Jérôme Lalande in Paris . The information was published in the September 1801 issue of the Monatliche Correspondenz .
By this time , the apparent position of Ceres had changed ( mostly due to Earth 's orbital motion ) , and was too close to the Sun 's glare for other astronomers to confirm Piazzi 's observations . Toward the end of the year , Ceres should have been visible again , but after such a long time it was difficult to predict its exact position . To recover Ceres , Carl Friedrich Gauss , then 24 years old , developed an efficient method of orbit determination . In only a few weeks , he predicted the path of Ceres and sent his results to von Zach . On 31 December 1801 , von Zach and Heinrich W. M. Olbers found Ceres near the predicted position and thus recovered it .
The early observers were only able to calculate the size of Ceres to within an order of magnitude . Herschel underestimated its diameter as 260 km in 1802 , whereas in 1811 Johann Hieronymus Schröter overestimated it as 2 @,@ 613 km .
= = = Name = = =
Piazzi originally suggested the name Cerere Ferdinandea for his discovery , after the goddess Ceres ( Roman goddess of agriculture , Cerere in Italian , who was believed to have originated in Sicily and whose oldest temple was there ) and King Ferdinand of Sicily . " Ferdinandea " , however , was not acceptable to other nations and was dropped . Ceres was called Hera for a short time in Germany . In Greece , it is called Demeter ( Δήμητρα ) , after the Greek equivalent of the Roman Cerēs ; in English , that name is used for the asteroid 1108 Demeter .
The regular adjectival forms of the name are Cererian and Cererean , derived from the Latin genitive Cereris , but Ceresian is occasionally seen for the goddess ( as in the sickle @-@ shaped Ceresian Lake ) , as is the shorter form Cerean .
The old astronomical symbol of Ceres is a sickle , 〈 ⚳ 〉 ( ) , similar to Venus ' symbol 〈 ♀ 〉 but with a break in the circle . It has a variant 〈 〉 , reversed under the influence of the initial letter ' C ' of ' Ceres ' . These were later replaced with the generic asteroid symbol of a numbered disk , 〈 ① 〉 .
Cerium , a rare @-@ earth element discovered in 1803 , was named after Ceres . In the same year another element was also initially named after Ceres , but when cerium was named , its discoverer changed the name to palladium , after the second asteroid , 2 Pallas .
= = = Classification = = =
The categorization of Ceres has changed more than once and has been the subject of some disagreement . Johann Elert Bode believed Ceres to be the " missing planet " he had proposed to exist between Mars and Jupiter , at a distance of 419 million km ( 2 @.@ 8 AU ) from the Sun . Ceres was assigned a planetary symbol , and remained listed as a planet in astronomy books and tables ( along with 2 Pallas , 3 Juno , and 4 Vesta ) for half a century .
As other objects were discovered in the neighborhood of Ceres , it was realized that Ceres represented the first of a new class of objects . In 1802 , with the discovery of 2 Pallas , William Herschel coined the term asteroid ( " star @-@ like " ) for these bodies , writing that " they resemble small stars so much as hardly to be distinguished from them , even by very good telescopes " . As the first such body to be discovered , Ceres was given the designation 1 Ceres under the modern system of minor @-@ planet designations . By the 1860s , the existence of a fundamental difference between asteroids such as Ceres and the major planets was widely accepted , though a precise definition of " planet " was never formulated .
The 2006 debate surrounding Pluto and what constitutes a planet led to Ceres being considered for reclassification as a planet . A proposal before the International Astronomical Union for the definition of a planet would have defined a planet as " a celestial body that ( a ) has sufficient mass for its self @-@ gravity to overcome rigid @-@ body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium ( nearly round ) shape , and ( b ) is in orbit around a star , and is neither a star nor a satellite of a planet " . Had this resolution been adopted , it would have made Ceres the fifth planet in order from the Sun . This never happened , however , and on 24 August 2006 a modified definition was adopted , carrying the additional requirement that a planet must have " cleared the neighborhood around its orbit " . By this definition , Ceres is not a planet because it does not dominate its orbit , sharing it as it does with the thousands of other asteroids in the asteroid belt and constituting only about a third of the mass of the belt . Bodies that met the first proposed definition but not the second , such as Ceres , were instead classified as dwarf planets .
Ceres is the largest object in the asteroid belt . It is sometimes assumed that Ceres has been reclassified as a dwarf planet , and that it is therefore no longer considered an asteroid . For example , a news update at Space.com spoke of " Pallas , the largest asteroid , and Ceres , the dwarf planet formerly classified as an asteroid " , whereas an IAU question @-@ and @-@ answer posting states , " Ceres is ( or now we can say it was ) the largest asteroid " , though it then speaks of " other asteroids " crossing Ceres ' path and otherwise implies that Ceres is still considered an asteroid . The Minor Planet Center notes that such bodies may have dual designations . The 2006 IAU decision that classified Ceres as a dwarf planet never addressed whether it is or is not an asteroid . Indeed , the IAU has never defined the word ' asteroid ' at all , having preferred the term ' minor planet ' until 2006 , and preferring the terms ' small Solar System body ' and ' dwarf planet ' after 2006 . Lang ( 2011 ) comments " the [ IAU has ] added a new designation to Ceres , classifying it as a dwarf planet . ... By [ its ] definition , Eris , Haumea , Makemake and Pluto , as well as the largest asteroid , 1 Ceres , are all dwarf planets " , and describes it elsewhere as " the dwarf planet – asteroid 1 Ceres " . NASA continues to refer to Ceres as an asteroid , as do various academic textbooks .
= = Orbit = =
Ceres follows an orbit between Mars and Jupiter , within the asteroid belt , with a period of 4 @.@ 6 Earth years . The orbit is moderately inclined ( i
= 10 @.@ 6 ° compared to 7 ° for Mercury and 17 ° for Pluto ) and moderately eccentric ( e =
0 @.@ 08 compared to 0 @.@ 09 for Mars ) .
The diagram illustrates the orbits of Ceres ( blue ) and several planets ( white and gray ) . The segments of orbits below the ecliptic are plotted in darker colors , and the orange plus sign is the Sun 's location . The top left diagram is a polar view that shows the location of Ceres in the gap between Mars and Jupiter . The top right is a close @-@ up demonstrating the locations of the perihelia ( q ) and aphelia ( Q ) of Ceres and Mars . In this diagram ( but not in general ) , the perihelion of Mars is on the opposite side of the Sun from those of Ceres and several of the large main @-@ belt asteroids , including 2 Pallas and 10 Hygiea . The bottom diagram is a side view showing the inclination of the orbit of Ceres compared to the orbits of Mars and Jupiter .
Ceres was once thought to be a member of an asteroid family . The asteroids of this family share similar proper orbital elements , which may indicate a common origin through an asteroid collision some time in the past . Ceres was later found to have spectral properties different from other members of the family , which is now called the Gefion family after the next @-@ lowest @-@ numbered family member , 1272 Gefion . Ceres appears to be merely an interloper in the Gefion family , coincidentally having similar orbital elements but not a common origin .
= = = Resonances = = =
Ceres is in a near @-@ 1 : 1 mean @-@ motion orbital resonance with Pallas ( their proper orbital periods differ by 0 @.@ 2 % ) . However , a true resonance between the two would be unlikely ; due to their small masses relative to their large separations , such relationships among asteroids are very rare . Nevertheless , Ceres is able to capture other asteroids into temporary 1 : 1 resonant orbital relationships ( making them temporary trojans ) for periods up to 2 million years or more ; fifty such objects have been identified .
= = = Transits of planets from Ceres = = =
Mercury , Venus , Earth , and Mars can all appear to cross the Sun , or transit it , from a vantage point on Ceres . The most common transits are those of Mercury , which usually happen every few years , most recently in 2006 and 2010 . The most recent transit of Venus was in 1953 , and the next will be in 2051 ; the corresponding dates are 1814 and 2081 for transits of Earth , and 767 and 2684 for transits of Mars .
= = Rotation and axial tilt = =
The rotation period of Ceres ( the Cererian day ) is 9 hours and 4 minutes . It has a small axial tilt of 4 ° . This is nevertheless large enough for Ceres 's polar regions to contain permanently shadowed craters that are expected to act as cold traps and accumulate water ice over time , similar to the situation on the Moon and Mercury . About 0 @.@ 14 % of water molecules released from the surface are expected to end up in the traps , hopping an average of 3 times before escaping or being trapped .
= = Geology = =
Ceres has a mass of 9 @.@ 39 × 1020 kg as determined from the Dawn spacecraft . With this mass Ceres comprises approximately a third of the estimated total 3 @.@ 0 ± 0 @.@ 2 × 1021 kg mass of the asteroid belt , which is in turn approximately 4 % of the mass of the Moon . Ceres is massive enough to give it a nearly spherical , equilibrium shape . Among Solar System bodies , Ceres is intermediate in size between the smaller Vesta and the larger Tethys . Its surface area is approximately the same as the land area of India or Argentina .
= = = Surface = = =
The surface composition of Ceres is broadly similar to that of C @-@ type asteroids . Some differences do exist . The ubiquitous features in Ceres ' IR spectrum are those of hydrated materials , which indicate the presence of significant amounts of water in its interior . Other possible surface constituents include iron @-@ rich clay minerals ( cronstedtite ) and carbonate minerals ( dolomite and siderite ) , which are common minerals in carbonaceous chondrite meteorites . The spectral features of carbonates and clay minerals are usually absent in the spectra of other C @-@ type asteroids . Sometimes Ceres is classified as a G @-@ type asteroid .
Ceres ' surface is relatively warm . The maximum temperature with the Sun overhead was estimated from measurements to be 235 K ( approximately − 38 ° C , − 36 ° F ) on 5 May 1991 . Ice is unstable at this temperature . Material left behind by the sublimation of surface ice could explain the dark surface of Ceres compared to the icy moons of the outer Solar System .
= = = = Observations prior to Dawn = = = =
Prior to the Dawn mission , only a few surface features had been unambiguously detected on Ceres . High @-@ resolution ultraviolet Hubble Space Telescope images taken in 1995 showed a dark spot on its surface , which was nicknamed " Piazzi " in honor of the discoverer of Ceres . This was thought to be a crater . Later near @-@ infrared images with a higher resolution taken over a whole rotation with the Keck telescope using adaptive optics showed several bright and dark features moving with Ceres ' rotation . Two dark features had circular shapes and were presumed to be craters ; one of them was observed to have a bright central region , whereas another was identified as the " Piazzi " feature . Visible @-@ light Hubble Space Telescope images of a full rotation taken in 2003 and 2004 showed eleven recognizable surface features , the natures of which were then undetermined . One of these features corresponds to the " Piazzi " feature observed earlier .
These last observations indicated that the north pole of Ceres pointed in the direction of right ascension 19 h 24 min ( 291 ° ) , declination + 59 ° , in the constellation Draco , resulting in an axial tilt of approximately 3 ° . Dawn later determined that the north polar axis actually points at right ascension 19 h 25 m 40 @.@ 3 s ( 291 @.@ 418 ° ) , declination + 66 ° 45 ' 50 " ( about 1 @.@ 5 degrees from Delta Draconis ) , which means an axial tilt of 4 ° .
= = = = Observations by Dawn = = = =
Dawn revealed a large number of craters with low relief , indicating that they lie over a relatively soft surface , probably of water ice . One crater , with extremely low relief , is 270 km ( 170 mi ) in diameter , reminiscent of large , flat craters on Tethys and Iapetus . An unexpectedly large number of Cererian craters have central pits , and many have central peaks . Several bright spots have been observed by Dawn , the brightest spot ( " Spot 5 " ) located in the middle of an 80 @-@ kilometer ( 50 mi ) crater called Occator . From images taken of Ceres on 4 May 2015 , the secondary bright spot was revealed to actually be a group of scattered bright areas , possibly as many as ten . These bright features have an albedo of approximately 40 % that are caused by a substance on the surface , possibly ice or salts , reflecting sunlight . A haze periodically appears above Spot 5 , the best known bright spot , supporting the hypothesis that some sort of outgassing or sublimating ice formed the bright spots . In March 2016 , Dawn found definitive evidence of water molecules on the surface of Ceres at Oxo crater . JPL states : " This water could be bound up in minerals or , alternatively , it could take the form of ice . "
On 9 December 2015 , NASA scientists reported that the bright spots on Ceres may be related to a type of salt , particularly a form of brine containing magnesium sulfate hexahydrite ( MgSO4 · 6H2O ) ; the spots were also found to be associated with ammonia @-@ rich clays . Another team thinks the salts are sodium carbonate .
= = = Internal structure = = =
Ceres ' oblateness is consistent with a differentiated body , a rocky core overlain with an icy mantle . This 100 @-@ kilometer @-@ thick mantle ( 23 % – 28 % of Ceres by mass ; 50 % by volume ) contains up to 200 million cubic kilometers of water , which would be more than the amount of fresh water on Earth . This result is supported by the observations made by the Keck telescope in 2002 and by evolutionary modeling . Also , some characteristics of its surface and history ( such as its distance from the Sun , which weakened solar radiation enough to allow some fairly low @-@ freezing @-@ point components to be incorporated during its formation ) , point to the presence of volatile materials in the interior of Ceres . It has been suggested that a remnant layer of liquid water may have survived to the present under a layer of ice . Measurements taken by Dawn confirm that Ceres is both differentiated and has a shape consistent with hydrostatic equilibrium , which makes Ceres the smallest object confirmed to be in hydrostatic equilibrium , being 600 km smaller and less than half the mass of Saturn 's moon Rhea , the next smallest such object . Modeling has suggested Ceres could have a small metallic core from partial differentiation of its rocky fraction .
= = Atmosphere = =
There are indications that Ceres may have a tenuous water vapor atmosphere outgassing from water ice on the surface .
Surface water ice is unstable at distances less than 5 AU from the Sun , so it is expected to sublime if it is exposed directly to solar radiation . Water ice can migrate from the deep layers of Ceres to the surface , but escapes in a very short time . As a result , it is difficult to detect water vaporization . Water escaping from polar regions of Ceres was possibly observed in the early 1990s but this has not been unambiguously demonstrated . It may be possible to detect escaping water from the surroundings of a fresh impact crater or from cracks in the subsurface layers of Ceres . Ultraviolet observations by the IUE spacecraft detected statistically significant amounts of hydroxide ions near Ceres ' north pole , which is a product of water vapor dissociation by ultraviolet solar radiation .
In early 2014 , using data from the Herschel Space Observatory , it was discovered that there are several localized ( not more than 60 km in diameter ) mid @-@ latitude sources of water vapor on Ceres , which each give off approximately 1026 molecules ( or 3 kg ) of water per second . Two potential source regions , designated Piazzi ( 123 ° E , 21 ° N ) and Region A ( 231 ° E , 23 ° N ) , have been visualized in the near infrared as dark areas ( Region A also has a bright center ) by the W. M. Keck Observatory . Possible mechanisms for the vapor release are sublimation from approximately 0 @.@ 6 km2 of exposed surface ice , or cryovolcanic eruptions resulting from radiogenic internal heat or from pressurization of a subsurface ocean due to growth of an overlying layer of ice . Surface sublimation would be expected to be lower when Ceres is farther from the Sun in its orbit , whereas internally powered emissions should not be affected by its orbital position . The limited data available are more consistent with cometary @-@ style sublimation .
= = Origin and evolution = =
Ceres is possibly a surviving protoplanet ( planetary embryo ) , which formed 4 @.@ 57 billion years ago in the asteroid belt . Although the majority of inner Solar System protoplanets ( including all lunar- to Mars @-@ sized bodies ) either merged with other protoplanets to form terrestrial planets or were ejected from the Solar System by Jupiter , Ceres is thought to have survived relatively intact . An alternative theory proposes that Ceres formed in the Kuiper belt and later migrated to the asteroid belt . The discovery of ammonia salts in Occator crater supports an origin in the outer Solar System . Another possible protoplanet , Vesta , is less than half the size of Ceres ; it suffered a major impact after solidifying , losing ~ 1 % of its mass .
The geological evolution of Ceres was dependent on the heat sources available during and after its formation : friction from planetesimal accretion , and decay of various radionuclides ( possibly including short @-@ lived isotopes such as the cosmogenic nuclide aluminium @-@ 26 ) . These are thought to have been sufficient to allow Ceres to differentiate into a rocky core and icy mantle soon after its formation . This process may have caused resurfacing by water volcanism and tectonics , erasing older geological features . Due to its small size , Ceres would have cooled early in its existence , causing all geological resurfacing processes to cease . Any ice on the surface would have gradually sublimated , leaving behind various hydrated minerals like clay minerals and carbonates .
Today , Ceres appears to be a geologically inactive body , with a surface sculpted only by impacts . The presence of significant amounts of water ice in its composition raises the possibility that Ceres has or had a layer of liquid water in its interior . This hypothetical layer is often called an ocean . If such a layer of liquid water exists , it is hypothesized to be located between the rocky core and ice mantle like that of the theorized ocean on Europa . The existence of an ocean is more likely if solutes ( i.e. salts ) , ammonia , sulfuric acid or other antifreeze compounds are dissolved in the water .
= = Potential habitability = =
Although not as actively discussed as a potential home for microbial extraterrestrial life as Mars , Titan , Europa or Enceladus , there is evidence that Ceres ' icy mantle was once a watery subterranean ocean , and that has led to speculations that life could have existed there , and that hypothesized ejecta bearing microorganisms could have come from Ceres to Earth .
= = Observation and exploration = =
= = = Observation = = =
When Ceres has an opposition near the perihelion , it can reach a visual magnitude of + 6 @.@ 7 . This is generally regarded as too dim to be seen with the naked eye , but under exceptional viewing conditions a very sharp @-@ sighted person may be able to see it . Ceres was at its brightest ( 6 @.@ 73 ) on 18 December 2012 . The only other asteroids that can reach a similarly bright magnitude are 4 Vesta , and , during rare oppositions near perihelion , 2 Pallas and 7 Iris . At a conjunction Ceres has a magnitude of around + 9 @.@ 3 , which corresponds to the faintest objects visible with 10 × 50 binoculars . It can thus be seen with binoculars whenever it is above the horizon of a fully dark sky .
Some notable observations and milestones for Ceres include :
1984 November 13 : An occultation of a star by Ceres observed in Mexico , Florida and across the Caribbean .
1995 June 25 : Ultraviolet Hubble Space Telescope images with 50 @-@ kilometer resolution .
2002 : Infrared images with 30 km resolution taken with the Keck telescope using adaptive optics .
2003 and 2004 : Visible light images with 30 km resolution ( the best prior to the Dawn mission ) taken using Hubble .
2012 December 22 : Ceres occulted the star TYC 1865 @-@ 00446 @-@ 1 over parts of Japan , Russia , and China . Ceres ' brightness was magnitude 6 @.@ 9 and the star , 12 @.@ 2 .
2014 : Ceres was found to have an atmosphere with water vapor , confirmed by the Herschel space telescope .
2015 : The NASA Dawn spacecraft approached and orbited Ceres , sending detailed images and scientific data back to Earth .
= = = Exploration = = =
In 1981 , a proposal for an asteroid mission was submitted to the European Space Agency ( ESA ) . Named the Asteroidal Gravity Optical and Radar Analysis ( AGORA ) , this spacecraft was to launch some time in 1990 – 1994 and perform two flybys of large asteroids . The preferred target for this mission was Vesta . AGORA would reach the asteroid belt either by a gravitational slingshot trajectory past Mars or by means of a small ion engine . However , the proposal was refused by ESA . A joint NASA – ESA asteroid mission was then drawn up for a Multiple Asteroid Orbiter with Solar Electric Propulsion ( MAOSEP ) , with one of the mission profiles including an orbit of Vesta . NASA indicated they were not interested in an asteroid mission . Instead , ESA set up a technological study of a spacecraft with an ion drive . Other missions to the asteroid belt were proposed in the 1980s by France , Germany , Italy , and the United States , but none were approved . Exploration of Ceres by fly @-@ by and impacting penetrator was the second main target of the second plan of the multiaimed Soviet Vesta mission , developed in cooperation with European countries for realisation in 1991 – 1994 but canceled due to the Soviet Union disbanding .
In the early 1990s , NASA initiated the Discovery Program , which was intended to be a series of low @-@ cost scientific missions . In 1996 , the program 's study team recommended as a high priority a mission to explore the asteroid belt using a spacecraft with an ion engine . Funding for this program remained problematic for several years , but by 2004 the Dawn vehicle had passed its critical design review .
It was launched on 27 September 2007 , as the space mission to make the first visits to both Vesta and Ceres . On 3 May 2011 , Dawn acquired its first targeting image 1 @.@ 2 million kilometers from Vesta . After orbiting Vesta for 13 months , Dawn used its ion engine to depart for Ceres , with gravitational capture occurring on 6 March 2015 at a separation of 61 @,@ 000 km , four months prior to the New Horizons flyby of Pluto .
Dawn 's mission profile calls for it to study Ceres from a series of circular polar orbits at successively lower altitudes . It entered its first observational orbit ( " RC3 " ) around Ceres at an altitude of 13 @,@ 500 km on 23 April 2015 , staying for only approximately one orbit ( fifteen days ) . The spacecraft will subsequently reduce its orbital distance to 4 @,@ 400 km for its second observational orbit ( " survey " ) for three weeks , then down to 1 @,@ 470 km ( " HAMO " ) for two months and then down to its final orbit at 375 km ( " LAMO " ) for at least three months . The spacecraft instrumentation includes a framing camera , a visual and infrared spectrometer , and a gamma @-@ ray and neutron detector . These instruments will examine Ceres ' shape and elemental composition . On 13 January 2015 , Dawn took the first images of Ceres at near @-@ Hubble resolution , revealing impact craters and a small high @-@ albedo spot on the surface , near the same location as that observed previously . Additional imaging sessions , at increasingly better resolution took place on 25 January , 4 , 12 , 19 , and 25 February , 1 March , and 10 and 15 April .
Dawn 's arrival in a stable orbit around Ceres was delayed after , close to reaching Ceres , it was hit by a cosmic ray , making it take another , longer route around Ceres in back , instead of a direct spiral towards it .
The Chinese Space Agency is designing a sample retrieval mission from Ceres that would take place during the 2020s .
= = Maps = =
= = = Map of quadrangles = = =
The following imagemap of the dwarf planet Ceres is divided into 15 quadrangles . They are named after the first craters whose names the IAU approved in July 2015 . The map image ( s ) were taken by the Dawn space probe .
= = Gallery = =
= = = True @-@ color images = = =
= = = Animations = = =
= Skye =
Skye , or the Isle of Skye ( / skaɪ / ; Scottish Gaelic : An t @-@ Eilean Sgitheanach or Eilean a ' Cheò ) , is the largest and most northerly major island in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland . The island 's peninsulas radiate from a mountainous centre dominated by the Cuillins , the rocky slopes of which provide some of the most dramatic mountain scenery in the country . Although it has been suggested that the Gaelic Sgitheanach describes a winged shape there is no definitive agreement as to the name 's origins .
The island has been occupied since the Mesolithic period and its history includes a time of Norse rule and a long period of domination by Clan MacLeod and Clan Donald . The 18th @-@ century Jacobite risings led to the breaking up of the clan system and subsequent Clearances that replaced entire communities with sheep farms , some of which also involved forced emigrations to distant lands . Resident numbers declined from over 20 @,@ 000 in the early 19th century to just under 9 @,@ 000 by the closing decade of the 20th century . Skye 's population increased by 4 per cent between 1991 and 2001 . About a third of the residents were Gaelic speakers in 2001 , and although their numbers are in decline this aspect of island culture remains important .
The main industries are tourism , agriculture , fishing and forestry . Skye is part of the Highland Council local government area . The island 's largest settlement is Portree , known for its picturesque harbour . There are links to various nearby islands by ferry and , since 1995 , to the mainland by a road bridge . The climate is mild , wet and windy . The abundant wildlife includes the golden eagle , red deer and Atlantic salmon . The local flora is dominated by heather moor , and there are nationally important invertebrate populations on the surrounding sea bed . Skye has provided the locations for various novels and feature films and is celebrated in poetry and song .
= = Etymology = =
The first written references to the island are Roman sources such as the Ravenna Cosmography , which refers to Scitis and Scetis , which can be found on a map by Ptolemy . One possible derivation comes from skitis , an early Celtic word for winged , which may describe how the island 's peninsulas radiate out from a mountainous centre . Subsequent Gaelic- , Norse- and English @-@ speaking peoples have influenced the history of Skye ; the relationships between their names for the island are not straightforward . Various etymologies have been proposed , such as the " winged isle " or " the notched isle " but no definitive solution has been found to date and the placename may be from an earlier , non @-@ Gaelic language .
In the Norse sagas Skye is called Skíð , for example in the Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar and a skaldic poem in the Heimskringla from c . 1230 contains a line that translates as " the hunger battle @-@ birds were filled in Skye with blood of foemen killed " . The island was also referred to by the Norse as Skuy ( misty isle ) , Skýey or Skuyö ( isle of cloud ) . The traditional Gaelic name is An t @-@ Eilean Sgitheanach ( the island of Skye ) , An t @-@ Eilean Sgiathanach being a more recent and less common spelling . In 1549 Donald Munro , High Dean of the Isles , wrote of " Sky " : " This Ile is callit Ellan Skiannach in Irish , that is to say in Inglish the wyngit Ile , be reason it has mony wyngis and pointis lyand furth fra it , throw the dividing of thir foirsaid Lochis . " but the meaning of this Gaelic name is unclear .
Eilean a ' Cheò , which means island of the mist ( a translation of the Norse name ) , is a poetic Gaelic name for the island .
= = Geography = =
At 1 @,@ 656 square kilometres ( 639 sq mi ) , Skye is the second @-@ largest island in Scotland after Lewis and Harris . The coastline of Skye is a series of peninsulas and bays radiating out from a centre dominated by the Cuillin hills ( Gaelic : An Cuiltheann ) . Malcolm Slesser suggested that its shape " sticks out of the west coast of northern Scotland like a lobster 's claw ready to snap at the fish bone of Harris and Lewis " and W. H. Murray , commenting on its irregular coastline , stated that " Skye is sixty miles [ 100 km ] long , but what might be its breadth is beyond the ingenuity of man to state " . Martin Martin , a native of the island , reported on it at length in a 1703 publication . His geological observations included a note that :
There are marcasites black and white , resembling silver ore , near the village Sartle : there are likewise in the same place several stones , which in bigness , shape , & c . , resemble nutmegs , and many rivulets here afford variegated stones of all colours . The Applesglen near Loch @-@ Fallart has agate growing in it of different sizes and colours ; some are green on the outside , some are of a pale sky colour , and they all strike fire as well as flint : I have one of them by me , which for shape and bigness is proper for a sword handle . Stones of a purple colour flow down the rivulets here after great rains .
The Black Cuillin , which are mainly composed of basalt and gabbro , include twelve Munros and provide some of the most dramatic and challenging mountain terrain in Scotland . The ascent of Sgùrr a ' Ghreadaidh is one of the longest rock climbs in Britain and the Inaccessible Pinnacle is the only peak in Scotland that requires technical climbing skills to reach the summit . These hills make demands of the hill walker that exceed any others found in Scotland and a full traverse of the Cuillin ridge may take 15 – 20 hours . The Red Hills ( Gaelic : Am Binnean Dearg ) to the south are also known as the Red Cuillin . They are mainly composed of granite that has weathered into more rounded hills with many long scree slopes on their flanks . The highest point of these hills is Glamaig , one of only two Corbetts on Skye .
The northern peninsula of Trotternish is underlain by basalt , which provides relatively rich soils and a variety of unusual rock features . The Kilt Rock is named after the tartan @-@ like patterns in the 105 metres ( 344 ft ) cliffs . The Quiraing is a spectacular series of rock pinnacles on the eastern side of the main spine of the peninsula and further south is the rock pillar of the Old Man of Storr .
Beyond Loch Snizort to the west of Trotternish is the Waternish peninsula , which ends in Ardmore Point 's double rock arch . Duirinish is separated from Waternish by Loch Dunvegan , which contains the island of Isay . The loch is ringed by sea cliffs that reach 295 metres ( 967 ft ) at Waterstein Head . Oolitic loam provides good arable land in the main valley . Lochs Bracadale and Harport and the island of Wiay lie between Duirinish and Minginish , which includes the narrower defiles of Talisker and Glen Brittle and whose beaches are formed from black basaltic sands . Strathaird is a relatively small peninsula close to the Cuillin hills with only a few crofting communities , the island of Soay lies offshore . The bedrock of Sleat in the south is Torridonian sandstone , which produces poor soils and boggy ground , although
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although retreating Soviet troops slightly damaged her hull . The Germans dismantled 200 feet ( 61 m ) of her bow and 100 feet ( 30 m ) of her stern for use in fortifications . They were forced to evacuate Nikolayev on 17 March 1944 and demolished the supporting blocks under her port side before they left , which gave her a list between 5 and 10 degrees and made her a total loss . She was ordered scrapped on 27 March 1947 .
= = = Sovetskaya Rossiya = = =
Sovetskaya Rossiya ( Russian : Советская Россия — Soviet Russia ) was laid down on 22 July 1940 in Shipyard Nr. 402 in Molotovsk . After the end of the war she was only 0 @.@ 97 % complete , with 2 @,@ 125 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 091 long tons ) of steel assembled . She was ordered scrapped on 27 March 1947 .
= = = Sovetskaya Belorussiya = = =
Sovetskaya Belorussiya ( Russian : Советская Белоруссия — Soviet Belorussia ) was laid down 21 December 1939 at Shipyard Nr. 402 in Molotovsk , but construction was suspended in mid @-@ 1940 when it was discovered that 70 @,@ 000 rivets used in her hull plating were of inferior quality . This fact probably influenced the decision to cancel her on 19 October 1940 . Material intended for her construction was used to construct a floating battery for the defense of Leningrad .
= Sang Pencerah =
Sang Pencerah ( The Enlightener ) is a 2010 Indonesian film directed by Hanung Bramantyo and starring Lukman Sardi , Zaskia Adya Mecca , and Slamet Rahardjo . It is a biopic of Ahmad Dahlan which describes how he came to found the Islamic organisation Muhammadiyah .
Sang Pencerah , produced to coincide with Muhammadiyah 's centenary , was announced in November 2009 . It was meant to be historically accurate , with much of the Rp . 12 billion ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) budget paying for period costumes and sets . However , as documentation on the early years of Dahlan 's life is lacking , those scenes were fictionalised . Sang Pencerah marks the feature film debut of Ihsan Tarore and Giring Ganesha .
The film , released on 8 September 2010 during the Eid ul @-@ Fitr holiday , was meant to show different views of Islam ; however , it has also been interpreted as a critique of the current Muhammadiyah leadership . It was seen in theatres by over 1 million people – the only Indonesian film of 2010 to do so . It also received favourable critical reception , winning the 2011 Bandung Film Festival after being refused a nomination at the 2010 Indonesian Film Festival . However , some Muslim critics decried it as being too liberal .
= = Plot = =
Muhammad Darwis ( Ihsan Tarore ) is a youth in 19th @-@ century Kauman , Yogyakarta , and the son of Kyai Abubakar , the imam of the area 's mosque . Displeased with the mixture of Islam and animistic Javanese mysticism , which leads to poor Javanese spending exorbitant amounts of money on religious ceremonies , Darwis decides to go on the hajj to Mecca in Saudi Arabia . While there , he studies what he considers the true form of Islam over a period of five years .
Upon his return to Yogyakarta , Darwis ( now played by Lukman Sardi ) changes his name to Ahmad Dahlan and begins teaching Islam , preaching that prayers need only come from inner peace and do not require large donations or sacrifices . Conflict soon arises between Dahlan and the local kyais ( religious leaders ) after he shows that the direction in which they pray is wrong , pointing not to the Kaaba in Mecca but to Africa . The kyais , especially Cholil Kamaludiningrat ( Slamet Rahardjo ) , decry Dahlan as the leader of a cult and provoke a crowd of their followers to destroy the building next to Dahlan 's house used for studying prayer .
Dahlan continues to preach and teach , opening a school for native people , teaching Islam at a Dutch @-@ run school , and opening a small mosque ; he also marries his cousin , Siti Walidah . His actions , such as having his students sit on chairs instead of the traditional mats on the floor , lead to Kamaludiningrat decrying Dahlan as an unbeliever who is working to Westernise the local populace .
Despite continued resistance from Kamaludiningrat , Dahlan prevails and furthers his teaching . Together with Walidah , and the students Dirjo ( Abdurrahman Arif ) , Fahrudin ( Mario Irwinsyah ) , Hisyam ( Dennis Adishwara ) , Sangidu ( Ricky Perdana ) , and Sudja ( Giring Ganesha ) , he founds the progressive Islamic organisation Muhammadiyah , which preaches Islam without any influence from Javanese mysticism .
= = Production = =
The film announced in November 2009 . It was directed by Hanung Bramantyo , a Yogyakarta @-@ born Muslim filmmaker . Bramantyo , who had previously directed the Islamic @-@ themed Ayat @-@ Ayat Cinta ( The Verses of Love ; 2008 ) , considered Dahlan his favourite national hero ; he later told The Jakarta Post that he admired the kyai 's spirit . He also said that he had been wanting to make the film since he was a teenager . The film was meant to coincide with the 100 year anniversary of Muhammadiyah 's founding .
Bramantyo attempted to make his film as historically accurate as possible . However , as no documentation of Dahlan 's life before he went to Mecca exists , the scenes showing Dahlan 's youth were fictionalized . The script underwent 12 revisions before the film was completed . Much of the film 's budget of Rp . 12 billion ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) was spent on costumes and sets to ensure accuracy . The crew restored several old buildings for their shots and custom @-@ ordered 19th @-@ century style traditional garments for their scenes .
Bramatyo cast his wife , Zaskia Adya Mecca , as Ahmad Dahlan 's wife Siti Walidah — Mecca also served as casting director , in charge of auditioning the supporting cast . Before filming began , Mecca attempted to research the biographies of Dahlan and his wife , as she and the other young actors did not know much about the couple . However , she found such research difficult as the libraries did not have the information she needed .
Lukman Sardi , who played Dahlan , was also unaware of his character 's historical biography before researching it ; he noted that he was not very confident in playing the role . Indonesian Idol winner Ihsan Tarore was cast as the young Ahmad Dahlan , while the lead singer of the band Nidji , Giring Ganesha , was cast as Dahlan 's protege Sudja ; it was the feature film debut for both . Giring also wrote a song for the film , titled " Allah Maha Suci " ( " Allah , the All @-@ Pure " ) , over a period of two days .
On set , Mecca , who was pregnant at the time of shooting , found her physical condition " perfect " for the role as Walidah had been a large woman . However , her pregnancy led to Bramantyo worrying about a potential miscarriage during a scene where Mecca had to ride a traditional carriage with wooden wheels , which shook violently when moving .
= = Themes = =
In a 2011 interview with the Jakarta Globe after the release of his controversial film ? , Bramantyo said that he had intended Sang Pencerah to use Dahlan 's life to examine different aspects of Islam . He meant for the film to show Islam as being a peaceful and truthful religion . Pramono , writing for Tempo , notes that the film presents a different side of Dahlan , who is usually portrayed as an old , bearded man who , in his opinion , seems neither modernist nor progressive .
Ahmad Muttaqin , a lecturer on comparative religious studies at Sunan Kalijaga Islamic University in Yogyakarta , sees the film as a critique of the current Muhammadiyah leadership , whom he describes as " narrow minded , intolerant , hav [ ing ] poor social respect , [ ... ] rigid and allergic to progress " .
= = Release and reception = =
Sang Pencerah was released on 8 September 2010 , over the Eid ul @-@ Fitr holiday ; the increase in film attendance over the holiday is similar to blockbuster season for Hollywood films . According to Bramantyo , Sang Pencerah was seen by 1 @.@ 1 million people while in theatres ; a report from The Jakarta Globe says 1 @.@ 2 million . It was the only Indonesian film of 2010 to sell over a million tickets .
Bramatnyo was accused of working for Muhammadiyah when creating the film , an accusation which he denied . He also was criticised by some Muslim groups , which considered him too liberal . The film was not nominated for best picture at the 2010 Indonesian Film Festival after several nominees threatened to withdraw if Sang Pencerah was nominated . Sang Pencerah later won best picture at the Bandung Film Festival , held in Bandung , West Java , on 6 May 2011 .
Triwik Kurniasari , reviewing for The Jakarta Post , praised Sardi and Rahardjo 's acting ; noting that Sang Pencerah was " a good film and a conduit for young people to learn about their national heroes " . Asep Saefudin , writing for Antara , himself a graduate from Muhammadiyah schools , viewed the film as being well put together and reflective of the issues faced by Islamic modernists in the early 1900s . Pramono praised the film 's acting , soundtrack , and plot , especially Dahlan 's portrayal as a human with emotions and flaws instead of being perfect in every way . He found Sang Pencerah 's greatest weakness to be the language spoken by in some scenes , as it mixed Indonesian with Javanese ( something not done during the period portrayed ) , and the film 's stars – neither of whom is Javanese – had inaccurate accents .
= Underneath ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Underneath " is the twelfth episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States on March 31 , 2002 on the Fox network . The episode was written and directed by executive producer John Shiban . The episode is a " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episode , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the mythology , or overarching fictional history , of The X @-@ Files . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 4 and was viewed by 4 @.@ 64 million households and 7 @.@ 3 million viewers . It received mixed reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , Doggett is determined to find an error in the DNA evidence that freed the convicted Robert Fassl , the " Screwdriver Killer " , whom he nearly caught in the act 13 years earlier . In the end , it is revealed that Fassl has a mental condition that splits him into two parts : the religious innocent and the vengeful killer .
" Underneath " marked the directorial debut of Shiban , who had been a writer for the series for several seasons . Reportedly , the episode contained " so many problems " that the Fox executives nearly refused to allow the finished product to air . At the last minute , however , they relented , and allowed the episode to be aired later on in the season , several weeks after its intended air date . Shiban originally wanted to film the sewer scenes in Los Angeles ' actual sewer system , but due to the events of September 11 , a sewer mock @-@ up was built on Stage 11 at the Fox studios .
= = Plot = =
Thirteen years before the present , Robert Fassl ( W. Earl Brown ) sits in his van . He later approaches a home and claims to be there to repair the cable . As Fassl holds up a piece of paper to show it to the family who called for the repair , blood spatter splashes across the paper . He looks up and sees the house 's occupants with slit throats in pools of blood . Abruptly , two police officers burst into the house and apprehend Fassl . One of the officers who goes to check out the kitchen , turns to reveal he is John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) as a young NYPD officer .
In the present , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) discusses Fassl 's release — due to DNA evidence — with an outraged Doggett . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) confirms that the test results conclusively disprove Fassl as the killer . Meanwhile , in court , Fassl notices a mysterious Bearded Man . After being released , he stays in a room belonging to his lawyer , Jana Fain , where he clutches a Rosary beads and prays frantically . When the Bearded Man appears , Fassl begs for the man not to hurt her . While Fain is unharmed , Fassl learns that the housekeeper , Mrs. Dowdy , has gone missing . Fassl finds her body , cleans up the blood , and dismembers her remains to cover up what has happened .
Scully tells Doggett that while the DNA test disproves Fassl 's culpability , it implicates a possible blood relative ; Fassl , however , is an only child . Reyes proposes that the murders are being conducted by an entity rather than a person . Meanwhile , Fassl approaches Assistant District Attorney Damon Kaylor and begs to be sent back to prison . Kaylor refuses , but is killed by the Bearded Man . After hearing of Kaylor 's disappearance , Reyes theorizes that Fassl 's piety and his unwillingness to acknowledge his darker half has given him the unwanted ability to physically change into another , more violent person .
The Bearded Man demands that Fassl kill Fain , beating him up when he doesn 't comply . As she tends to Fassl , Fain first sees the Bearded Man in his place . While staking out Fain 's house , the agents see the Bearded Man flee . Doggett pursues the Bearded Man while Reyes finds Fain alive . In the pursuit , Reyes falls through into a sewer , where she finds the remains of the Bearded Man 's victims . After a struggle with the Bearded Man , Doggett ends up apprehending Fassl , much to his confusion . Reyes tries to remind him that it does not matter as long as the case is solved .
= = Production = =
" Underneath " was written and directed by executive producer John Shiban . This marked his directorial debut . According to Shiban , part of the inspiration for the episode was that the series production staff had " actually talked for some time about doing a Jekyll / Hyde story but never quite found a way to do it " until the idea to use DNA came into play . Another inspiration for the episode was the 1949 film The Third Man , which featured a climactic chase through a sewage system .
The episode , which explores John Doggett 's backstory as a New York City police officer , was described as containing similar themes as those " explored on the Millennium series . " The episode guest @-@ starred Arthur Nascarella , who was a friend of series co @-@ star Robert Patrick . Patrick was essential in getting Nascarella cast on the show ; he later joked " I stole [ Nascarella 's ] New York accent in Copland [ sic ] and I stole it to do The X @-@ Files , but I got him cast in The X @-@ Files show . "
As the ninth season progressed and the show 's ratings began to plummet , Fox became more and more actively involved in the show 's style and direction . Although " Underneath " was the twelfth episode aired , it was actually the ninth episode produced during the season ; reportedly , the episode contained " so many problems " that the Fox executives very nearly nixed the finished product . At the last minute , however , they relented , and allowed the episode to be aired later on in the season , several weeks after its intended air date .
Shiban originally wanted to film the sewer scenes in Los Angeles ' actual sewer system , but the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power vetoed the idea and stated that " there 's a moratorium on shooting there since September 11 " , a position that Shiban called " understandable . " In order to make up for this , series art director Corey Kaplan was tasked with building a sewer replica ; she used the blueprints from the 1952 version of Les Misérables as an inspiration . Eventually , a complete set was built on Stage 11 at the Fox studios .
= = Reception = =
" Underneath " first aired in the United States on March 31 , 2002 on the Fox network . The episode later debuted in the United Kingdom on February 2 , 2003 on BBC One . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 4 @.@ 4 , meaning that it was seen by 4 @.@ 4 % of the nation 's estimated households and was viewed by 4 @.@ 64 million households and over 7 @.@ 3 million viewers . " Underneath " was the 71st most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending March 31 .
The episode received mixed reviews from television critics . Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity gave the episode a B – rating . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a negative review and called it " easily the worst of the season " . He awarded it a 4 out of 10 and concluded that , " We can only hope that none of the remaining episodes are Shiban @-@ related , and pray that he can do a much better job when he writes for Enterprise next season . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , and called the entry " solid and efficient " . The two complimented Shiban 's directorial efforts , noting that " as a director [ he ] makes ' Underneath ' shine " , but were critical of some of the " trademark X @-@ File moments " , citing " the surprise appearance of a face in the bathroom mirror " and " the climactic fight in a sewer " as examples . Shearman and Pearson , however , wrote positively of Shiban 's realistic depiction of Doggett . M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , wrote that the episode felt " very familiar " but was impressed with the production design on the sewer set .
= Islais Creek =
Islais Creek or Islais Creek Channel ( previously known as Du Vrees Creek , Islais Channel and Islais Swamp ) is a small creek in San Francisco , California . The name of the creek is derived from a Salinan Native American word " slay " or " islay " , the name for the Prunus ilicifolia wild cherries . Around the time of the Gold Rush , the area became an industrial hub , and the condition of the creek worsened . After the devastating earthquake in 1906 , the city decided to reclaim the creek using earthquake debris , reducing the waterbody to its present size . Though much of Islais Creek has been converted to an underground culvert , remnants still exist today at both Glen Canyon Park and Third Street . Several community organizations are dedicated to preserve these remnants , as they are important wildlife habitats .
= = Course = =
The historic Islais Creek , the largest body of water in the city covering an area of nearly 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 7 @.@ 813 sq mi ; 20 @.@ 234 km2 ) , had two main branches . One originated near the southern slope of Twin Peaks , slightly north of Portola Drive . It flowed downstream southeastward through the Glen Canyon Park paralleling Bosworth Street and eventually reaching the bottom of the Mission Street viaduct at I @-@ 280 . The other branch began at the intersection of Cayuga Avenue and Regent Street . It flowed generally eastward along Mission Street and reached the I @-@ 280 viaduct . Together , as a wider creek , it ran parallel to Alemany Boulevard and I @-@ 280 and emptied into the Islais Creek estuary , near Industrial Street and Oakdale Avenue . Precita Creek , a nearby creek that originated from Noe Valley , also joined Islais Creek at the César Chávez Boulevard and Evans Avenue intersection .
From its sources in the Glen Canyon , the entire creek stretched about 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) to the San Francisco Bay . The mouth was nearly 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) wide , providing up to 85 % of the drinking water in San Francisco . Due to urban development , however , the watershed of Islais Creek has been reduced by roughly 80 % from its historical extent . A large number of neighborhoods in San Francisco today , such as Bernal Heights , Hunters Point , Visitacion Valley , parts of the Mission and Potrero Hill , was once covered by the extent of the creek .
In 2007 , the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission , which manages the city 's water , began investigating the possibility of " daylighting " underground portions of the creek . As of 2009 , remnants of the creek remain inside the Glen Canyon Park and a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) channel near Third Street where Islais Creek emptied into the bay .
= = History = =
The history of Islais Creek dates to the 18th century . The name Los Islais first appeared on Mexican maps in 1834 , named for the Islay cherries that grew wildly in the area . By 1850 , water from the creek was used by farmers to irrigate crops . The Gold Rush marked the decline of the creek as large numbers of gold rushers swarmed into the city .
A railroad trestle was built over the creek and tidal flats in the 1860s and in a lawsuit that went up to the California Supreme Court called The People of the State of California ex relatione The Board of State Harbor Commissioners VS . The Potrero And Bay View Railroad Company , Islais Creek was declared a non @-@ navigable waterway in 1883 .
In 1871 , the area along the creek became known as the city ’ s " New Butchertown " when more than 100 slaughterhouses opened . Since then , the condition of the creek deteriorated , literally becoming a dumping place of garbage , sewage , animal waste , and unsold meat products . The condition became so bad that the creek was commonly referred to as " Shit Creek " by San Franciscans , according to historian Karl Kortum .
After the 1906 earthquake , San Francisco Board of Supervisors voted to fill the creek with earthquake debris , reducing the creek to its present size . During World War II , it served as docking areas for large ocean @-@ going tugs . The area also located the largest copra coconut processing plant in the United States West Coast . In fact , the abandoned five @-@ story high copra crane , used to transport large amount of copras from ships to the plant as late as 1974 , still remains on the creek bank preserved as a historic landmark . In the 1950s , Islais Creek was home to the largest sardine canning industry in the world . The deteriorated condition of the creek gradually improved after the construction of a water treatment plant in 1970 . Today , the majority of the creek is covered and transformed into a culvert with its remnants flowing at Glen Canyon and near the bay .
Many local community organizations were set up to improve the condition of the creek and nearby areas . Friends of Islais Creek , established back in 1984 , and David Erickson , a local community figure , were committed to build a waterfront park in Islais Creek . The initial plan for a park was finally launched in 1988 with a $ 50 @,@ 000 grant from the State Department of Water Resources as well as community groups in The Bayview . With an additional of $ 100 @,@ 000 federal and local grants as well as supports from non @-@ profit organizations and governmental agencies , namely the Sierra Club , San Francisco Municipal Railway ( Muni ) , Department of Public Works , Public Utilities Commission , Port of San Francisco , and Caltrans , the park was finished in 1998 . Located adjacent to Pier 80 on the shores of the creek , the Muwekma Ohlone Park or the Muwekma Ohlone Sanctuary is named after the native inhabitants and has since became an important habitat for a wide array of wildlife , including the Pacific Chorus Frog and Mission blue butterfly .
On November 19 , 2001 , construction crews , while preparing to drill an electrical conduit ( consisting of six large 115kV electrical cables ) across the creek for the Muni Metro T Third Street light rail line , cracked the concrete sewer underground which carries more than 80 million gallons of sewage a day . The incident flooded the creek and its adjacent Muwekma Ohlone Park with sewage . The park had to be excavated to make way for the repairing of the sewer pipe . It was estimated that it would take more than $ 101 @,@ 660 to repair and $ 65 @,@ 000 for wildlife habitat restoration .
= = = Health hazard = = =
Since Islais Creek is a culvert that carries storm water , domestic sewage , and industrial wastewater , it is possible for the sewage to overflow . Such overflow can cause a public health hazard as Islais Creek displays higher level of heavy metals , PCBs , bacteria , as well as organochlorines than other parts of the San Francisco Bay .
= = Transportation = =
The Third Street Bridge is the major crossing of the creek , carrying T Third Street light rail line and Third Street . It is a bascule @-@ type drawbridge . The Port of San Francisco extended Illinois Street across Islais Creek in 2006 to relieve traffic for Third Street . This crossing also uses a bascule bridge .
= Iguanodon =
Iguanodon ( / ᵻˈɡwɑːnədɒn / i @-@ GWAH @-@ nə @-@ don ; meaning " iguana @-@ tooth " ) is a genus of ornithopod dinosaur that existed roughly halfway between the first of the swift bipedal hypsilophodontids of the mid @-@ Jurassic and the duck @-@ billed dinosaurs of the late Cretaceous . While many species have been classified in the genus Iguanodon , dating from the late Jurassic Period to the late Cretaceous Period of Asia , Europe , and North America , research in the first decade of the 21st century suggests that there is only one well @-@ substantiated species : I. bernissartensis , which lived from the late Barremian to the earliest Aptian ages ( Early Cretaceous ) in Belgium and possibly elsewhere in Europe , between about 126 and 125 million years ago . Iguanodon were large , bulky herbivores . Distinctive features include large thumb spikes , which were possibly used for defense against predators , combined with long prehensile fifth fingers able to forage for food .
The genus was named in 1825 by English geologist Gideon Mantell , based on fossil specimens that are now assigned to Therosaurus and Mantellodon . Iguanodon was the second type of dinosaur formally named based on fossil specimens , after Megalosaurus . Together with Megalosaurus and Hylaeosaurus , it was one of the three genera originally used to define Dinosauria . The genus Iguanodon belongs to the larger group Iguanodontia , along with the duck @-@ billed hadrosaurs . The taxonomy of this genus continues to be a topic of study as new species are named or long @-@ standing ones reassigned to other genera .
Scientific understanding of Iguanodon has evolved over time as new information has been obtained from fossils . The numerous specimens of this genus , including nearly complete skeletons from two well @-@ known bonebeds , have allowed researchers to make informed hypotheses regarding many aspects of the living animal , including feeding , movement , and social behaviour . As one of the first scientifically well @-@ known dinosaurs , Iguanodon has occupied a small but notable place in the public 's perception of dinosaurs , its artistic representation changing significantly in response to new interpretations of its remains .
= = Description = =
Iguanodon were bulky herbivores that could shift from bipedality to quadrupedality . The only well @-@ supported species , I. bernissartensis , is estimated to have weighed about 3 @.@ 08 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 4 tons ) on average , and measured about 10 metres ( 33 feet ) long as an adult , with some specimens possibly as long as 13 metres ( 43 feet ) . These animals had large , tall but narrow skulls , with toothless beaks probably covered with keratin , and teeth like those of iguanas , but much larger and more closely packed .
The arms of I. bernissartensis were long ( up to 75 % the length of the legs ) and robust , with rather inflexible hands built so that the three central fingers could bear weight . The thumbs were conical spikes that stuck out away from the three main digits . In early restorations , the spike was placed on the animal 's nose . Later fossils revealed the true nature of the thumb spikes , although their exact function is still debated . They could have been used for defense , or for foraging for food . The little finger was elongated and dextrous , and could have been used to manipulate objects . The phalangeal formula is 2 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 @-@ 2 @-@ 4 , meaning that the innermost finger ( phalange ) has two bones , the next has three , etc . The legs were powerful , but not built for running , and each foot had three toes . The backbone and tail were supported and stiffened by ossified tendons , which were tendons that turned to bone during life ( these rod @-@ like bones are usually omitted from skeletal mounts and drawings ) .
Iguanodon teeth are , as the name suggests , like those of an iguana , but larger . Unlike hadrosaurids , which had columns of replacement teeth , Iguanodon only had one replacement tooth at a time for each position . The upper jaw held up to 29 teeth per side , with none at the front of the jaw , and the lower jaw 25 ; the numbers differ because teeth in the lower jaw are broader than those in the upper . Because the tooth rows are deeply inset from the outside of the jaws , and because of other anatomical details , it is believed that , as with most other ornithischians , Iguanodon had some sort of cheek @-@ like structure , muscular or non @-@ muscular , to retain food in the mouth .
= = Classification and origins = =
Iguanodon gives its name to the unranked clade Iguanodontia , a very populous group of ornithopods with many species known from the Middle Jurassic to the Late Cretaceous . Aside from Iguanodon , the best @-@ known members of the clade include Dryosaurus , Camptosaurus , Ouranosaurus , and the duck @-@ bills , or hadrosaurs . In older sources , Iguanodontidae was shown as a distinct family . This family traditionally has been something of a wastebasket taxon , including ornithopods that were neither hypsilophodontids or hadrosaurids . In practice , animals like Callovosaurus , Camptosaurus , Craspedodon , Kangnasaurus , Mochlodon , Muttaburrasaurus , Ouranosaurus , and Probactrosaurus were usually assigned to this family .
With the advent of cladistic analyses , Iguanodontidae as traditionally construed was shown to be paraphyletic , and these animals are recognised to fall at different points in relation to hadrosaurs on a cladogram , instead of in a single distinct clade . Essentially , the modern concept of Iguanodontidae currently includes only Iguanodon . Groups like Iguanodontoidea are still used as unranked clades in the scientific literature , though many traditional iguanodontids are now included in the superfamily Hadrosauroidea . Iguanodon lies between Camptosaurus and Ouranosaurus in cladograms , and is probably descended from a camptosaur @-@ like animal . At one point , Jack Horner suggested , based mostly on skull features , that hadrosaurids actually formed two more distantly related groups , with Iguanodon on the line to the flat @-@ headed hadrosaurines , and Ouranosaurus on the line to the crested lambeosaurines , but his proposal has been rejected .
The cladogram below follows an analysis by Andrew McDonald , 2012 .
= = Palaeobiology = =
= = = Feeding = = =
One of the first details noted about Iguanodon was that it had the teeth of a herbivorous reptile , although there has not always been consensus on how it ate . As Mantell noted , the remains he was working with were unlike any modern reptile , especially in the toothless , scoop @-@ shaped form of the lower jaw symphysis , which he found best compared to that of the two @-@ toed sloth and the extinct ground sloth Mylodon . He also suggested that Iguanodon had a prehensile tongue which could be used to gather food , like a giraffe . More complete remains have shown this to be an error ; for example , the hyoid bones that supported the tongue are heavily built , implying a muscular , non @-@ prehensile tongue used for moving food around in the mouth . The giraffe @-@ tongue idea has also been incorrectly attributed to Dollo via a broken lower jaw .
The skull was structured in such a way that as it closed , the bones holding the teeth in the upper jaw would bow out . This would cause the lower surfaces of the upper jaw teeth to rub against the upper surface of the lower jaw 's teeth , grinding anything caught in between and providing an action that is the rough equivalent of mammalian chewing . Because the teeth were always replaced , the animal could have used this mechanism throughout its life , and could eat tough plant material . Additionally , the front ends of the animal 's jaws were toothless and tipped with bony nodes , both upper and lower , providing a rough margin that was likely covered and lengthened by a keratinous material to form a cropping beak for biting off twigs and shoots . Its food gathering would have been aided by its flexible little finger , which could have been used to manipulate objects , unlike the other fingers .
Exactly what Iguanodon ate with its well @-@ developed jaws is not known . The size of the larger species , such as I. bernissartensis , would have allowed them access to food from ground level to tree foliage at 4 – 5 metres ( 13 – 16 ft ) high . A diet of horsetails , cycads , and conifers was suggested by David Norman , although iguanodonts in general have been tied to the advance of angiosperm plants in the Cretaceous due to the dinosaurs ' inferred low browsing habits . Angiosperm growth , according to this hypothesis , would have been encouraged by iguanodont feeding because gymnosperms would be removed , allowing more space for the weed @-@ like early angiosperms to grow . The evidence is not conclusive , though . Whatever its exact diet , due to its size and abundance , Iguanodon is regarded as a dominant medium to large herbivore for its ecological communities . In England , this included the small predator Aristosuchus , larger predators Eotyrannus , Baryonyx , and Neovenator , low @-@ feeding herbivores Hypsilophodon and Valdosaurus , fellow " iguanodontid " Mantellisaurus , the armoured herbivore Polacanthus , and sauropods like Pelorosaurus .
= = = Posture and movement = = =
Early fossil remains were fragmentary , which led to much speculation on the posture and nature of Iguanodon . Iguanodon was initially portrayed as a quadrupedal horn @-@ nosed beast . However , as more bones were discovered , Mantell observed that the forelimbs were much smaller than the hindlimbs . His rival Owen was of the opinion it was a stumpy creature with four pillar @-@ like legs . The job of overseeing the first lifesize reconstruction of dinosaurs was initially offered to Mantell , who declined due to poor health , and Owen 's vision subsequently formed the basis on which the sculptures took shape . Its bipedal nature was revealed with the discovery of the Bernissart skeletons . However , it was depicted in an upright posture , with the tail dragging along the ground , acting as the third leg of a tripod .
During his re @-@ examination of Iguanodon , David Norman was able to show that this posture was unlikely , because the long tail was stiffened with ossified tendons . To get the tripodal pose , the tail would literally have to be broken . Putting the animal in a horizontal posture makes many aspects of the arms and pectoral girdle more understandable . For example , the hand is relatively immobile , with the three central fingers grouped together , bearing hoof @-@ like phalanges , and able to hyperextend . This would have allowed them to bear weight . The wrist is also relatively immobile , and the arms and shoulder bones robust . These features all suggest that the animal spent time on all fours .
Furthermore , it appears that Iguanodon became more quadrupedal as it got older and heavier ; juvenile I. bernissartensis have shorter arms than adults ( 60 % of hindlimb length versus 70 % for adults ) . When walking as a quadruped , the animal 's hands would have been held so that the palms faced each other , as shown by iguanodontian trackways and the anatomy of this genus 's arms and hands . The three toed pes ( foot ) of Iguanodon was relatively long , and when walking , both the hand and the foot would have been used in a digitigrade fashion ( walking on the fingers and toes ) . The maximum speed of Iguanodon has been estimated at 24 km / h ( 15 mph ) , which would have been as a biped ; it would not have been able to gallop as a quadruped .
Large three @-@ toed footprints are known in Early Cretaceous rocks of England , particularly Wealden beds on the Isle of Wight , and these trace fossils were originally difficult to interpret . Some authors associated them with dinosaurs early on . In 1846 , E. Tagert went so far as to assign them to an ichnogenus he named Iguanodon , and Samuel Beckles noted in 1854 that they looked like bird tracks , but might have come from dinosaurs . The identity of the trackmakers was greatly clarified upon the discovery in 1857 of the hind leg of a young Iguanodon , with distinctly three @-@ toed feet , showing that such dinosaurs could have made the tracks . Despite the lack of direct evidence , these tracks are often attributed to Iguanodon . A trackway in England shows what may be an Iguanodon moving on all fours , but the foot prints are poor , making a direct connection difficult . Tracks assigned to the ichnogenus Iguanodon are known from locations including places in Europe where the body fossil Iguanodon is known , to Spitsbergen , Svalbard , Norway .
= = = Thumb spike = = =
The thumb spike is one of the best @-@ known features of Iguanodon . Although it was originally placed on the animal 's nose by Mantell , the complete Bernissart specimens allowed Dollo to place it correctly on the hand , as a modified thumb . ( This would not be the last time a dinosaur 's modified thumb claw would be misinterpreted ; Noasaurus , Baryonyx , and Megaraptor are examples since the 1980s where an enlarged thumb claw was first put on the foot , as in dromaeosaurids . )
This thumb is typically interpreted as a close @-@ quarter stiletto @-@ like weapon against predators , although it could also have been used to break into seeds and fruits , or against other Iguanodon . One author has suggested that the spike was attached to a venom gland , but this has not been accepted , as the spike was not hollow , nor were there any grooves on the spike for conducting venom .
= = = Possible social behaviour = = =
Although sometimes interpreted as the result of a single catastrophe , the Bernissart finds instead are now interpreted as recording multiple events . According to this interpretation , at least three occasions of mortality are recorded , and though numerous individuals would have died in a geologically short time span ( ? 10 – 100 years ) , this does not necessarily mean these Iguanodon were herding animals .
An argument against herding is that juvenile remains are very uncommon at this site , unlike modern cases with herd mortality . They more likely were the periodic victims of flash floods whose carcasses accumulated in a lake or marshy setting . The Nehden find , however , with its greater span of individual ages , more even mix of Dollodon or Mantellisaurus to Iguanodon bernissartensis , and confined geographic nature , may record mortality of herding animals migrating through rivers .
Unlike other purported herding dinosaurs ( especially hadrosaurs and ceratopsids ) , there is no evidence that Iguanodon was sexually dimorphic , with one sex appreciably different from the other . At one time , it was suggested that the Bernissart I. " mantelli " , or I. atherfieldensis ( Dollodon and Mantellisaurus , respectively ) represented a sex , possibly female , of the larger and more robust , possibly male , I. bernissartensis . However , this is not supported today .
= = = Paleopathology = = =
Evidence of a fractured hip bone was found in a specimen of Iguanodon , which had an injury to its ischium . Two other individuals were observed with signs of osteoarthritis as evidenced by bone overgrowths in their anklebones which are called osteophytes .
= = Discovery and history = =
= = = Gideon Mantell , Sir Richard Owen , and the discovery of dinosaurs = = =
The discovery of Iguanodon has long been accompanied by a popular legend . The story goes that Gideon Mantell 's wife , Mary Ann , discovered the first teeth of an Iguanodon in the strata of Tilgate Forest in Whitemans Green , Cuckfield , Sussex , England , in 1822 while her husband was visiting a patient . However , there is no evidence that Mantell took his wife with him while seeing patients . Furthermore , he admitted in 1851 that he himself had found the teeth . Not everyone agrees that the story is false , though . It is known from his notebooks that Mantell first acquired large fossil bones from the quarry at Whitemans Green in 1820 . Because also theropod teeth were found , thus belonging to carnivores , he at first interpreted these bones , which he tried to combine into a partial skeleton , as those of a giant crocodile . In 1821 Mantell mentioned the find of herbivorous teeth and began to consider the possibility that a large herbivorous reptile was present in the strata . However , in his 1822 publication Fossils of the South Downs he as yet did not dare to suggest a connection between the teeth and his very incomplete skeleton , presuming that his finds presented two large forms , one carnivorous ( " an animal of the Lizard Tribe of enormous magnitude " ) , the other herbivorous . In May 1822 he first presented the herbivorous teeth to the Royal Society of London but the members , among them William Buckland , dismissed them as fish teeth or the incisors of a rhinoceros from a Tertiary stratum . On 23 June 1823 Charles Lyell showed some to Georges Cuvier , during a soiree in Paris , but the famous French naturalist at once dismissed them as those of a rhinoceros . Though the very next day Cuvier retracted , Lyell reported only the dismissal to Mantell , who became rather diffident about the issue . In 1824 Buckland described Megalosaurus and was on that occasion invited to visit Mantell 's collection . Seeing the bones on 6 March he agreed that these were of some giant saurian — though still denying it was a herbivore . Emboldened nevertheless , Mantell again sent some teeth to Cuvier , who answered on 22 June 1824 that he had determined that they were reptilian and quite possibly belonged to a giant herbivore . In a new edition that year of his Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles Cuvier admitted his earlier mistake , leading to an immediate acceptance of Mantell , and his new saurian , in scientific circles . Mantell tried to corroborate his theory further by finding a modern @-@ day parallel among extant reptiles . In September 1824 he visited the Royal College of Surgeons but at first failed to find comparable teeth . However , assistant @-@ curator Samuel Stutchbury recognised that they resembled those of an iguana he had recently prepared , albeit twenty times longer .
In recognition of the resemblance of the teeth to those of the iguana , Mantell decided to name his new animal Iguanodon or " iguana @-@ tooth " , from iguana and the Greek word ὀδών ( odon , odontos or " tooth " ) . Based on isometric scaling , he estimated that the creature might have been up to 18 metres ( 59 feet ) long , more than the 12 metres ( 39 feet ) length of Megalosaurus . His initial idea for a name was Iguana @-@ saurus ( " Iguana lizard " ) , but his friend William Daniel Conybeare suggested that that name was more applicable to the iguana itself , so a better name would be Iguanoides ( " Iguana @-@ like " ) or Iguanodon . He neglected to add a specific name to form a proper binomial , but one was supplied in 1829 by Friedrich Holl : I. anglicum , which was later amended to I. anglicus .
Mantell sent a letter detailing his discovery to the local Portsmouth Philosophical Society in December 1824 , several weeks after settling on a name for the fossil creature . The letter was read to members of the Society at a meeting on 17 December , and a report was published in the Hampshire Telegraph the following Monday , 20 December , which announced the name , mis @-@ spelt as " Iguanadon " . Mantell formally published his findings on 10 February 1825 , when he presented a paper on the remains to the Royal Society of London .
A more complete specimen of similar animal was discovered in a quarry in Maidstone , Kent , in 1834 ( lower Lower Greensand Formation ) , which Mantell soon acquired . He was led to identify it as an Iguanodon based on its distinctive teeth . The Maidstone slab was utilized in the first skeletal reconstructions and artistic renderings of Iguanodon , but due to its incompleteness , Mantell made some mistakes , the most famous of which was the placement of what he thought was a horn on the nose . The discovery of much better specimens in later years revealed that the horn was actually a modified thumb . Still encased in rock , the Maidstone skeleton is currently displayed at the Natural History Museum in London . The borough of Maidstone commemorated this find by adding an Iguanodon as a supporter to their coat of arms in 1949 . This specimen has become linked with the name I. mantelli , a species named in 1832 by Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer in place of I. anglicus , but it actually comes from a different formation than the original I. mantelli / I. anglicus material . The Maidstone specimen , also known as Gideon Mantell 's " Mantel @-@ piece " , and formally labelled NHMUK 3741 was subsequently excluded from Iguanodon . It is classified as cf . Mantellisaurus by McDonald ( 2012 ) ; as cf . Mantellisaurus atherfieldensis by Norman ( 2012 ) ; and made the holotype of a separate species Mantellodon carpenteri by Paul ( 2012 ) .
At the same time , tension began to build between Mantell and Richard Owen , an ambitious scientist with much better funding and society connections in the turbulent worlds of Reform Act – era British politics and science . Owen , a firm creationist , opposed the early versions of evolutionary science ( " transmutationism " ) then being debated and used what he would soon coin as dinosaurs as a weapon in this conflict . With the paper describing Dinosauria , he scaled down dinosaurs from lengths of over 61 metres ( 200 feet ) , determined that they were not simply giant lizards , and put forward that they were advanced and mammal @-@ like , characteristics given to them by God ; according to the understanding of the time , they could not have been " transmuted " from reptiles to mammal @-@ like creatures .
In 1849 , a few years before his death in 1852 , Mantell realised that iguanodonts were not heavy , pachyderm @-@ like animals , as Owen was putting forward , but had slender forelimbs ; however , his passing left him unable to participate in the creation of the Crystal Palace dinosaur sculptures , and so Owen 's vision of the dinosaurs became that seen by the public for decades . With Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins , he had nearly two dozen lifesize sculptures of various prehistoric animals built out of concrete sculpted over a steel and brick framework ; two iguanodonts ( based on the Mantellodon specimen ) , one standing and one resting on its belly , were included . Before the sculpture of the standing iguanodont was completed , he held a banquet for twenty inside it .
= = = Bernissart = = =
The largest find of Iguanodon remains to that date occurred on 28 February 1878 in a coal mine at Bernissart in Belgium , at a depth of 322 m ( 1 @,@ 056 ft ) , when two mineworkers , Jules Créteur and Alphonse Blanchard , accidentally hit on a skeleton that they initially took for petrified wood . With the encouragement of Alphonse Briart , supervisor of mines at nearby Morlanwelz , Louis de Pauw on 15 May 1878 started to excavate the skeletons and in 1882 Louis Dollo reconstructed them . At least 38 Iguanodon individuals were uncovered , most of which were adults . In 1882 , the holotype specimen of I. bernissartensis became one of the first ever dinosaur skeletons mounted for display . It was put together in a chapel at the Palace of Charles of Lorraine using a series of adjustable ropes attached to scaffolding so that a lifelike pose could be achieved during the mounting process . This specimen , along with several others , first opened for public viewing in an inner courtyard of the palace in July 1883 . In 1891 they were moved to the Royal Museum of Natural History , where they are still on display ; nine are displayed as standing mounts , and nineteen more are still in the Museum 's basement . The exhibit makes an impressive display in the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences , in Brussels . A replica of one of these is on display at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History and at the Sedgwick Museum in Cambridge . Most of the remains were referred to a new species , I. bernissartensis , a larger and much more robust animal than the English remains had yet revealed , but one specimen was referred to the nebulous , gracile I. mantelli ( now Dollodon bampingi ) . The skeletons were some of the first complete dinosaur skeletons known . Found with the dinosaur skeletons were the remains of plants , fish , and other reptiles , including the crocodyliform Bernissartia .
The science of conserving fossil remains was in its infancy , and new techniques had to be improvised to deal with what soon became known as " pyrite disease " . Crystalline pyrite in the bones was being oxidized to iron sulphate , accompanied by an increase in volume that caused the remains to crack and crumble . When in the ground , the bones were isolated by anoxic moist clay that prevented this from happening , but when removed into the drier open air , the natural chemical conversion began to occur . To limit this effect , De Pauw immediately , in the mine @-@ gallery , re @-@ covered the dug @-@ out fossils with wet clay , sealing them with paper and plaster reinforced by iron rings , forming in total about six hundred transportable blocks with a combined weight of a hundred and thirty tons . In Brussels after opening the plaster he impregnated the bones with boiling gelatine mixed with oil of cloves as a preservative . Removing most of the visible pyrite he then hardened them with hide glue , finishing with a final layer of tin foil . Damage was repaired with papier @-@ mâché . This treatment had the unintended effect of sealing in moisture and extending the period of damage . In 1932 museum director Victor van Straelen decided that the specimens had to be completely restored again to safeguard their preservation . From December 1935 to August 1936 the staff at the museum in Brussels treated the problem with a combination of alcohol , arsenic , and 390 kilograms of shellac . This combination was intended to simultaneously penetrate the fossils ( with alcohol ) , prevent the development of mold ( with arsenic ) , and harden them ( with shellac ) . The fossils entered a third round of
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headquarters itself remained in Germany along with the rest of V Corps . The operations were conducted by VII Corps and XVIII Airborne Corps , which had significant engineer assets of their own . Throughout the early 1990s , the brigade would continue to see units come and go from its command as they were transferred from the restructuring 18th Engineer Brigade and the deactivating 7th Engineer Brigade .
= = = Operation Joint Endeavour = = =
From December 1995 to January 1996 , all units in the brigade , except the 320th Engineer Company ( Topographic ) , deployed to Croatia or Bosnia and Herzegovina in support of Operation Joint Endeavor . The 320th Engineer Company deployed their topographic surveying platoon the following year . The 130th Engineer Brigade was tasked with building an assault bridge over the Sava River . Despite severe flooding conditions around the river and international pressure against such a structure , the brigade sent its units to begin work on the bridge . In December 1995 , the 502nd Engineer Company deployed to Zupanja , Croatia and placed the historic ribbon bridge over the river . This bridge , at 2 @,@ 239 feet ( 682 m ) was the longest assault floating bridge in military history . The company operated 24 @-@ hours a day for three months crossing critical traffic in support of Task Force Eagle and NATO 's Implementation Force . The company also assisted in the construction of a second bridge over the Sava River in Brčko @-@ Gunja . The 502nd Engineer Company redeployed in May 1996 , with a rafting section remaining at Slavonski Brod to support the force restructuring of Task Force Eagle . The 130th Engineer Brigade would go on to construct seven fixed bridges in support of the operation . During the deployment , the brigade was also tasked with creating and maintaining maps and overlays of the area of operations . It would produce over 300 @,@ 000 such maps . The 130th Engineer Brigade was also tasked with repairing and maintaining much of the Task Force 's infrastructure .
The brigade returned to Germany after the operation was complete . Throughout 1998 – 2002 it would train with German engineers , including German units from Lahnstein and Speyer , as well as the German Engineering School . The brigade also set up marksman competitions with German units , to give US soldiers the chance to earn the German Armed Forces Badge of Marksmanship , the German Sports Badge , and other badges . Over 2 @,@ 500 of these badges would be earned by soldiers of the 130th over the years that it served in Germany . It also trained extensively in bridging operations at rivers throughout Germany . In summer of 2000 , the brigade participated in a joint engineering exercise in Moldova with US Navy Seabees and the 505th Engineer Brigade of the North Carolina Army National Guard . The exercise was the first ever conducted in Moldova and featured numerous training scenarios as well as the construction of a medical clinic . Several other such exercises were conducted in nations throughout Europe including Albania , Romania , Georgia , Latvia , Bulgaria and Macedonia . They also performed annual humanitarian missions to Poland , working on community projects around the country with the assistance of Polish Armed Forces every September , as a training exercise .
= = = Operation Iraqi Freedom = = =
The 130th Engineer Brigade mobilized in support of the Global War on Terrorism in 2003 . It was commanded by Colonel Gregg F. Martin . As preparations were being made for Operation Iraqi Freedom , the 130th Engineer Brigade was placed in charge of the largest engineering force in the theater . This included seven different engineering battalions as well as several separate group and company sized elements . Units of the brigade were then deployed to Kuwait in early 2003 , along with much of V Corps ' staff . They would provide command and assistance for the 3rd Infantry Division , 82nd Airborne Division and 101st Airborne Division as they crossed the border to Iraq and attacked to the capitol region of Baghdad from the south . Coupled with the landings of the 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team to the north , the operation would see the US Forces surround and destroy Iraqi forces in and around the capitol .
The first obstacle facing the brigade was " the berm " , a 10 @-@ kilometer @-@ deep defensive obstacle complex that spanned Iraq 's border with Kuwait . The berm consisted of large tank ditches , berms of dirt , electrified fencing , and razor wire . It was decided that the 3rd Infantry Division 's Brigade Combat Teams would breach this berm in eight locations and move through . The 130th Engineer brigade analyzed the berms and provided a layout of them to coalition forces . The 130th Engineer Brigade then conducted the actual breaches in late March , using armored combat earthmovers to build roads for tracked vehicles , while armored vehicle @-@ launched bridges set up for wheeled vehicles . The 130th worked with Kuwati engineers to breach the berm in 12 places , and the 3rd Infantry Division 's Brigade Combat Teams moved though , starting the Iraq War . After combat forces moved through , the brigade and the Kuwatis then sealed off ten of these breaches to prevent Iraqi forces from using then , leaving two open for US forces that followed from the 82nd and 101st .
After the breach , the 130th moved into Iraq . They provided support for the divisions as they advanced along the path to Baghdad . When a large sandstorm grounded aviation and large dust clouds became a problem , the brigade repurposed oil for use in dust abatement around airfields , allowing the 101st 's fleet of AH @-@ 64 Apaches to take off and engage Iraqi ground forces on 24 March . Retreating Iraqi units detonated many bridges to slow the 3rd Infantry Division 's advance . The 130th Engineers conducted rapid repairs to allow the brigades to continue to move through . The brigade supported combat elements moving through An Najaf , clearing roads and pathways of debris and obstacles to allow rapid movement through the city . The 565th Engineer Battalion built the " birthday bridge " – the longest float bridge constructed in a combat theatre with a span of 580 meters – over the Tigris River in Tikrit on Saddam Hussein ’ s birthday , 28 April 2003 .
After the invasion was over , the brigade was supposed to support the operation with bridging and infrastructure support . During the planning for the invasion , the engineers of the brigade were told that reconstruction in Iraq would be conducted by Department of Defense contractors and Iraqi civilians . They were not originally prepared to conduct major reconstruction efforts . When V Corps became the commanding element for the task force to rebuild Iraq , much of the invasion force , including the 130th Engineer Brigade , was sent to do jobs they had not been originally planned for , as basic utilities and sanitation conditions in Iraq were far below what was expected . Throughout the rest of 2003 and 2004 , the engineers engaged in a large number of initial reconstruction projects on basic utilities , including schools , water treatment plants , waste removal , and the nation 's power grid . It was determined that the scale of these projects was much greater than what the US had expected or what had been encountered in previous contingencies . It was also decided that reconstruction was essential to the coalition since it would help win over the Iraqi people . By May 2003 , the brigade had been completely repurposed . Though originally tasked with demolishing obstacles , building fortifications , and bridging operations , the brigade was tasked entirely with construction projects . This conversion was a difficult process , as the brigade did not have the equipment and specialist units designed to handle reconstruction on a national scale . As more US military reconstruction units arrived in Iraq , the brigade grew to eight battalions and three groups .
The 130th Engineer Brigade focused on bridging projects as was its specialty , but it ultimately found itself undertaking numerous different projects throughout the country for much of 2003 and into 2004 . Not all of its units were confined entirely to construction , though . The 502nd Engineer Company also conducted river patrol operations in Baghdad and Tikrit . This new mission for the company was essential for force protection , troop transportation , search and cordon operations , and to protect against sabotage on fixed bridges . In September 2003 , with the inactivation of the 38th Engineer Company ( Medium Girder Bridge ) , the 502nd Engineer Company became a multi @-@ role bridge company with both float and fixed bridging capabilities and the only active bridge company in USAREUR .
The 130th was headquartered at Logistical Support Area Anaconda for the majority of the deployment . Throughout Operation Iraqi Freedom , the headquarters commanded up to 15 @,@ 000 engineers at one time , conducting missions including bridging , humanitarian assistance , topographic missions , dive missions , firefighting , base construction , river patrols , mine detection , missile removal and many more . Brigade units redeployed to Hanau in late 2003 and early 2004 . Most of the brigade 's soldiers returned to Hanau on 5 February 2004 after numerous logistical delays . Most of the 130th Engineer Brigade 's subordinate units would receive Meritorious Unit Commendation for their roles in the invasion of Iraq , though the Brigade 's headquarters did not .
= = = Second tour in Iraq = = =
The 502nd Engineer Company became the first V Corps company @-@ sized unit to return for a second tour in Iraq when it deployed in September 2004 . The company returned to Hanau in September 2005 . In December 2004 , the 130th Engineer Brigade 's headquarters was informed that it would be deployed back to Iraq the next year . The brigade mobilized and began this new deployment in September 2005 ; it began operating in the country the next month . The 54th Engineer Battalion followed in October . The brigade eventually replaced the 130th , 194th , and 20th Engineer Brigades , becoming the only engineer brigade operating in the country . By December 2006 , the brigade commanded all engineering formations in Multi @-@ National Corps - Iraq , including engineers from other branches of the US Military , for a total of 3 @,@ 300 soldiers . During the tour they were supported by the 412th Engineer Command .
The 130th Engineers had a variety of reconstruction tasks during their second tour in Iraq . The top priority of the brigade was to " maintain and upgrade lines of communications " to " insure uninterrupted ground movement through the area of operations . " This duty also included detection and removal of Improvised Explosive Devices . The brigade undertook numerous construction projects , primarily in building coalition forward operating bases , but they were tasked with construction projects for the Iraqi army and civilians as well . Many of the units of the brigade were integrated with military from other branches for projects . US Navy and US Marine Corps engineers operated side @-@ by @-@ side with 130th Engineer Brigade soldiers , and though commanders reported a " culture clash " between different branches of service , the soldiers , sailors , and Marines were able to adapt to the situation quickly .
The brigade 's Headquarters Company managed the engineer battalions but it also undertook its own missions , including humanitarian missions and public affairs assignments . It was supported by the brigade 's Special Troops Battalion which provided a wide range of duties for the Headquarters . The task of detecting and removing IEDs proved particularly difficult for the brigade , as IEDs were a serious issue for coalition forces and the leading cause of casualties at the time . The 54th Engineer Battalion under the 130th was specially tasked with counter @-@ IED operations on the over 300 kilometers of roads that the brigade was responsible for . The 249th Engineer Battalion was charged with maintaining the power grid throughout Iraq . They were required to assess 200 power stations throughout the country and make repairs to each one individually . The 84th Engineer Battalion was tasked with most construction projects in the Forward Operating Bases . These projects involved expansion of many of the larger FOBs as smaller ones were shut down and consolidated . One of the main focuses of the Battalion was the expansion of living quarters at Al Asad Air Base . The 565th Engineer Battalion was responsible for maintaining the supply yards housing building materials for the rest of the Brigade 's battalions , and to ensure that the materials were dispersed and used as efficiently as possible . The brigade 's mechanical and vehicle maintenance duties were provided by civilian contractors . These contractors also handled transportation of construction vehicles and vehicle parts to the theater .
During the year of its deployment in Iraq , the brigade reported progress in numerous areas . Brigade commander Colonel Thomas Kula reported that " greater than 50 percent " of IEDs found on roads used by the Corps were recognized and disarmed before they could be used against coalition forces . The brigade also cleared 700 kilometers of road from trash and debris and filled more than 600 potholes caused by explosions . It also completed 1 @,@ 800 mapping projects in the theater . The brigade also finished numerous building projects around Iraq . Soldiers of the 130th Engineer Brigade completed 345 construction projects during the year in the country , including emplacing four bridges and maintaining eight more , well digging projects throughout western Iraq , maintaining the power grid to 25 coalition bases , repairing and expanding services at FOBs throughout the region , and construction of outposts and checkpoints throughout the country 's roadways with the assistance of Iraqi engineers . During the deployment , a total of 15 soldiers from the brigade were killed in action . The 130th Engineer Brigade returned to Hanau from its second tour in Iraq in October 2006 .
= = = Reactivation in Hawaii = = =
With the US Army forces in Europe seeing drawdowns and redeployments , it was announced that V Corps would be eliminated , and the 130th Engineer Brigade would be moved elsewhere . The brigade formally left Hanau with a casing of the unit colors ceremony at Pioneer Kaserne on 4 May 2007 . Casing the unit 's colors was a tradition formally signifying its inactivation and , for all official purposes , the brigade had ceased to be an active Army unit . The brigade headquarters became part of U.S. Army Pacific on 16 June 2007 .
The brigade had originally been slated to relocate to Fort Lewis , Washington to replace the 555th Engineer Brigade , which was scheduled to be inactivated . But with the announcement of the Grow the Army plan in early 2007 , it was decided that no engineer brigades would be inactivated permanently , and the 130th Engineer Brigade would be moved to Hawaii instead . Both the 130th and 555th Engineer Brigades remained on active duty .
The brigade was inactive for a year while it was reconstructed in Hawaii . As a part of the transformation of the US Army , the brigade was reorganized into a modular force with new and updated equipment and new personnel . The Brigade stood up provisionally on 27 June 2008 as it neared ready status . On 23 October , the brigade 's colors were formally uncased at Schofield Barracks , Hawaii . This signified the end of the brigade 's relocation to Hawaii as well as its completion and readiness to take on new missions .
The brigade took command of the 6th , 65th and 84th Engineer battalions .
= = = Third tour in Iraq = = =
The brigade was alerted for another deployment to Operation Iraqi Freedom in summer 2009 . There , its missions will once again include construction , route clearance , and training of Iraqi engineers . Since being alerted for deployment , the brigade began conducting vigorous Mission Rehearsal Exercise ( MRE ) training at Schofield Barracks . Among this training has been updated strategies for detection and clearance of Improvised Explosive Devices . The brigade began its deployment on 17 July 2009 , uncasing its colors in Mosul and taking command of construction projects in the area from the 18th Engineer Brigade .
The 130th Engineer Brigade returned to Schofield Barracks Hawaii from Iraq on 4 June 2010 .
= = = Theater Security Cooperation Program Exercises = = =
Upon the 130th Engineer Brigade 's return from Iraq in 2010 , the 130th Engineer Brigade served as the Theater Engineer Brigade in the PACOM AOR . In this capacity , the brigade provided combat engineering , construction engineering and dive operations support to joint and combined partners at more than 30 Theater Security Cooperation Program ( TSCP ) exercises and multiple company sized deployments to Operations New Dawn and Enduring Freedom .
The 130th Engineer Brigade served as the Combined Joint Civil Military Operations Task Force ( CJMOTF ) for Balikatan 2011 in the Philippines . For over two months , the brigade headquarters along with platoons from the 84th Engineer Battalion built schools and all @-@ purpose facilities . Meanwhile , the brigade 's subordinate joint partners conducted veterinarian and medical events to help improve the lives of the Filipino people . This event sharpened the brigade 's skills at responding to humanitarian aid and disaster response ( HADR ) events throughout the region . Upon completion of BK11 , the brigade shifted its training focus from stability operations to major combat operations . Specifically , the brigade initiated a 9 @-@ month train @-@ up plan for its MCTP graded war @-@ fighter with the 2nd Infantry Division in Korea . Through a series of individual and collective training events the brigade honed , sharpened and in some cases re @-@ learned the skills necessary to achieve victory in a high @-@ intensity conflict . Through UFG12 , 2ID 's War @-@ Path II Exercise , and finally the Full Spectrum Exercise in November 2011 , the 130th Engineer Brigade earned some of the highest marks and accolades ever given to a brigade by the MCTP during a certification war @-@ fighter exercise . Through these series of exercises , the 130th Engineer Brigade helped USFK , 8th Army , and 2ID refine and improve their most significant OPLANs by updating TPFDDs , task organizations , engineer concepts of operations , and combined arms gap @-@ crossing plans . The 130th Engineer Brigade , along with 8th Army and 2ID remain ready to " Fight Tonight " if called upon .
= = = Operation Enduring Freedom = = =
The 130th Engineer Brigade Headquarters and Headquarters Company ( HHC ) , and one of their subordinate battalions , the 65th Engineer Battalion ( Combat Effects ) , deployed in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in September and October 2013 . This marked the brigade headquarters ' first deployment to Afghanistan . After a two @-@ week handover period , the 130th Engineer Brigade officially took over on 2 October 2013 from the 555th Engineer Brigade ( from Joint Base Lewis @-@ McChord , WA ) , Joint Task Force Triple Nickel , thus becoming Joint Task Force Sapper , overseeing U.S. Army , Navy , and Air Force engineer units across Afghanistan . A direct subordinate element of ISAF Joint Command and U.S. Forces @-@ Afghanistan , JTF Sapper constituted the fourth largest command in theater , behind only regional commands . The 130th Engineer Brigade became the core of a provisional multi @-@ role brigade headquarters for engineer operations in Afghanistan with seven subordinate battalions , one Naval Mobile Construction Battalion , and one Engineer Prime Beef Squadron consisting of over 4 @,@ 200 Soldiers , Sailors and Airmen operating in each Regional Command .
From September to December 2013 , Joint Task Force Sapper 's mission in theater was " The Theater Engineer Brigade trains , certifies and advises the ANA Engineers on construction , facility management , and assured mobility capabilities while supporting the retrograde of Coalition Forces through expeditionary construction and assured mobility across the CJOA @-@ A. "
From January to May 2014 , Joint Task Force Sapper 's mission in theater was " Joint Task Force Sapper partners with ANA engineers to enable their independent operations and support the redeployment and retrograde of Coalition Forces through expeditionary construction and deconstruction across the CJOA @-@ A in order to set the conditions for the resolute support mission . "
The 130th Engineer Brigade turned over responsibility as Operation Enduring Freedom 's Theater Engineer Brigade to the 2nd Engineer Brigade ( from Joint Base Elmedorf @-@ Richardson , AK ) , Joint Task Force Trailblazer , on 29 May 2014 . The 130th Engineer Brigade returned to Schofield Barracks , Hawaii from Afghanistan on 4 June 2014 .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit Decorations = = =
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
= Corythosaurus =
Corythosaurus / ˌkɒrᵻθoʊˈsɔːrəs / is a genus of hadrosaurid " duck @-@ billed " dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous Period , about 77 – 75 @.@ 7 million years ago . It lived in what is now North America . Its name means " helmet lizard " , derived from Greek κόρυς . It was named and described in 1914 by Barnum Brown . Corythosaurus is now thought to be a lambeosaurine , related to Nipponosaurus , Velafrons , Hypacrosaurus , and Olorotitan . Corythosaurus has an estimated length of 9 metres ( 30 ft ) , and has a skull , including the crest , that is 70 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 27 @.@ 9 in ) tall .
Corythosaurus is known from many complete specimens , including the nearly complete holotype found by Brown in 1911 . The holotype skeleton is only missing the last section of the tail , and part of the forelimbs , but was preserved with impressions of polygonal scales . Corythosaurus is known from many skulls with tall crests . The crests resemble the crests of the cassowary and a Corinthian helmet . The most likely function of the crest is thought to be vocalization . As in a trombone , sound waves would travel through many chambers in the crest , and then get amplified when Corythosaurus exhaled . A Corythosaurus specimen has been preserved with its last meal in its chest cavity . Inside the cavity were remains of conifer needles , seeds , twigs , and fruits : Corythosaurus probably fed on all of these .
The two species of Corythosaurus are both present in slightly different levels of the Dinosaur Park Formation . Both still co @-@ existed with theropods and other ornithischians , like Daspletosaurus , Brachylophosaurus , Parasaurolophus , Scolosaurus , and Chasmosaurus .
= = Discovery and species = =
The first specimen , AMNH 5240 , was discovered in 1911 by Barnum Brown in Red Deer River , Alberta , Canada , and secured by him in the Fall of 1912 . As well as an almost complete skeleton , the find was notable because impressions of much of the creature 's skin had also survived . The specimen came from the Belly River Group of the province . The left or underside of the skeleton was preserved in carbonaceous clay , making it difficult to expose the skin . The skeleton was articulated , and only missing about the last 0 @.@ 61 metres ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) of the tail and the forelimbs . Both scapulae and coracoids are preserved in position , but the rest of the forelimbs are gone , except for phalanges and pieces of humeri , ulnae and radii . Apparently the remaining forelimbs were weathered or eroded away . Impressions of the integument were preserved covering over a large part of the skeletons outlining , and shows the form of the body . Another specimen , AMNH 5338 , was found in 1914 by Brown and Peter Kaisen . Both specimens are now housed in the American Museum of Natural History in their original death poses .
The type species Corythosaurus casuarius was named by Barnum Brown in 1914 , based on the first specimen collected by him in 1912 . AMNH 5240 is thus the holotype . In 1916 , the original author , Brown , published a more detailed description which was also based on AMNH 5338 , which specimen is therefore the plesiotype . Corythosaurus is among many lambeosaurines that possess crests , and it was the crest that lends Corythosaurus its name . The generic name Corythosaurus is derived from Greek κόρυθος , korythos , " Corinthian helmet " , and means " helmeted lizard " . The specific name casuarius refers to the cassowary , a bird with a similar skull crest . The full binomial of Corythosaurus casuarius thus means " Cassowary @-@ like reptile , with a Corinthian helmet crest " .
The two best preserved specimens of Corythosaurus found , by Charles H. Sternberg in 1912 , were lost on 6 December 1916 while being carried to the United Kingdom , during World War One . They were being sent to Arthur Smith Woodward , a paleontologist of the British Museum of Natural History in England , when the ship transporting them was sunk by the German merchant raider SMS Möwe in the middle of the ocean .
There were formerly up to seven species described , including C. casuarius , C. bicristatus Parks 1935 , C. brevicristatus Parks 1935 , C. excavatus Gilmore 1923 , C. frontalis Parks 1935 , and C. intermedius Parks 1923 . In 1975 Peter Dodson studied the differences between the skulls and crests of different species of lambeosaurine dinosaurs . He found that the differences in size and shape may have actually been related to the gender and age of the animal . Now only one species is recognized for certain , C. casuarius , although C. intermedius has been recognized as valid in some studies . It is based on specimen ROM 776 , a skull found by Levi Sternberg in 1920 and was named by William Parks in 1923 , who had originally named it Stephanosaurus intermedius earlier that year . The specific name of C. intermedius is derived from its apparent intermediate position according to Parks . C. intermedius lived at a slightly later time in the Campanian than C. casuarius , and the two species are not identical , which supported the separation of them in a 2009 study .
= = Description = =
= = = Size = = =
Benson et al . ( 2012 ) estimated that Corythosaurus has an average length of 9 metres ( 30 ft ) . Richard Swann Lull 's earlier length estimate , published in 1942 , found a slightly longer total length of 9 @.@ 4 m ( 31 ft ) , a size similar to Lambeosaurus lambei , another Canadian lambeosaurine . In 1962 , Edwin H. Colbert used models of specific dinosaurs , including Corythosaurus , to estimate their weight . The Corythosaurus model used , was modelled by Vincent Fusco after a mounted skeleton , and supervised by Barnum Brown . After testing , it was concluded that the average weight of Corythosaurus was 3 @.@ 82 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 76 long tons ; 4 @.@ 21 short tons ) . More recent size estimates of Corythosaurus , published in 2001 , find the genus to be among the largest hadrosaurids , only smaller than Shantungosaurus and Parasaurolophus . The total length of Corythosaurus specimen AMNH 5240 was found to be 8 @.@ 1 m ( 27 ft ) , with a weight of 3 @.@ 0785 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 0299 long tons ; 3 @.@ 3935 short tons ) .
Proportionally , the skull is much shorter and smaller than that of Edmontosaurus ( formerly Trachodon ) , Kritosaurus , or Saurolophus , but when including its crest , its superficial area is almost as large .
= = = Skull = = =
Over twenty skulls have been found from this dinosaur . As with other lambeosaurines , the animal bore a tall , elaborate bony crest atop its skull , which contained the elongate narial passages . The narial passages extended into the crest , first into separate pockets in the sides , then into a single central chamber and onward into the respiratory system . The skull of the type specimen has no dermal impressions on it . During preservation it was compressed laterally , so now the width is about two @-@ thirds what it would have been in real life . According to Brown , the compression also caused the nasals to shift where they pressed down on the premaxillaries . Because they were pressed on the premaxillaries , the nasals would have closed the nares . Apart from the compression , the skull appears to be normal . Contrary to what Brown assumed , the areas concerned were fully part of the praemaxillae .
The crests of Corythosaurus resemble that of a cassowary , or a Corinthian helmet . They are formed by a combination of the praemaxillae , nasals , prefrontals and frontals , as in Saurolophus , but instead of projecting backwards as a spine , they rise up to make the highest point above the orbit . The two halves of the crest are separated by a median suture . In front of the orbit , the crest is made of thick bone .
The nasals make up most of the crest . Brown assumed that they extended from the beaks ' tip to the highest spot along the crest and that , unlike those in other genera , the nasals meet in the centre and are not separated in front by an ascending premaxillary process . Brown however , mistook the praemaxillae for the nasals ; the snout is actually largely formed by them and they do separate the nasals . Brown also thought that on the top and back of the crest , the whole external face is covered by the frontals . Again he made a mistake : what he assumed to be the frontals are in fact the nasals . The nasals end at the back of the squamosals in a hooked , short process . The prefrontals also make up part of the crest ; however , Brown mistook the lower upper branch of the praemaxilla for the prefrontal . The actual prefrontal , triangular in shape , is located at the side of the crest base ; it was by Brown seen as a part of the frontal . The real frontals , largely internal to the crest base structure , are not visible from the side .
The mouth of the holotype of Corythosaurus is narrow . The praemaxillae each form two long folds . The folds enclose air passages extending the narial passages to the front of the snout . There they end in narrow openings , sometimes called " pseudonares " , false bony nostrils . These were mistaken by Brown for the real nares or nostrils . These are actually situated inside the crest , above the eye sockets . As in Saurolophus , the expanded portion of the premaxillary in front of the pseudonaris ' opening is elongate : by comparison , in Kritosaurus , the bill is short , and the pseudonares extend far forward . At the end of the Corythosaurus bill , the two pseudonares unite into one . Because of his incorrect identification , Brown assumed that the holotype 's inferior process of the premaxillary was shorter than in Kritosaurus and Saurolophus , and that the process does not unite with the lacrimal , another difference from those genera . The praemaxilla actually does touch the lacrimal and extends to the rear until well behind the eye socket .
The lower jaw of the holotype is 66 @.@ 9 centimetres ( 26 @.@ 3 in ) long , and 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) deep . The total length of the crest from the beak to the uppermost tip of the type specimen is 83 @.@ 7 centimetres ( 33 @.@ 0 in ) , its total length is 81 @.@ 2 centimetres ( 32 @.@ 0 in ) , and height 70 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 27 @.@ 9 in ) .
= = = Soft tissue = = =
In the holotype of C. casuarius , the sides and tail of the body are covered in scales of several types . Polygonal tuberculate scales , covered in small bumps , vary in size over the body . Conical limpet @-@ like scales are only preserved on a fold of skin preserved on the back of the tibia , but which was probably from the bottom of the belly , rather than the leg . Separating the polygonal scales of C. casuarius are shieldlike scales , arranged close together in rows . Ossified tendons are present on all the vertebrae , except for those in the cervical region . On no vertebrae do the tendons extend below the transverse processes . Each tendon is flattened at its origin , and transversely ovoid in the central rod , ending at a rounded point .
Aside from those found on Corythosaurus casuarius , extensive skin impressions have been found on Edmontosaurus annectens and notable integument has also been found on Brachylophosaurus canadensis , Gryposaurus notabilis , Parasaurolophus walkeri , Lambeosaurus magnicristatus , L. lambei , Saurolophus angustirsotris and on unidentified ornithopods . Of these , L. lambei , C. casuarius , G. notabilis , P. walkeri , and S. angustirsotris have preserved polygonal scales . The scales on L. lambei , S. angustirostris and C. casuarius are all similar . Corythosaurus is one of very few hadrosaurids which have preserved skin impressions on the hind limbs and feet . A study in 2013 showed that amongst hadrosaurids , Saurolophus angustirostris preserved the best and most complete foot and limb integument , although other species like S. osborni , Edmontosaurus annectens and Lambeosaurus lambei ( = L. clavinitialis ) share a fair amount of preserved tissue on those regions .
It was once thought that this dinosaur lived mostly in the water , due to the appearance of webbed hands and feet . However , it was later discovered that the so @-@ called " webs " were in fact deflated padding , much like that found on many modern mammals .
= = = Distinguishing characteristics = = =
A set of characters were indicated by Barnum Brown in 1914 to distinguish Corythosaurus from all other hadrosaurids from Alberta : a comparatively short skull with a high helmet @-@ like crest formed by the nasals , prefrontals and frontals ; the nasals not being separated in front by the premaxillaries ; a narrow beak , with an expansion in front of an elongated naris ; and a small narial opening .
In 1916 , Brown expanded the character set to include more features ; in the revised version : a comparatively short skull with a high helmet @-@ like crest formed by nasals , prefrontals and frontals ; the nasals not being separated in front by premaxillaries ; a narrow beak , expanded section in front of the elongated nares ; a small narial opening ; a vertebral formula of 15 cervicals , 19 dorsals , 8 sacrals , and 61 + caudals ; possession of dorsal spines of a medium height ; high anterior caudal spines ; long chevrons ; long scapulae , possessing a blade of medium width ; a radius considerably longer than humerus ; comparatively short metacarpals ; an anteriorly decurved ilium ; a long ischium with a foot @-@ like terminal expansion ; a pubis with an anterior blade that is short and broadly expanded at end ; a femur that is longer than the tibia ; the phalanges of pes are short ; that the integument over the sides and tail composed of polygonal tuberculate scales without pattern but graded in size in different parts of the body ; and a belly with longitudinal rows of large conical limpet @-@ like scales separated by uniformly large polygonal tubercles . Again , the presumed traits of the snout are incorrect because Brown confused the praemaxillae with the nasal bones and the nasal bones with the frontals . Most of the postcranial traits are today known to be shared with other lambeosaurines .
= = Classification = =
Originally , Brown referred to Corythosaurus as a member of the family Trachodontidae ( now Hadrosauridae ) . Inside Trachodontidae were the subfamilies Trachodontinae and Saurolophinae . Brown classified Hadrosaurus , Trachodon , Claosaurus , and Kritosaurus in Trachodontinae , and Corythosaurus , Stephanosaurus , and Saurolophus in Saurolophinae .
Later , Brown revised the phylogeny of Corythosaurus , and found that it was closely related , and possibly ancestral to Hypacrosaurus . The only differences he found between them were the development of the vertebrae , and the proportions of the limbs . During a study of dinosaurian ilia in the 1920s , Alfred Sherwood Romer proposed that the two orders of dinosaurs might have evolved separately , and that birds , based on the shape and proportions of their ilia might truly be specialized ornithischians . He used both Tyrannosaurus and Corythosaurus as a base model to analyze which theory is more likely true . He found that even though birds are thought of as saurischians , it is very plausible for them to have evolved their specific pelvic musculature and anatomy if they evolved from ornithschians like Corythosaurus . However , even though Corythosaurus does resemble modern birds in pelvic structure more than saurischians , birds are now thought to have descended from the latter .
Corythosaurus is currently classified as a hadrosaurid , in the subfamily Lambeosaurinae . It is related to other hadrosaurs such as Hypacrosaurus , Lambeosaurus and Olorotitan , with the exception of Olorotitan they all share similar looking skulls and crests . However , research published in 2003 has suggested that even though it possesses a unique crest , Olorotitan is Corythosaurus closest known relative . Benson et al . ( 2012 ) found that Corythosaurus was closely related to Velafrons , Nipponosaurus , and Hypacrosaurus , and said that they formed a group of fan @-@ crested lambeosaurines .
In 2014 , a study including the description of Zhanghenglong was published in the journal PLOS ONE . The study included an almost complete cladogram of hadrosauroid relationships , including Corythosaurus as the most derived lambeosaurine , as sister taxon to Hypacrosaurus . The below cladogram is a simplified version including only Lambeosaurini .
= = Paleobiology = =
Comparisons between the scleral rings of Corythosaurus and modern birds and reptiles suggest that it may have been cathemeral , active throughout the day at short intervals . The sense of hearing in hadrosaurids , specifically such as Lophorhothon , also seems to have been greatly developed because of an elongated lagena . The presence of a thin stapes ( an ear bone that is rod @-@ like in reptiles ) , combined with a large eardrum implies the existence of a sensitive middle ear . It is possible that hadrosaurid ears are sensitive enough to detect as much sound as a modern crocodilian .
= = = Crest function = = =
The internal structures of the crest of Corythosaurus are quite complex , making possible a call that could be used for warning or attracting a mate . Nasal passageways of Corythosaurus , as well as Hypacrosaurus and Lambeosaurus are S @-@ shaped , with Parasaurolophus only possessing U @-@ shaped tubes . Any vocalization would travel through these elaborate chambers , and probably get amplified . Scientists speculate that Corythosaurus could make loud , low pitched cries " like a wind or brass instrument " , such as a trombone . The sounds could serve to alert other Corythosaurus to the presence of food or a potential threat from a predator . The nasal passages emit low @-@ frequency sounds when Corythosaurus exhaled . The individual crests would produce different sounds , so it is likely that each species of lambeosaurine would have had a unique sound . However , even though the range for different lambeosaurine nasal passages vary , they all probable made low @-@ pitched sounds . This might be because low sounds ( below 400 Hz ) travel a set distance in any environment , while higher ( above 400 Hz ) sounds have a larger spread in the distance travelled .
When they were first described , crested hadrosaurs were thought to be aquatic , an assessment based incorrectly on webbing that is now known to be padding . The theory was that the animals could swim deep in the water , and use the crest to store air to breath . However , it has now been proven that the crest did not have any holes in the end , and the water pressure at even 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) would be too great for the lungs to be able to inflate .
= = = Growth = = =
Corythosaurus casuarius is one of a few lambeosaurines , along with Lambeosaurus lambei , Hypacrosaurus stebingeri and H. altispinus , to have had surviving fossilized juveniles assigned to it . Juveniles are harder to assign to species , because at a young age they lack the distinctive larger crests of adults . As they age , lambeosaurine crests tend to grow and become more prominent come maturity . In the Dinosaur Park Formation , over fifty articulated specimens have been found , coming from many different genera . Among them , juveniles are hard to identify at the species level . Earlier , four genera and thirteen species were recognized from the formation 's area , when paleontologists used differences in size and crest shape to differentiate taxa . The smallest specimens were identified as Tetragonosaurus , now seen as a synonym of Procheneosaurus , and the largest skeletons were called either Corythosaurus or Lambeosaurus ; an adult was identified as Parasaurolophus . Small lambeosaurines from the Horseshoe Canyon Formation were referred to Cheneosaurus .
Corythosaurus started developing its crest when half the size of adults , but Parasaurolophus juveniles grew crests when only 25 % as long as adults . Juvenile Corythosaurus , along with adults , had a premaxilla @-@ nasal fontanelle . Young and adult Corythosaurus are similar to Lambeosaurus and Hypacrosaurus but dissimilar to Parasaurolophus in that the sutures of the skull are sinuous , and not smooth and straight . This feature helps differentiate parasaurolophins from lambeosaurins . Generally , the crests of juveniles of lambeosaurines like Corythosaurus , Lambeosaurus , Hypacrosaurus stebingeri , parasaurolophines like Parasaurolophus , and primitive lambeosaurines like Kazaklambia are quite alike , although other features can be used to distinguish them .
Work by Dodson ( 1975 ) recognized that there were many less taxa present in Alberta . Tetragonosaurus was found to be juveniles of Corythosaurus or Lambeosaurus . T. erectofrons was assigned to Corythosaurus based largely on biometric information . The only non @-@ typic specimen of Tetragonosaurus , assigned to T. erectofrons , was found later to be referable to Hypacrosaurus , although the holotype of the species was still found to be assignable to Corythosaurus .
= = = Diet = = =
Corythosaurus was an ornithopod , and therefore a herbivore . Benson et al . ( 2012 ) realized that the beak of Corythosaurus was shallow and delicate , and concluded that it must have been used to feed upon soft vegetation . Based on the climate of the Late Cretaceous , they guessed that Corythosaurus would have been a selective feeder , eating only the juiciest fruits and youngest leaves . Corythosaurus specimens have been preserved with its last meal in its chest cavity . Inside the cavity were remains of conifer needles , seeds , twigs , and fruits , meaning that Corythosaurus probably fed on all of these .
= = Paleoecology = =
Fossils have been found in the upper Oldman Formation and lower Dinosaur Park Formation of Canada . The Oldman Formation dates to the Campanian , about 77 @.@ 5 to 76 @.@ 5 million years ago , and the Dinosaur Park Formation dates from 76 @.@ 6 to 74 @.@ 8 million years ago . Corythosaurus lived from ~ 77 – 75 @.@ 7 million years ago . In the Dinosaur Park Formation C. casuarius lived from 76 @.@ 6 to 75 @.@ 9 mya , with C. intermedius living from 75 @.@ 8 to 75 @.@ 7 mya . In the Oldman Formation C. casuarius , the only species of Corythosaurus from the deposits , lived about 77 to 76 @.@ 5 mya . The holotype specimen was clearly a carcass that had floated up on a beach , as Unio shells , water @-@ worn bones , and a baenid turtle were preserved all around . Corythosaurus probably lived in a woodland forest , and might have occasionally wandered into swampy areas .
A limited fauna is known from the upper section of the Oldman Formation , and Corythosaurus casuarius as well as C. intermedius are among the taxa . Also from the section of the formation are the theropods Daspletosaurus , and Saurornitholestes , the hadrosaurids Brachylophosaurus , Gryposaurus and Parasaurolophus , and the ankylosaurid Scolosaurus , and the ceratopsians Coronosaurus and Chasmosaurus . Other genera are known , but do not persist from the upper section of the formation , and therefore are not contemporaries of Corythosaurus .
Corythosaurus casuarius is widespread throughout the lower unit of the Dinosaur Park Formation . In it , Corythosaurus was found to be closely associated with the ceratopsid Centrosaurus apertus . Their associating was found in the Dinosaur Park , Judith River , and Mesaverde formations , and also in the Wind River Basin and the Wheatland County area . Corythosaurus lived alongside numerous other giant herbivores , such as the hadrosaurids Gryposaurus and Parasaurolophus , the ceratopsids Centrosaurus and Chasmosaurus , and ankylosaurids Scolosaurus , Edmontonia and Dyoplosaurus in the earliest stages of the formation , Dyoplosaurus , Panoplosaurus and Euoplocephalus in the middle age , and Euoplocephalus alone in later stages of the formation . Studies of the jaw anatomy and mechanics of these dinosaurs suggests they probably all occupied slightly different ecological niches in order to avoid direct competition for food in such a crowded eco @-@ space . The only large predators known from the same levels of the formation as Corythosaurus are the tyrannosaurids Gorgosaurus libratus and an unnamed species of Daspletosaurus .
Thomas M. Lehman has observed that Corythosaurus hasn 't been discovered outside of southern Alberta even though it is one of the most abundant Judithian dinosaurs in the region . Large herbivores like the hadrosaurs living in North America during the Late Cretaceous had " remarkably small geographic ranges " despite their large body size and high mobility . This restricted distribution strongly contrasts with modern mammalian faunas whose large herbivores ' ranges " typical [ ly ] ... span much of a continent . "
= Ghost in the Shell : Stand Alone Complex - Solid State Society =
Ghost in the Shell : Stand Alone Complex - Solid State Society ( Japanese : 攻殻機動隊 STAND ALONE COMPLEX Solid State Society , Hepburn : Kōkaku Kidōtai STAND ALONE COMPLEX Solid State Society ) is a 2006 made @-@ for @-@ television science fiction action spy thriller anime film and is part of the Ghost in the Shell : Stand Alone Complex series based on Masamune Shirow 's manga Ghost in the Shell . It was produced by Production I.G and directed by Kenji Kamiyama .
The film is set in 2034 , two years after the events of 2nd GIG . Togusa is now the team leader for Public Security Section 9 , which has increased considerably in size . Section 9 deals with a series of complicated incidents , including the assassination of Ka Rum , a former dictator of the Siak Republic , which leads to a terrorist plot using children as vectors for a cybernetic virus . Investigations reveal that a hacker nicknamed the " The Puppeteer " is behind the entire series of events .
The film , which had a production budget of 360 million yen , debuted in Japan on SKY PerfecTV ! on September 1 , 2006 and it was released in North America in 2007 . A stereoscopic 3D version of the film was released in 2011 . The film received generally positive reviews , but was criticized for being very dialogue heavy and lacking in action .
= = Plot = =
In 2034 , two years after the events of 2nd GIG , Public Security Section 9 is investigating a string of mysterious suicides by refugees from the Siak Republic . Chief Aramaki conducts a raid to arrest the refugee dictator only to find him already dead . In retaliation , a Siak operative plans a terrorist attack with a micromachine virus . Batou is sent to intercept the Siak operative and encounters Kusanagi , who is conducting her own investigation . Before they can apprehend the operative , he dies while attacking them . Kusanagi takes a case of virus ampules and warns Batou to stay away from the Solid State Society before leaving .
Section 9 operatives develop a theory that a hacker known as the Puppeteer is responsible for Siak agents ' forced suicides and Togusa discovers sixteen kidnapped children who were intended carriers of the virus . All the children are listed as the children of Noble Rot Senior Citizens and Section 9 begins to suspect a larger conspiracy when they are part of a larger body of 20 @,@ 000 children . Soon afterwards , the Puppeteer causes the disappearance of the sixteen children and Batou reveals to Togusa that he believes Kusanagi to be the Puppeteer . Section 9 next intercepts a Siak sniper that is targeting the supposed mastermind of Ka Rum 's assassination . After his capture it is revealed the informant and the target are one in the same . The sniper says that the Puppeteer is a mechanism in the Solid State and cannot be killed .
Togusa tracks down one of the missing children , now assigned to an elderly man in the Noble Rot program . As Togusa tries to take the child , the man awakens and demands the child be left with him as he had named the child as his sole heir . He would rather give his assets to a child off the street and to protect them from abuse than have his assets turned over to the government upon his death . The man immediately dies after warning Togusa not to interfere with the will of the Solid State . Late , Togusa receives a call from the Puppeteer who hacks his brain and forces him to drive to a cyberbrain implant hospital with his daughter . The Puppeteer and Togusa converse , and Togusa is given the option to lose his daughter to the Solid State or commit suicide . He chooses suicide but is saved by Kusanagi who then identifies the Puppeteer as a rhizome formed by the collective consciousness of the Noble Rot Senior Citizens located in a welfare center .
Kusanagi temporarily rejoins Section 9 and confirms that Ito Munei , an influential politician , was behind the assassination of General Ka Rum . She also confirms that Munei and other politicians use it as a front for a brainwashing facility to create an elite group of pure @-@ blooded Japanese to take control of the country in the next generation and lead it into Munei 's vision of a new Golden Age . The Solid State decided to eliminate Munei for interfering in its plans , but Munei was ignorant of the origin of the abduction infrastructure .
A designer named Tateaki Koshiki steps forward , claiming he developed the Solid State system before committing suicide . Kusanagi dives into his cyberbrain and into Koshiki 's trap , allowing him to hack her cyberbrain . The Puppetmaster reveals that he was spread across several egos until a collective consciousness emerged and developed into a Solid State , allowing him to move into the society beyond as the vanishing mediator . Later , Batou tells a recovering Kusanagi that the real Tateaki Koshiki used a cybernetic body and built the Solid State after he was hired by Munei . Kusanagi does not reveal that the Puppeteer was a fragment of herself , but Batou already knew from being linked to her during the dive . Batou concludes that the ultimate identity of the Puppeteer will remain unknown and that incident will be written off a scandal .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
The film was initially hinted as a new anime project collaboration with Bandai Visuals and Production I.G. The film was officially announced by Production I.G at the 2006 Tokyo Anime Fair . Whether the film would be released theatrically , broadcast on television , or released direct @-@ to @-@ DVD was undecided at the time . The film had a production budget of 360 million yen ( equivalent to US $ 4 @.@ 3 million ) . It was produced in Hi @-@ vision format and was made by the same staff that originally made the TV series .
The production team used a 3 @-@ D layout system to render the interior shots ahead separately and in advance . The art team was tasked to draw lighting boards to show the position of light sources in the scene to improve the overall quality of the animation . One of the themes in the series was " Motoko Kusanagi 's rebirth " . The team had a difficult time portraying Motoko Kusanagi and her return to Section 9 . Kenji Kamiyama stated that he felt the characters have obtained " ghosts " of their own and that Kusanagi needed a convincing story in order to return to Section 9 . Shotaro Shuga noted that Kusanagi was more going back to her old self rather than showing the new strength she found when she left Section 9 .
For the music , Yoko Kanno read the scripts of the film in order to compose music that would synchronize with each scene , rather than composing music ahead of time . Sound Director Kazuhiro Wakabayashi returned to provide music menus , which made up of 70 % of the scores Yoko Kanno composed .
As part of the Nissan sponsorship , the movie features two concept cars designed by Nissan . Section 9 drive a white Nissan Sport Concept sports hatchback and seater Infiniti Kuraza that premiered at the 2005 New York International Auto Show and North American International Auto Show .
= = Releases = =
The film debuted in Japan on SKY PerfecTV ! on September 1 , 2006 . It premiered in North America at the 2007 New York Comic @-@ Con screening from February 23 – 25 , and also featured in 2007 's Fantasia Festival in Canada . The English version was released on July 3 , 2007 . The Limited Edition Steelbook contained an additional DVD containing various development interviews and videos and the Solid State Society Original Soundtrack CD . In July 2008 , Solid State Society was released in Blu @-@ Ray alongside the two OVA The Laughing Man and Individual Eleven in Ghost in the Shell : S.A.C. Trilogy Box .
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x ( genitive form ptychos ) , meaning " fold " , layer " , or " plate " .
= = Description = =
The cap of this fungus ( known technically as an apothecium ) is 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter by 2 to 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) long , with a conical or bell shape . It is folded into longitudinal ridges that often fuse together ( anastomose ) in a vein @-@ like network . The cap is attached to the stem at the top only — hanging from the top of the stipe , with the lobed edge free from the stem — and varies in color from yellowish @-@ brown to reddish @-@ brown ; the underside of the cap is pale . The stem is 6 to 12 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 4 @.@ 7 in ) long by 1 to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick , cream @-@ white in color , and tapers upward so that the stem is thicker at the base than at the top . Although the stem is initially loosely stuffed with cottony hyphae , it eventually becomes hollow in maturity ; overall , the mushroom is rather fragile . The spore deposit is yellow , and the flesh is white .
Relative to other typical mushroom species , the spores of V. bohemica are huge , typically measuring 60 – 80 by 15 – 18 µm . They are elliptical , smooth , sometimes curved , and appear hyaline ( translucent ) to yellowish . The spores , which number two ( more rarely three ) per ascus are characteristic for this species . The smooth , elliptical asci measure 275 – 350 µm long by 16 – 23 µm wide . The British @-@ Canadian mycologist Arthur Henry Reginald Buller determined that the asci are heliotropic — they bend toward light . As he noted , " I cut transverse sections though their pilei , examined these sections under the microscope , and at once perceived that in all the hymenial grooves and depressions the asci were curved outwards so that their opercula must have faced the strongest rays of light to which the ends of the asci has been subjected in the places where the fruit @-@ bodies developed . " This response to the stimulus of light is significant because it permits a fruit body to point and later discharge its asci towards open spaces , thus increasing the chances that the spores will be dispersed by wind . The paraphyses are thick and club @-@ shaped , with diameters of 7 – 8 µm at their tips .
= = = Edibility = = =
The edibility of this species is questionable ; although Verpa bohemica is eaten by many , consumption of large amounts in a single sitting , or on successive days , has been reported to cause poisoning in susceptible individuals . Symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination , similar to the effects reported by some individuals after consuming the false morel species Gyromitra esculenta . The responsible toxin in G. esculenta is gyromitrin ; it is suspected that V. bohemica may be able to synthesize low levels of the toxin . Over @-@ consumption of the mushroom has been reported to have induced a coma . Those who do wish to eat this species are often advised to parboil with copious quantities of water ( discarding the water before consumption ) , to dry the specimens before eating , or , if eating for the first time , to restrict consumption to small portions to test their tolerance . Some advocate only eating the caps and discarding the stems . Opinions on the flavor of the mushrooms vary , ranging from " strong but not on a par with true morels " , to " pleasant " , to " not distinctive " .
= = = Similar species = = =
The closely related species Verpa conica typically has a smooth cap , although specimens with wrinkled caps are known . V. conica may be distinguished microscopically by its eight @-@ spored asci . Its North American range extends much further south than V. bohemica . Another similar group of species are the " half @-@ free " morels , Morchella semilibera and others , which have a honeycombed cap that is attached to the stalk for about half of its length , and with ridges that are darker than the pits . Additionally , a cross @-@ sectioned stem of a specimen of M. semilibera is hollow , while V. bohemica usually has cottony wisps in the stem , and M. semilibera usually has vertical perforations near the base , while V. bohemica lacks them . Verpa bohemica may be reliably distinguished from all similar species by its much larger spores .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of V. bohemica grow singly or scattered on the ground in woods in early spring , often before the appearance of the morel , and throughout the morel season . It is often found along riverbanks , near cottonwoods , willows and aspens , often buried in plant litter . The fungus prefers to fruit in moist areas with ample sunlight . Its minimum growth temperature is 3 ° C ( 37 ° F ) , with an optimum of 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) , and a maximum of about 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . A study of carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios indicated that Verpa bohemica is saprobic , that is , obtaining nutrients from decomposing organic matter . It has been suggested , however , that the fungus is mycorrhizal for at least part of its life cycle . The fungus has a wide distribution throughout northern North America ; its range extends south to the Great Lakes in the Midwestern United States , and south to northern California on the West Coast . In Europe , the fungus is widely distributed , and has been collected from Austria , the Czech Republic , Denmark , Finland , Germany , Norway , Poland , Russia , Slovenia , Spain , Sweden , and the Ukraine . In Asia , it has been recorded from India and Turkey .
A 10 @-@ year study of the distribution , time of fruiting and habitats of morel and false morel population in Iowa showed that early false morels are the first morels to fruit in the spring , appearing shortly after leaves begin to form on deciduous trees . Narrow @-@ head morels ( Morchella angusticeps ) fruit next , followed by the yellow or white morels ( Morchella esculenta ) , then lastly Morchella crassipes . The fruit bodies serve as a habitat for breeding dipterans ( flies ) , including Porricondyla media , Pegomya geniculata , and Trichocera annulata .
= Varanasi =
Varanasi ( Hindustani pronunciation : [ ʋaːˈraːɳəsi ] ) , also known as Benares , Banaras ( Banāras [ bəˈnaːrəs ] ) , or Kashi ( Kāśī [ ˈkaːʃi ] ) , is a North Indian city on the banks of the Ganges in Uttar Pradesh , India , 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south @-@ east of the state capital , Lucknow , and 121 kilometres ( 75 mi ) east of Allahabad . The spiritual capital of India , it is the holiest of the seven sacred cities ( Sapta Puri ) in Hinduism and Jainism , and played an important role in the development of Buddhism . Varanasi lies along National Highway 2 , which connects it to Kolkata , Kanpur , Agra , and Delhi , and is served by Varanasi Junction and Lal Bahadur Shastri International Airport .
Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre , famous for its muslin and silk fabrics , perfumes , ivory works , and sculpture . Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around 528 BC when he gave his first sermon , " The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma " , at nearby Sarnath . The city 's religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century , when Adi Shankara established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi . Despite the Muslim rule , Varanasi remained the centre of activity for Hindu intellectuals and theologians during the Middle Ages , which further contributed to its reputation as a cultural centre of religion and education . Goswami Tulsidas wrote his epic poem on Lord Rama 's life called Ram Charit Manas in Varanasi . Several other major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi , including Kabir and Ravidas . Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for Shivratri in 1507 , a trip that played a large role in the founding of Sikhism . In the 16th century , Varanasi experienced a cultural revival under the Muslim Mughal emperor Akbar who invested in the city , and built two large temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu , though much of modern Varanasi was built during the 18th century , by the Maratha and Bhumihar kings . The kingdom of Benares was given official status by the Mughals in 1737 , and continued as a dynasty @-@ governed area until Indian independence in 1947 . The city is governed by the Varanasi Nagar Nigam ( Municipal Corporation ) and is represented in the Parliament of India by the current Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi , who won the Lok Sabha elections in 2014 by a huge margin . Silk weaving , carpets and crafts and tourism employ a significant number of the local population , as do the Diesel Locomotive Works and Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited . Varanasi Hospital was established in 1964 .
Varanasi has been a cultural centre of North India for several thousand years , and is closely associated with the Ganges . Hindus believe that death in the city will bring salvation , making it a major centre for pilgrimage . The city is known worldwide for its many ghats , embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions . Of particular note are the Dashashwamedh Ghat , the Panchganga Ghat , the Manikarnika Ghat and the Harishchandra Ghat , the last two being where Hindus cremate their dead . The Ramnagar Fort , near the eastern bank of the Ganges , was built in the 18th century in the Mughal style of architecture with carved balconies , open courtyards , and scenic pavilions . Among the estimated 23 @,@ 000 temples in Varanasi are Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva , the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , and the Durga Temple . The Kashi Naresh ( Maharaja of Kashi ) is the chief cultural patron of Varanasi , and an essential part of all religious celebrations . An educational and musical centre , many prominent Indian philosophers , poets , writers , and musicians live or have lived in the city , and it was the place where the Benares Gharana form of Hindustani classical music was developed . One of Asia 's largest residential universities is Banaras Hindu University ( BHU ) . The Hindi @-@ language nationalist newspaper , Aj , was first published in 1920 .
= = Etymology = =
Traditional etymology links " Varanasi " to the names of two Ganges tributaries forming the city 's borders : Varuna , still flowing in northern Varanasi , and Assi , today a small stream in the southern part of the city , near Assi Ghat . The old city is located on the north shores of the Ganges , bounded by Varuna and Assi .
In the Rigveda , an ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns , the city is referred to as Kāśī ( Kashi ) from the Sanskrit verbal root kaś- " to shine " , making Varanasi known as " City of Light " , the " luminous city as an eminent seat of learning " . The name was also used by pilgrims dating from Buddha 's days .
Hindu religious texts use many epithets to refer to Varanasi , such as Kāśikā ( Sanskrit : " the shining one " ) , Avimukta ( Sanskrit : " never forsaken " by Shiva ) , Ānandavana ( Sanskrit : the forest of bliss ) , and Rudravāsa ( Sanskrit : the place where Rudra / Śiva resides ) .
Over most of the last millennium , the city was known as Banaras . In the 1950s , Indian government decided to return to the Sanskrit form Varanasi ; however , Banaras is still the predominant form used locally .
= = History = =
According to legend , Varanasi was founded by the god Shiva . The Pandavas , the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahabharata , are also said to have visited the city in search of Shiva to atone for their sin of fratricide and Brāhmanahatya that they had committed during the climactic Kurukshetra War . It is regarded as one of seven holy cities which can provide Moksha ; Ayodhyā , Mathurā , Gayā , Kaśī , Kañchi , Avantikā , and Dwārāvatī are the seven cities known as the givers of liberation .
= = = Archaeological evidence = = =
Archaeological evidence of the earliest known settlements around Varanasi in the Ganges valley suggest that they began in the 20th century BC , placing it among the world 's oldest continually inhabited cities according to Kenneth Fletcher . These archaeological remains suggest that the Varanasi area was populated by Vedic people . However , the oldest known text referencing the city , the Atharvaveda , which dates to approximately the same period , suggests that the area was populated by indigenous tribes . It is possible that archaeological evidence of these previous inhabitants has yet to be discovered . Recent excavations at Aktha and Ramnagar , two sites very near to Varanasi , show them to be from 1800 BC , suggesting Varanasi was also inhabited by this time .
= = = Ancient period = = =
Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre , famous for its muslin and silk fabrics , perfumes , ivory works , and sculpture . During the time of Gautama Buddha , Varanasi was the capital of the Kingdom of Kashi . The Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around 528 BC when he gave his first sermon , " The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma " , at nearby Sarnath . The celebrated Chinese traveller Xuanzang , also known as Hiuen Tsiang , who visited the city around 635 AD , attested that the city was a centre of religious and artistic activities , and that it extended for about 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) along the western bank of the Ganges . When Xuanzang , visited Varanasi in the 7th century , he named it " Polonisse " and wrote that the city had some 30 temples with about 30 monks . The city 's religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century , when Adi Shankara established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi .
= = = Medieval period = = =
Chandradeva , founder of the Gahadvala dynasty made Banaras a second capital in 1090 .
During the Birth Period , Varanasi was connected by a road starting from Taxila and ending at Pataliputra .
Feroz Shah ordered Hindu temples at Varanasi destroyed in 1376 .
Varanasi remained the centre of activity for intellectuals and theologians during the Middle Ages , which further contributed to its reputation as a cultural centre of religion and education . Several major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi , including Kabir who was born here in 1389 , and Ravidas , a 15th @-@ century socio @-@ religious reformer , mystic , poet , traveller , and spiritual figure , who was born and lived in the city and employed in the tannery industry .
= = = Modern history ( 1500 – present ) = = =
Similarly , numerous eminent scholars and preachers visited the city from across India and south Asia . Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for Shivratri in 1507 , a trip that played a large role in the founding of Sikhism .
Varanasi experienced a Hindu cultural revival in the 16th century under the Muslim Mughal emperor Akbar , who invested in the city and built two large temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu . The Raja of Pune established the Annapurna Mandir , and the 200 @-@ metre ( 660 ft ) Akbari Bridge was also completed during this period . The earliest tourists began arriving in the city during the 16th century . In 1665 , the French traveller Jean Baptiste Tavernier described the architectural beauty of the Vindu Madhava temple on the side of the Ganges . The road infrastructure was also improved during this period . It was extended from Kolkata to Peshawar by Emperor Sher Shah Suri ; later during the British Raj it came to be known as the famous Grand Trunk Road . In 1656 , Emperor Aurangzeb ordered the destruction of many temples and the building of mosques , causing the city to experience a temporary setback . However , after Aurangazeb 's death , most of India was ruled by a confederacy of pro @-@ Hindu kings . Much of modern Varanasi was built during this time , especially during the 18th century by the Maratha and Bhumihar kings . The kings governing Varanasi continued to wield power and importance through much of the British Raj period , including the Maharaja of Benares , or Kashi Naresh .
The Kingdom of Benares was given official status by the Mughals in 1737 , and continued as a dynasty @-@ governed area until Indian independence in 1947 , during the reign of Dr. Vibhuti Narayan Singh . In the 18th century , Muhammad Shah ordered the construction of an observatory on the Ganges , attached to Man Mandir Ghat , designed to discover imperfections in the calendar in order to revise existing astronomical tables . Tourism in the city began to flourish in the 18th century . In 1791 , under the rule of the British Governor @-@ General Warren Hastings , Jonathan Duncan founded a Sanskrit College in Varanasi . In 1867 , the establishment of the Varanasi Municipal Board led to significant improvements in the city 's infrastructure and basic amenities of health services , drinking water supply and sanitation
In 1897 , author Mark Twain , said of Varanasi , " Benares is older than history , older than tradition , older even than legend , and looks twice as old as all of them put together . " In 1910 , the British made Varanasi a new Indian state , with Ramnagar as its capital but with no jurisdiction over the city of Varanasi itself . The religious head , Kashi Naresh , has had his headquarters at the Ramnagar Fort since the 18th century , also a repository of the history of the kings of Varanasi , which is situated to the east of Varanasi , across the Ganges . The Kashi Naresh is deeply revered by the local people and the chief cultural patron ; some devout inhabitants consider him to be the incarnation of Shiva .
In 1857 , the British Army committed a massacre of Indian troops and city residence during the early stages of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . Annie Besant founded the Central Hindu College , which later became a foundation for the creation of Banaras Hindu University in 1916 . Besant founded the Central Hindu College because she wanted to bring men of all religions together under the ideal of brotherhood in order to promote Indian cultural values and to remove ill @-@ will among different sections of the Indian population . "
Varanasi was ceded to the Union of India in 1947 , and Dr. Vibhuti Narayan Singh incorporated his territories into the United Provinces in 1949 . He died in 2000 . The current king and the resident of the fort is Anant Narayan Singh , since 1971 .
= = Geography and climate = =
= = = Geography = = =
Varanasi is located at an elevation of 80 @.@ 71 metres ( 264 @.@ 8 ft ) in the centre of the Ganges valley of North India , in the Eastern part of the state of Uttar Pradesh , along the left crescent @-@ shaped bank of the Ganges , averaging between 15 metres ( 50 ft ) and 21 metres ( 70 ft ) above the river . The city is the headquarters of Varanasi district . By road , Varanasi is located 797 kilometres ( 495 mi ) south @-@ east of New Delhi , 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south @-@ east of Lucknow , 121 kilometres ( 75 mi ) east of Allahabad , and 63 kilometres ( 39 mi ) south of Jaunpur . The " Varanasi Urban Agglomeration " – an agglomeration of seven urban sub @-@ units – covers an area of 112 @.@ 26 km 2 ( approximately 43 mi ² ) . Neighbourhoods of the city include Adampura , Anandbagh , Bachchhaon , Bangali Tola , Bhelpura , Bulanala , Chaitganj , Chaukaghat , Chowk , Dhupchandi , Dumraon , Gandhinagar , Gautam Nagar , Giri Nagar , Gopal Vihar , Guru Nanak Nagar , Jaitpura , Kail Garh , Khanna , Kotwali , Lanka Manduadih , Luxa , Maheshpur , Mahmoorganj , Maulvibagh , Nagwar , Naipokhari , Shivala , Siddhagiribagh , and Sigra .
Being located in the Indo @-@ Gangetic Plains of North India , the land is very fertile because low level floods in the Ganges continually replenish the soil . Varanasi is located between the Ganges confluences with two rivers : the Varuna and the Assi stream . The distance between the two confluences is around 2 miles ( 4 km ) , and serves as a sacred journeying route for Hindus , which culminates with a visit to a Sakshi Vinayak Temple .
= = = Climate = = =
Varanasi experiences a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen climate classification Cwa ) with large variations between summer and winter temperatures . The dry summer starts in April and lasts until June , followed by the monsoon season from July to October . The temperature ranges between 22 and 46 ° C ( 72 and 115 ° F ) in the summers . Winters in Varanasi see very large diurnal variations , with warm days and downright cold nights . Cold waves from the Himalayan region cause temperatures to dip across the city in the winter from December to February and temperatures below 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) are not uncommon . The average annual rainfall is 1 @,@ 110 mm ( 44 in ) . Fog is common in the winters , while hot dry winds , called loo , blow in the summers . In recent years , the water level of the Ganges has decreased significantly ; upstream dams , unregulated water extraction , and dwindling glacial sources due to global warming may be to blame .
= = Administration = =
= = = Politics and law = = =
Varanasi is governed by a number of bodies , the most important being the Varanasi Nagar Nigam ( Municipal Corporation ) and the Varanasi Development Authority , which is responsible for the master planning of the city . Water supply and sewage system is operated by the Jal Nigam . Varanasi is represented in the Parliament of India by the current Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi who won the Lok Sabha elections in 2014 by a huge margin .
= = = Healthcare = = =
Sushruta , the great surgeon and author of the Sushruta Samhita , the Sanskrit text of surgery , lived in Varanasi and practised medicine and surgery sometime during the 5th century BC . Since 1922 , Ayurveda has been a subject of training in the Banaras Hindu University and in 1927 a separate Ayurvedic College was established . There are many Ayurvedic centres in Varanasi like Sparsa Ayurvedic Centre which provide Ayurvedic treatments such as Panchakarma and other methods . S S Ayurveda Hospital operates a Panchakarma treatment centre , in association with Kerala Ayurveda Ltd .
Varansi has several hospitals , including Heritage Hospital , Marwari Hospital , Pitambari Hopspital , Mata Anand Mai Hospital , Rajkiya Hospital , Ram Krishna Mission Hospital , Shiv Prasad Gupta Hospital , Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyay hospital ( managed by state govt . ) the largest & superspaciality hospital is Sir Sundar Lal Hospital ( University Hospital ) having more 1150 beds & a separate trauma centre having 340 beds , and Varanasi Hospital and Medical Research Centre . A separate cancer institute is also operated in Varanasi . The Varanasi Hospital , established in 1964 by Dr. Baijnath Prasad . The hospital , which in 2012 had 66 beds , serves Varanasi and surrounding districts and states , many of which rely on it for surgery . Although the hospital suffers from a lack of funding , it has facilities such as x @-@ ray , ultrasonography , echocardiography and a pathology lab . The urban portion of Varanasi District had an infant mortality rate of 70 per 1 @,@ 000 live births in 2010 – 2011 .
= = = Public maintenance = = =
Because of the high population density of Varanasi and the increasing number of tourists , the Uttar Pradesh government and international non @-@ governmental organisations and institutions have expressed grave concern for the pollution and pressures on infrastructure in the city , mainly the sewage , sanitation , and drainage components . Pollution of the Ganges is a particular source of worry because of the religious significance of the river , the dependence of people on it as a source of drinking water , and its prominence as a symbol of Varanasi and the city itself . The sewage problem is exacerbated by the role of the Ganges in bathing and in river traffic , which is very difficult to control . Because of the sewage , people using local untreated water have higher risk of contracting a range of water @-@ borne stomach diseases .
Parts of Varanasi are contaminated with industrial chemicals including toxic heavy metal . Studies of wastewater from Varanasi 's sewage treatment plants identify that water 's contamination with metals and the reuse of this water for irrigation as a way that the toxic metals come to be in the plants that people grow for food . One studied example is palak , a popular leafy vegetable which takes up heavy metal when it is in the soil , and which people then eat . Some of the polluting sludge contains minerals which are fertiliser , which could make polluted water attractive to use . Pesticides used in local farming are persistent enough to be spread through the water , to sewer treatment , then back to the farms as wastewater .
Varanasi 's water supply and sewage system is maintained by Jal Nigam , a subsidiary of Varanasi Nagar Nigam . Power supply is by the Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Limited . The city produces about 350 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 litres ( 77 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 92 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gal ) per day of sewage and 425 tonnes ( 418 long tons ; 468 short tons ) per day of solid waste . The solid wastes are disposed in one landfill site .
= = Demographics = =
According to provisional data from the 2011 census , the Varanasi urban agglomeration had a population of 1 @,@ 435 @,@ 113 , with 761 @,@ 060 men and 674 @,@ 053 women .
The population of the Varanasi urban agglomeration in 2001 was 1 @,@ 371 @,@ 749 with a ratio of 879 females every 1 @,@ 000 males . However , the area under Varanasi Nagar Nigam has a population of 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 748 with a ratio of 883 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males . The literacy rate in the urban agglomeration is 77 % while that in the municipal corporation area is 78 % . Approximately 138 @,@ 000 people in the municipal area live in slums .
7
= = Economy = =
According to the 2006 City Development Plan for Varanasi , approximately 29 % of Varanasi 's population is employed . Approximately 40 % are employed in manufacturing , 26 % work in trade and commerce , 19 % work in other services , 8 % work in transport and communication , 4 % work in agriculture , 2 % work in construction , and 2 % are marginal workers ( working for less than half of the year ) .
Among manufacturing workers , 51 % work in spinning and weaving , 15 % work in metal , 6 % work in printing and publishing , 5 % work in electrical machinery , and the rest work in a wide variety of industry sectors . Varanasi 's manufacturing industry is not well developed and is dominated by small @-@ scale industries and household production .
Silk weaving is the dominant industry in Varanasi . Muslims are the influential community in this industry with nearly half a million of them working as weavers , dyers , sari finishers , and salespersons . Weaving is typically done within the household , and most weavers are Momin Ansari Muslims . Varanasi is known throughout India for its production of very fine silk and Banarasi saris , brocades with gold and silver thread work , which are often used for weddings and special occasions . The production of silk often uses bonded child labour , though perhaps not at a higher rate than elsewhere in India . The silk weaving industry has recently been threatened by the rise of power looms and computer @-@ generated designs and by competition from Chinese silk imports .
In the metal manufacturing sector , Diesel Locomotive Works is a major employer . Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited , a large power equipment manufacturer , also operates a heavy equipment maintenance plant . Other major commodities manufactured and traded in Varanasi include hand @-@ knotted Mirzapur carpets , rugs , dhurries , brassware , copperware , wooden and clay toys , handicrafts , gold jewellery , and musical instruments . Important agricultural products include betel leaves ( for paan ) , langra mangoes and khoa ( solidified milk ) .
Tourism is Varanasi 's second most important industry . Over 3 million domestic and 200 @,@ 000 foreign tourists visit annually ( in 2005 and 2010 , respectively ) , most commonly for religious purposes . Most domestic tourists are from Bihar , West Bengal , Madhya Pradesh , and Uttar Pradesh , while the majority of foreign tourists are from Sri Lanka and Japan . The peak tourist season falls between October and March . In total , there are around 12 @,@ 000 beds available in the city , of which about one half are in inexpensive budget hotels and one third in dharamsalas . Overall , Varanasi 's tourist infrastructure is not well developed .
The prominent malls and multiplexes in Varanasi are JHV Mall in the Varanasi Cantonment area , IP Mall in Sigra , IP Vijaya Mall in Bhelupur , and PDR in Luxa . The city has several banks , including the Allahabad Bank , Andhra Bank , Bank of Baroda , Canara Bank , Central Bank of India , Corporation Bank , Indian Overseas Bank , and State Bank of India .
= = Notable landmarks = =
Apart from the 19 archaeological sites identified by the Archaeological Survey of India , some of the prominent places of interest are the Aghor Peeth , the Alamgir Mosque , the Ashoka Pillar , the Bharat Kala Bhawan ( Art Museum ) , the Bharat Mata Temple , the Central University for Tibetan Studies , the Dhanvantari Temple , the Durga Temple , the Jantar Mantar , the Kashi Vishwanath Temple , the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , the Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith , the New Vishwanath Temple on the BHU campus , the Ramnagar Fort , the Riverfront Ghats , the Tulsi Manas Temple .
= = = Jantar Mantar = = =
The Jantar Mantar observatory , constructed in 1737 , is located above the ghats along the Ganges , and is adjacent to the Manmandir and Dasaswamedh Ghats and near the palace of Raja Jai Singh of Jaipur . While less equipped than the observatories at Jaipur and Delhi , the Jantar Mantar has a unique equatorial sundial which is functional and allows measurements to be monitored and recorded by one person .
= = = Ramnagar Fort = = =
The Ramnagar Fort , located near the Ganges on its eastern bank and opposite the Tulsi Ghat , was built in the 18th century by Kashi Naresh Raja Balwant Singh with cream @-@ coloured chunar sandstone . The fort is a typical example of the Mughal architecture with carved balconies , open courtyards , and scenic pavilions . At present , the fort is in disrepair . The fort and its museum are the repository of the history of the kings of Benares . Cited as an " eccentric " museum , it contains a rare collection of American vintage cars , bejewelled sedan chairs , an impressive weaponry hall , and a rare astrological clock . In addition , manuscripts , especially religious writings , are housed in the Saraswati Bhawan which is a part of a museum within the fort . Many books illustrated in the Mughal miniature style are also part of the collections . Because of its scenic location on the banks of the Ganges , it is frequently used as an outdoor shooting location for films .
= = = Ghats = = =
The Ghats in Varanasi are world @-@ renowned embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions . The ghats are an integral complement to the Hindu concept of divinity represented in physical , metaphysical , and supernatural elements . Varanasi has at least 84 ghats , most of which are used for bathing by pilgrims and spiritually significant Hindu puja ceremony , while a few are used exclusively as Hindu cremation sites . Steps in the ghats lead to the banks of Ganges , including the Dashashwamedh Ghat , the Manikarnika Ghat , the Panchganga Ghat , and the Harishchandra Ghat , where Hindus cremate their dead . Many ghats are associated with Hindu legends and several are now privately owned .
Many of the ghats were built when the city was under Maratha control . Many ghats were constructed under the patronage of the Marathas , Shindes ( Scindias ) , Holkars , Bhonsles , and Peshwas . Most of the ghats are bathing ghats , while others are used as cremation sites . A morning boat ride on the Ganges across the ghats is a popular tourist attraction . The extensive stretches of ghats in Varanasi enhance the riverfront with a multitude of shrines , temples , and palaces built " tier on tier above the water 's edge " .
The Dashashwamedh Ghat is the main and probably the oldest ghat of Varanasi located on the Ganges , close to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple . It is believed that Brahma created this ghat to welcome Shiva and sacrificed ten horses during the Dasa @-@ Ashwamedha yajna performed there . Above and adjacent to this ghat , there are also temples dedicated to Sulatankesvara , Brahmesvara , Varahesvara , Abhaya Vinayaka , Ganga ( the Ganges ) , and Bandi Devi , which are all important pilgrimage sites . A group of priests perform " Agni Pooja " ( Sanskrit : " Worship of Fire " ) daily in the evening at this ghat as a dedication to Shiva , Ganga , Surya ( Sun ) , Agni ( Fire ) , and the entire universe . Special aartis are held on Tuesdays and on religious festivals .
The Manikarnika Ghat is the Mahasmasana , the primary site for Hindu cremation in the city . Adjoining the ghat , there are raised platforms that are used for death anniversary rituals . According to a myth it is said that an earring of Shiva or his wife Sati fell here . Fourth @-@ century Gupta period inscriptions mention this ghat . However , the current ghat as a permanent riverside embankment was built in 1302 and has been renovated at least three times throughout its existence .
The Jain Ghat or Bachraj Ghat is a Jain Ghat and has three Jain Temples located on the banks of the River . It is believed that the Jain Maharajas used to own these ghats.Bachraj Ghat has three Jain temples near the river 's banks and one them is a very ancient temple of Tirthankara Suparswanath .
= = = Temples = = =
further information at Religion in Varanasi
Among the estimated 23 @,@ 000 temples in Varanasi , the temples most popular for worship are : the Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva ; the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple ; and the Durga Temple , known for monkeys that reside in the large trees nearby .
The Kashi Vishwanath Temple , on the Ganges , is one of the 12 Jyotirlinga Shiva temples in Varanasi . The temple has been destroyed and rebuilt several times throughout its existence . The Gyanvapi Mosque , which is adjacent to the temple , is the original site of the temple . The temple , which is also known as the Golden Temple , was built in 1780 by Queen Ahilyabai Holkar of Indore . The two pinnacles of the temple are covered in gold and were donated in 1839 by Ranjit Singh , the ruler of Punjab . The dome is scheduled to receive gold plating through a proposed initiative of the Ministry of Culture and Religious Affairs of Uttar Pradesh . Numerous rituals , prayers , and aartis are held daily at the temple between 02 : 30 and 23 : 00 .
The Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , which is situated by the Asi River , is one of the sacred temples of the Hindu god Hanuman . The present temple was built in the early 1900s by the educationist and Indian independence figure , Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya , the founder of Banaras Hindu University . According to Hindu legend the temple was built on the very spot where the medieval Hindu saint Tulsidas had a vision of Hanuman . During a 7 March 2006 terrorist attack , one of three explosions hit the temple while a wedding was in progress , and resulted in injuries to 30 people apart from 23 deaths . Following the attack , a permanent police post was installed inside the temple .
There are two temples named " Durga " in Varanasi : Durga Mandir built in the 16th century ( exact date not known ) , and Durga Kund ( Sanskrit ' kund ' meaning " pond or pool " ) built in the 18th century . A large number of Hindu devotees visit Durga Kund during Navratri to worship the goddess Durga . The temple , built in the Nagara architectural style , has multi @-@ tiered spires and is stained red with ochre , representing the red colour of Durga . The building has a rectangular tank of water called the Durga Kund ( " Kund " meaning a pond or pool ) . During annual celebrations of Nag Panchami , the act of depicting the god Vishnu reclining on the serpent Shesha is recreated in the Kund . While the Annapurna Temple , located nearby to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple , is dedicated to Annapurna , the goddess of food , the Sankatha Temple adjacent to the Sindhia Ghat is dedicated to Sankatha , the goddess of remedy . The Sankatha Temple has a large sculpture of a lion and a cluster of nine smaller temples dedicated to the nine planets . Other temples of note are : the Bharat Mata Temple , dedicated to the national personification of India , which was inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi in 1936 , the Kalabhairav Temple , the Mrithyunjay Mahadev Temple , and the New Vishwanath Temple located in the campus of BHU , the Tulsi Manas Mandir .
Parshvanath Jain temple : The Parshvanath Jain temple , Varanasi is temple of Jain religion dedicated to Parshvanath , the 23rd Thirthankara who was born at Bhelpur in Varanasi . The idol deified in the temple is of black colour and 75 cm in height . It is located in Bhelapur about 5 km from the centre of Varanasi city and 3 km from the Benares Hindu University . It belongs to the digambara sect of Jainism and is a holy tirtha or pilgrimage centre for Jains
= = = Mosques = = =
There are 15 mosques of significant historical value in Varanasi . Of particular note are the Abdul Razzaq , Alamgir , Bibi Razia , Chaukhambha , Dhai Nim Kangore , Fatman , Ganje Shahada , Gyanavapi and Hazrat Sayyed Salar Masud Dargah . Many of these mosques were constructed from the components of the Hindu shrines which were destroyed under the auspices of subsequent Muslim invaders or rulers . The two well known mosques are the Gyanvapi Mosque and the Alamgiri Mosque .
The Gyanvapi Mosque was built by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in 1664 CE , after destroying a Hindu temple . Gyan Vapi ( Sanskrit : " the well of knowledge " ) , the name of the mosque , is derived from a well of the same name located within the precincts of the mosque . The remains of an erstwhile temple can be seen in the foundation , the columns and at the rear part of the mosque The façade of the mosque is modelled partially on the Taj Mahal 's entrance . The mosque is administered by the Anjuman Inthazamiya Masajid ( AIM ) .
The Alamgiri Mosque was built in the 17th century by emperor Aurangzeb over the ruins of a Hindu temple . The Hindu temple that was destroyed was dedicated to Vishnu , and had been built by Beni Madhur Rao Scindia , a Maratha chieftain . When emperor Aurangzeb had captured Banaras , he had ordered total destruction of all Hindu temples there . Aurangzeb then built a mosque over the ruins of this temple in 1669 and named it as Alamagir Mosque in the name of his own honorific title " Alamgir " which he had adopted after becoming the emperor of Mughal empire . The mosque is located at a prominent site above the Panchganga Ghat , which is a funerary ghat facing the Ganges . The mosque is architecturally a blend of Islamic and Hindu architecture , particularly because of the lower part of the walls of the mosque having been built fully with the remains of the Hindu temple . The mosque has high domes and minarets . Two of its minarets had been damaged ; one minaret crashed killing a few people and the other minaret was officially brought down because of stability concerns . Non @-@ Muslims are not allowed to enter the mosque . The mosque has a security cordon of a police force .
= = = Shri Guru Ravidass Janam Asthan = = =
Shri Guru Ravidass Janam Asthan , at Seer Goverdhanpur is the ultimate place of pilgrimage or religious headquarters for followers of the Ravidasi religion . The foundation stone of this Mandir was laid on 14 June 1965 on Ashad Sankranti day at the birthplace of Guru Ravidass . The temple was completed in 1994 .
= = Culture = =
= = = Literature = = =
Varanasi has its own culture of fine art and literature . Renowned Indian writers who have resided in the city were Kabir , Ravidas , and Tulsidas , who wrote much of his Ram Charit Manas here . Kulluka Bhatt wrote the best known account of Manusmṛti in Varanasi in the 15th century , Later writers of the city have included Acharya Shukla , Baldev Upadhyaya , Bharatendu Harishchandra , Devaki Nandan Khatri , Hazari Prasad Dwivedi , Jaishankar Prasad , Munshi Premchand , Tegh Ali , Jagannath Prasad Ratnakar , Kshetresa Chandra Chattopadhyaya , Sudama Pandey ( Dhoomil ) , Vagish Shastri , and Vidya Niwas Mishra .
Several newspapers and journals are or were published in Varanasi such as Varanasi Chandroday and its successor Kashivartaprakashika , which became a weekly journal , first published on 1 June 1851 . The main newspaper is Aj , a Hindi @-@ language nationalist newspaper first published in 1920 . The newspaper was the bulwark of the Indian National Congress and is still a major newspaper of Hindi northern India .
= = = Art = = =
Varanasi is a major centre of arts and designs . It is a producer of silks and brocades with gold and silver thread work , carpet weaving , wooden toys , bangles made of glass , ivory work , perfumes , artistic brass and copper ware and a variety of handicrafts . The former cantonment graveyard during the British Raj is now the location of Varanasi 's Arts and Crafts .
Artists ( musicians and dancers ) and historians of repute who belonged to this city were : Anand Krishna , Anokhelal Mishra , Bismillah Khan , musicians Omkarnath Thakur , Ravi Shankar , Girija Devi , Gopal Shankar Misra , Gopi KrishnaKanthe Maharaj , Kishan Maharaj , Lalmani Misra , N. Rajam , Rai Krishnadasa , Siddheshwari Devi , Samta Prasad , Sitara Devi , Thakur Rajbhan Singh , and Pandit Vikash Maharaj .
= = = Music = = =
Varanasi ’ s music tradition is traced to the Pauranic days . According to ancient legend , Shiva is credited with evolving music and dance forms . During the medieval era , Vaishnava , a Bhakthi movement , grew in popularity , and Varanasi became a thriving centre for musicians such as Surdas , Kabir , Raidas , Meera and Tulsidas . During the monarchic rule of Govind Chandra in the 16th century , the Dhrupad style of singing received royal patronage and led to other related forms of music such as Dhamar , Hori , and Chaturang . Presently the Dhrupad maestro Pandit Ritwik Sanyal from Varanasi is working for the revival of this art @-@ music .
In recent times , Girija Devi , the native famous classical singer of thumris , was widely appreciated and respected for her musical renderings . Varanasi is also associated with many great instrumentalists such as Ustad Bismillah Khan , Pandit Vikash Maharaj , and Pandit Ravi Shankar , the famous sitar player and musicologist who was given the highest civilian award of the country , the Bharat Ratna . Varanasi has joined the global bandwagon of UNESCO " Cities of Music " under the Creative Cities Network . Varanasi chosen in music category of creative cities network clearly signifies the rich musical heritage of this ancient city .
= = = Festivals = = =
On Mahashivaratri ( February ) , a procession of Shiva proceeds from the Mahamrityunjaya Temple to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple . Dhrupad Mela is a five @-@ day musical festival devoted to dhrupad style held at Tulsi Ghat in February – March . The Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple celebrates Hanuman Jayanti ( March – April ) , the birthday of Hanuman . A special puja , aarti , and a public procession is organised . Since 1923 , the temple has organised a five @-@ day classical music and dance concert festival named Sankat Mochan Sangeet Samaroh , when iconic artists from all parts of India are invited to perform .
The Ramlila of Ramnagar is a dramatic enactment of Rama 's legend , as told in Ramacharitamanasa . The plays , sponsored by Kashi Naresh , are performed in Ramnagar every evening for 31 days . On the last day , the festivities reach a crescendo as Rama vanquishes the demon king Ravana . Kashi Naresh Udit Narayan Singh started this tradition around 1830 .
Nag Nathaiya is celebrated on the fourth lunar day of the dark fortnight of the Hindu month of Kartik ( October – November ) . It commemorates the victory of Krishna over the serpent Kaliya . On this occasion , a large Kadamba tree ( Neolamarckia cadamba ) branch is planted on the banks of the Ganges so that a boy , playing the role of Krishna , can jump into the river on to the effigy representing Kaliya . He stands over the effigy in a dancing pose playing the flute , while an audience watches from the banks of the river or from boats . Bharat Milap celebrates the meeting of Rama and his younger brother Bharata after the return of the former after 14 years of exile . It is celebrated during October – November , a day after the festival of Vijayadashami . Kashi Naresh attends this festival in his regal attire . The festival attracts a large number of devotees .
Ganga Mahotsav is a five @-@ day music festival organised by the Uttar Pradesh Tourism Department , held in November – December . It culminates a day before Kartik Poornima , also called the Ganges festival . On this occasion the Ganges is attended by thousands of pilgrims , release lighted lamps to float in the river from the ghats .
Every year , the primary Muslim festivals celebrated in the city are the ld @-@ ul @-@ fitr ' ( Ramzan ) , Bakrid , Shab @-@ e @-@ Barat , Bara Wafat and Muharram . Additional festivals include Alvida and Chehlum . A non @-@ religious festival observed by Muslims is Ghazi @-@ miyan @-@ ka @-@ byaha ( " the marriage of Ghazi Miyan " ) .
= = Education = =
Historically , Varanasi has been a centre for education in India , attracting students and scholars from across the country . Varanasi has an overall literacy rate of 80 % ( male literacy : 85 % , female literacy : 75 % ) . It is home to a number of colleges and universities . Most notably , it is the site of Banaras Hindu University ( BHU ) , which is one of the largest residential universities in Asia with over 20 @,@ 000 students . The Indian Institute of Technology , BHU is designated an Institute of National Importance and is one of 16 Indian Institutes of Technology . Other colleges and universities in Varanasi include Imania Arabic College , the Institute of Integrated Management and Technology ( IIMT ) , Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith , Nav Sadhana Kala Kendra , Sampurnanand Sanskrit University , Sri Agrasen Kanya P.G. College , and Udai Pratap Autonomous College . Various engineering colleges have been established in the outskirts of the city .
St. Joseph 's Convent School , in Shivpur , in Varanasi was established by the Sisters of Our Lady of Providence of France as a Catholic ( Christian ) minority institution with due approval of the Government of Uttar Pradesh . It is an autonomous organisation under the Bishop of Varanasi Diocese . It provides education not only to the Catholic Christian children but also to others who abide by its rules .
Another important institution is the Central Hindu School ( CHS ) , Varanasi which was established by Annie Besant in July 1898 with the objective of imparting secular education , is located in Kamachha . It is one of the reputed schools in the country and is also one of the largest such schools . It is affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education ( CBSE ) It is open to students of all culture .
Schools in Varanasi are affiliated with the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education ( ICSE ) ,
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Bay . It was not until the Butetown Link was opened on 27 March 1995 that this road started to be used as a link to the motorway network , Penarth and the Vale of Glamorgan . It will not be until the Eastern Bay Link is built , when traffic from the city centre will use it to travel east , that it will be fully used . The length of the A4234 is just 1 @.@ 45 km ( 0 @.@ 90 mi ) and is entirely a two lane dual carriageway with clearway restrictions .
= = Abandoned spur roads = =
= = = Ely Spur = = =
The Ely Spur was planned to run from a new interchange on the Ely Link Road to the Ely Bridge Roundabout on the A48 . It was only 1 @.@ 2 km ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) in length , but it would have reduced through traffic in the residential area of Ely , namely on Cowbridge Road West traveling to and from the A48 . But it has now been announced that this proposal has now been officially abandoned .
= = = Cardiff Airport Link Road = = =
The Cardiff Airport Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Maes Awyr Caerdydd ) was a proposed spur road off of the A4232 through to Cardiff Airport , when plans for the road were scrapped by the WAG in June 2009 . The current single carriageway A4050 road , from Cardiff to Cardiff Airport is also the main road from Barry to Cardiff and is the main commuter route .
One of the 4 proposed schemes involved a new major highway route linking the Ely Link Road ( PDR ) , south of the Culverhouse Cross Interchange , through to the A4226 north of Barry . The estimated cost of this scheme would have been £ 96m , including the widening of the A4232 .
= = Services = =
The PDR has two service stations for motorists , one at Cardiff West on the Capel Llanilltern Interchange and the other at Cardiff Gate on the Pentwyn Interchange . The services at Cardiff West includes Esso petrol , a Travelodge , Burger King , Costa Coffee and W H Smith , while the services at Cardiff Gate includes petrol , Burger King , W H Smith and also Coffee Primo .
Traffic Wales is the Welsh Government 's traffic information service , it is a partnership between the Welsh Government , the two Trunk Road Agents ( South Wales TRA / Norh & Mid Wales TRA ) and the WTTC consultancy Amey . In South Wales the service is managed from the South Wales Traffic Management Centre , also home to INRIX Media 's studio , providing live travel information for the media . The Traffic Wales website has five live traffic webcams on the Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road ( Trunk Road ) and the images are updated every 5 minutes . Traffic Wales also operates a Traffic Information Hotline , motorists can use this telephone service by dialling an 0845 number , which gives up to date traffic information and travel advice .
= = Traffic congestion = =
Since the western link roads were built , a number of major developments have been built , such as the Cardiff Bay Retail Park , IKEA , Celtic Gateway , Cardiff International Sports Village that includes the Cardiff International Pool , Cardiff International White Water and Cardiff Arena , which have all generated additional traffic at the Ferry Road Interchange . In addition , the Leckwith development , which includes Cardiff City Stadium , Cardiff International Sports Stadium and the Capital Retail Park with a new Asda supermarket , have also significantly increased traffic on the Leckwith Interchange . At the Culverhouse Cross Interchange , older developments such as the Brooklands Retail Park , Wenvoe Retail Park and Valegate Retail Park , including Tesco and Marks & Spencer have also significantly increased congestion along with commuter traffic from the Vale of Glamorgan . From 1989 to 1997 there had been an increase in traffic of 78 % and a further increase of 35 % by 2016 is predicted by the Assembly . The Vale of Glamorgan Council also expressed reservations about the new developments of the Cardiff International Sports Village and the Cardiff City Stadium , which includes the Capital Retail Park . On 18 October , 2006 , the council requested that the WAG assess the existing traffic conditions and future growth in traffic on the network .
= = Popular culture = =
The Queen 's Gate Tunnel was featured in the first ever episode of Torchwood , called " Everything Changes " and was first broadcast by BBC Three on 22 October 2006 . The Grangetown Link was featured in the 2006 Christmas episode of Doctor Who called " The Runaway Bride " . It was first broadcast by BBC One on 25 December 2006 .
= Development of Fez =
The high @-@ profile and protracted five @-@ year development of Fez led to its status as an " underdog darling of the indie game scene " . The 2012 puzzle platform game built around rotating between four 2D views of a 3D space was developed by indie developer Polytron Corporation and published by Polytron , Trapdoor , and Microsoft Studios . Over the course of the game 's development , Fez designer and Polytron founder Phil Fish received celebrity for his outspoken public persona and prominence in the 2012 documentary Indie Game : The Movie , which followed the game 's final stages of development and Polytron 's related legal issues . The game was released to critical acclaim as an Xbox Live Arcade timed exclusive , and was later ported to other platforms . It had sold one million copies by the end of 2013 .
Fish and Shawn McGrath collaborated on a puzzle game that became Fez . When McGrath left the project due to creative differences , Fish , the game 's artist , pursued a platform game direction with Renaud Bédard , the game 's programmer , who wrote the game 's level editor and game engine from scratch . Levels were built in 3D by extruding surfaces with Photoshop @-@ created textures . Bédard and Fish were joined by three different animators and other collaborators . The game was first announced in June 2007 and won an award at the 2008 Independent Games Festival and entered the public spotlight . Fish created a studio , Polytron Corporation , and was later aided by nearby developer @-@ publisher Trapdoor when Polytron ran out of money . Fez won several more prerelease awards , including the 2012 Seumas McNally Grand Prize .
= = History = =
Fez 's development cycle developed a reputation for its protracted five @-@ year length and public exposure . Nathan Grayson of VG247 likened the game 's rocky development process to " an indie Duke Nukem Forever " . Polygon reviewer Arthur Gies wrote that the game was an " underdog darling of the indie game scene " for four years prior to its release . The game 's designer , Phil Fish , became renowned in a way unusual for game developers due to his prominence in Indie Game : The Movie , which released in 2012 . While the game was released to wide acclaim , Fish himself became known for his outspoken and acerbic public persona .
The game that became Fez began in a collaboration between Montreal @-@ based Phil Fish and Toronto @-@ based Shawn McGrath on McGrath 's idea for a puzzle game : a four @-@ sided 3D space with each side in 2D , similar to Fish 's 3D pixels ( voxels ) as incorporated into Fez . The entirety of Fez 's design , lore , and art descends from this game mechanic . Fish provided the project 's art and credited his influence to Shigeru Miyamoto and Hayao Miyazaki . Fish and McGrath 's partnership crumbled due to creative differences , as Fish wanted to create a platform game . Fish continued to work on the game in his spare time and announced his search for a programmer on DeviantArt , and the first person to reply , Renaud Bédard , became lead programmer . They were both the same age and living in Montreal . Though Bédard had some hobbyist experience in 3D graphics and was studying computer science , Fez was his first professional game development project . His first task was to write the level editor and game engine .
Fez was first announced in July 2007 on The Independent Gaming Source . A trailer released in October 2007 convinced Jason DeGroot to join the development team as a producer . DeGroot , also known as " 6955 " , first met Fish at a 2006 E3 party , and started work on the game 's soundtrack and sound effects . The soundtrack was ultimately composed by Rich " Disasterpeace " Vreeland and the sound effects by Brandon McCartin . The game was nominated for two awards at the 2008 Independent Games Festival ( IGF ) at the Game Developers Conference ( GDC ) : Excellence in Visual Art and the Design Innovation Award . As Fez was a side project , Fish was employed full @-@ time at Artificial Mind and Movement in Montreal , where he worked on a tie @-@ in game for a film . He was not permitted time off to attend the event and thus decided to quit his job in January 2008 — a moment he later marked as " when I became indie " . The game won " Excellence in Visual Art " , and created a surge of public interest in the game concurrent to a similar swell of interest in indie game developers . Fish received a Canadian government loan to open Polytron Corporation as a startup company and began full @-@ time work on Fez . In July 2009 , Polytron announced a release for Xbox Live Arcade in early 2010 . Polytron and Microsoft agreed to release Fez as an Xbox exclusive , a deal Fish later recalled as sensible . Fish designed the game as " a console game , not a PC game " , and felt that the way he intended the game to be experienced — with a controller on a couch — was " part of the medium " . Polytron ruled out a WiiWare release due to problems Fish had with their platform and developer options .
Development continued with a more experimental ethos until the company began to run out of capital . The Canadian government loan that had funded Polytron 's prototyping phase was not renewed for their production phase . They also lost funding from the organization that preceded the Indie Fund as Polytron 's producer left the company . Fish borrowed money from friends and family for three months to keep the company open . In dire straits , he considered canceling the project . In March 2011 , the nearby Québécois developer @-@ publisher Trapdoor offered to help Polytron , having just signed a deal with Electronic Arts to publish their own game , Warp . Trapdoor assisted with Polytron 's finances and operations and offered to treat them as part of their company and let them keep their intellectual property rights in exchange for a portion of Fez 's earnings . Fish felt that partnership rescued the game .
Fish is shown preparing for Fez 's March 2011 PAX East booth in the 2012 documentary film Indie Game : The Movie , which chronicles the stories of several indie developers at various stages of their games ' development cycles . As a subplot , the film presents Fish amidst a legal dispute with a former business partner that jeopardizes the game 's future . The partner , believed to be Jason DeGroot , is portrayed negatively and does not participate onscreen . The film 's end credits were later corrected to reflect that Fish 's business partner was not asked for input . Game Informer called Fish the film 's " most memorable developer " , and Rock , Paper , Shotgun wrote that Fish is portrayed as melodramatic , theatrical , and neurotic , in a way that exacerbates his outspoken public perception . Eurogamer said that the part where Fish resolves to kill himself if he does not release his game is " the film 's most startling moment " .
Fez won the Audience Choice Award at the September 2011 Fantastic Arcade , Best in Show and Best Story / World Design at the October 2011 Indiecade , and the Seumas McNally Grand Prize at the 2012 GDC Independent Games Festival . It was also a 2011 Penny Arcade Expo " PAX 10 " selection . Fez was displayed in its entirety in a secluded lounge room at the October 2011 GameCity festival in Nottingham , England . Fish considered the demo their most fruitful yet . Fish told a Gamasutra reporter that he had received positive feedback from Independent Games Festival Chairman Brandon Boyer and Braid designer Jonathan Blow . Near the end of development , Fish felt " burnt out " and that his personal health had suffered . The final game included almost none of the original work from the first two years of development . After several delays , Fez was submitted for certification in February 2012 .
= = = Release = = =
Fez was released on April 13 , 2012 and sold 200 @,@ 000 copies in its yearlong exclusivity to the Xbox Live Arcade platform . Several months later , Polytron became embroiled in a high @-@ profile dispute with Microsoft over the cost of patching the game . Polytron had released a fix that resolved many of the game 's technical issues but introduced another that corrupted the saved games for about one percent of users . They withdrew the patch , but found Microsoft 's fee for subsequent patch releases unviable , and chose to reinstate the withdrawn patch as their most utilitarian option . Polytron drew ire for the decision , which raised awareness for the business needs of indie developers . In July 2013 , a year later , Microsoft announced that they no longer charged for patches , and Fish tweeted that Polytron 's patch would take " a couple of months " . Speaking in retrospect of the release , Fish " fiercely criticized " Fez co @-@ publisher Microsoft Games Studios for botching the game 's release . Fish cited a lack of promotion and publicity , and poor advertising of the game on Microsoft 's digital market .
In March 2013 , Fish announced a May 1 , 2013 release for the game 's PC port , and opened preorders on GOG.com and Steam . The game 's OS X and Linux ports debuted in the pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want Humble Indie Bundle 9 on September 11 , 2013 . Polytron announced ports for PlayStation 4 , PlayStation 3 , and PlayStation Vita in August 2013 as in development through BlitWorks , which were released on March 25 , 2014 . The PlayStation releases include cross @-@ console support for " cross @-@ buy " ( where one digital purchase allows access across multiple consoles ) and " cross @-@ save " ( game save sharing between consoles ) , as well as support for 3D televisions , the DualShock 4 controller 's decorative lightbar , and graphical upgrades due to the full port into the C + + programming language . Ports for Ouya and iOS were also announced . Fish announced eventual ports for " ' pretty much ' every platform " but the Nintendo 3DS .
Bédard planned to leave Polytron after finishing Fez to experience work with a full development team , but stayed to port the Windows release before joining Toronto 's Capybara Games . He credited the game 's long development cycle to his own inexperience in game development ( compounded by the team 's small size and difficulty in setting reasonable milestones ) , the game 's scope , and Fish 's perfectionism . Fish had hoped that players would discuss Fez 's nuances online after the game 's release . Players collaborated online for a week to solve the final " monolith " puzzle by brute force . Ars Technica described the apparent end to the game 's harder puzzles as " anticlimactic " , but Fish told Eurogamer in March 2013 that hidden in @-@ game secrets remain to be found .
More than three years after its digital launch , Fez received a physical release designed by Fish and limited to a signed edition of 500 in December 2015 . The deluxe package included the soundtrack and a stylized red notebook with gold foil inlay .
= = Design = =
When Bédard joined the project , the game focused on the 2D – 3D mechanic and did not yet have open world ambitions . He coded the game in Microsoft Visual C # Express and XNA Game Studio Express . His first task , the level editor Fezzer , was coded from scratch in XNA and inspired by SketchUp . Bédard also wrote the game engine , Trixel Technology , which turns 2D tiles ( " triles " ) into sides of a 3D cube pixel . The engine tracks player @-@ character Gomez in 3D space even though the game behaves as a 2D platformer . Bédard also built the game to resolve collisions when converting between 3D and 2D space .
Fish created pixel art in Photoshop for each tiled side ( " trile " ) of the 3D trixel that Bédard 's custom software compiled into 3D game assets , which Fish would extrude as surfaces in Fezzer to build levels . Fish found the level design process " overwhelming " , and Bédard has said he was relieved that it was not his job . Fish compared his design process to playing with Lego blocks , and planned the more involved levels in graph paper to first visualize the 2D views before building the levels in the 3D software . The levels and puzzles were not preordained in a design document , and many of the drafts levels scrapped in 2008 resurfaced to be used later in the production process . So as to fit the rotation mechanic , the levels were made tall instead of wide , and the first part of the game was designed to acclimate the player to 2D controls before introducing the 3D element . As they worked , Fish first proposed ideas that Bédard would implement . The two would then discuss and fine @-@ tune the addition — they worked well together .
Fish describes the game 's changes during development as " organic " — they tested different kinds of levels and replicated the types of in @-@ game exploration that the team appreciated most . It came to adopt Metroidvania mechanics , with " secret passages , warp gates , and cheat codes " . Fish cited Myst as another touchstone and compared its open world , nonlinear narrative , and " obtuse metapuzzles " to Fez 's own alphabet , numeric system , and an " almost unfairly hard to get " " second set of collectibles " . Fish originally fought against having an in @-@ game map because he wanted players to draft their own . After attempting to do so himself , he changed his mind . Fish later called the in @-@ game map " probably one of the weakest aspects of the game " . Fish also fought against including the navigational assistant , Dot , but later felt that the addition was successful and a positive contribution to the game 's mythology . The fez itself , Fish described as an " ancient symbol of understanding the third dimension " . Fez had three different animators through its development : Paul Robertson of Scott Pilgrim vs. the World : The Game , who did the game 's animals and some of Gomez 's animations , Adam Saltsman of Canabalt , and Graham Lackey , who did some character animations .
The game 's mechanics were inspired by the Nintendo Entertainment System games Fish played in his youth , particularly Super Mario and The Legend of Zelda . Fish cited Fumito Ueda 's Ico as the game 's third inspiration , and he sought to emulate its feeling of nostalgic and isolated loneliness . Fish also sought to emulate Ueda 's " design by subtraction " philosophy , where the Ico development team would periodically remove parts of the game so as to leave only what was essential to their vision . In this way , ideas like player health and object weight puzzles were gradually struck from Fez . Fish made a personal challenge of designing a game without relying on " established mechanics " . As such , Fez was always a peaceful game and there was never an enemy coded into the game . So as to better emulate Hayao Miyazaki 's signature " open blue sky " , " feel @-@ good " atmosphere , Fish watched all of the director 's films one weekend early in the development cycle .
= Hugh Walpole =
Sir Hugh Seymour Walpole , CBE ( 13 March 1884 – 1 June 1941 ) was an English novelist . He was the son of an Anglican clergyman , intended for a career in the church but drawn instead to writing . Among those who encouraged him were the authors Henry James and Arnold Bennett . His skill at scene @-@ setting and vivid plots , as well as his high profile as a lecturer , brought him a large readership in the United Kingdom and North America . He was a best @-@ selling author in the 1920s and 1930s but has been largely neglected since his death .
After his first novel , The Wooden Horse , in 1909 , Walpole wrote prolifically , producing at least one book every year . He was a spontaneous story @-@ teller , writing quickly to get all his ideas on paper , seldom revising . His first novel to achieve major success was his third , Mr Perrin and Mr Traill , a tragicomic story of a fatal clash between two schoolmasters . During the First World War he served in the Red Cross on the Russian @-@ Austrian front , and worked in British propaganda in Petrograd and London . In the 1920s and 1930s Walpole was much in demand not only as a novelist but also as a lecturer on literature , making four exceptionally well @-@ paid tours of North America .
As a gay man at a time when homosexual practices were illegal in Britain , Walpole conducted a succession of intense but discreet relationships with other men , and was for much of his life in search of what he saw as " the perfect friend " . He eventually found one , a married policeman , with whom he settled in the English Lake District . Having as a young man eagerly sought the support of established authors , he was in his later years a generous sponsor of many younger writers . He was a patron of the visual arts and bequeathed a substantial legacy of paintings to the Tate Gallery and other British institutions .
Walpole 's output was large and varied . Between 1909 and 1941 he wrote thirty @-@ six novels , five volumes of short stories , two original plays and three volumes of memoirs . His range included disturbing studies of the macabre , children 's stories and historical fiction , most notably his Herries Chronicle series , set in the Lake District . He worked in Hollywood writing scenarios for two Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer films in the 1930s , and played a cameo in the 1935 version of David Copperfield .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Walpole was born in Auckland , New Zealand , the eldest of three children of the Rev Somerset Walpole and his wife , Mildred Helen , née Barham ( 1854 – 1925 ) . Somerset Walpole had been an assistant to the Bishop of Truro , Edward Benson , from 1877 until 1882 , when he was offered the incumbency of St Mary 's Pro @-@ Cathedral , Auckland ; on Benson 's advice he accepted .
Mildred Walpole found it hard to settle in New Zealand , and something of her restlessness and insecurity affected the character of her eldest child . In 1889 , two years after the birth of the couple 's daughter , Dorothea ( " Dorothy " ) , Somerset Walpole accepted a prominent and well @-@ paid academic post at the General Theological Seminary , New York . Robert ( " Robin " ) , the third of the couple 's children , was born in New York in 1892 . Hugh and Dorothy were taught by a governess until the middle of 1893 , when the parents decided that he needed an English education .
Walpole was sent to England , where according to his biographer Rupert Hart @-@ Davis the next ten years were the unhappiest time of Walpole 's life . He first attended a preparatory school in Truro . Though he missed his family and felt lonely he was reasonably happy , but he moved to Sir William Borlase 's Grammar School in Marlow in 1895 , where he was bullied , frightened and miserable . He later said , " The food was inadequate , the morality was ' twisted ' , and Terror – sheer , stark unblinking Terror – stared down every one of its passages ... The excessive desire to be loved that has always played so enormous a part in my life was bred largely , I think , from the neglect I suffered there " .
In 1896 Somerset Walpole discovered his son 's horror of the Marlow school and he moved him to the King 's School , Canterbury . For two years he was a fairly content , though undistinguished , pupil there . In 1897 Walpole senior was appointed principal of Bede College , Durham , and Hugh was moved again , to be a day boy for four years at Durham School . He found that day boys were looked down on by boarders , and that Bede College was the subject of snobbery within the university . His sense of isolation increased . He continually took refuge in the local library , where he read all the novels of Jane Austen , Henry Fielding , Scott and Dickens and many of the works of Trollope , Wilkie Collins and Henry Kingsley . Walpole wrote in 1924 :
I grew up ... discontented , ugly , abnormally sensitive , and excessively conceited . No one liked me – not masters , boys , friends of the family , nor relations who came to stay ; and I do not in the least wonder at it . I was untidy , uncleanly , excessively gauche . I believed that I was profoundly misunderstood , that people took my pale and pimpled countenance for the mirror of my soul , that I had marvellous things of interest in me that would one day be discovered .
Though Walpole was no admirer of the schools he had attended there , the cathedral cities of Truro , Canterbury and Durham made a strong impression on him . He drew on aspects of them for his fictional cathedral city of Polchester in Glebeshire , the setting of many of his later books . Walpole 's memories of his time at Canterbury grew mellower over the years ; it was the only school he mentioned in his Who 's Who entry ,
= = = Cambridge , Liverpool and teaching = = =
From 1903 to 1906 Walpole studied history at Emmanuel College , Cambridge . While there he had his first work published , the critical essay " Two Meredithian Heroes " , which was printed in the college magazine in autumn 1905 . As an undergraduate he met and fell under the spell of A C Benson , formerly a greatly loved master at Eton , and by this time a don at Magdalene College . Walpole 's religious beliefs , hitherto an unquestioned part of his life , were fading , and Benson helped him through that personal crisis . Walpole was also attempting to cope with his homosexual feelings , which for a while focused on Benson , who recorded in his diary in 1906 an unexpected outburst by his young admirer : " [ H ] e broke out rather eagerly into protestations – He cared for me more than anyone in the world . I could not believe it ... It is extraordinarily touching . ... It is quite right that he should believe all this passionately ; it is quite right that I should know that it will not last ... I tried to say this as tenderly as I could ... "
Benson gently declined Walpole 's advances . They remained friends , but Walpole , rebuffed in his " excessive desire to be loved " , turned the full force of his enthusiasms elsewhere , and the relationship with Benson became less important to him . Less than two years later Benson 's diary entry on Walpole 's subsequent social career reveals his thoughts on his protégé 's progress :
He seems to have conquered Gosse completely . He spends his Sundays in long walks with H G Wells . He dines every week with Max Beerbohm and R Ross ... and this has befallen a not very clever young man of 23 . Am I a little jealous ? – no , I don 't think so . But I am a little bewildered ... I do not see any sign of intellectual power or perception or grasp or subtlety in his work or himself . ... I should call him curiously unperceptive . He does not , for instance , see what may vex or hurt or annoy people . I think he is rather tactless – though he is himself very sensitive . The strong points about him are his curiosity , his vitality , his eagerness , and the emotional fervour of his affections . But he seems to me in no way likely to be great as an artist .
With Benson 's help , Walpole had come to terms with the loss of his faith . Somerset Walpole , himself the son of an Anglican priest , hoped that his eldest son would follow him into the ministry . Walpole was too concerned for his father 's feelings to tell him he was no longer a believer , and on graduation from Cambridge in 1906 he took a post as a lay missioner at the Mersey Mission to Seamen in Liverpool . He described that as one of the " greatest failures of my life ... The Mission to Seamen was , and is , a splendid institution ... but it needs men of a certain type to carry it through and I was not of that type . " The head of the mission reprimanded him for lack of commitment to his work , and Walpole resigned after six months .
From April to July 1907 Walpole was in Germany , tutoring the children of the popular author Elizabeth von Arnim . In 1908 he taught French at Epsom College . His brief experience of teaching is reflected in his third novel , Mr Perrin and Mr Traill . As well as the clerical forebears , Walpole had notable authors in his family tree : on his father 's side , Horace Walpole the novelist and letter writer , and on his mother 's Richard Harris Barham , author of The Ingoldsby Legends . It was as an author that Walpole felt impelled to make his career . He moved to London and found work as a book reviewer for The Standard , writing fiction in his spare time . He had by this time recognised unreservedly that he was homosexual . His encounters were necessarily discreet , as such activities were illegal in Britain , and remained so throughout his lifetime . He was constantly searching for " the perfect friend " ; an early candidate was the stage designer Percy Anderson , to whom he was intimately attached for some time from 1910 onwards .
= = = Early literary career = = =
A C Benson was a friend of Henry James , to whom Walpole wrote a fan letter late in 1908 , with Benson 's encouragement . A correspondence ensued and in February 1909 James invited Walpole to lunch at the Reform Club in London . They developed a close friendship , described by James 's biographer Leon Edel as resembling a father and son relationship in some , but not all , respects . James was greatly taken with the young Walpole , though clear @-@ eyed about the deficiencies in the artistry and craftsmanship of his protégé 's early efforts . According to Somerset Maugham , Walpole made a sexual proposition to James , who was too inhibited to respond . Nevertheless , in their correspondence the older man 's devotion was couched in extravagant terms .
Walpole published his first novel , The Wooden Horse , in 1909 . It told of a staid and snobbish English family shaken up by the return of one of its members from a less hidebound life in New Zealand . The book received good reviews but barely repaid the cost of having it typed . His first commercial success was Mr Perrin and Mr Traill , published in 1911 . The novelist and biographer Michael Sadleir writes that though some of the six novels Walpole wrote between 1909 and 1914 are of interest as examples of the author 's developing style , it is Mr Perrin and Mr Traill that deserves to be remembered for its own sake . The book , subtitled " a tragi @-@ comedy " , is a psychological study of a deadly clash between two schoolmasters , one an ageing failure and the other a young , attractive idealist . In the view of Hart @-@ Davis , Walpole only once recaptured " the fresh , clear cut realism " of this book , and Walpole himself , looking back on his work in the 1930s , felt that of all his books to date , it was the truest . The Observer gave the book a favourable review : " The slow growth of the poison within [ Perrin ] is traced with wonderful skill and sympathy ... one feels throughout these pages a sense of intolerable tension , of impending disaster " ; The Manchester Guardian was less enthusiastic , praising the scene @-@ setting but calling the story " an unconscientious melodrama " . The San Francisco Chronicle praised its " technical excellence , imagination and beauty – Walpole at his best . " Arnold Bennett , a well @-@ established novelist seventeen years Walpole 's senior , admired the book , and befriended the young author , regularly chiding , encouraging , sometimes mocking him into improving his prose , characters and narratives .
The Guardian reviewer observed that the setting of Mr Perrin and Mr Traill – a second @-@ rate public school – was clearly drawn from life , as indeed it was . The boys of Epsom College were delighted with the thinly disguised version of their school , but the college authorities were not , and Walpole was persona non grata at Epsom for many years . This was of no practical consequence , as he had no intention of returning to the teaching profession , but it was an early illustration of his capacity , noted by Benson , for unthinkingly giving offence , though being hypersensitive to criticism himself .
In early 1914 James wrote an article for The Times Literary Supplement surveying the younger generation of British novelists and comparing them with their eminent elder contemporaries . In the latter category James put Bennett , Joseph Conrad , John Galsworthy , Maurice Hewlett and H G Wells . The four new authors on whom he focused were Walpole , Gilbert Cannan , Compton Mackenzie and D H Lawrence . It was a very lengthy article , to the extent that it had to be spread across two issues of the Supplement in March and April 1914 . James said that agreeing to write it had been " an insensate step " , but from Walpole 's point of view it was highly satisfactory : one of the greatest living authors had publicly ranked him among the finest young British novelists .
= = = First World War = = =
As war approached , Walpole realised that his poor eyesight would disqualify him from serving in the armed forces . He volunteered to join the police , but was turned down ; he then accepted a journalistic appointment based in Moscow , reporting for The Saturday Review and The Daily Mail . He was allowed to visit the front in Poland , but his dispatches from Moscow ( and later from Petrograd , which he preferred ) were not enough to stop hostile comments at home that he was not doing his bit for the war effort . Henry James was so incensed at one such remark by a prominent London hostess that he stormed out of her house and wrote to Walpole suggesting that he should return to England . Walpole replied in great excitement that he had just been appointed as a Russian officer , in the Sanitar :
The " Sanitar " is the part of the Red Cross that does the rough work at the front , carrying men out of the trenches , helping at the base hospitals in every sort of way , doing every kind of rough job . They are an absolutely official body and I shall be one of the few ( half @-@ dozen ) Englishmen in the world wearing Russian uniform .
While in training for the Sanitar , Walpole devoted his leisure hours to gaining a reasonable fluency in the Russian language , and to his first full @-@ length work of non @-@ fiction , a literary biography of Joseph Conrad . In the summer of 1915 he worked on the Austrian @-@ Russian front , assisting at operations in field hospitals and retrieving the dead and wounded from the battlefield . Occasionally he found time to write brief letters home ; he told Bennett , " A battle is an amazing mixture of hell and a family picnic – not as frightening as the dentist , but absorbing , sometimes thrilling like football , sometimes dull like church , and sometimes simply physically sickening like bad fish . Burying dead afterwards is worst of all . " When disheartened he comforted himself with the thought , " This is not so bad as it was at Marlow " .
During an engagement early in June 1915 Walpole single @-@ handedly rescued a wounded soldier ; his Russian comrades refused to help and Walpole carried one end of a stretcher and dragged the man to safety . For this he was awarded the Cross of Saint George ; General Lechitsky presented him with the medal in August . After his tour of duty Walpole returned to Petrograd . Among the city 's attractions for him was the presence of Konstantin Somov , a painter with whom he had formed a close relationship . He remained there until October 1915 , when he returned to England . He visited his family , stayed with Percy Anderson in London , telephoned Henry James in Rye , and retreated to a cottage he had bought in Cornwall . In January 1916 he was asked by the Foreign Office to return to Petrograd . Russians were being subjected to highly effective German propaganda . The writer Arthur Ransome , Petrograd correspondent of The Daily News , had successfully lobbied for the establishment of a bureau to counter the German efforts , and the British ambassador , Sir George Buchanan , wanted Walpole to take charge .
Before he left for Petrograd , Walpole 's novel The Dark Forest was published . It drew on his experiences in Russia , and was more sombre than much of his earlier fiction . Reviews were highly favourable ; The Daily Telegraph commented on " a high level of imaginative vision ... reveals capacity and powers in the author which we had hardly suspected before . "
Walpole returned to Petrograd in February 1916 . He moved into Somov 's flat , and his Anglo @-@ Russian Propaganda Bureau began work . The following month he suffered a personal blow : he recorded in his diary for 13 March 1916 , " Thirty two to @-@ day ! Should have been a happy day but was completely clouded for me by reading in the papers of Henry James ' death . This was a terrible shock to me . " Walpole remained at the bureau for the rest of 1916 and most of 1917 , witnessing the February Revolution . He wrote an official report on events for the Foreign Office , and also absorbed ideas for his fiction . In addition to the first of his popular " Jeremy " novels , written in his spare time from the bureau , he began work on the second of his Russian @-@ themed books , The Secret City . Sadleir writes that this novel and The Dark Forest " take a high place among his works , on account of their intuitive understanding of an alien mentality and the vigour of their narrative power . " The book won the inaugural James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction .
By late 1917 it was clear to Walpole and to the British authorities that there was little advantage in keeping him in Russia . On 7 November he left , missing the Bolshevik Revolution , which began on that day . He was appointed to a post at the Foreign Office in its Department of Information , headed by John Buchan . Soon after returning he volunteered for the British army , but , as expected , failed the necessary medical examination because of his poor sight . He continued to work in British propaganda when the department was reconstituted under Lord Beaverbrook in April 1918 , and remained there for the rest of the war and beyond , resigning in February 1919 . Little is known about what he wrote for the department , as most of its records were destroyed after the war , but he noted in his diary that he had written the department 's official report to the War Cabinet : " a beastly job – the worst I 've ever attempted " . For his wartime work he was awarded the CBE in 1918 .
= = = Post @-@ war and 1920s = = =
Walpole remained prolific in the post @-@ war years , and began a parallel and highly remunerative career as a lecturer in literature . At the instigation of his American publisher , George Doran , he made his first lecture tour of the US in 1919 , receiving an enthusiastic welcome wherever he went . What Sadleir describes as Walpole 's " genial and attractive appearance , his complete lack of aloofness , his exciting fluency as a speaker [ and ] his obvious and genuine liking for his hosts " combined to win him a large American following . The success of his talks led to increases in his lecturing fees , greatly enhanced sales of his books , and large sums from American publishers anxious to print his latest fiction . He was a prodigiously quick writer who seldom revised , but pressed on , keen to get his ideas down on paper . His main British publishers , Macmillan , found it expedient to appoint a senior member of staff to edit his manuscripts , correcting spelling , punctuation , inconsistencies and errors of historical fact . His fluency enabled him to fulfil between tours a contract from The Pictorial Review for ten short stories at the remarkable sum of $ 1 @,@ 350 apiece .
One of Walpole 's major novels of the early post @-@ war period was The Cathedral , which unlike much of his fiction was not dashed off but worked on across four years , beginning in 1918 . The story of an arrogant 19th @-@ century archdeacon in conflict with other clergy and laity was certain to bring comparisons with Trollope 's Barchester Towers ( The Manchester Guardian 's review was headed " Polchester Towers " ) , but unlike the earlier work , The Cathedral is wholly uncomic . The hubristic Archdeacon Brandon is driven to domestic despair , professional defeat and sudden death . The reviewer Ivor Brown commented that Walpole had earlier charmed many with his cheerful tales of Mayfair , but that in this novel he showed a greater side to his art : " This is a book with little happiness about it , but its stark strength is undeniable . The Cathedral is realism , profound in its philosophy and delicate in its thread . " The Illustrated London News said , " No former novelist has seized quite so powerfully upon the cathedral fabric and made it a living character in the drama , an obsessing individuality at once benign and forbidding . ... The Cathedral is a great book . "
Walpole was a keen music lover and when in 1920 he heard a new tenor at the Proms he was much impressed and sought him out . Lauritz Melchior became one of the most important friendships of his life , and Walpole did much to foster the singer 's budding career . Wagner 's son Siegfried engaged Melchior for the Bayreuth Festival in 1924 and succeeding years . Walpole attended , and met Adolf Hitler , then recently released from prison after an attempted putsch . Hitler was a protégé of Siegfried 's wife Winifred , and was known in Bayreuth as " one of Winnie 's lame ducks . " Walpole later admitted that he had both despised and liked him – " both emotions that time has proved I was wrong to indulge " . This and future visits to Bayreuth were complicated by the fact that Winifred Wagner fell in love with Walpole , and attached herself so firmly to him that rumours began to spread .
In 1924 Walpole moved into a house near Keswick in the Lake District . His large income enabled him to maintain his London flat in Piccadilly , but Brackenburn , on the slopes of Catbells overlooking Derwentwater , was his main home for the rest of his life . He was quickly made welcome by local residents , and the scenery and atmosphere of the Lake District often found their way into his fiction . The critic James Agate commented that one might think from some of Walpole 's stories that their author had created the English Lakes , but that he was probably only consulted about them . At the end of 1924 Walpole met Harold
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Cheevers , who soon became his friend and companion and remained so for the rest of Walpole 's life . In Hart @-@ Davis 's words , he came nearer than any other human being to Walpole 's long @-@ sought conception of a perfect friend . Cheevers , a policeman , with a wife and two children , left the police force and entered Walpole 's service as his chauffeur . Walpole trusted him completely , and gave him extensive control over his affairs . Whether Walpole was at Brackenburn or Piccadilly , Cheevers was almost always with him , and often accompanied him on overseas trips . Walpole provided a house in Hampstead for Cheevers and his family .
During the mid @-@ twenties Walpole produced two of his best @-@ known novels in the macabre vein that he drew on from time to time , exploring the fascination of fear and cruelty . The Old Ladies ( 1924 ) is a study of a timid elderly spinster exploited and eventually frightened to death by a predatory widow . Portrait of a Man with Red Hair ( 1925 ) depicts the malign influence of a manipulative , insane father on his family and others . Walpole described it to his fellow author Frank Swinnerton as " a simple shocker which it has amused me like anything to write , and won 't bore you to read . " In contrast he continued a series of stories for children , begun in 1919 with Jeremy , taking the young hero 's story forward with Jeremy and Hamlet ( the latter being the boy 's dog ) in 1923 , and Jeremy at Crale in 1927 . Sadleir , writing in the 1950s , suggests that " the most real Walpole of all – because the most unselfconscious , kindly , and understanding friend – is the Walpole of the Jeremy trilogy . " Of his other novels of the 1920s Wintersmoon ( 1928 ) , his first attempt at a full @-@ length love story , portrays a clash between traditionalism and modernism : his own sympathies , though not spelled out , were clearly with the traditionalists .
= = = 1930 – 41 = = =
By the 1930s , though his public success remained considerable , many literary critics saw Walpole as outdated . His reputation in literary circles took a blow from a malicious caricature in Somerset Maugham 's 1930 novel Cakes and Ale : the character Alroy Kear , a superficial novelist of more pushy ambition than literary talent , was widely taken to be based on Walpole . In the same year Walpole wrote possibly his best @-@ known work , Rogue Herries , a historical novel set in the Lake District . It was well @-@ received : The Daily Mail considered it " not only a profound study of human character , but a subtle and intimate biography of a place . " He followed it with three sequels ; all four novels were published in a single volume as The Herries Chronicle .
In 1934 Walpole accepted an invitation from Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer studios to go to Hollywood to write the scenario for a film adaptation of David Copperfield . He enjoyed many aspects of life in Hollywood , but as one who rarely revised any of his own work he found it tedious to produce sixth and seventh drafts at the behest of the studio . He enjoyed his brief change of role from writer to bit @-@ part player : in the film he played the Vicar of Blunderstone delivering a boring sermon that sends David to sleep . Agate was doubtful of the wisdom of this : " Does not Hugh see that to bring a well @-@ known character from real life into an imaginary sequence of events is to destroy the reality of that imaginary sequence ? " Nevertheless , Walpole 's performance was a success . He improvised the sermon ; the producer , David O Selznick , mischievously called for retake after retake to try to make him dry up , but Walpole fluently delivered a different extempore address each time .
The critical and commercial success of the film of David Copperfield led to an invitation to return to Hollywood in 1936 . When he got there he found that the studio executives had no idea which films they wanted him to work on , and he had eight weeks of highly paid leisure , during which he wrote a short story and worked on a novel . He was eventually asked to write the scenario for Little Lord Fauntleroy , which he enjoyed doing . He spent most of his fees on paintings , forgetting to keep enough money to pay US tax on his earnings . He replenished his American funds with a lecture tour – his last – in late 1936 .
In 1937 Walpole was offered a knighthood . He accepted , though confiding to his diary that he could not think of a good novelist since Walter Scott who had done so . " Kipling , Hardy , Galsworthy all refused . But I 'm not of their class , and range with Doyle , Anthony Hope and such . ... Besides I shall like being a knight . "
Walpole 's taste for adventure did not diminish in his last years . In 1939 he was commissioned to report for William Randolph Hearst 's newspapers on the funeral in Rome of Pope Pius XI , the conclave to elect his successor , and the subsequent coronation . A fellow correspondent was Tom Driberg , whose memoirs tell of a lunch à deux at which Walpole arrived flushed with excitement from a sexual encounter that morning with an attendant in the Borghese Palace . In the weeks between the funeral and Pius XII 's election Walpole , with his customary fluency , wrote much of his book Roman Fountain , a mixture of fact and fiction about the city . This was his last overseas visit .
After the outbreak of the Second World War Walpole remained in England , dividing his time between London and Keswick , and continuing to write with his usual rapidity . He completed a fifth novel in the Herries series and began work on a sixth . His health was undermined by diabetes . He overexerted himself at the opening of Keswick 's fund @-@ raising " War Weapons Week " in May 1941 , making a speech after taking part in a lengthy march , and died of a heart attack at Brackenburn , aged 57 . He is buried in St John 's churchyard in Keswick .
= = = Legacy = = =
Walpole was a keen and discerning collector of art . Sir Kenneth Clark called him " one of the three or four real patrons of art in this country , and of that small body he was perhaps the most generous and the most discriminating . " He left fourteen works to the Tate Gallery and Fitzwilliam Museum , including paintings by Cézanne , Manet , Augustus John , Tissot and Renoir .
Other artists represented in Walpole 's collection were Epstein , Picasso , Gauguin , Sickert and Utrillo . After his death the finest works in his collection , other than those bequeathed , were exhibited in London during April and May 1945 ; the exhibition also included works by Constable , Turner and Rodin .
Sadleir notes how Walpole 's considerable income enabled him to indulge not only his love of art and of old books and manuscripts , but also philanthropy , particularly towards younger writers . Although Walpole enjoyed the limelight , he was secretive about his many acts of generosity to younger writers , with both encouragement and financial help . After his death some idea of the scale of his generosity was discovered . Osbert Sitwell commented , " I don 't think there was any younger writer of any worth who has not at one time or another received kindness of an active kind , and at a crucial moment , from Hugh " . Hart @-@ Davis lists thirty @-@ eight authors from whom letters of gratitude were found among Walpole 's correspondence ; Sadleir writes of Walpole 's " generous kindness to literary aspirants and to writers fallen on evil days ... by immediate financial assistance , by prefaces freely supplied or by collaboration volunteered , by introductions and recommendations to likely publishers , Walpole relieved the distresses of authorship to a degree which will never be fully known . " Agate , though himself the recipient of Walpole 's generosity on occasion , thought it sometimes went too far : " Mr Walpole 's large @-@ heartedness gets him into all kinds of trouble . He is an inveterate patter . He pats on the back young men whom sterner critics would knock down , because even in fantastic incompetence he perceives the good intention . No art or artist is safe from Mr Walpole 's benevolence " .
In his adopted home of Keswick a section of the town museum was dedicated to Walpole 's memory in 1949 , with manuscripts , correspondence , paintings and sculpture from Brackenburn , donated by his sister and brother .
= = Works = =
Walpole 's books cover a wide range . His fiction includes short stories , bildungsromane ( Mr Perrin and Mr Traill , 1911 , and the Jeremy trilogy ) that delve into the psychology of boyhood ; gothic horror novels ( Portrait of a Man with Red Hair , 1925 , and The Killer and The Slain , 1942 ) ; a period family saga ( the Herries chronicle ) and even detective fiction ( Behind the Screen ) . He wrote literary biographies ( Conrad , 1916 ; James Branch Cabell , 1920 ; and Trollope , 1928 ) ; plays ; and screenplays including David Copperfield , 1935 .
= = = Influences = = =
Walpole 's debt to Henry James is discernible in The Duchess of Wrexe ( 1914 ) and The Green Mirror ( 1917 ) , but in the view of J B Priestley the two most potent influences on Walpole were the highly contrasting ones of Trollope and Dostoyevsky . Other critics noted the Trollopian influence ; in 1923 Arthur St John Adcock commented :
The Trenchards [ in The Green Mirror ] are a kind of family Trollope might have created had he been living now ; The Cathedral is a kind of story he might have told , with its realistic melodrama and its clerical atmosphere , but Walpole tells it with a subtler art in the writing and the construction , with a conciseness and charm of style that are outside the range of the earlier novelist .
Walpole , though he was devoted to the works of Trollope , and published a study of him , thought that there was no real comparison between the two of them : " I am far too twisted and fantastic a novelist ever to succeed in catching Trollope 's marvellous normality . " Priestley was less impressed by the supposed Trollopian side of Walpole 's work , finding some of it formulaic . He was more taken with a darker , Dostoyevskian , side that he found in the writing : " suddenly it will transform the pleasant easy scene he is giving us into transparency behind which are bright stars and red hellfire ... No matter how jolly and zestful he may appear to be , the fact remains that he possesses an unusually sharp sense of evil . "
Possibly the most pervasive influence on Walpole was Walter Scott , whose romanticism is reflected in much of the later writer 's fiction . Such was Walpole 's love of Scott that he liked to think of himself as the latter 's reincarnation . He amassed the largest collection in Britain of Scott manuscripts and early editions , and constantly reread the novels . With the Herries stories Walpole restored the popularity of the historical novel , a form for which Scott was famous but which had been out of fashion for decades . The Herries series begins in the 18th century and follows a Lakeland family through the generations up to modern times .
= = = Reputation = = =
Walpole sought critical as well as financial success , and longed to write works that equalled those of Trollope , Thomas Hardy and Henry James . In his early days , he received frequent and generally approving scrutiny from major literary figures . He was a good friend of Virginia Woolf , and rated her as an influence ; she praised his gift for seizing on telling detail : " it is no disparagement to a writer to say that his gift is for the small things rather than for the large ... If you are faithful with the details the large effects will grow inevitably out of those very details " . Joseph Conrad said of him , " We see Mr. Walpole grappling with the truth of things spiritual and material with his characteristic earnestness , and we can discern the characteristics of this acute and sympathetic explorer of human nature . "
In 1928 Priestley observed ,
When I first remember seeing Hugh Walpole 's name he had no public at all , but the ferocious young reviewers – the " highbrows " as we have since learned to call them – delighted in him . Now he has an enormous public , both in England and America , and the young " highbrows " – who are saddened by the thought of a large public – are not particularly fond of him .
Priestley contended that Walpole had fulfilled his early potential , unlike Compton Mackenzie , Gilbert Cannan and other promising young novelists of his generation . This view was not universal among critics : Walpole sometimes divided opinion . Writing of Walpole 's Russian novels the contemporary critic and novelist Douglas Goldring commented , " Russia has been the grave of many reputations ; and our Napoleon of the drawing @-@ room novel has fared no better than other would @-@ be conquerors of that disconcerting land . " Goldring 's complaint was that Walpole 's Russian ( and English ) characters were clichéd stereotypes . The reviewer in Punch , by contrast , wrote , " I consulted a Russian , who is very much alive , and received the opinion that , if Mr. Walpole has not succeeded in drawing the real average Russian , he has given us a type whose faults and virtues sound the keynote of the situation as it is to @-@ day . " The Observer rated The Dark Forest as " one of the finest novels of our generation " .
In 1924 Ernest Hemingway wrote into a short story a comparison of G K Chesterton and Walpole , concluding that the former was the better man , the latter a better writer and both were classics . Walpole could be sensitive about his literary reputation and often took adverse criticism badly . When Hilaire Belloc praised P G Wodehouse as the best English writer of their day , Walpole took it amiss , to the amusement of Wodehouse who regarded Belloc 's plaudit as " a gag , to get a rise out of serious @-@ minded authors whom he disliked " . Wodehouse was not a great admirer of Walpole ; his own scrupulous craftsmanship , with drafts polished over and over again , was the opposite of Walpole 's hastily written and seldom @-@ revised prose . He also viewed Walpole 's sensitivity to criticism as absurd . Walpole was not always as oversensitive as Wodehouse supposed . The critic James Agate was a friend despite his regular rude remarks about Walpole 's prose , and when Walpole discovered that Agate had written a spoof of the Herries " Lakeland " style , he made him promise to print it in the next published volume of his diaries .
During his career contemporaries saw both negative and positive sides to Walpole 's outgoing nature and desire to be in the public eye . Wodehouse commented , " I always think Hugh Walpole 's reputation was two thirds publicity . He was always endorsing books and speaking at lunches and so on . " On the other hand , Walpole stood out as one of the few literary figures willing to go into court and give evidence for the defence at the obscenity trial after the novel The Well of Loneliness was published .
By the time of his death The Times 's estimation of Walpole was no higher than , " he had a versatile imagination ; he could tell a workmanlike story in good workmanlike English ; and he was a man of immense industry , conscientious and painstaking " . The belittling tone of the obituary brought forth strong rebuttals from T S Eliot , Kenneth Clark and Priestley , among others . Within a few years of his death , Walpole was seen as old @-@ fashioned , and his works were largely neglected . In the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Elizabeth Steele summed up : " His psychology was not deep enough for the polemicist , his diction not free enough for those returning from war , and his zest disastrous to a public wary of personal commitment " . In 2011 , Peter Hitchens , an admirer of Walpole , though not an uncritical one , wrote :
Henry James and John Buchan praised him . Joseph Conrad , T S Eliot and Virginia Woolf were kind about him . What 's more , his books sold enormously well on both sides of the Atlantic , he was knighted , and he became very rich ... Yet now he has vanished completely , his books not even to be found on the back shelves of most second hand shops , dismissed as " unreadable " .
Walpole 's works have not been completely neglected in recent years . The Herries stories have seldom been out of print , and in 2014 WorldCat listed a dozen recent reissues of Walpole 's works , including The Wooden Horse , The Dark Forest , The Secret City , Jeremy , and The Cathedral . In 2011 the BBC broadcast a reappraisal of Walpole , The Walpole Chronicle , presented by Eric Robson . In 2013 a new stage version of Rogue Herries was presented by the Theatre by the Lake company in Walpole 's adopted home of Keswick . The BBC speculated that this could mark a revival in interest in his works .
= = = Biographies = = =
Two full @-@ length studies of Walpole were published after his death . The first , in 1952 , was written by Rupert Hart @-@ Davis , who had known Walpole personally . It was regarded at the time as " among the half dozen best biographies of the century " and has been reissued several times since its first publication . Writing when homosexuality was still outlawed in England , Hart @-@ Davis avoided direct mention of his subject 's sexuality , so respecting Walpole 's habitual discretion and the wishes of his brother and sister . He left readers to read between the lines if they wished , in , for example , references to Turkish baths " providing informal opportunities of meeting interesting strangers " . Hart @-@ Davis dedicated the book to " Dorothy , Robin and Harold " , Walpole 's sister , brother , and long @-@ term companion .
In 1972 Elizabeth Steele 's study of Walpole was published . Much shorter than Hart @-@ Davis 's biography , at 178 pages to his 503 , it dealt mainly with the novels , and aimed " to show the sources of Hugh Walpole 's success as a writer during the thirty @-@ five years and fifty books of his busy career " . Steele concentrated on half a dozen of Walpole 's best books , each illustrating aspects of his writing , under the headings " Acolyte " , " Artist " , " Witness " , " Evangelist " , " Critic " and " Romanticist " . Steele also wrote a study of Walpole 's North American lecture tours ( 2006 ) and the article on Walpole in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography ( 2004 ) , which treats his private life briefly but candidly .
= Domnall mac Murchada =
Domnall mac Murchada ( died 1075 ) , also known as Domnall mac Murchada meic Diarmata , was a leading late eleventh @-@ century claimant to the Kingdom of Leinster , and a King of Dublin . As a son of Murchad mac Diarmata , King of Dublin and the Isles , Domnall was a grandson of Diarmait mac Máel na mBó , King of Leinster , and thus a member of the Uí Chennselaig . Domnall was also the first of the Meic Murchada , a branch of the Uí Chennselaig named after his father .
In 1071 , the year before his grandfather 's death , Domnall and an Uí Chennselaig kinsman , Donnchad mac Domnaill Remair , battled for control of Leinster . Although Domnall is accorded the title King of Leinster in one mediaeval king @-@ list , Donnchad was evidently a more powerful claimant , and Domnall appears to have held the Leinster kingship in name only .
Domnall 's rise to power in the Kingdom of Dublin took place in 1075 , after the expulsion of the reigning Gofraid mac Amlaíb meic Ragnaill , King of Dublin by the latter 's overlord , Toirdelbach Ua Briain , King of Munster . The circumstances surrounding Domnall 's accession are uncertain . He may have collaborated with Gofraid to wrench the kingdom from the grip of the Uí Briain , or he may have been installed in the kingship by Toirdelbach himself , and ruled under the latter 's overlordship . Whatever the case , Domnall died within the year , and Toirdelbach placed his own son , Muirchertach , upon the throne .
= = Background = =
Domnall was a son of Murchad mac Diarmata , King of Dublin and the Isles ( died 1070 ) , who was himself a son of Diarmait mac Máel na mBó , King of Leinster ( died 1072 ) . Domnall was , therefore , a member of the Uí Chennselaig ; as well as the first of the Meic Murchada , a branch of the Uí Chennselaig named after his father . Domnall had two brothers : Donnchad ( died 1115 ) , a later King of Leinster , and Énna .
In 1052 , Domnall 's aforesaid grandfather conquered the Kingdom of Dublin from Echmarcach mac Ragnaill , King of Dublin and the Isles ( died 1064 / 1065 ) , and soon after appointed Murchad as King of Dublin . About a decade later , Murchad appears to have driven Echmarcach from Mann , after which he gained the kingship of the Isles . Diarmait 's deep @-@ rooted authority in Norse @-@ Gaelic Dublin lasted for two decades , and was a remarkable achievement that no other Irish king had ever accomplished . Unfortunately for the Uí Chennselaig , two of Diarmait 's sons — Murchad and Glún Iairn — unexpectedly predeceased their father in 1070 , and Diarmait himself fell in battle two years later .
= = Kingship of Leinster = =
Even before Diarmait 's demise , the Uí Chennselaig began to fight amongst themselves in a struggle that was almost certainly an after @-@ effect of Diarmait 's sons ' untimely deaths . Specifically , the Annals of the Four Masters , and the Annals of Inisfallen reveal that Domnall battled against the forces of his own first cousin once removed , Donnchad mac Domnaill Remair ( died 1089 ) , before Diarmait 's ally , Toirdelbach Ua Briain , King of Munster ( died 1086 ) , was able to intervene and restore order in the Kingdom of Leinster .
Up until about the time of his death , Diarmait had been the most powerful king in southern Ireland . In consequence of the void left by his demise , Diarmait 's erstwhile ally Toirdelbach seized the initiative , and moved to enforce his own claim to the high @-@ kingship of Ireland . He immediately imposed his overlordship on Leinster — a task almost certainly expedited by the aforesaid infighting amongst the Uí Chennselaig — and took control of Dublin . Whilst the imposition of authority upon rival provincial kingdoms was a fundamental part in gaining the high @-@ kingship , Toirdelbach 's decision to march @-@ on Dublin reveals that the acquisition of this coastal kingdom had also become an essential part of the process .
Toirdelbach 's subsequent capture of Donnchad in Dublin suggests that the latter was not only the leading Uí Chennselaig dynast , but was also in the process of using the town as the capital of Leinster . Although the list of Leinster kings in the Book of Leinster declares that Domnall had succeeded his grandfather as King of Leinster , it is apparent that Donnchad was indeed the more powerful claimant . In fact , the king @-@ list of Uí Chennselaig in the same source makes no notice of Domnall , and states that it was Donnchad who succeeded Diarmait as King of Uí Chennselaig . Domnall , therefore , may not have reigned in Leinster , and could well have been King of Leinster in name only .
If the Annals of Inisfallen is to be believed , Toirdelbach acquired possession of Dublin when the Dubliners themselves offered him its kingship . Although this record may be mere Uí Briain propaganda , it could instead reveal that the Dubliners preferred a distant overlord from Munster rather than one from neighbouring Leinster . Within the year , the kingship was held by Gofraid mac Amlaíb meic Ragnaill ( died 1075 ) . The latter appears to have been a kinsman of Echmarcach , and may well have been handed the kinship by Toirdelbach , perhaps on account of the considerable distance between the kingdoms .
= = Kingship of Dublin = =
In 1075 , Toirdelbach drove Gofraid from the kingship and Ireland itself . There is uncertainty concerning the circumstances of Gofraid 's expulsion , and of Domnall 's accession . On one hand , it is possible that Gofraid was involved in lending assistance to Anglo @-@ Danish resistance against the Norman regime in the recently conquered Kingdom of England . If correct , Gofraid would appear to have been at odds with Toirdelbach , a monarch who appears to have cultivated close links with the Norman regime . Domnall , therefore , may have had Toirdelbach 's consent to rule in Dublin as Gofraid 's replacement . In fact , Toirdelbach 's placement of Domnall in Dublin , and his allowance of the latter 's aforesaid cousin in Leinster , may have been a way in which the Uí Briain exploited the fractured Uí Chennselaig . Certainly , Domnall 's cooperation would have been a valuable asset to Toirdelbach , considering the prominence of his father amongst the Dubliners , and the likelihood that Domnall himself may have lived most of his life there . On the other hand , it is possible that Gofraid was driven from the kingship because he had aligned himself with the Leinstermen against the Uí Briain . If such a sequence of events is correct it could mean that , even though Gofraid was unable continue on with the revolt , it was his Uí Chennselaig confederates who succeeded in securing Dublin from the Uí Briain .
Whatever the circumstances of Domnall 's accession , the Uí Chennselaig regime in Dublin was short @-@ lived . The Annals of Inisfallen , the Annals of the Four Masters , and the Annals of Ulster , all reveal that , within the year , Domnall died after a brief illness , with the latter two sources specifying that he succumbed after three nights of sickness . The Annals of Inisfallen and the Annals of Ulster accord him the title King of Dublin , and make no mention of any connection with the Leinster kingship . Upon Domnall 's demise , Toirdelbach had his own son , Muirchertach ( died 1119 ) , appointed King of Dublin . In so doing , Toirdelbach reinforced his authority in Dublin , and followed a precedent started by Domnall 's grandfather , in which a claimant to the high @-@ kingship of Ireland installed his own heir to the kingship of Dublin .
= = Ancestry = =
= Irresistible ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Irresistible " is the thirteenth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on January 13 , 1995 . The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter , directed by David Nutter , and featured the first of two guest appearances by Nick Chinlund as the death fetishist killer Donnie Pfaster . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 8 million people upon its first broadcast , and received positive reviews , with much praise to Chinlund 's performance as the antagonist .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a death fetishist who begins kidnapping and killing women to satisfy his obsession . Scully , still recovering from her earlier abduction , is soon overcome with posttraumatic stress disorder .
" Irresistible " is one of the few in the series that has no paranormal elements to it . Initially , the script called for Donnie Pfaster to be a necrophiliac , but the idea was soon rejected by the Fox Broadcasting Company for being " unacceptable for broadcast standards " . Pfaster was eventually brought back in the season seven episode " Orison " .
= = Plot = =
In Minneapolis , a funeral is held for a young girl ( Megan Hilty ) . The ceremony is observed by Donnie Pfaster , the eerie assistant director for the funeral home . Later that night , as the girl 's body is being stored for burial the following day , Pfaster 's boss finds him cutting off the corpse 's hair . Pfaster is promptly fired .
Some time later , Fox Mulder and Dana Scully are summoned to Minneapolis by Moe Bocks , an FBI field agent who is investigating the exhumation and desecration of a body in a local cemetery . Mulder discounts Bocks ' theory that this act is a variation of extraterrestrial cattle mutilation , and suggests they search for a human culprit . Scully is disturbed at the sight of the disheveled corpse . Two more bodies are found exhumed , with their hair cut and fingernails removed . Mulder develops a psychological profile of the criminal , believing him to be an escalating " death fetishist " who may resort to murder to satisfy his desires . Scully keeps her discomfort with the case to herself , and writes up a field report on necrophilia .
Pfaster , who was behind the exhumations , proves Mulder 's prediction correct when he brings a prostitute to his apartment . When the prostitute discovers a collection of funerary wreaths in Pfaster 's bedroom , he kills her and removes her fingers . Later , Pfaster — having been hired as a frozen food delivery man through charming the female interviewer — delivers to a low @-@ security house of a woman with teenage daughters . He requests the bathroom to wash his hands , and whilst there steals some discarded hair from a brush he found in the trashcan . Pfaster attends a night class at a community college , where a female classmate defends herself after he makes threatening advances . He is arrested and is placed in a jail cell across from a suspect being interrogated for Pfaster 's crimes by Mulder , Scully , and Bocks . Pfaster shows interest in Scully , and learns her name from the interrogated suspect . Pfaster is later released as his charges were dropped .
Scully is deeply troubled by Pfaster 's crimes , and has unsettling dreams and hallucinations about the case . In Washington , she has a counseling session with a social worker , during which she shares her anxiety about the investigation . After the session , Scully learns that someone from Minnesota had called for her . When she contacts Mulder , she learns that neither he nor Bocks made the call . Tracing a fingerprint to Pfaster from his arrest , Bocks and Mulder raid his apartment , finding one of the prostitute 's fingers in his refrigerator . Meanwhile , after Scully arrives in Minneapolis , Pfaster forces her car off the road . He kidnaps Scully and takes her to his late mother 's abandoned house . He ties and gags Scully , and keeps her in a dark closet .
Mulder and Bocks discover that Pfaster 's mother had owned a car which matches paint found on Scully 's abandoned car , tracking down her former residence . Meanwhile , Scully escapes from Pfaster as he prepares a cold bath for her , resulting in a pursuit through the house . Scully and Pfaster have a struggle that sends them falling down a staircase onto the foyer , where a task force led by Mulder and Bocks breaks in moments later and apprehends Pfaster . Scully initially insists that she is okay , but then breaks down and cries in Mulder 's arms . In a voice @-@ over narration , Mulder traces Pfaster 's pathology to his childhood , when he was raised in a family of four older sisters . Mulder also reflects on Pfaster 's nature and the nature of evil in general .
= = Production = =
The episode 's initial script where Pfaster was a necrophiliac was rejected by the Fox Broadcasting Company for being " unacceptable for broadcast standards " . As series creator Chris Carter described it , " When I handed the script in , it was really for a necrophiliac episode , and that just didn 't fly . You cannot do the combination of sex and death on network television . " Carter was forced to tone down the script by changing Pfaster from a necrophiliac to a death fetishist and diminishing Pfaster 's sexual obsession . He considered that the sexual content was " implied and understood by audiences " , and that Pfaster still resulted in a creepy character , particularly his " creepy arrogance " in using shampoo on the hair of his victims . The episode 's original title was " Fascination " .
The episode is one of the few in the series that has no paranormal elements to it . Carter said of the episode 's conception , " My first chance to work with David Nutter in a long time , and I wanted to give him something he could sink his teeth into . It 's a little bit different for us . It doesn 't really have a paranormal aspect , except for Scully 's perceptions of her deepest fears . I felt that I had to figure out what she is most afraid of , and she is most afraid of those things that most of us are afraid of . The idea of dying at the hands of someone — creature or not — and she is helpless to do anything about it . I thought it was a very good way to explore Scully 's character . " The scene where Dana Scully imagines Pfaster appearing as a devil was influenced by real @-@ life accounts , as described by Carter : " There are reports of people who had been under the spell of Jeffrey Dahmer , who actually claimed that he shape @-@ shifted during those hours when they were held hostage ; that his image actually changed . " Nutter said " In many ways , Chris wanted to sell the idea that , as established in Mulder 's closing dialogue in the show , not all terror comes from the paranormal . It could come from the person next door . "
Carter said of the casting of Nick Chinlund as Pfaster , " I thought it was a wonderfully creepy villain . The casting of that show was very difficult . We saw many actors , but there was a quality I was looking for and I couldn 't put a name on that quality . I finally figured out what it was when Nick came in and he had a kind of androgynous quality that worked . I thought he looked like Joe College , but he could scare the hell out of you . " Producer Glen Morgan said Chinlund 's performance was outstanding . Nutter stated " Nick Chinlund was wonderful to work with . The guy was like putty in my hands . He was great . If you 're looking for someone to underline the weirdness and strangeness of the character , he did that . "
Nutter said of the episode " I really worked hard to make it a special show , because I thought it was special . It was Gillian 's post @-@ traumatic stress episode , because she had not really had the opportunity to vent her feelings about the whole Duane Barry situation . This was an opportunity to sit back and let all that happen . " Carter particularly liked the scene where a clearly disturbed Scully hugs Mulder , claiming it was a " tender moment " between two characters that had not shown that much affection for each other .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Irresistible " premiered on the Fox network on January 13 , 1995 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 2 , with a 15 share , meaning that roughly 9 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 15 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 8 @.@ 8 million households .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Irresistible " received largely positive reviews from critics . Entertainment Weekly rated " Irresistible " a B + , saying it was based on " an unsettling concept to begin with " that was reinforced by " Chinlund 's skin @-@ crawling one @-@ man show " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club rated the episode A , praising the acting , particularly of Chinlund as Pfaster , and describing it as " legitimately scary , a sign of a show that was pushing itself in new and interesting directions " . The only criticism was for the scenes where Scully hallucinates Pfaster shapeshifting as " pretty silly , almost feeling like an attempt to make sure something vaguely paranormal is in the episode so the fans don 't get bored with what is ultimately a very good episode " . Jessica Morgan of Television Without Pity gave the episode a B + grade . Writing for Den of Geek , Nina Sordi ranked " Irresistible " the sixth best X @-@ Files episode , saying that " excluding CSM and his cronies , Pfaster has got to be the most disturbing villain that our favorite agents have encountered " . Den of Geek writer Juliette Harrisson named it the " finest " stand @-@ alone episode of the second season , describing it as " a genuinely creepy 45 @-@ minute horror movie " . Connie Ogle of Popmatters listed Pfaster among the best monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week characters of the series , and IGN 's Christine Seghers ranked Chinlund the seventh best guest star in the history of the show , considering that " what makes him all the more frightening is how downright passive and polite he is up until the moment he 's going to kill ; the perfect camouflage for a modern @-@ day monster . " TV Guide listed Pfaster among the scariest X @-@ Files monsters describing him as " evil incarnate " .
Chris Carter said " Irresistible " was effective for " being really scary " , and that not only it was one of his favorites but inspired him to create the television series Millennium later .
= Thunderbirds ( TV series ) =
Thunderbirds is a British science @-@ fiction television series created by Gerry and Sylvia Anderson , filmed by their production company AP Films ( APF ) and distributed by ITC Entertainment . It was produced between 1964 and 1966 using a form of electronic marionette puppetry ( dubbed " Supermarionation " ) combined with scale model special effects sequences . Two series were filmed , comprising a total of 32 episodes . Production ceased after Lew Grade , the Andersons ' financial backer , failed in his efforts to sell the programme to American network television .
Set in the mid @-@ 2060s , Thunderbirds is a follow @-@ up to the earlier Supermarionation productions Four Feather Falls , Supercar , Fireball XL5 and Stingray . It follows the exploits of International Rescue ( IR ) , a life @-@ saving organisation equipped with technologically @-@ advanced land , sea , air and space rescue craft ; these are headed by a fleet of five vehicles named the Thunderbirds and launched from IR 's secret base in the Pacific Ocean . The main characters are ex @-@ astronaut Jeff Tracy , the founder of IR , and his five adult sons , who pilot the Thunderbird machines .
Thunderbirds began its first run in the United Kingdom on the ITV network in 1965 and has since been broadcast in at least 66 other countries . Periodically repeated , it was adapted for radio in the early 1990s and has influenced many TV programmes and other media . As well as inspiring various merchandising campaigns , the series has been followed by two feature @-@ length film sequels , a live @-@ action film adaptation and a mimed stage show tribute . The second of two TV remakes , the computer @-@ animated Thunderbirds Are Go , premiered in 2015 .
Widely considered to be the Andersons ' most popular and commercially successful series , Thunderbirds has received particular praise for its effects ( directed by Derek Meddings ) and musical score ( composed by Barry Gray ) . It is also well remembered for its title sequence , which opens with an often @-@ quoted countdown by actor Peter Dyneley ( who voiced the character of Jeff ) : " 5 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 : Thunderbirds Are Go ! " A real @-@ life rescue service , the International Rescue Corps , is named after the organisation featured in the series .
= = Storyline = =
Set between 2065 and 2067 , Thunderbirds follows the exploits of the Tracy family , headed by American ex @-@ astronaut turned multi @-@ millionaire philanthropist Jeff Tracy . He is a widower with five adult sons : Scott , John , Virgil , Gordon and Alan . The Tracys form International Rescue ( IR ) , a secret organisation dedicated to saving human life . They are aided in this mission by technologically advanced land , sea , air and space vehicles , which are called into service when conventional rescue techniques prove ineffective . The most important of these are five machines named the " Thunderbirds " , each assigned to one of the five Tracy brothers :
Thunderbird 1 : a hypersonic rocket plane used for fast response and accident zone reconnaissance . Piloted by primary rescue co @-@ ordinator Scott Tracy .
Thunderbird 2 : a supersonic carrier aircraft that transports rescue vehicles and equipment to accident zones in detachable capsules known as " Pods " . Piloted by Virgil .
Thunderbird 3 : a single @-@ stage @-@ to @-@ orbit spacecraft . Piloted alternately by Alan and John , with Scott as co @-@ pilot .
Thunderbird 4 : a utility submersible . Piloted by Gordon and normally launched from Thunderbird 2 .
Thunderbird 5 : a space station that relays distress calls from around the world . Manned alternately by " Space Monitors " John and Alan .
With the engineer Brains and Jeff 's elderly mother , as well as the Malaysian manservant Kyrano and his daughter Tin @-@ Tin , the family reside in a luxurious villa on Tracy Island , their hidden base in the South Pacific Ocean . In this location , IR is safe from criminals and spies who envy the organisation 's technology and seek to acquire the secrets of its machines .
Despite its humanitarian principles , some of IR 's operations are necessitated not by misadventure but deliberate sabotage motivated by greed for power and wealth . For missions that require criminal investigation , the organisation incorporates a network of undercover agents headed by English aristocrat Lady Penelope Creighton @-@ Ward and her butler Aloysius Parker . Based at Creighton @-@ Ward Mansion in Kent , Penelope and Parker 's primary mode of transport is FAB 1 , a specially @-@ modified Rolls @-@ Royce . The most persistent of IR 's adversaries is the criminal known only as the " Hood " . Operating from a temple in the Malaysian jungle , and possessing abilities of hypnosis and dark magic , he exerts a powerful telepathic control over Kyrano , his estranged half @-@ brother , and manipulates the Tracys into missions that unfold according to his nefarious designs . This allows him to spy on the Thunderbird machines and , by selling their secrets , make himself rich .
= = Production = =
Thunderbirds was the fourth Supermarionation puppet TV series to be produced by APF , which was founded by the husband @-@ and @-@ wife duo of Gerry and Sylvia Anderson with their business partners Reg Hill and John Read . Pitched in late 1963 , the series was commissioned by Lew Grade of ITC , APF 's parent company , on the back of the positive audience response to Stingray .
Gerry Anderson drew inspiration for the series ' underlying concept from the West German mining disaster known as the Wunder von Lengede ( " Miracle of Lengede " ) . In October 1963 , the collapse of a nearby dam flooded an iron mine in the municipality of Lengede , killing 29 miners and trapping 21 others underground . Lacking the means to drill an escape shaft , the authorities were forced to requisition a heavy @-@ duty bore from Bremen ; the considerable time necessary to ship this device by rail had significantly reduced the chances of a successful rescue . Recognising the advantages of swifter crisis response , Anderson conceived the idea of an " international rescue " organisation that could use supersonic aircraft to transport specialised rescue equipment quickly over long distances .
Seeking to distinguish his 26 @-@ episode proposal from APF 's earlier productions , Anderson attempted to pitch stories at a level that would appeal to both adults and children . Whereas previous series had been shown during the late afternoon , Anderson wanted Thunderbirds to be broadcast in a family @-@ friendly primetime slot . Sylvia remembers that " our market had grown and a ' kidult ' show ... was the next step . " The Andersons retired to their holiday villa in Portugal to expand the premise , script the pilot episode and compose a scriptwriters ' guide . According to Sylvia , the writing process depended on a " division of labour " , whereby Gerry created the action sequences while she managed characterisation . The decision to make a father and his sons the main characters was influenced by the premise of Bonanza , as well as Sylvia 's belief that the use of more than one heroic character would broaden the series ' appeal . The Tracy brothers were named after Mercury Seven astronauts : Scott Carpenter , John Glenn , Virgil " Gus " Grissom , Gordon Cooper and Alan Shepard .
The series ' title was derived from a letter written by Gerry 's brother , Lionel , while he had been serving overseas as an RAF flight sergeant during World War II . While stationed in Arizona , Lionel had made reference to Thunderbird Field , a nearby United States Army Air Forces base . Drawn to the " punchiness " of " Thunderbirds " , Anderson dropped his working title of " International Rescue " and renamed both the series and IR 's rescue vehicles , which had previously been designated Rescues 1 to 5 . His inspiration for the launch sequences of Thunderbirds 1 , 2 and 3 originated from contemporary United States Air Force launch procedure : Anderson had learnt how the Strategic Air Command would keep its pilots on permanent standby , seated in the cockpits of their aircraft and ready for take @-@ off at a moment 's notice .
In the DVD documentary The Thunderbirds Companion , Anderson explained how a rise in filming costs had made overseas distribution revenue even more important and essentially caused Thunderbirds to be made " as an American show " . During the character development and voice casting process , the Andersons ' main priority was to ensure that the series had transatlantic appeal , thus increasing the chances of winning an American network deal and the higher audience figures that this market had to offer . Scripts were typed in American English and printed on US @-@ style quarto @-@ size paper .
= = = Filming = = =
Thunderbirds was filmed at APF 's studios on the Slough Trading Estate between 1964 and 1966 . In preparation , the number of full @-@ time crew was expanded to 100 . Shooting began in September 1964 after five months of pre @-@ production . Due to the new series ' technical complexity , this was a period longer than for any of APF 's earlier productions . To speed up the filming , episodes were shot in pairs , at a rate of one per month , on separate soundstages and by separate crews ( designated " A " and " B " ) . By 1964 , APF was the UK 's largest commercial user of colour film , consuming more than three million feet ( 570 miles or 910 kilometres ) of stock per year .
Alan Pattillo , a veteran scriptwriter and director for APF , was appointed the company 's first official script editor in late 1964 . This move was aimed to reduce the burden on Gerry Anderson who , while reserving his producer 's right to overall creative control , had grown weary of revising scripts himself . Direction of episodes was assigned in pairs : Pattillo and David Elliott alternated with the less experienced Desmond Saunders and newcomer David Lane for each month 's filming . Due to the difficulties of setting up takes , progress was slow : even on a productive day , it was rare for the crew to complete more than two minutes of puppet footage In a contemporary interview , Hill noted that Thunderbirds contained several times as many shots as a typical live @-@ action series . He explained that rapid editing was necessary on account of the characters ' lack of facial expression , which made it difficult to sustain the viewer 's interest for more than a few seconds per shot .
After viewing the completed 25 @-@ minute pilot , " Trapped in the Sky " , Lew Grade was so impressed by APF 's work that he instructed Anderson to double the episode length and increased the series ' budget per episode from £ 25 @,@ 000 to £ 38 @,@ 000 . As a result , Thunderbirds became not only the company 's longest and highest @-@ budgeted production , but also among the most expensive TV series to have been made up to that point . The crew , who had been filming at a rate of two 25 @-@ minute episodes per fortnight , faced significant challenges during the transition to the new format : eight episodes had already been completed , scripts for up to ten more had been written , and substantial rewrites would be necessary to satisfy the longer running time . Anderson lamented : " Our time @-@ scale was far too drawn out . ITC 's New York office insisted that they should have one show a fortnight ... Everything had to move at twice the speed . " APF spent over seven months extending the existing episodes .
Tony Barwick , who had impressed Pattillo and the Andersons with an unsubmitted script that he had written for Danger Man , was recruited to assist in the writing of subplots and filler material . He found that the longer format created opportunities to strengthen the characterisation . Science @-@ fiction writer John Peel suggests that " small character touches " make the puppet cast of Thunderbirds " much more rounded " than those of earlier APF series . He compares the writing favourably to that of live @-@ action drama . The new footage proved useful during the development of the first series finale , " Security Hazard " : since the previous two episodes had overspent their budgets , Pattillo devised a flashback @-@ dominated clip show containing only 17 minutes of new material to reduce costs .
Filming of Series One was completed in December 1965 . A second series was also commissioned late that year and entered production in March 1966 . Barwick became a full @-@ time member of the writing staff and took over the role of script editor from the outgoing Pattillo . The main puppet cast and vehicles were rebuilt ; in addition , the art department expanded some of the standing sets , including the Tracy Villa lounge and the Thunderbird 5 control room . To accommodate the simultaneous filming of the TV series and Thunderbirds Are Go , APF purchased two more buildings on the Slough Trading Estate and converted them into new stages . As crew and studio space were divided between the two productions , filming of the TV series progressed at half the previous speed , as APF 's B crew produced one episode per month . Filming on Thunderbirds Are Go was completed by June , allowing A crew to resume work on the series to shoot what would prove to be its penultimate episode , " Ricochet " .
Production of Thunderbirds ended in August 1966 with the completion of the sixth episode of Series Two . In February that year , it had been reported that Grade had been unable to sell the series in the United States due to disagreements over timeslots . In July , he cancelled Thunderbirds after failing in his second attempt to secure an American buyer . The three major US networks of the time – NBC , CBS and ABC – had all bid for the series , with Grade repeatedly increasing the price . When NBC withdrew its offer , the other two immediately followed .
By the time of its cancellation , Thunderbirds had become widely popular in the UK and was being distributed extensively overseas . Grade , however , believed that without the financial boost of an American network sale , a full second series would fail to recover its production costs . He therefore asked Anderson to devise a new concept that he hoped would stand a greater chance of winning over the profitable US market . This became Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons .
= = = Casting and characters = = =
Voice @-@ recording sessions were supervised by Pattillo and the Andersons , with Sylvia Anderson in charge of casting . Dialogue was recorded once per month at a rate of two scripts per session . Supporting parts were not pre @-@ assigned , but negotiated by the cast among themselves . Two recordings would be made at each session : one to be converted into electronic pulses for the puppet filming , the other to be added to the soundtrack during post @-@ production . The tapes were edited at Gate Recording Theatre in Birmingham .
In the interest of transatlantic appeal , it was decided that the main characters would be mostly American and therefore actors capable of producing an appropriate accent were used . British , Canadian and Australian actors formed most of the voice cast ; the only American involved was stage actor David Holliday , who was noticed in London 's West End and given the part of Virgil Tracy . Following the completion of the first series , Holliday returned to the US . The character was voiced by English @-@ Canadian actor Jeremy Wilkin for Series Two .
British actor David Graham was among the first to be cast . He had previously voiced characters in Four Feather Falls , Supercar , Fireball XL5 and Stingray . Beyond the APF productions , he had supplied one of the original Dalek voices on Doctor Who . Cast alongside Graham was Australian actor Ray Barrett . Like Graham , he had worked for the Andersons before , having voiced Titan and Commander Shore in Stingray . A veteran of radio drama , Barrett was skilled at performing a range of voices and accents in quick succession . Villains of the week would typically be voiced by either Barrett or Graham . Aware of the sensitive political climate of the Cold War and not wishing to " perpetuate the idea that Russia was the enemy with a whole generation of children watching " , Gerry Anderson decided the Hood ( voiced by Barrett ) should be Oriental and placed his temple hideout in Malaysia to defy the viewer 's expectations .
Although Lady Penelope and Parker ( the latter voiced by Graham ) were among the first characters developed , neither was conceived as a major role . Parker 's Cockney manner was based on a waiter at a pub in Cookham that was sometimes visited by the crew . On Gerry Anderson 's recommendation , Graham dined there regularly to study the accent . Anderson 's first choice for the role of Penelope had been Fenella Fielding , but Sylvia insisted she take the part herself . Her Penelope voice was intended to emulate Fielding and Joan Greenwood . On Penelope and Parker 's secondary role as comic relief , Gerry explained , " We British can laugh at ourselves , so therefore we had Penelope and Parker as this comedy team . And in America they love the British aristocracy too . ' "
As well as Jeff Tracy , English @-@ Canadian actor Peter Dyneley voiced the recurring character of Commander Norman , chief of air traffic control at London International Airport . His supporting character voices were typically those of upper @-@ class Englishmen . Shane Rimmer , the voice of Scott , was cast on the strength of his performance on the BBC soap opera Compact . Meanwhile , fellow Canadian Matt Zimmerman was selected at a late stage in the process . The expatriate West End actor was given the role of Alan on the recommendation of his friend , Holliday : " They were having great difficulty casting the part of Alan as they wanted a certain sound for him , being the youngest brother . David , who [ was ] a bit older than I am , told them that he had this friend , me , who would be great . "
Christine Finn , known for her role in the TV serial Quatermass and the Pit , provided the voices of Tin @-@ Tin Kyrano and Grandma Tracy . With Sylvia Anderson , she was also responsible for voicing most of the female and child supporting characters . Other minor parts were voiced by Charles Tingwell , Paul Maxwell and John Tate ( the father of Nick Tate ) , who were not credited for their contributions .
= = = Design and effects = = =
The puppet stages used for the filming of Thunderbirds were only one @-@ fifth the size of those used for a standard live @-@ action production , typically measuring 12 by 14 by 3 metres ( 39 @.@ 4 by 45 @.@ 9 by 9 @.@ 8 ft ) in length , width and height . Bob Bell , assisted by Keith Wilson and Grenville Nott , headed the art department for Series One . During the simultaneous filming of Series Two and Thunderbirds Are Go in 1966 , Bell attended mainly to the film , entrusting set design for the TV series to Wilson .
Since it was necessary for the art department 's interior sets to conform to the effects department 's exterior plans , each team closely monitored the other 's work . According to Sylvia Anderson , Bell 's challenge was to produce complex interiors on a limited budget while resisting the effects department 's push for " more extravagant " design . This task was complicated by the unnatural proportions of the puppets : Bell struggled to decide whether the sets should be built to a scale proportionate to their bodies or their oversized heads and hands . He used the example of FAB 1 to illustrate the problem : " As soon as we positioned [ the puppets ] standing alongside [ the model ] , they looked ridiculous , as the car towered over them . " He ultimately adopted a " mix @-@ and @-@ match " approach , in which smaller items , such as tableware , were scaled to their hands and furniture to their bodies .
While designing the Creighton @-@ Ward Mansion sets , Bell and his staff strove for authenticity , ordering miniature Tudor paintings , 1 ⁄ 3 @-@ scale Georgian- and Regency @-@ style
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furniture and carpeting in the shape of a polar bear skin . This realism was enhanced by adding scrap items acquired from household waste and electronics shops . For example , a vacuum cleaner pipe serves as Virgil Tracy 's launch chute .
= = = = Puppets = = = =
The head puppet sculptor was Christine Glanville , who also served as the lead puppeteer . Glanville 's four @-@ person team built the 13 members of the main cast in six months at a cost of between £ 250 and £ 300 per puppet ( approximately £ 4 @,@ 569 and £ 5 @,@ 483 today ) . Since pairs of episodes were being filmed simultaneously on separate stages , the characters needed to be sculpted in duplicate . Facial expressions were diversified by means of replaceable heads : as well as a head with a neutral expression , each main character was given a " smiler " , a " frowner " and a " blinker " . The finished puppets were approximately 22 inches ( 56 cm ) tall , or 1 ⁄ 3 adult human height .
The puppets were made up of more than 30 individual components , the most important of which was the solenoid that synchronised lip movements with the characters ' pre @-@ recorded dialogue . This device was positioned inside the head unit ; consequently , torsos and limbs appeared relatively small . The puppets ' likenesses and mechanics are remembered favourably by puppeteer Wanda Brown , who preferred the Thunderbirds marionettes over the accurately @-@ proportioned ones that first appeared in Captain Scarlet : " The puppets were easier to operate and more enjoyable because they had more character to them ... Even some of the more normal @-@ looking faces , such as Scott and Jeff , for me had more character than the puppets in the series that came afterwards . " Rimmer speaks positively of the puppets ' still being " very much caricatures " , since it made them " more lovable and appealing ... There was a naive quality about them and nothing too complex . "
The appearances of the main characters were inspired by those of actors and other entertainers , who were typically selected from the show business directory Spotlight . According to Glanville , as part of a trend away from the strong caricature of previous series , APF was seeking " more natural faces " for the puppets . The face of Jeff Tracy was based on that of Lorne Greene , Scott on Sean Connery , Alan on Robert Reed , John on Adam Faith and Charlton Heston , Brains on Anthony Perkins and Parker on Ben Warriss . Sylvia Anderson brought the character of Penelope to life in likeness as well as voice : after her test moulds were rejected , sculptor Mary Turner decided to use Anderson herself as a template . Terry Curtis was also an original sculpture of Supermarionation puppets .
Main character heads were initially sculpted in either Plasticine or clay . Once the general aspect had been finalised , this served as the template for a silicone rubber mould . This was coated with Bondaglass ( fibreglass mixed with resin ) and enhanced with Bondapaste , a putty @-@ like substance , to accentuate contours . The Bondaglass shell was then fitted with a solenoid , leather mouth parts and plastic eyes , as well as incisor teeth – a first for a Supermarionation production . Puppets known as " revamps " , which had plastic heads , portrayed the supporting characters . These marionettes started their working lives with only a mouth and eyes ; their faces were remoulded from one episode to the next . Particularly striking revamp moulds were retained and , as their numbers increased , photographed to compile an internal casting directory .
Wigs were made of mohair or , in the case of the Penelope puppet , human hair . Puppet bodies were built in three sizes : " large male " ( specifically for the Tracys and the Hood ) , " small male " and " small female " . Sylvia Anderson , the head costume designer , devised the main characters ' attire . To give the puppets increased mobility , the costume department generally avoided stiff synthetic materials , instead working with cotton , silk and wool . Between 1964 and 1966 , the department 's stock numbered more than 700 costumes .
Each puppet 's head was fitted with about 10 thin tungsten steel wires . During the filming , dialogue was played into the studio using modified tape recorders that converted the feed into electronic pulses . Two of the wires relayed these pulses to the internal solenoid , completing the Supermarionation process . The wires , which were sprayed black to reduce their visibility , were made even less noticeable through the application of powder paint that matched the background colours of the set . Glanville explained the time @-@ consuming nature of this process : " [ The puppeteers ] used to spend over half an hour on each shot getting rid of these wires , looking through the camera , puffing a bit more [ paint ] here , anti @-@ flare there ; and , I mean , it 's very depressing when somebody will say to us , ' Of course the wires showed . ' " Positioned on an overhead gantry with a hand @-@ held cruciform , the puppeteers co @-@ ordinated movements with the help of a viewfinder @-@ powered CCTV feedback system . As filming progressed , the crew started to dispense with wires and instead manipulate the puppets from the studio floor using rods .
Due to their low weight and the fact that they had only one control wire per leg , the puppets were unable to walk convincingly . Therefore , scenes involving movement were filmed from the waist up , with a puppeteer holding the legs below the level of the camera and using a " bobbing " action to simulate motion . Alternatively , dynamic shots were eliminated altogether : in an interview with New Scientist , director of photography John Read spoke of the advantages of circumventing the lack of agility so that the puppets " appear , for example , to walk through doors ( although the control wires make this impossible ) or pick up a coffee cup ( although their fingers are not in fact jointed ) . " Live @-@ action shots of human hands were inserted whenever scripts called for more dexterous actions to be performed .
= = = = Special effects = = = =
The effects for all the APF series from Supercar to UFO were directed by Derek Meddings , who later worked on the James Bond and Superman films . Knowing that Thunderbirds would be the " biggest project [ APF ] had worked on " , Meddings found himself struggling to manage his workload with the single filming unit that had produced all the effects for Stingray . He therefore established a second unit under technician Brian Johncock , and a third exclusively for filming airborne sequences . This expansion increased the number of APF crews and stages to five each . A typical episode contained around 100 effects shots ; Meddings ' team completed up to 18 per day .
An addition to the effects department was Mike Trim , who served as Meddings ' assistant in designing vehicles and buildings . Meddings and Trim jointly pioneered an " organic " design technique in which the exteriors of models and sets were customised with parts from model kits and children 's toys . Models and sets were also " dirtied down " with powder paint or pencil lead to create a used look . Toy cars and vans were used in long shot , while scale vehicles were equipped with basic steering and suspension for added realism . Miniature fans and Jetex pellets , which are capable of issuing air jets or chemical exhaust , were attached to the undersides to simulate dust trails . Another of Meddings ' inventions was a closed , cyclical effects stage nicknamed the " rolling road " : consisting of two or more loops of canvas running at different speeds , this device allowed shots of moving vehicles to be filmed on a static set to make more efficient use of the limited studio space . Airborne aircraft sequences were mounted against a " rolling sky " , with smoke fanned across to simulate passing clouds .
One of Meddings ' first tasks was to shoot stock footage of the Thunderbird machines and the series ' main locations , Tracy Island and Creighton @-@ Ward Mansion . The finished island model was a composite of more than a dozen smaller sets that could be detached from the whole and filmed separately . The architecture of the mansion was based on that of Stourhead House , located on the Stourhead Estate in Wiltshire . In the absence of head designer Reg Hill , who was serving as associate producer , Meddings was further tasked with designing the Thunderbird fleet and FAB 1 . Scale models for the six main vehicles were built by a contractor , Master Models of Middlesex . Models and puppet sets combined , more than 200 versions of the Thunderbird machines were created for the series .
During the designing and filming process , Meddings ' first priorities were realism and credibility . With the exception of Thunderbird 5 , each vehicle was built in three or four scales . Meddings ' swing @-@ wing concept for Thunderbird 1 was inspired by his wish to create something " more dynamic " than a fixed @-@ wing aircraft . He remained unsatisfied with the prototype of Thunderbird 2 until he inverted the wings , later commenting , " ... at the time , all aircraft had swept @-@ back wings . I only did it to be different . " This decision was made out of personal preference and was not informed by any expert knowledge on Meddings ' part . He described the Thunderbird 2 launch as " probably the most memorable " sequence that his team devised for an APF production .
The largest model of Thunderbird 3 , whose design was based on the Soviet Soyuz rocket , was six feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) tall . Thunderbird 4 was particularly difficult to film : as the scale of the model did not correspond to the water inside the shooting tank , creative camera angles and rapid editing were used to produce a sense of realistic perspective . Thunderbird 5 , the most difficult vehicle for Meddings to visualise , was based on the Tracy Island Round House . Since most of the space station 's appearances were provided by stock footage , the model was rarely filmed . Pod Vehicles were designed on an episode @-@ by @-@ episode basis and built from balsa wood , Jelutong wood or fibreglass . To save time and costs , other minor vehicles were built in @-@ house from radio @-@ controlled model kits .
As the puppets of Lady Penelope and Parker needed to fit inside , the largest of all the models was the seven @-@ foot FAB 1 , which cost £ 2 @,@ 500 ( approximately £ 46 @,@ 000 today ) to build . The Rolls @-@ Royce 's name and colour were both chosen by Sylvia Anderson . Rolls @-@ Royce Ltd. supervised the construction of the plywood model and supplied APF with an authentic radiator grille for close @-@ up shots of the front of the car . In exchange for its cooperation , the company requested that a Spirit of Ecstasy be fixed to the chassis and that the characters avoid referring to the brand with abbreviations such as " Rolls " .
Scale explosions were created using substances such as fuller 's earth , petrol gel , magnesium strips and Cordtex explosive . Originally filmed at up to 120 frames per second ( f.p.s. ) , they were slowed down to 24 f.p.s. during post @-@ production to increase their apparent magnitude and length . Gunpowder canisters were ignited to create rocket jets . The wires that electronically fired the rockets also allowed a member of the crew , holding a cruciform and positioned on an overhead gantry , to " fly " the model over the set . By far the most unwieldy model was Thunderbird 2 , which Meddings remembered as being " awful " to fly . A combination of unreliable rockets and weak wiring frequently caused problems : should the former be slow to ignite , the current quickly caused the latter to overheat and snap , potentially damaging the model and even setting fire to the set . Conditions above the studio floor were often dangerous due to the heat and smoke . Although many of the exhaust sound effects used in the series were drawn from an audio library , some were specially recorded during a Red Arrows display at RAF Little Rissington in Gloucestershire .
By 1966 , Meddings ' commitments were split between Series Two and Thunderbirds Are Go . While Meddings worked on the film , camera operator Jimmy Elliott assumed the responsibility of directing the TV effects . By this stage , the basic frame of Thunderbird 2 had been damaged so many times that the model had needed to be rebuilt from scratch . Meddings was displeased with the result , reflecting that the replacement was " not only the wrong colour , it was a completely different shape ... I never felt our model @-@ makers managed to recapture the look of the original . "
Critic David Garland suggests that the challenge facing the Thunderbirds effects department was to strike a balance between the " conventional science @-@ fiction imperative of the ' futuristic ' " and the " seeping hyper @-@ realist concerns mandated by the Andersons ' approach to the puppets " . Thunderbirds has been praised for the quality of its effects . Jim Sangster and Paul Condon , writers of Collins Telly Guide , consider the model work " uniformly impressive " . To Paul Cornell , Martin Day and Keith Topping , writers of The Guinness Book of Classic British TV , the effects are " way beyond anything seen on TV previously " . Impressed by their work on Thunderbirds , film director Stanley Kubrick hired several members of Meddings ' staff to supervise the effects shooting for 2001 : A Space Odyssey .
= = = = Title sequence = = = =
The series ' title sequence , storyboarded by Gerry Anderson , is made up of two parts . It opens with a countdown of " 5 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 : Thunderbirds Are Go ! " , provided by Dyneley in character as Jeff Tracy . In a departure from the style of Stingray , the Thunderbirds title sequence varies with each episode : the first part consists of an action montage that serves as a preview of the plot . Simon Archer and Marcus Hearn , biographers of Gerry Anderson , compare this device favourably to a film trailer .
The second part , accompanied by composer Barry Gray 's " The Thunderbirds March " , features portraits of the main puppet cast superimposed on various vehicles and settings . Peel describes this as " ostensibly a return to the ' series stars ' concept long known in TV " , while Garland considers such imagery demonstrative of Anderson 's commitment to " incremental realism " through a convergence of human and puppet characteristics . Essayist Jonathan Bignell suggests that the use of portraits conveys Anderson 's partiality to " visual revelation of machines and physical action " .
According to Daniel O 'Brien , writer of SF : UK : How British Science Fiction Changed the World , the Thunderbirds title sequence encapsulates the reasons for the series ' enduring popularity . Dyneley 's countdown is particularly well remembered and has been widely quoted . Dean Newman of the Syfy channel website ranks Thunderbirds eighth in a list of " Top 10 TV title sequences " , while Den of Geek 's Martin Anderson considers the sequence the best of any TV series .
= = = Music = = =
The score was composed by Gray , who served as musical director for all of the Anderson productions up to the first series of Space : 1999 . In response to Gerry Anderson 's request that the main theme have a " military feel " , Gray produced a brass @-@ dominated piece titled " The Thunderbirds March " , which was recorded in December 1964 at Olympic Studios in London . The end titles were originally to have been accompanied by " Flying High " , a lyrical track sung by Gary Miller with backing by Ken Barrie . Ultimately , a variation of the march was used instead . Incidental music was recorded over nine months between March and December 1965 . As most of the music budget was spent on the series ' earlier episodes , later instalments drew heavily on APF 's ever @-@ expanding music library .
Peel considers " The Thunderbirds March " to be " one of the best TV themes ever written – perfect for the show and catchy when heard alone " . Morag Reavley of BBC Online argues that the piece is " up there ... in the quintessential soundtrack of the Sixties " with the James Bond films and the songs of Frank Sinatra , Elvis and The Beatles . More generally , he praises the series ' " catchy , pulse @-@ quickening tunes " , as well as Gray 's aptitude for " musical nuance " and the mixing of genres . Heather Phares of Allmusic considers " Thunderbirds Are Go ! " – the track accompanying the launch sequences of Thunderbirds 1 , 2 and 3 – to be a reflection of the mod aspect of 1960s British spy fiction . She also highlights Gray 's homage to – and divergence from – musical norms , commenting that his score " sends up the spy and action / adventure conventions of the ' 60s very stylishly and subtly " .
David Huckvale identifies Wagnerian homage in both the theme music and the series ' premise . Noting that the theme 's opening string ostinato is similar in effect to a recurring motif in Ride of the Valkyries , he also likens the Thunderbird machines to Valkyries themselves : " Their function is more benevolent than those warrior maidens , but they do hover over danger , death and destruction . " Kevin J. Donnelly of the University of Southampton acknowledges the series ' " big @-@ sounding orchestral score " , which he compares to that of a live @-@ action film . He also suggests that the music serves partly to draw attention away from the physical imperfections of the puppets .
To celebrate the shows anniversary , " Thunderbirds Are Go - 50 Years On " at Colston Hall , Bristol was celebrated as the theme music is brought to life , led by Charles Hazlewood and his All Star Collective .
= = Broadcast = =
Thunderbirds premiered on British television on 30 September 1965 on the ITV franchises ATV Midlands , Westward and Channel . Other broadcasters , including ATV London and Granada , started transmissions the following month . The Christmas @-@ themed series finale , " Give or Take a Million " , was first broadcast on 25 December 1966 . Despite Grade 's decision to extend the running time , Midlands and Granada broadcast each episode in two parts . In these areas , both 25 @-@ minute instalments aired on the same day , separated by the ITN Evening News . The conclusion opened with a narration by Shane Rimmer summarising the first part 's action .
Granada transmitted Thunderbirds in its original , 50 @-@ minute format for the first time with the start of repeats in 1966 . In 1968 , the franchise briefly aired episodes in three parts due to timeslot restrictions . The availability of repeats during the 1960s and 1970s varied among regions . ATV Midlands screened the series regularly into the early 1970s ; by contrast , Thunderbirds was entirely absent from Yorkshire Television between 1968 and 1976 . The series was last transmitted on the ITV franchises in 1981 .
In 1990 , 8 of the 19 audio episodes released by APF Records were converted into radio dramas , which were transmitted on BBC Radio 5 . The success of the radio series encouraged the BBC to acquire the rights to the TV episodes , which it broadcast simultaneously in all regions from September 1991 on BBC 2 .
Since the end of the first network run , which achieved average viewing figures of more than six million , the BBC has repeated the series six times : between 1992 and 1993 ( Series One only ) , 1994 and 1995 ( nine episodes only ) , and 2000 and 2001 ( in remastered form ) , as well as in 2003 , 2005 and 2006 . Other channels that have shown repeats include UK Gold ( 1994 – 95 ) , Bravo ( 1996 – 97 ) , Cartoon Network ( 2001 – 02 ) , Boomerang ( 2001 – 03 ) and Syfy ( 2009 ) . In Scotland , the BBC screened a Gaelic dub , Tairnearan Tar As ( " Thunderbirds Are Go " ) in the early 1990s .
Before its UK debut , Thunderbirds was distributed to 30 other countries including the US , Canada , Australia and Japan . Pre @-@ sales revenue totalled £ 350 @,@ 000 ( approximately £ 6 million today ) . In the year following the series ' first appearance , the number of countries increased to 66 . In Japan , where it was first broadcast by NHK , Thunderbirds attracted a sizeable fan following and influenced series such as Ultraman , Mighty Jack , Himitsu Sentai Gorenger and Super Rescue Solbrain . In the US , the two @-@ part format entered first @-@ run syndication , to modest success , in 1968 . Other overseas broadcasters have included TechTV and Family Room HD ( US ) , BBC Kids and YTV ( Canada ) , Nine Network and Foxtel ( Australia ) , TV3 ( New Zealand ) , MediaCorp TV12 Kids Central ( Singapore ) and RTÉ Two ( Republic of Ireland ) .
= = Reception = =
Thunderbirds is generally considered the Andersons ' most popular series and their greatest critical and commercial success . In 1966 , the show received a Royal Television Society Silver Medal for Outstanding Artistic Achievement and Gerry Anderson received an honorary fellowship of the British Kinematograph , Sound and Television Society . In 2007 , Thunderbirds achieved 19th place in a Radio Times magazine reader poll to determine the best science @-@ fiction TV programme of all time . It is ranked fourth by the 2013 Channel 5 list show 50 Greatest Kids ' TV Shows .
For Peel , Thunderbirds is " without a doubt the peak of the Supermarionation achievement " . Suggesting that the series is pitched at a " more adult " level than its predecessors , he adds that its sense of adventure , effective humour and " gripping and convincing " episodes ensured that " everyone in the audience found something to love about it . " Simon Heffer , a fan of Thunderbirds in childhood , commented positively on the series for The Daily Telegraph in 2011 : " All the elements we children discerned in whatever grown @-@ up television we had been allowed to watch were present in Thunderbirds : dramatic theme and incidental music ; well @-@ developed plots ; goodies and baddies ; swaggering Americans , at a time when the whole of Britain was in a cultural cringe to them ; and , of course , glamorous locations ... Then , of course , there was the nail @-@ biting tension of the rescues themselves ... " Film critic Kim Newman describes the series as a " television perennial " .
In his foreword to John Marriott 's book , Thunderbirds Are Go ! , Anderson put forward several explanations for the series ' enduring popularity : it " contains elements that appeal to most children – danger , jeopardy and destruction . But because International Rescue 's mission is to save life , there is no gratuitous violence . " According to Anderson , Thunderbirds incorporates a " strong family atmosphere , where Dad reigns supreme " . Both O 'Brien and script editor Alan Pattillo have praised the series ' positive " family values " . In addition , Heffer and others have written of its cross @-@ generational appeal . In 2000 , shortly before the series ' BBC revival , Brian Viner remarked in Radio Times that Thunderbirds was on the point of " captivating yet another generation of viewers " . Stuart Hood , writing for The Spectator in 1965 , praised Thunderbirds as a " modern fairy tale " ; adding that it " can sometimes be frightening " , he recommended that children watch it accompanied by their parents . Writing for Dreamwatch in 1994 , Andrew Thomas described Thunderbirds as only " nominally " a children 's programme : " Its themes are universal and speak as much to the adult in the child as the child in the adult . "
Jeff Evans , author of The Penguin TV Companion , argues that the series ' 50 @-@ minute format allows for stronger character development and " tension @-@ building " . O 'Brien is less positive in his appraisal of the writing , asserting that the plots are often " formulaic " and are sometimes " stretched to snapping point " by the extended running time . Cornell , Day and Topping are critical : they consider the writing at times " woefully poor " and argue that Thunderbirds as a whole is " often as clichéd as previous Anderson series " . Peel , despite praising the storylines and characterisation , suggests that the " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " humour of Stingray is less evident . Where Thunderbirds improves on its predecessor , Peel believes , is in its rejection of fantasy plot devices , child and animal characters , comical and stereotyped villains and what he terms the " standard Anderson sexism " : female characters , marginalised in earlier series , are more commonly seen to play active and sometimes heroic roles .
Noting the attention to detail of the series ' launch sequences , Jonathan Bignell argues that part of the motivation for dedicating large amounts of screen time to the Thunderbird craft is the need to compensate for the limited mobility of the puppet cast . The focus on futuristic machines has also been explored by cultural historian Nicholas J. Cull , who comments that of all the Andersons ' series , Thunderbirds is the most evocative of a recurring theme : the " necessity of the human component of the machine " , whereby the failures of new technology are overcome by " brave human beings and technology working together " . This makes the series ' vision of the 2060s " wonderfully humanistic and reassuring " . O 'Brien similarly praises this optimism , comparing the Tracy family to guardian Übermensch . Writing for Wired UK magazine , Warren Ellis asserts that the series ' scientific vision could inspire the next generation of " mad and frightening engineers " , adding that Thunderbirds " trades in vast , demented concepts ... immense and very beautiful ideas as solutions to problems . "
Thomas argues that the world of Thunderbirds is similar to the 1960s to the extent that contemporary capitalism and class structures appear to have survived mostly intact . He also observes , however , that wealth and high social status are often depicted as character flaws rather than strengths . According to Thomas , a contributing factor to the series ' lasting popularity is the realism of IR 's machines . Newman , for his part , suggests that " the point isn 't realism . The 21st century of Thunderbirds is detailed ... but also de @-@ populated , a high @-@ tech toyland " . He is more negative in his comparisons of contemporary and future values , noting the " square , almost 50s " attitudes to race , gender and class . With regard to stereotyping , Hood comments that he " would be happier if [ villains ] didn 't seem to be recognisable by their pigmentation " . Cull , by contrast , considers the series largely progressive on the subject of race , arguing that it rejects negative stereotyping through the use of " positive non @-@ white characters " such as Kyrano and Tin @-@ Tin . However , he deems many of the one @-@ off villains derivative , commenting that these characters are typically presented as " corrupt businessmen , spivs and gangsters familiar from crime films " .
Various commentators – including Bignell , Cull and O 'Brien – have also discussed Thunderbirds as a product of the Cold War era . Bignell comments that the Hood 's Oriental appearance and mysterious powers draw parallels with James Bond villains and fears of China operating as " a ' third force ' antagonistic to the West " . Cull observes that , despite the series ' focus on the dangers of nuclear technology , the Thunderbird machines contradict this particular theme : in their case , " an image of technology associated with the threat of Cold War mass destruction – the rocket emerging from the hidden silo – was appropriated and deployed to save life rather than to take it . " He argues that the series adheres more closely to cultural norms by drawing on the " Cold War cult of the secret agent whose skills defend the home from enemies unknown " , noting Lady Penelope 's role as a spy in addition to two episodes ( " 30 Minutes After Noon " and " The Man from MI.5 " ) that are heavily influenced by the James Bond novels and film adaptations .
The presentation of smoking in Thunderbirds was the subject of a study published in the medical journal Tobacco Control in 2002 . Despite identifying examples in 26 episodes , Kate Hunt of the University of Glasgow concluded that Thunderbirds does not actively promote smoking – a view opposed by the Roy Castle Lung Cancer Foundation ( RCLCF ) at the time of the series ' relaunch on BBC 2 . Rejecting the RCLCF 's proposal that the remastered episodes be edited to digitally erase all visible cigarettes and cigars , the BBC stated that the series " does not glorify or encourage smoking " and described the activity as " incidental to the plot " .
= = Merchandise = =
More than 3 @,@ 000 Thunderbirds @-@ themed products have been marketed since the series ' debut . To accommodate the high demand for tie @-@ ins , APF established three dedicated subsidiaries : AP Films Merchandising , AP Films Music and AP Films Toys . Some British commentators dubbed the 1966 end @-@ of @-@ year shopping season " Thunderbirds Christmas " due to the series ' popularity . In the early 1990s , Matchbox launched a new toy range to coincide with the BBC 2 repeats . Sales figures for Christmas 1992 exceeded those achieved by the Star Wars merchandising campaigns of the 1970s and 1980s . Demand for Matchbox 's Tracy Island Playset overwhelmed supply , resulting in shop fights and a substantial black market for the toy .
A comic strip featuring the characters of Lady Penelope and Parker debuted in the early issues of APF Publishing 's children 's title TV Century 21 in 1965 . A full @-@ length Thunderbirds strip appeared a year later , at which point the Lady Penelope adventures were given their own comic . Thunderbirds , Lady Penelope and Captain Scarlet and Thunderbirds annuals were published in the late 1960s ; during the same period , eight original novels were written . In 2008 , FTL Publications of Minnesota launched a new series of tie @-@ in novels .
Between 1965 and 1967 , APF Records released 19 audio episodes in the form of vinyl EPs . Three are original stories ; the rest are adapted from TV episode soundtracks , with additional narration provided by a member of the voice cast . The series ' first video game tie @-@ in , developed for the Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum computers , was released by Firebird Software in 1985 . Other titles have since been released for the Game Boy Color , Game Boy Advance and PlayStation 2 . During the late 1980s , the series was issued on home video for the first time by PolyGram and its subsidiary Channel 5 . Following its acquisition by Carlton International Media in 1999 , Thunderbirds was digitally remastered for the release of the first DVD versions in 2000 . Blu @-@ ray Disc editions followed in 2008 .
= = Later productions = =
Thunderbirds has been followed by two film sequels , a live @-@ action film adaptation , two animated TV remakes and several re @-@ edited presentations for TV broadcast and home video . The second of the remakes , Thunderbirds Are Go , premiered on ITV in 2015 , the 50th anniversary year of the original .
= = = Film = = =
The feature @-@ length film sequels Thunderbirds Are Go and Thunderbird 6 were released in 1966 and 1968 . The first was greenlit by Lew Grade before the TV series had started its broadcast run . Written and produced by the Andersons and directed by David Lane , both films were distributed by United Artists . Neither was a critical or commercial success , and Century 21 Cinema 's plans for further sequels were abandoned .
In the early 1980s , episodes of Thunderbirds and other Supermarionation series were re @-@ edited by ITC 's New York offices to create a series of compilation films . Branded " Super Space Theater " , this format was mostly intended for family viewing on American cable and syndicated TV . Three Thunderbirds features were produced : Thunderbirds to the Rescue , Thunderbirds In Outer Space and Countdown to Disaster .
Plans for a live @-@ action film adaptation were first announced in 1993 . These eventually culminated in the 2004 film Thunderbirds , directed by Jonathan Frakes and produced by StudioCanal and Working Title Films . It was a critical and commercial failure and was poorly received by fans of the TV series .
= = = TV = = =
The Andersons sold their intellectual and profit participation rights to Thunderbirds and their other productions in the 1970s . As a result , they had no developmental control over subsequent adaptations of their works . Thunderbirds was first remade for TV in the early 1980s as Thunderbirds 2086 . In this anime re @-@ imagining , set 20 years after the original , the vastly expanded IR is based within an arcology and operates 17 Thunderbird machines . It was inspired by Thunderhawks , an updated story concept by Gerry Anderson and Reg Hill that later served as the basis for Anderson 's Supermacromation series Terrahawks .
Two re @-@ edited series , based on condensed versions of 13 of the original episodes , aired in the US in 1994 . The first , Thunderbirds USA , was broadcast as part of the Fox Kids programming block ; the second , Turbocharged Thunderbirds , was syndicated by UPN . Developed as a comedy , Turbocharged Thunderbirds moved the action to the planet " Thunder @-@ World " and combined the original puppet footage with new live @-@ action scenes featuring a pair of human teenagers .
As well as Thunderhawks , Anderson developed other ideas for a remake . A 1976 concept , Inter @-@ Galactic Rescue 4 , was to have featured a variable @-@ configuration craft capable of performing rescues on land and sea , in air and in space ; Anderson pitched the idea to NBC , who rejected it . This was followed in 1984 by another proposed updating , T @-@ Force , which at first could not be pursued owing to a lack of funding . Development resumed in 1993 , when it was decided to produce the series , now titled GFI , using cel animation . But Anderson was disappointed with the results and the production was abandoned .
In 2005 , Anderson re @-@ affirmed his wish to remake Thunderbirds but stated that he had been unable to secure the necessary rights from Granada Ventures . His negotiations with the company and its successor , ITV plc , continued for the next few years . In 2008 , he expressed his commitment to creating an " updated " version , ideally using CGI ; three years later , he announced that work on the series had commenced . Following Anderson 's death in December 2012 , it was confirmed that a deal had been struck between ITV Studios and Pukeko Pictures to remake Thunderbirds using a combination of CGI and live @-@ action model sets . The new version , Thunderbirds Are Go , has been commissioned for two series of 26 episodes each . The first 13 episodes of Series One were broadcast on ITV HD and CITV between April and June 2015 .
In July 2015 , to celebrate the series ' 50th anniversary , Filmed in Supermarionation documentary director Stephen La Rivière launched a Kickstarter campaign to raise the funds necessary to produce three new puppet episodes based on the Thunderbirds mini @-@ albums of the 1960s . The project , titled " Thunderbirds 1965 " , is supported by ITV , Sylvia Anderson and the estate of Gerry Anderson .
= = Influence = =
Thunderbirds has influenced TV programmes , films and various other media . The puppet comedy of the film Team America : World Police was directly inspired by the idiosyncrasies of Thunderbirds @-@ era Supermarionation techniques . Allusion and homage are also evident in Wallace and Gromit : A Close Shave , Austin Powers : The Spy Who Shagged Me and Spaced , as well as the character design of Star Wars : The Clone Wars . The BBC sketch comedy Not Only ... But Also included a segment titled " Superthunderstingcar " – a parody of Thunderbirds , Supercar and Stingray .
IR 's life @-@ saving mission inspired the founding of the volunteer International Rescue Corps , originally made up of a group of British firemen who contributed to the humanitarian effort following the 1980 Irpinia earthquake . Virgin Group has used the series in branding its services : Virgin Atlantic operates a Boeing 747 @-@ 400 airliner named Lady Penelope , while Virgin Trains owns a fleet of locomotives that are all named after main characters and vehicles and used specifically to " rescue " broken @-@ down trains .
A mimed stage show , Thunderbirds : F.A.B. , has toured internationally and popularised a staccato style of movement known colloquially as the " Thunderbirds walk " . The production has periodically been revived as Thunderbirds : F.A.B. – The Next Generation .
Cover versions of " The Thunderbirds March " have been released by musicians and bands such as Billy Cotton , Joe Loss , Frank Sidebottom , The Rezillos and The Shadows . Groups who have written songs inspired by the series include Fuzzbox ( with " International Rescue " ) , TISM ( with " Thunderbirds Are Coming Out " ) , Busted ( with " Thunderbirds / 3AM " ) and V6 ( with " Thunderbirds – Your Voice " ) . In 1991 , Anderson filmed the music video for the Dire Straits single " Calling Elvis " with a collection of Thunderbirds @-@ style puppets .
During the 1960s , APF produced themed TV advertisements for Lyons Maid and Kellogg 's . Aspects of Thunderbirds have since been used in advertising for Swinton Insurance , Nestlé Kit Kat , Specsavers and the UK Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency .
= T. Arthur Cottam =
T. Arthur Cottam is a screenwriter , actor , producer and film director . A graduate of the Film and Television Production program at the Tisch School of the Arts of New York University , Cottam resides in Los Angeles , California . He acted in theatre , and received an Artistic Director Achievement Award from the Valley Theatre League for his role in the theatre production Othello as a cast member of Zombie Joe 's Underground Theatre Group . Cottam directed short films along a topical series called " Dirty Little Shorts " .
His existential work Pornographic Apathetic deals with four people recounting pornographic film dialog in a state of apathy . Pornographic Apathetic was featured in numerous movie festivals , and received eight film awards as well as critical acclaim . Cottam 's film Carbuncle was featured in 2006 at the Milano Film Festival in Italy , and was recognized with a nomination in the category of " Best Feature Film " . His 2006 film Filthy Food received the award for " Best Experimental Short Film " at the festival CineKink NYC . Cottam 's film 52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was an entrant in the 2010 International Short Film Festival in Piombino , Italy , and was featured in AFI FEST in the same year .
= = Education = =
Cottam graduated from the Film and Television Production program at the Tisch School of the Arts of New York University . Cottam 's thesis work at NYU was titled Beer Goggles , the film received the Best Editing award at the First Run Film Festival and was featured at the Chicago and New York Underground Film Festivals . He received a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree from NYU in 1998 .
= = Career = =
T. Arthur Cottam is an actor , and film @-@ maker , based in Los Angeles , California . Cottam was a member of Zombie Joe 's Underground Theatre Group , and performed along with actors Denise Devin and Bernadette Larsen in 2000 in a series of productions titled " Sketches 7 : Bury the Hatchet " , directed by Zombie Joe and Josh T. Ryan . He continued performing in theatre in Los Angeles in 2001 . In 2002 , Cottam received an Artistic Director Achievement Award from the Valley Theatre League for his role in the theatre production Othello put on by the Zombie Joe group . Cottam 's short films were produced along a topical series titled , " Dirty Little Shorts " . His film Pornographic Apathetic debuted in 2002 . The existential plot features four individuals ( two women and two men ) who recreate dialog from pornographic film while in a state of apathy . Pornographic Apathetic garnered eight film awards , and was featured at more than 50 film festivals .
Pornographic Apathetic received positive reception from journalist Gary Dowell of The Dallas Morning News , who described it as " Especially notable ... an experimental work that strips the mystique from porn " . Pornographic Apathetic was selected for inclusion in the Puchon International Fantastic Festival ( PiFan ) in South Korea ; the festival " aims to identify the important elements of fantastic films , such as creativity and popularity " . The movie was shown at the Paris Porn Film Fest at the Le Brady cinema , in Paris , France . The film was featured in an exhibit in Vienna , examining the nature of pornography . Writing for San Antonio Express @-@ News , Mike Greenberg observed , " T. Arthur Cottam 's Pornographic Apathetic is just about the funniest thing I 've ever seen . ( The excellent actors are mostly clothed , never touch each other and are nearly motionless , but the dialogue is not suitable for children or bluenoses . ) " The film was given a favorable review by reporter Robert W. Butler of The Kansas City Star who covered the piece during its presentation at the Kansas City Filmmakers Jubilee . Butler wrote , " Your ears will burn while watching T. Arthur Cottam 's superlative satiric essay on the desensitizing effects of pornography , but you 'll also be laughing . ... It 's lurid . It 's raunchy . It 's vile . But all this nasty lubricity is delivered deadpan , a device that deconstructs the whole intention of porn . " Marc Mohan reviewed the film during its feature at the Portland International Short Short Film Festival , and wrote that it " makes the most of its one @-@ joke premise " . In 2007 , The Orlando Sentinel characterized Cottam as a favorite film @-@ maker at the Florida Film Festival . Los Angeles Times journalist Borzou Daragahi cited the film as an example of problems with the adult film industry in an article about a sexual art exhibit ; he commented , " The piece makes you laugh while illustrating one of the paradoxes of smut : At its core , it 's rather idiotic and boring . "
In 2006 , Cottam 's film Carbuncle competed at the Milano Film Festival , alongside another U.S. film titled The Blood of my Brother by Andrei Berends . Carbuncle received a nomination in the category of " Best Feature Film " at the Milan Film Festival . Cottam 's 2006 film Filthy Food was featured in the San Francisco Underground Short Film Festival , and received the award for " Best Experimental Short Film " at the festival CineKink NYC . In 2010 , Cottam 's film 52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was an entrant in the International Short Film Festival in Piombino , Italy . It was featured in a section of the International Short Film Festival which included selections of films that were considered " visionary " and contributed a " visual impact " to cinema . 52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was featured in AFI FEST 2010 , where Lane Kneedler associate director of programming called it " the most outrageously ' out there ' film that we have scheduled " . In an interview with Girami , Cottam stated he had intended to direct a feature @-@ length film for some time , and wanted to combine his talents with actors who could improvise in front of the camera . Cottam said he had a great experience working with the actors on the film Carbuncle , and stated he let improvisation be the tool by which the actors could show emotions and create their characters . In September 2010 , 52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was shown at the Black Rock City Film Festival located at the Burning Man site in the Nevada desert .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Theatre = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Partington =
Partington is a town and civil parish within the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford in Greater Manchester , England , about ten miles ( 16 km ) to the south @-@ west of Manchester city centre . Historically part of Cheshire , it lies on the southern bank of the Manchester Ship Canal , opposite Cadishead on the northern bank . It has a population of 7 @,@ 327 .
A paper mill built in Partington more than 250 years ago was the first factory in Trafford . The completion of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1894 transformed Partington into a major coal @-@ exporting port and attracted a range of other industries . Until 2007 Shell Chemicals UK operated a major petrochemicals manufacturing complex in Carrington , Partington 's closest neighbour , to the east . The gas storage facility in the north @-@ eastern corner of the town was once a gasworks and another significant employer .
Shortly after the Second World War , local authorities made an effort to rehouse people away from Victorian slums in inner @-@ city Manchester . An area of Partington extended as an overspill estate is now one of the most deprived parts of the Greater Manchester conurbation . The Cheshire Lines Committee opened a railway line through the town in 1873 , but it closed in 1964 .
Partington and Carrington Youth Partnership was established to provide the town 's youth with activities and the town has seen investment in a new youth centre . Broadoak School , the only secondary school in the town , is used by Trafford College to provide further education .
= = History = =
Partington , first recorded in 1260 , was in the medieval and post @-@ medieval parish of Bowdon . The name derives from Old English : the first element may be a personal name such as Pearta or Pærta , or part " land divided up into partitions " followed by inga , meaning " people of " ; the suffix tun means " farmstead " . The village consisted of dispersed farmsteads , with no nucleated centre . It was surrounded by wetlands on all sides , reducing the amount of land available for agriculture . According to the hearth tax returns of 1664 , Partington had a population of 99 .
In 1755 a paper mill on the River Mersey was opened in Partington , the first factory to be established in present @-@ day Trafford . Erlam Farmhouse dates from the late 18th century and is a Grade II listed building . Also protected as a Grade II listed building are the stocks on the village green . Its stone pillars are from the 18th century , although the wooden restraints were replaced in the 20th century .
The completion of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1894 transformed Partington into a major coal @-@ exporting port . The canal was widened to 250 feet ( 76 m ) for three @-@ quarters of a mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) to allow for the construction of a coaling basin , equipped with four hydraulic coal hoists . Partington was the nearest port to the Lancashire Coalfields , and brought the south Yorkshire collieries 30 miles ( 48 km ) closer to the sea . Between 1898 – 1911 , exports of coal accounted for 53 @.@ 4 per cent of the total export tonnage carried by the ship canal . The coal trade in turn resulted in Partington becoming a major railway depot , and attracted a range of other industries , including the Partington Steel & Iron Company , which was encouraged by the availability of coal to construct a steelworks . The works became a part of the Lancashire Steel Corporation in 1930 , and dominated the economy of nearby Irlam until their closure in 1976 . After the Second World War , Partington was extended as an overspill estate .
= = Governance = =
The civil parish of Partington was created in 1894 , under the Local Government Act 1894 and has its own town council . Partington became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford in 1974 upon the borough 's creation , but was previously in Bucklow Rural District . The town is part of the Bucklow St Martin electoral ward ; Partington Parish Council is made up of local residents and ward councillors .
Partington also belongs to the Stretford and Urmston constituency and is part of the North West England constituency of the European Parliament . Since its creation in 1997 the constituency 's Member of Parliament has been a member of the Labour Party , Kate Green being the present incumbent .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 25 ′ 12 ″ N 2 ° 25 ′ 48 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 42 , − 2 @.@ 43 ) , Partington lies west of Sale , north @-@ east of the civil parish of Warburton , and is on Trafford 's northern border with the City of Salford . It is nine miles ( 14 km ) south @-@ west of Manchester city centre . Sinderland Brook runs east – west through the area , and the town is about 20 m ( 66 ft ) above sea level on generally flat ground .
Partington 's local drift geology is a mixture of alluvial deposits , fluvio @-@ glacial gravel , and peat deposited about 10 @,@ 000 years ago , during the last ice age . The bedrock is Keuper sandstone in the south and Bunter sandstone in the north . The town 's climate is generally temperate , like the rest of Greater Manchester . The mean highest and lowest temperatures ( 13 @.@ 2 ° C ( 55 @.@ 8 ° F ) and 6 @.@ 4 ° C ( 43 @.@ 5 ° F ) ) are slightly above the national average , while the annual rainfall ( 806 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 31 @.@ 76 in ) ) and average hours of sunshine ( 1394 @.@ 5 hours ) are respectively above and below the national averages .
= = Demography = =
According to the Office for National Statistics , at the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001 , Partington had a population of 7 @,@ 723 . The 2001 population density was 5 @,@ 348 inhabitants per square mile ( 2 @,@ 065 / km2 ) , with a 100 to 93 @.@ 1 female @-@ to @-@ male ratio . Of those over 16 years old , 34 @.@ 7 % were single ( never married ) , 34 @.@ 9 % married , and 10 @.@ 5 % divorced . Partington 's 3 @,@ 354 households included 33 @.@ 5 % one @-@ person , 28 @.@ 7 % married couples living together , 8 @.@ 8 % were co @-@ habiting couples , and 16 @.@ 3 % single parents with their children . Of those aged 16 – 74 , 38 @.@ 9 % had no academic qualifications , significantly higher than the averages of Trafford ( 24 @.@ 7 % ) and England ( 28 @.@ 9 % ) . It has been described as one of the most deprived places in the Greater Manchester conurbation .
As of the 2001 UK census , 76 @.@ 8 % of Partington 's residents reported themselves as being Christian , 0 @.@ 8 % Muslim , 0 @.@ 2 % Hindu , 0 @.@ 2 % Jewish , and 0 @.@ 1 % Sikh . The census recorded 14 @.@ 7 % as having no religion , 0 @.@ 1 % had an alternative religion and 7 @.@ 1 % did not state their religion .
= = Economy = =
The main shopping area of Partington is on Central Road , in the centre of town . Partington also has a traditional market on Smithy Lane .
Spanish company , SAICA , bought a lease on a disused wharfside site by the Manchester Ship Canal in 2009 to recycle paper into packaging . The plant is the most " advanced , fully integrated facility in the UK " . It uses water recycled from the ship canal and its heat and power plant supplies surplus power to the national grid . The plant cost £ 300 million and production started in January 2012 .
According to the 2001 UK census , the industry of employment of residents aged 16 – 74 was 19 @.@ 3 % retail and wholesale , 15 @.@ 0 % manufacturing , 14 @.@ 7 % property and business services , 10 @.@ 8 % health and social work , 9 @.@ 1 % transport and communications , 7 @.@ 2 % construction , 5 @.@ 2 % education , 4 @.@ 8 % hotels and restaurants , 3 @.@ 8 % finance , 3 @.@ 1 % public administration , 1 @.@ 3 % agriculture , 0 @.@ 7 % energy and water supply , 0 @.@ 1 % mining , and 4 @.@ 9 % other . Compared with national figures , Partington had a relatively high percentage of residents working in transport and communications , and a relatively low percentage working in public administration . The census recorded the economic activity of residents aged 16 – 74 , 1 @.@ 8 % students were with jobs , 3 @.@ 4 % students without jobs , 7 @.@ 7 % looking after home or family , 10 @.@ 6 % permanently sick or disabled , and 3 @.@ 8 % economically inactive for other reasons . The proportion of those who were permanently sick or disabled in Partington was above the Trafford and England average ( 5 @.@ 4 % and 6 @.@ 5 % respectively ) .
= = Education = =
Trafford maintains a selective education system assessed by the Eleven Plus exam . There are three primary schools and one secondary school in Partington . The oldest school still standing in the town was opened in 1958 and used to be called Partington County Primary School . There is one other state primary schools at Forest Gate with Academy status . There is also a Roman Catholic school – Our Lady of Lourdes Primary School on Lock Lane . Broadoak School is a secondary school with academy status for pupils aged 11 to 16 .
= = Transport = =
Partington 's main road is the A6144 between Lymm and the Brooklands area of Sale . The Manchester Ship Canal also carries some industrial traffic . The nearest road crossing over the canal is at Warburton Bridge , one of the few remaining pre @-@ motorway toll bridges in the UK , and the only one in Greater Manchester . The Department for Transport describes Partington as " geographically isolated with road access restricted by the proximity of the Manchester Ship Canal and the nearby petrochemical works [ in Carrington ] " and notes that there are low levels of car ownership . The 255 operates every 30 minutes during the day , and hourly after 1955 into Manchester Piccadilly 7 days a week
The town was served by a railway station to the north of the town , the Cheshire Lines Committee Glazebrook to Stockport Tiviot Dale Line . The station was opened in 1873 , eight years after the line opened , and was in use until 30 November 1964 . A grant of £ 312 @,@ 000 was made by the government to set up Partington Cooperative Transport ( PACT ) with the purpose of improving public transport in the town .
= = Amenities = =
Founded in 2003 as part of a government project for 11- to 19 @-@ year @-@ olds , Partington and Carrington Youth Partnership ( PCYP ) has since expanded its scope and provides facilities for youths up to the age of 25 . It runs a 5 @-@ a @-@ side football league and Screamin ' Wheels Skate Park . In 2009 it was announced that a £ 5 million youth centre would be built in the town . Based on designs by pupils from Broadoak Secondary School , the centre will provide facilities for workshops in dance , film @-@ making , and art . Headmaster of the school , Andy Griffin , said " It 's a massive thing for Partington as this will help kick @-@ start regeneration of the town . I think it will also help bring people to Partington rather than leaving " .
Providing opportunities for sport , a £ 2 million sports complex was opened next to Broadoak Secondary School in 2008 . It features a pool , a sports hall , outdoor pitches and grass courts , and facilities for other activities . The town is served by an Anglican church , St Mary 's , a Roman Catholic church dedicated to Our Lady of Lourdes , a Methodist chapel , and a Baptist church called the People 's Church . St Mary 's Church is a Grade II listed building , and Our Lady of Lourdes ' RC Church and parish was founded in 1957 . Partington is in the Catholic Dioceses of Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury and the Anglican Diocese of Chester .
= Key ( basketball ) =
The key , officially referred to as the free throw lane by the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) and the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) , the restricted area by the international governing body FIBA , and colloquially as the lane or the paint , is an area on a basketball court underneath the basket bounded by the endline , the foul line and other lines which are known as freebody lines , that are usually painted ( although unpainted on some courts with painted perimeters ) . It is a critical area on the court where much of the action takes place in a game .
The key , in all games , starting with FIBA 's amendments to its rules in 2010 ( to be first implemented after the 2010 FIBA World Championship ) , is rectangular . Prior to 2006 , the key in FIBA @-@ sanctioned tournaments ( mostly basketball played outside the United States , and almost all international tournaments including the World Championships and the Olympics ) was trapezoidal in shape . Both NBA and FIBA keys are 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) wide , while NCAA keys are narrower at 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) .
The most @-@ commonly enforced rule on the key is the " three seconds rule " in which a player from the offensive team is prohibited from staying on the key for more than three seconds , or else the player 's team will lose possession of the ball . Another rule enforced is the lane violation in which players from both teams are prohibited to enter the lane until after the free throw shooter releases the ball from his hands ( the shooter is prohibited to enter the key until after the ball hits the rim ) . An innovation is the introduction of the restricted area arc directly underneath the basket where the defending player cannot force an offensive foul on the opposing player .
= = Dimensions = =
Each level of play has different specifications for the size and shape of the key : in American leagues , where the basketball court is measured in imperial units , the shape is rectangular , while in FIBA @-@ sanctioned events , which use the metric system , the shape was trapezoidal , before being changed to a rectangle as well . In addition to the bounding rectangle , the key includes a free @-@ throw circle at its " head " or " top " .
The width of the key in the NBA is 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) , including the 2 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) wide foul lanes ; in U.S. college ( NCAA ) and high @-@ school play , it is 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) .
Beginning after the 2010 FIBA World Championship , all FIBA @-@ administered tournaments use a rectangular key 4 @.@ 9 meters ( 16 ft ) wide . From 1956 until 2010 , FIBA @-@ sanctioned tournaments used a trapezoidal key . The narrower end was on the free @-@ throw line , where it was 3 @.@ 6 meters ( 12 ft ) , while the wider end , at the end line , measured 6 meters ( 20 ft ) .
The free throw circle has a six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) radius and is centered at the midpoint of the free throw line ; the half of those circle on the mid @-@ court side of the free throw line is painted in solid lines . In the NBA and ULEB , the boundaries of the half closer to the basket is traced in a broken line in order to space players properly for jump balls . NBA Rule 1 ( g ) requires the key to contain two 6 inches ( 15 cm ) long hash marks , 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) from the free throw line ; the marks indicate the so @-@ called lower defensive box . The free @-@ throw line is 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) from the perpendicular projection of the face of the backboard onto the court ; this projection is 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) from the end @-@ line for NBA and NCAA . The projection of the center of the basket onto the court is a perpendicular distance of 1 @.@ 575 meters ( 5 @.@ 17 ft ) from the end line in FIBA tournaments , but 4 @.@ 75 feet ( 1 @.@ 45 m ) in NBA and NCAA tournaments .
= = History = =
Originally , the key was narrower than it is today and had the shape of a skeleton / basic lever lock keyhole , measuring six feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) wide , hence " the key " , with the free throw circle as the head , and the shaded lane as the body . Due to the narrowness of the key , imposing centers , such as George Mikan , dominated the paint , scoring at will . To counter this , the key was widened into 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) from 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) at the onset of the 1951 – 52 NBA season .
Men 's professional basketball in the United States ( notably the National Basketball Association ) widened it further to 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) in the 1964 – 65 NBA season to lessen the effectiveness of centers , especially Wilt Chamberlain . The NCAA retains the 12 feet key to this day .
On April 25 , 2008 , the FIBA Central Board
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a therapeutic device , designed to help move Latin America past its problematic experience of modernity . He compares this to the way the healing state of mourning replaces grief in the process of recovering from a death . Both activities are mechanisms for dealing with loss . Alonso believes that The General in his Labyrinth , by almost entirely centering the novel on the General 's death , forces the reader to confront the horror of this process . In Alonso 's view , the reader is meant to pass from " a melancholy relationship vis @-@ a @-@ vis the figure of Bolívar to a relationship that has the therapeutic qualities of mourning instead " .
Latin America 's history and culture , Alonso suggests , began with the loss of Bolívar 's dream of a united continent and as a result has developed under a melancholy shadow ever since . Thus , by forcing the reader to return to the origin of modernity in Latin America and confront its death in the most horrific way , García Márquez compels the reader to move from melancholy to mourning , " so that the phantom of the lost object of modernity may cease to rule the libidinal economy of Spanish American cultural discourse and historical life " .
= = = Challenging history = = =
García Márquez comments on the nature of historical fact by drawing attention to the way history is written . The novel recreates a time in Bolívar 's life that has no historical precedent , as there is no record of the last 14 days of his life . In García Márquez 's account readers observe Bolívar intimately , seeing his human qualities . In the view of critic Isabel Alvarez Borland , by choosing to fictionalize a national hero in this way , García Márquez is challenging the claim of official history to represent the truth . In the " My Thanks " section of the novel , García Márquez asserts ironically that what he is writing is more historical than fictional , and he discusses his own historical methodology in detail . By posing in the role of a historian , he challenges the reliability of written history from within the writing process . According to Alvarez Borland , this serves to " remind us that a claim to truth is not the property of any text ; rather it is the result of how a historian ( as a reader ) interprets the facts " .
The General in His Labyrinth also confronts the methods of official historians by using an oral style of narration . The narration can be considered an oral account in that it is woven from the verbal interactions of everyday people . Alvarez Borland explains that the advantage of this technique , as discussed by Walter Ong , is that " the orality of any given culture , residing in the unwritten tales of its peoples , possesses a spontaneity and liveliness which is lost once this culture commits its tales to writing . " The oral style of narration therefore provides a truthfulness which official history lacks . Alvarez Borland concludes that The General in His Labyrinth suggests new ways of writing the past ; it takes account of voices that were never written down as part of official history .
The historian Ben Hughes commented on the novel : " The Liberator 's British confidants , including Daniel O 'Leary , were amongst the closest figures to the general in this period . Nevertheless , they are ignored in the novel . Instead , Márquez uses the character of a fictional Colombian servant , José Palacios , as The Liberator 's final sounding board , thereby neatly sidestepping the more complex reality . " In Hughes 's view modern South American literature has played a role in cleansing the national memory of British soldiers ' assistance to The Liberator .
= = Comparisons with other García Márquez novels = =
In an interview published in the Colombian weekly Revista Semana on March 20 , 1989 , García Márquez told María Elvira Samper , " At bottom , I have written only one book , the same one that circles round and round , and continues on . " Palencia @-@ Roth suggests that this novel is a " labyrinthine summation ... of García Márquez 's long @-@ standing obsessions and ever @-@ present topics : love , death , solitude , power , fate " .
Like the Patriarch in García Márquez 's The Autumn of the Patriarch , Bolívar was an absolute dictator . The Patriarch is never identified by name ; Bolívar , too , is identified chiefly by his title . Bolívar also invites comparison with Colonel Aureliano Buendía in One Hundred Years of Solitude : both characters believe the wars they have waged have been fruitless and overwhelming , and both face numerous attempts on their lives , but eventually die of natural causes . In his belief that life is controlled by fate , the General resembles Buendía in One Hundred Years of Solitude and Santiago Nasar in Chronicle of a Death Foretold .
Palencia @-@ Roth notes that critics have been struck by the humorless elegiac style of The General in His Labyrinth ; its dark mood and somber message is similar to that of The Autumn of the Patriarch . Love is a theme common to both Love in the Time of Cholera and The General in His Labyrinth , but the latter is considered a tragedy . These two novels have been used to demonstrate the range of García Márquez 's work .
Isabel Alvarez Borland , in her essay " The Task of the Historian in El general en su laberinto " , claims that " ... while El general en su laberinto is in many ways a continuation of García Márquez 's criticism of Latin America 's official history seen in his earlier works , the novel contrasts sharply with his previous fictions " . In Chronicle of a Death Foretold , according to Alvarez Borland , the narrator challenges the truth of official language . However , The General in His Labyrinth " differs from these earlier works in employing narrative strategies which seek to answer in a much more overt and didactic fashion questions that the novel poses about history " .
In a summary of Edward Hood 's book La ficcion de Gabriel García Márquez : Repetición e intertextualidad , García Márquez is characterized as an author who uses repetition and autointertextualidad ( intertextuality between the works of a single author ) extensively in his fiction , including in The General in His Labyrinth . Hood points out some obvious examples of repetition in García Márquez 's works : the themes of solitude in One Hundred Years of Solitude , tyranny in Autumn of the Patriarch , and the desire for a unified continent expressed by Bolívar in The General in His Labyrinth . An example of intertextuality can be seen in the repetition of patterns between books . For example , both Jose Arcadio Buendia in One Hundred Years of Solitude and Bolívar in The General in his Labyrinth experience labyrinthian dreams .
= = Genre = =
Critics consider García Márquez 's book in terms of the historical novel , but differ over whether the label is appropriate . In his review of The General in his Labyrinth , Selden Rodman hesitated to call it a novel , since it was so heavily researched , giving Bolívar 's views " on everything from life and love to his chronic constipation and dislike of tobacco smoke " . On the other hand , reviewer Robert Adams suggested that García Márquez had " improved on history " . According to critic Donald L. Shaw , The General in His Labyrinth is a " New Historical Novel " , a genre that he argues crosses between Boom , Post @-@ Boom , and Postmodernist fiction in Latin American literature : " New Historical Novels tend either to retell historical events from an unconventional perspective , but one which preserves their intelligibility , or to question the very possibility of making sense of the past at all . " Shaw believes that this novel belongs to the first category . García Márquez is presenting both a historical account and his own interpretation of events .
David Bushnell , writing in The Hispanic American Historical Review , points out that the work is less a pure historical account than others suggest . García Márquez 's Bolívar is a man " who wanders naked through the house , suffers constipation , uses foul language , and much more besides . " He argues that documentation does not support many of these details . Bushnell suggests , however , that the fact that the novel is not entirely historically accurate does not necessarily distinguish it from the work of professional historians . The main difference , Bushnell believes , is that García Márquez 's work " is far more readable " than a pure history .
= = Reception = =
The General in His Labyrinth was relatively poorly received by the general public in the United States , despite the praise of critics . Critic Ilan Stavans , who himself praised the book as " one of the writer 's most sophisticated and accomplished " , attributes this to the novel 's time period and to its profusion of historical information , neither of which proved attractive to English @-@ speaking readers . Isabel Alvarez Borland notes that , like Stavans , " critics in the United States have largely celebrated García Márquez 's portrait of this national hero and considered it a tour de force " ; but she also observes that in Latin America the book received more mixed reviews , ranging from " outrage to unqualified praise " .
The novel generated huge controversy in Latin America : some Venezuelan and Colombian politicians described its depiction of Bolívar as " profane " . According to Stavans , they accused García Márquez of " defaming the larger @-@ than @-@ life reputation of a historical figure who , during the nineteenth century , struggled to unite the vast Hispanic world " . The novel 's publication provoked outrage from many Latin American politicians and intellectuals because its portrayal of the General is not the saintly image long cherished by many . Mexico 's ambassador to Austria , Francisco Cuevas Cancino , wrote a damning letter , which was widely publicized in Mexico City , objecting to the portrayal of Bolívar . He stated : " The novel is plagued with errors of fact , conception , fairness , understanding of the historical moment and ignorance of its consequences ... It has served the enemies of Latin America , who care only that they can now denigrate Bolívar , and with him all of us . " Even the novel 's admirers , such as the leading Venezuelan diplomat and writer Arturo Uslar Pietri , worried that some facts were stretched . García Márquez believes , however , that Latin America has to discover the General 's labyrinth to recognize and deal with its own maze of problems .
More positively , Nelson Bocaranda , a Venezuelan TV commentator , considers the novel to be a tonic for Latin American culture : " people here saw a Bolívar who is a man of flesh and bones just like themselves " . Mexican author Carlos Fuentes agrees with Bocaranda saying : " What comes across beautifully and poignantly in this book is a man dealing with the unknown world of democratic ideas " . García Márquez realistically portrays a ridiculous figure trapped in a labyrinth , magnifying the General 's defects , and presenting an image of Bolívar contrary to that instilled in classrooms . However , the novel also depicts Bolívar as an idealist and political theorist who predicted many problems that would obstruct Latin American advancement in the future . García Márquez depicts a figure who was aware of the racial and social friction in Latin American society , feared debt , and warned against economic irresponsibility . He has the General warn his aide @-@ de @-@ camp , Agustín de Iturbide , against the future interference of the United States in the internal affairs of Latin America .
Novelist and critic Barbara Mujica comments that the book 's English translator , Edith Grossman , fully captures the multiple levels of meaning of the text , as well as García Márquez 's modulations in tone . García Márquez himself has admitted that he prefers his novels in their English translations .
= = Publication history = =
The original Spanish version of The General in His Labyrinth was published simultaneously in Argentina , Colombia , Mexico , and Spain in 1989 . The first American edition was listed as a best seller in The New York Times the following year .
The novel has been translated into many languages since its first publication in Spanish , as detailed by Sfeir de González in 2003 .
= Copia ( museum ) =
Copia : The American Center for Wine , Food & the Arts was a non @-@ profit museum and educational center in downtown Napa , California , dedicated to wine , food and the arts of American culture . The center , planned and largely funded by vintners Robert and Margrit Mondavi , was open from 2001 to 2008 . The museum had galleries , two theaters , classrooms , a demonstration kitchen , a restaurant , a rare book library , and a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 4 ha ) vegetable and herb garden ; there it hosted wine and food tasting programs , exhibitions , films , and concerts . The main and permanent exhibition of the museum , " Forks in the Road " , explained the origins of cooking through to modern advances . The museum 's establishment benefited the city of Napa and the development and gentrification of its downtown .
Copia hosted its opening celebration on November 18 , 2001 . Among other notable people , Julia Child helped fund the venture , which established a restaurant named Julia 's Kitchen . Copia struggled to achieve its anticipated admissions , and had difficulty in repaying its debts . Proceeds from ticket sales , membership and donations attempted to support Copia 's payoff of debt , educational programs and exhibitions , but eventually were not sufficient . After numerous changes to the museum to increase revenue , Copia closed on November 21 , 2008 . Its library was donated to Napa Valley College and its Julia Child cookware was sent to the National Museum of American History . The 12 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) property had been for sale since its closure ; the Culinary Institute of America purchased the northern portion of the property in October 2015 . The college intends to open a campus , the Culinary Institute of America at Copia , which will house the CIA 's new Food Business School .
= = History = =
= = = Name = = =
The museum was named after Copia , the Roman goddess of wealth and plenty . According to Joseph Spence in Polymetis ( 1755 ) , Copia is a name used to describe the goddess Abundantia in poetry , and was referred to as Bona Copia in Ovid 's Metamorphoses .
= = = Background = = =
The city of Napa has historically not received as many wine country tourists as the cities north of it . A $ 300 million flood management project around the turn of the 21st century to widen the Napa River and raise bridges prompted building developments . In the early 2000s , a large development was completed in the downtown area , as well as several hotels . Copia and the nearby Oxbow Public Market were two large developments also constructed around that time to increase tourist and media focus on the city of Napa .
The museum opened in 2001 , two months after the September 11 attacks . The museum 's visitor attendance was much lower than what was projected ; the museum partially attributed that to the depressed tourist economy stemming from the attacks .
= = = Conception and construction = = =
In 1988 , vintner Robert Mondavi , his wife Margrit Mondavi , and other members of the wine industry began to look into establishing an institution in Napa County to educate , promote , and celebrate American excellence and achievements in the culinary arts , visual arts , and winemaking . Three organizations supported the museum : the University of California at Davis , the Cornell University School of Hotel Administration , and the American Institute of Wine & Food . In 1993 , Robert Mondavi bought and donated the land for Copia for $ 1 @.@ 2 million ( $ 1 @.@ 97 million today ) , followed by a lead gift of $ 20 million ( $ 32 @.@ 8 million today ) . Mondavi chose the downtown Napa location with urging from his wife , who raised her children there . James Polshek was hired by the foundation as the architect for the building in October 1994 . Subsequently , the " Founding Seventy " , supporters from Napa Valley and the surrounding Bay Area , made substantial donations . Initial financing for Copia was $ 55 million ( $ 66 @.@ 8 million today ) , along with a $ 78 million ( $ 104 million today ) bond prior to opening in 2001 .
When the organization purchased the property , it was an empty lot next to a tire store . Steve Carlin , founder of the Oxbow Public Market , believed that Copia 's establishment helped expand Napa , its downtown area , and the Oxbow District . Construction of the facility triggered a significant growth in development of a gourmet marketplace , hotels and restaurants in downtown Napa . The museum began construction in 1999 and hosted opening celebrations on November 18 , 2001 . In 2005 , Copia sold 3 @.@ 5 acres ( 1 @.@ 4 ha ) to Intrawest for construction of a Westin hotel .
= = = Decline and bankruptcy = = =
Although the facility did attract visitors , local residents ' support failed to reach the numbers expected by the founders . Original projections of 300 @,@ 000 admissions per year were never met . In October 2006 , the museum announced plans to turn galleries into conference rooms , remove most of the museum 's focus on art , and lay off 28 of its 85 employees ( most of whom were security guards for the art gallery ) . At the time , Copia had $ 68 million ( $ 74 @.@ 7 million today ) in debt . That year the museum also lowered its original adult admission fee of $ 12 @.@ 50 to $ 5 . For three months in 2006 , the museum admitted guests free of charge , and attendance and revenue increased . The museum also began hosting weddings and renting its space more frequently in order to raise revenue . In 2007 , the museum altered its theme significantly by removing its focus on food and art , and instead focusing solely on wine . It replaced some of its gardens with vineyards , changed its displays to focus more on the history and aspects of wine and viticulture , and decreased the restaurant 's and programs ' focus on food .
In September 2008 , Garry McGuire announced that 24 of 80 employees were being laid off and the days of operation would be reduced from 7 to 3 per week . Attendance figures had never reached either original or updated projections , causing the facility to operate annually in the red since its opening . In November , he announced that the property would be sold due to unsustainable debt . The museum closed on Friday , November 21 , 2008 . The closure was without warning ; visitors who had arrived for scheduled events found a paper notice at the entrance that the center was temporarily closed . The next days ' events involving chef Andrew Carmellini and singer Joni Morris were also abruptly cancelled ; the museum later stated that it would reopen on December 1 . On that day , the organization ( with $ 80 million ( $ 87 @.@ 9 million today ) in debt ) filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection . The federal bankruptcy court blocked a $ 2 million ( $ 2 @.@ 2 million today ) emergency loan with priority in security , leaving Copia with no funds to resume operations .
Writing about the failure of the project , The New York Times and other newspapers suggested that Copia had failed to clearly define its focus . Potential tourists were left feeling unsure whether they were visiting a museum , a cooking school , or a promotional center for wine .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Following the 2008 closing of Copia , a group of investors , developers , advocates , and vintners named the Coalition to Preserve Copia was formed to explore a plan to preserve the building and grounds . Part of the group 's plan included forming a Mello @-@ Roos district with participation of local hotel properties to finance bonds to purchase the property , but their effort failed . In May 2009 local developer George Altamura spoke about his interest in purchasing the property . Other developers including the Culinary Institute of America also expressed an interest in acquiring the property . Copia 's bond holder , ACA Financial Guaranty Corporation , listed the property for sale in October 2009 . Napa Valley College 's upper valley campus became the home of the center 's library of around 1 @,@ 000 cookbooks . By late 2010 , local chefs had revived the center 's garden and the parking lot had become the location of a weekly farmer 's market . In 2011 , the museum was reported to still maintain its original furnishings , with the gift store fully stocked and the restaurant still furnished . In an April 2012 auction , most of the center 's fixtures , furniture , equipment , wine collection ( around 3 @,@ 500 bottles ) , dinnerware , displays , artistic items , and antiquities were sold .
Since Copia 's closure , the building has been used for a few meetings and events , including the Napa Valley Film Festival and BottleRock Napa Valley . Triad Development arranged to buy the entire site in 2015 and planned mixed use with housing and retail . The company planned to build up to 187 housing units , 30 @,@ 000 square feet of retail space , and underground parking for 500 cars . The plan had later altered to only include purchase of the southern portion of the property . In 2015 , the Culinary Institute of America ( CIA ) put in motion plans to purchase a separate portion of Copia . The college intends to open a campus , the Culinary Institute of America at Copia , which will house the CIA 's new Food Business School . The school , which was outgrowing its St. Helena campus , purchased the northern portion of the property for $ 12 @.@ 5 million in October 2015 ( it was assessed for $ 21 @.@ 3 million around 2013 ) . Among the CIA 's first events there was 2016 's Flavor ! Napa Valley , a food and wine festival sponsored by local organizations . The campus is expected to open in late 2016 , with its Chuck Williams Culinary Arts Museum opening in 2017 . The museum will house about 4 @,@ 000 items of Chuck Williams , including cookbooks , cookware , and appliances .
= = Facilities = =
Copia is located on First Street in downtown Napa , adjacent to the Oxbow Public Market . The 12 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) property is surrounded by an oxbow of the Napa River . The two @-@ story building is 78 @,@ 632 square feet ( 7 @,@ 305 @.@ 2 m2 ) in size , and is primarily built from polished concrete , metal , and glass . The city 's farmers ' market has been located in Copia 's parking lot since 2004 .
It had a 13 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 200 m2 ) gallery for art , history , and science exhibits . It also had a 280 @-@ seat indoor theater , a 500 @-@ seat outdoor theater , classrooms , an 80 @-@ seat demonstration kitchen , a rare book library , a wine @-@ tasting area , a café ( named American Market Cafe ) , gift shop ( named Cornucopia ) , and 3 @.@ 5 acres ( 1 @.@ 4 ha ) of landscaped edible gardens . The building 's architect was Polshek Partnership Architects . Julia 's Kitchen was a restaurant inside the Copia building that focused on seasonal dishes and was named for honorary trustee Julia Child , who loaned part of her kitchen to the restaurant , a wall of 49 pans , pots , fish molds , and other tools and objects . Within a year of the center 's closing , the items were sent to the Smithsonian Institution 's National Museum of American History , where they are included in the Julia Child 's kitchen exhibit , which up until that point was only missing that portion . The restaurant had a 1 @,@ 700 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 160 m2 ) dining room ( for 180 seats ) , an outdoor seating area ( 4 @,@ 300 square feet ( 400 m2 ) ) and a 2 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 230 m2 ) kitchen . The gardens had fruit orchards , a pavilion with a kitchen and large dining table , and a small vineyard with 60 vines and 30 different grape varieties . The restaurant and café were both operated by local caterer Seasoned Elements , and later Patina Restaurant Group .
The main and permanent exhibition of the museum , called " Forks in the Road : Food , Wine and the American Table " , had displays explaining the origins of cooking through to modern advances , and included a significant portion about the history of American winemaking . The museum 's opening art exhibition was called " Active Ingredients " , and had new works related to food by eight notable artists . Copia also had an annual exhibit and event called " Canstruction " , which began in 2005 . The event involved teams of architects , students , and designers creating sculptures from cans of food , which would later be donated to the Napa Valley Food Bank . The first year 's donation consisted of 42 @,@ 000 pounds of canned food .
= = Employees and visitor admissions = =
The founding director , Peggy Loar , left Copia in March 2005 , and was replaced by Arthur Jacobus that July ; in 2008 Jacobus was replaced by Chairman Garry McGuire Jr . , who resigned on December 5 , 2008 . The wine curator , Peter Marks , left around 2008 and was replaced with dean of wine studies Andrea Robinson . Around 2008 , McGuire hired celebrity chef Tyler Florence as dean of culinary studies . Florence oversaw the museum 's food programs and Julia 's Kitchen .
Museum attendance was initially forecast at 300 @,@ 000 ; to compare , the county had 4 @.@ 5 million tourists in 2001 . 205 @,@ 000 visitors attended in 2001 , 220 @,@ 000 visitors attended in 2002 , and 160 @,@ 000 attended in 2003 . 150 @,@ 000 visitors attended in 2007 .
= Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm =
Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm ( also known as Fair Laughs the Morn and Youth and Pleasure ) is an oil painting on canvas by English artist William Etty , first exhibited in 1832 and currently in Tate Britain . Etty had been planning the painting since 1818 – 19 , and an early version was exhibited in 1822 . The piece was inspired by a metaphor in Thomas Gray 's poem The Bard in which the apparently bright start to the notorious misrule of Richard II of England was compared to a gilded ship whose occupants are unaware of an approaching storm . Etty chose to illustrate Gray 's lines literally , depicting a golden boat filled with and surrounded by nude and near @-@ nude figures .
Etty felt that his approach to the work illustrated a moral warning about the pursuit of pleasure , but his approach was not entirely successful . The Bard was about a supposed curse on the House of Plantagenet placed by a Welsh bard following Edward I of England 's attempts to eradicate Welsh culture , and critics felt that Etty had somewhat misunderstood the point of Gray 's poem . Some reviewers greatly praised the piece , and in particular Etty 's technical abilities , but audiences of the time found it hard to understand the purpose of Etty 's painting , and his use of nude figures led some critics to consider the work tasteless and offensive .
The painting was bought in 1832 by Robert Vernon to form part of his collection of British art . Vernon donated his collection , including Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm , to the National Gallery in 1847 , which , in turn , transferred it to the Tate Gallery in 1949 . It remains one of Etty 's best @-@ known works , and formed part of major exhibitions at Tate Britain in 2001 – 02 and at the York Art Gallery in 2011 – 12 .
= = Background = =
William Etty , the seventh son of a York baker and miller , had been an apprentice printer in Hull . On completing his seven @-@ year apprenticeship at the age of 18 he moved to London " with a few pieces of chalk crayons " , and the intention of becoming a history painter in the tradition of the Old Masters . He enrolled in the Schools of the Royal Academy of Arts , studying under renowned portrait painter Thomas Lawrence . He submitted numerous paintings to the Royal Academy over the following decade , all of which were either rejected or received little attention when exhibited .
In 1821 Etty 's The Arrival of Cleopatra in Cilicia ( also known as The Triumph of Cleopatra ) was a critical success . The painting featured nude figures , and over the following years Etty painted further nudes in biblical , literary and mythological settings . All but one of the 15 paintings Etty exhibited in the 1820s included at least one nude figure .
While some nudes existed in private collections , England had no tradition of nude painting and the display and distribution of nude material to the public had been suppressed since the 1787 Proclamation for the Discouragement of Vice . Etty was the first British artist to specialise in the nude , and the reaction of the lower classes to these paintings caused concern throughout the 19th century . Although his portraits of male nudes were generally well received , many critics condemned his repeated depictions of female nudity as indecent .
= = Composition = =
Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm was inspired by a passage in Thomas Gray 's poem The Bard . The theme of The Bard was the English king Edward I 's conquest of Wales , and a curse placed by a Welsh bard upon Edward 's descendants after he ordered the execution of all bards and the eradication of Welsh culture . Etty used a passage Gray intended to symbolise the seemingly bright start to the disastrous reign of Edward 's great @-@ great @-@ grandson Richard II .
Etty chose to illustrate Gray 's words literally , creating what has been described as " a poetic romance " . Youth and Pleasure depicts a small gilded boat . Above the boat , a nude figure representing Zephyr blows on the sails . Another nude representing Pleasure lies on a large bouquet of flowers , loosely holding the helm of the boat and allowing Zephyr 's breeze to guide it . A nude child blows bubbles , which another nude on the prow of the ship , representing Youth , reaches to catch . Naiads , again nude , swim around and clamber on the boat . Although the seas are calm , a " sweeping whirlwind " is forming on the horizon , with a demonic figure within the storm clouds . ( Deterioration and restoration means this demonic figure is now barely visible . ) The intertwined limbs of the participants were intended to evoke the sensation of transient and passing pleasure , and to express the themes of female sexual appetites entrapping innocent youth , and the sexual power women hold over men .
Etty said of his approach to the text that he was hoping to create " a general allegory of Human Life , its empty vain pleasures — if not founded on the laws of Him who is the Rock of Ages . " While Etty felt that the work conveyed a clear moral warning about the pursuit of pleasure , this lesson was largely lost upon its audiences .
When Etty exhibited the completed painting at the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition in 1832 , it was shown untitled , with the relevant six lines from The Bard attached ; writers at the time sometimes referred to it by its incipit of Fair Laughs the Morn . By the time of Etty 's death in 1849 , it had acquired its present title of Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm .
= = Versions = =
The final version of Youth and Pleasure was painted between 1830 and 1832 , but Etty had been contemplating a painting on the theme since 1818 – 19 . In 1822 he had exhibited an early version at the British Institution titled A Sketch from One of Gray 's Odes ( Youth on the Prow ) ; in this version the group of figures on the prow is reversed , and the swimmers around the boat are absent . Another rough version of the painting also survives , similar to the 1832 version but again with the figures on the prow reversed . This version was exhibited at a retrospective of Etty 's work at the Society of Arts in 1849 ; it is dated 1848 but this is likely to be a misprint of 1828 , making it a preliminary study for the 1832 painting .
Although it received little notice when first exhibited , the 1822 version provoked a strong reaction from The Times :
We take this opportunity of advising Mr. Etty , who got some reputation for painting " Cleopatra 's Galley " , not to be seduced into a style which can gratify only the most vicious taste . Naked figures , when painted with the purity of Raphael , may be endured : but nakedness without purity is offensive and indecent , and on Mr. Etty 's canvass is mere dirty flesh . Mr. Howard , whose poetical subjects sometimes require naked figures , never disgusts the eye or mind . Let Mr. Etty strive to acquire a taste equally pure : he should know , that just delicate taste and pure moral sense are synonymous terms .
An oil sketch attributed to Etty , given to York Art Gallery in 1952 by Judith Hare , Countess of Listowel and entitled Three Female Nudes , is possibly a preliminary study by Etty for Youth and Pleasure , or a copy by a student of the three central figures . Art historian Sarah Burnage considers both possibilities unlikely , as neither the arrangement of figures , the subject matter or the sea serpent approaching the group appear to relate to the completed Youth and Pleasure , and considers it more likely to be a preliminary sketch for a now @-@ unknown work .
= = Reception = =
Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm met with a mixed reception on exhibition , and while critics generally praised Etty 's technical ability , there was a certain confusion as to what the painting was actually intended to represent and a general feeling that he had seriously misunderstood what The Bard was actually about . The Library of the Fine Arts felt " in classical design , anatomical drawing , elegance of attitude , fineness of form , and gracefulness of grouping , no doubt Mr. Etty has no superior " , and while " the representation of the ideas in the lines quoted [ from The Bard ] are beautifully and accurately expressed upon the canvas " they considered " the ulterior reference of the poet [ to the destruction of Welsh culture and the decline of the House of Plantagenet ] was entirely lost sight of , and that , if this be the nearest that Art can approach in conveying to the eye the happy exemplification of the subject which Gray intended , we fear we must give up the contest upon the merits of poetry and painting . " Similar concerns were raised in The Times , which observed that it was " Full of beauty , rich in colouring , boldly and accurately drawn , and composed with a most graceful fancy ; but the meaning of it , if it has any meaning , no man can tell " , pointing out that although it was intended to illustrate Gray it " would represent almost as well any other poet 's fancies . " The Examiner , meanwhile , took issue with the cramped and overladen boat , pointing out that the characters " if not exactly jammed together like figs in a basket , are sadly constrained for want of room " , and also complained that the boat would not in reality " float half the weight which is made to press upon it . "
Other reviewers were kinder ; The Gentleman 's Magazine praised Etty 's ability to capture " the beauty of the proportion of the antique " , noting that in the central figures " there is far more of classicality than is to be seen in almost any modern picture " , and considered the overall composition " a most fortunate combination of the ideality of Poetry and the reality of Nature " . The Athenæum considered it " a poetic picture from a very poetic passage " , praising Etty for " telling a story which is very difficult to tell with the pencil " .
The greatest criticism of Youth and Pleasure came from The Morning Chronicle , a newspaper which had long disliked Etty 's female nudes . It complained " no decent family can hang such sights against their wall " , and condemned the painting as an " indulgence of what we once hoped a classical , but which are now convinced , is a lascivious mind " , commenting " the course of [ Etty 's ] studies should run in a purer channel , and that he should not persist , with an unhallowed fancy , to pursue Nature to her holy recesses . He is a laborious draughtsman , and a beautiful colourist ; but he has not taste or chastity of mind enough to venture on the naked truth . " The reviewer added " we fear that Mr. E will never turn from his wicked ways , and make himself fit for decent company . "
= = Legacy = =
Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm was purchased at the time of its exhibition by Robert Vernon for his important collection of British art . ( The price Vernon paid for Youth and Pleasure is not recorded , although Etty 's cashbook records a partial payment of £ 250 — about £ 21 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms — so it is likely to have been a substantial sum . ) Vernon later purchased John Constable 's The Valley Farm , planning to hang it in the place then occupied by Youth and Pleasure . This decision caused Constable to comment " My picture is to go into the place — where Etty 's " Bumboat " is at present — his picture with its precious freight is to be brought down nearer to the nose . " Vernon presented his collection to the nation in 1847 , and his 157 paintings , including Youth and Pleasure , entered the National Gallery .
When Samuel Carter Hall was choosing works to illustrate his newly launched The Art Journal , he considered it important to promote new British artists , even if it meant illustrations which some readers considered pornographic or offensive . In 1849 Hall secured reproduction rights to the paintings Vernon had given to the nation and soon published and widely distributed an engraving of the painting under the title Youth and Pleasure , describing it as " of the very highest class " .
Needled by repeated attacks from the press on his supposed indecency , poor taste and lack of creativity , Etty changed his approach after the response to Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm . He exhibited over 80 further paintings at the Royal Academy alone , and remained a prominent painter of nudes , but from this time made conscious efforts to reflect moral lessons . He died in November 1849 and , while his work enjoyed a brief boom in popularity , interest in him declined over time , and by the end of the 19th century all of his paintings had fallen below their original prices .
In 1949 the painting was transferred from the National Gallery to the Tate Gallery , where as of 2015 it remains . Although Youth and Pleasure is one of Etty 's best @-@ known paintings , it remains controversial , and Dennis Farr 's 1958 biography of Etty describes it as " singularly inept " . It was one of four works by Etty chosen for Tate Britain 's landmark Exposed : The Victorian Nude exhibition in 2001 – 02 , and also formed part of a major retrospective of Etty 's work at the York Art Gallery in 2011 – 12 .
= Mozambican War of Independence =
The Mozambican War of Independence was an armed conflict between the guerrilla forces of the Mozambique Liberation Front or FRELIMO ( Frente de Libertação de Moçambique ) , and Portugal . The war officially started on September 25 , 1964 , and ended with a ceasefire on September 8 , 1974 , resulting in a negotiated independence in 1975 .
Portugal 's wars against independence guerrilla fighters in its 400 @-@ year @-@ old African territories began in 1961 with Angola . In Mozambique , the conflict erupted in 1964 as a result of unrest and frustration amongst many indigenous Mozambican populations , who perceived foreign rule to be a form of exploitation and mistreatment , which served only to further Portuguese economic interests in the region . Many Mozambicans also resented Portugal 's policies towards indigenous people , which resulted in discrimination , traditional lifestyle turning difficult for many Africans , and limited access to Portuguese @-@ style education and skilled employment .
As successful self @-@ determination movements spread throughout Africa after World War II , many Mozambicans became progressively nationalistic in outlook , and increasingly frustrated by the nation 's continued subservience to foreign rule . For the other side , many enculturated indigenous Africans who were fully integrated into the Portugal @-@ ruled social organization of Portuguese Mozambique , in particular those from the urban centres , reacted to the independentist claims with a mixture of discomfort and suspicion . The ethnic Portuguese of the territory , which included most of the ruling authorities , responded with increased military presence and fast @-@ paced development projects .
A mass exile of Mozambique 's political intelligentsia to neighbouring countries provided havens from which radical Mozambicans could plan actions and foment political unrest in their homeland . The formation of the Mozambican guerrilla organisation FRELIMO and the support of the Soviet Union , China , Cuba , Yugoslavia , Bulgaria , Tanzania , Zambia , Egypt , Algeria and Gaddafi regime in Libya through arms and advisers , led to the outbreak of violence that was to last over a decade .
From a military standpoint , the Portuguese regular army held the upper hand during the conflict against the independentist guerrilla forces . Nonetheless , Mozambique succeeded in achieving independence on June 25 , 1975 , after a civil resistance movement known as the Carnation Revolution backed by portions of the military in Portugal overthrow the military dictatorship sponsored by US , thus ending 470 years of Portuguese colonial rule in the East African region . According to historians of the Revolution , the military coup in Portugal was in part fuelled by protests concerning the conduct of Portuguese troops in their treatment of some local Mozambican populace . The role of the growing communist influence over the group of Portuguese military insurgents who led the Lisbon 's military coup , and , on the other hand , the pressure of the international community over the direction of the Portuguese Colonial War in general , were main causes for the final outcome .
= = Background = =
= = = Portuguese colonial rule = = =
San hunter and gatherers , ancestors of the Khoisani peoples , were the first known inhabitants of the region that is now Mozambique , followed in the 1st and 4th centuries by Bantu @-@ speaking peoples who migrated there across the Zambezi River . In 1498 , Portuguese explorers landed on the Mozambican coastline . Portugal 's influence in East Africa grew throughout the 16th century ; she established several colonies known collectively as Portuguese East Africa . Slavery and gold became profitable for the Europeans ; influence was largely exercised through individual settlers and there was no centralised administration and , in the meantime , Portugal had turned her attention to India and Brazil .
By the 19th century , European colonialism in Africa had reached its height . Having lost control of the vast territory of Brazil in South America , the Portuguese began to focus on expanding their African outposts . This brought them into direct conflict with the British . Since David Livingstone had returned to the area in 1858 in an attempt to foster trade routes , British interest in Mozambique had risen , alarming the Portuguese government . During the 19th century , much of Eastern Africa was still being brought under British control , and in order to facilitate this , Britain required several concessions from the Portuguese colony .
As a result , in an attempt to avoid a naval conflict with the superior British Royal Navy , Portugal adjusted the borders of her colony and the modern borders of Mozambique were established in May 1881 . Control of Mozambique was left to various organisations such as the Mozambique Company , the Zambezi Company and the Niassa Company which were financed and provided with cheap labour by the British Empire to work mines and construct railways . These companies penetrated inland from the coastline , setting up plantations and taxing the local populace who had until then resisted encroachment by the colonists .
The resisting Gaza Empire , a collection of indigenous tribes who inhabited the area that now constitutes Mozambique and Zimbabwe , was defeated in 1895 , and the remaining inland tribes were eventually defeated by 1902 ; in that same year , Portugal established Lourenço Marques as the capital . In 1926 , political and economic crisis in Portugal led to the establishment of the Second Republic ( later to become the Estado Novo ) , and a revival of interest in the African colonies . Calls for self determination in Mozambique arose shortly after World War II , in light of the independence granted to many other colonies worldwide in the great wave of decolonisation .
= = = Rise of FRELIMO = = =
Portugal designated Mozambique an overseas territory in 1951 in order to show to the world that the colony had a greater autonomy . It was called the Overseas Province of Mozambique ( Província Ultramarina de Moçambique ) . Nonetheless , Portugal still maintained strong control over its overseas province . The increasing number of newly independent African nations after World War II , coupled with the ongoing mistreatment of the indigenous population , encouraged the growth of nationalist sentiments within Mozambique .
Mozambique was marked by large disparities between the wealthy Portuguese and the majority of the large rural indigenous African population . Poorer whites , many of them recent immigrants , including illiterate peasants , were given preference in lower @-@ level urban jobs , where a system of job reservation existed . In the rural areas , Portuguese controlled the trading stores with which African peasants interacted . Being largely illiterate and preserving their local traditions and ways of life , skilled employment opportunities and roles in administration and government were rare for these numerous tribal populations , leaving them few or no opportunities in the urban modern life . Many indigenous peoples saw their culture and tradition being overwhelmed by the alien culture of Portugal . A small educated African class did emerge , but faced substantial discrimination .
Vocal political dissidents opposed to Portuguese rule and claiming independence were typically forced into exile . From the mid @-@ 1920s a succession of authoritarian regimes in Portugal closed unions and left @-@ wing opposition , both within Portugal and within its colonies , notably in the Estado Novo period ( 1933 @-@ 1974 ) . The Portuguese government forced black Mozambican farmers to grow rice or cotton for export , providing little return with which the farmers could support themselves . Many other workers — over 250 @,@ 000 by 1960 — were pressured to work on coal and gold mines , in neighbouring territories , mainly in South Africa , where they comprised over 30 % of black underground miners . By 1950 , only 4 @,@ 353 Mozambicans out of 5 @,@ 733 @,@ 000 had been granted the right to vote by the Portuguese colonial government . The rift between Portuguese settlers and Mozambican locals is illustrated in one way by the small number of people with mixed Portuguese and Mozambican heritage ( mestiço ) , numbering only 31 @,@ 465 in a population of 8 – 10 million in 1960 according to that year 's census .
The Mozambique Liberation Front or FRELIMO ( Frente de Libertação de Moçambique ) , formally ( Marxist @-@ Leninist as of 1977 but adherent to such positions since the late 1960s ) , was formed in Dar es Salaam , the largest city in neighbouring Tanzania , on June 25 , 1962 . It was created during a conference , by political figures who had been forced into exile , by the merging of various existing nationalist groups , including the Mozambican African National Union , National African Union of Independent Mozambique and the National Democratic Union of Mozambique which had been formed two years earlier . It was only in exile that such political movements could develop , due to the strength of Portugal 's grip on dissident activity within Mozambique itself .
A year later , in 1963 , FRELIMO set up headquarters in Dar es Salaam , Tanzania , under the leadership of sociologist Eduardo Mondlane , and began to call for independence from Portugal.After two years of organisation and failing political manoeuvres in an attempt to seek a peaceful independence , Mondlane began in 1964 a campaign of guerrilla warfare in an attempt to achieve independence for Mozambique .
The United Nations also put pressure on Portugal to move for decolonisation . Portugal threatened to withdraw from NATO , which put a stop to this support and pressure , and the nationalist groups in Mozambique were forced to turn to help from the Soviet bloc .
= = = Support from the Soviet Union = = =
During the Cold War , and particularly in the late 1950s , the Soviet Union and People 's Republic of China adopted a strategy of destabilisation of Western powers by disruption of their hold on African colonies . Nikita Khrushchev , in particular , viewed the ' underdeveloped third of mankind ' as a means to weaken the West . For the Soviets , Africa represented a chance to create a rift between western powers and their colonial assets , and create pro @-@ communist states in Africa with which to foster future relations .
Prior to the formation of FRELIMO , the Soviet position regarding the nationalist movements in Mozambique was one of confusion . There were multiple independence movements , and they had no sure knowledge that any would succeed . The nationalist groups in Mozambique , like those across Africa during the period , received training and equipment from the Soviet Union .
Eduardo Mondlane 's successor , future President of Mozambique , Samora Machel , acknowledged assistance from both Moscow and Peking , describing them as " the only ones who will really help us . ... They have fought armed struggles , and whatever they have learned that is relevant to Mozambique we will use . " Guerrillas received tuition in subversion and political warfare as well as military aid , specifically shipments of 122 mm artillery rockets in 1972 , with 1600 advisors from Russia , Cuba and East Germany . FRELIMO adopted Marxism @-@ Leninism at an early stage .
The Soviet Union continued to support the new FRELIMO government against counterrevolution in the years after 1975 . By 1981 , there were 230 Soviet , close to 200 Cuban military and over 600 civilian Cuban advisers still in the country . Cuba 's involvement in Mozambique was as part of a continuing effort to export the anti @-@ imperialist ideology of the Cuban Revolution and forge desperately needed new allies . Cuba provided support to liberation movements and leftist governments in numerous African countries , including Angola , Ethiopia , Guinea @-@ Bissau and Congo @-@ Brazzaville .
= = Conflict = =
= = = Insurgency under Mondlane ( 1964 – 69 ) = = =
At the war 's outset , FRELIMO had little hope for a conventional military victory , with a mere 7000 combatants against a far larger Portuguese force . Their hopes rested on urging the local populace to support the insurgency , in order to force a negotiated independence from Lisbon . Portugal fought its own version of protracted warfare , and a large military force was sent by the Portuguese government to quell the unrest , with troop numbers rising from 8 @,@ 000 to 24 @,@ 000 between 1964 and 1967 . The number of local soldiers recruited for the Portuguese cause rose to 23 @,@ 000 in the same period . 860 Special Forces operatives were also being trained in Commando Instruction Centres by 1969 .
The military wing of FRELIMO was commanded by Filipe Samuel Magaia , whose forces received training from Algeria . The FRELIMO guerrillas were armed with a variety of weapons , many provided by the Soviet Union and China . Common weapons included the Mosin – Nagant bolt @-@ action rifle , SKS and AK @-@ 47 automatic rifles and the Soviet PPSh @-@ 41 . Machine guns such as the Degtyarev light machine gun were widely used , along with the DShK and the SG @-@ 43 Gorunov . FRELIMO were supported by mortars , recoilless rifles , RPG @-@ 2s and RPG @-@ 7s , Anti @-@ aircraft weapons such as the ZPU @-@ 4 and from 1974 the Strela 2 .
In the dying stages of the conflict , FRELIMO was provided with a few SA @-@ 7 MANPAD shoulder @-@ launched missile launchers from China ; these were never used to shoot down a Portuguese plane . Only one Portuguese aircraft was lost in combat during the conflict , when Lt. Emilio Lourenço 's G.91R @-@ 4 was destroyed by premature detonation of his own ordnance .
The Portuguese forces were under the command of General António Augusto dos Santos , a man with strong faith in new counter @-@ insurgency theories . Augusto dos Santos supported a collaboration with Rhodesia to create African Scout units and other special forces teams , with Rhodesian forces even conducting their own independent operations during the conflict . Due to Portuguese policy of retaining up @-@ to @-@ date equipment for the metropole while shipping obsolete equipment to the colonies , the Portuguese soldiers fighting in the opening stages of the conflict were equipped with World War II radios and the old Mauser rifle . As the fighting progressed , the need for more modern equipment was rapidly recognised , and the Heckler & Koch G3 and FN FAL rifles were adopted as the standard battlefield weapon , along with the AR @-@ 10 for paratroopers . The MG42 and , then in 1968 , the HK21 were the Portuguese general purpose machine guns , with 60 , 81 and 120 mm mortars , howitzers and the AML @-@ 60 , Panhard EBR , Fox and Chaimite armoured cars frequently deployed for fire support .
Although helicopters were not used in Mozambique to the same extent as they were in Vietnam , the Alouette III was the most widely used , although the Puma was also used with great success . Other aircraft were employed : for air support the T6 and the Fiat G.91 were used ; for reconnaissance , the Dornier Do 27 . In the transport role , the Portuguese Air Force used mainly the Nord Noratlas and the C @-@ 47 . The Portuguese Navy also made extensive use of patrol boats , landing crafts , and inflatable Zodiacs .
= = = = Start of FRELIMO attacks = = = =
In 1964 , weak @-@ hearted attempts at peaceful negotiation by FRELIMO were abandoned and , on September 25 , 1964 , Eduardo Mondlane began to launch guerrilla attacks on targets in northern Mozambique from his base in Tanzania . FRELIMO soldiers , with logistical assistance from the local population , attacked the administrative post at Chai Chai in the province of Cabo Delgado . FRELIMO militants were able to evade pursuit and surveillance by employing classic guerrilla tactics : ambushing patrols , sabotaging communication and railroad lines , and making hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks against colonial outposts before rapidly fading into accessible backwater areas . The insurgents were typically armed with rifles and machine pistols , and the attackers took full advantage of the monsoon season in order to evade pursuit .
During heavy rains , it was much more difficult to track insurgents by air , negating Portugal 's air superiority , and Portuguese troops and vehicles found movement during rain storms difficult . In contrast , the insurgent troops , with lighter equipment , were able to flee into the bush ( the mato ) amongst an ethnically similar populace into which they could melt away . Furthermore , the FRELIMO forces were able to forage food from the surroundings and local villages , and were thus not hampered by long supply lines .
With the initial FRELIMO attacks in Chai Chai , the fighting spread to Niassa and Tete at the centre of Mozambique . During the early stages of the conflict , FRELIMO activity was reduced to small , platoon @-@ sized engagements , harassments and raids on Portuguese installations . The FRELIMO soldiers often operated in small groups of ten to fifteen soldiers . The scattered nature of FRELIMO 's initial attacks was an attempt to disperse the Portuguese forces .
The Portuguese troops began to suffer losses in November , fighting in the northern region of Xilama . With increasing support from the populace , and the low number of Portuguese regular troops , FRELIMO was quickly able to advance south towards Meponda and Mandimba , linking to Tete with the aid of forces from the neighbouring Republic of Malawi , which had become a fully independent member of the Commonwealth of Nations on July 6 , 1964 . Despite the increasing range of FRELIMO operations , attacks were still limited to small strike teams attacking lightly defended administrative outposts , with the FRELIMO lines of communication and supply utilising canoes along the Ruvuma River and Lake Malawi .
It was not until 1965 that recruitment of fighters increased along with popular support , and the strike teams were able to increase in size . The increase in popular support was in part due to FRELIMO agencies ' offer of help to exiled Mozambicans , who had fled the conflict by travelling to nearby Tanzania . Like similar conflicts against the French and United States forces in Vietnam , the insurgents also used landmines to a great extent to injure the Portuguese forces , thus straining the armed forces ' infrastructure and demoralising soldiers .
FRELIMO attack groups had also begun to grow in size to include over 100 soldiers in certain cases , and the insurgents also began to accept women fighters into their ranks . On either October 10 or October 11 , 1966 , on returning to Tanzania after inspecting the front lines , Filipe Samuel Magaia was shot dead by Lourenço Matola , a fellow FRELIMO guerrilla who was said to be in the employ of the Portuguese .
One seventh of the population and one fifth of the territory were in FRELIMO hands by 1967 ; at this time there were approximately 8000 guerrillas in combat . During this period , Mondlane urged further expansion of the war effort , but also sought to retain the small strike groups . With the increasing cost of supply , more and more territory liberated from the Portuguese , and the adoption of measures to win the support of the population , it was at this time that Mondlane sought assistance from abroad , specifically the Soviet Union and China ; from these benefactors , he obtained large @-@ calibre machine guns , anti @-@ aircraft rifles and 75 mm recoilless rifles and 122 mm rockets .
In 1968 , the second Congress of FRELIMO was a propaganda victory for the insurgents , despite attempts by the Portuguese , who enjoyed air superiority throughout the conflict , to bomb the location of the meeting late in the day . This gave FRELIMO further weight to wield in the United Nations .
= = = Portuguese development program = = =
Due to both the technological gap between civilisations and the centuries @-@ long colonial era , Portugal was a driving force in the development and shaping of all Portuguese Africa since the 15th century . In the 1960s and early 1970s , to counter the increasing insurgency of FRELIMO forces and show to the Portuguese people and the world that the territory was totally under control , the Portuguese government accelerated its major development program to expand and upgrade the infrastructure of Portuguese Mozambique by creating new roads , railways , bridges , dams , irrigation systems , schools and hospitals to stimulate an even higher level of economic growth and support from the populace .
As part of this redevelopment program , construction of the Cahora Bassa Dam began in 1969 . This particular project became intrinsically linked with Portugal 's concerns over security in the overseas colonies . The Portuguese government viewed the construction of the dam as testimony to Portugal 's " civilising mission " and intended for the dam to reaffirm Mozambican belief in the strength and security of the Portuguese colonial government . To this end , Portugal sent three thousand new troops and over one million landmines to Mozambique to defend the building project .
Realising the symbolic significance of the dam to the
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in the adventure instead . " He noted that the game 's plot and visual and aural presentation fit together to create a thick atmosphere , and finished , " Forget all those other milestone adventures ( Zork , The Hobbit , Lord of the Rings et al ) — for sheer enjoyment and general all @-@ round perfection , The Secret of Monkey Island creams ' em all in style . " The game , along with its sequel , was ranked the 19th best game of all time by Amiga Power .
Writing for The One , Paul Presley stated that " Lucasfilm appears to have taken all of the elements that worked in its previous releases and , not only incorporated them into this tale of scurvy swashbuckling , but even improved on them in the process ! " Like the other reviewers , he praised its controls . He also lauded its " hilarious storyline , strong characters and ... intriguing setting " , but complained about graphical slowdowns . Nick Clarkson of Amiga Computing cited the game 's graphics as " flawless " , noting that " the characters are superbly animated and the backdrops simply ooze atmosphere . " He highly praised its sound effects and music , and believed that its controls " couldn 't be simpler " . The staff of Amiga Action wrote that the " attention to detail and the finely tuned gameplay cannot be faulted . " They called the graphics " stunning throughout " , and believed that , when they were combined with the " excellent Caribbean tunes " , the result is a game filled with " character and atmosphere . " They ended by stating that " there is absolutely no excuse for not owning this game . "
The Secret of Monkey Island has featured regularly in lists of " top " games , such as Computer Gaming World 's Hall of Fame and IGN 's Video Game Hall of Fame . In 1996 , Computer Gaming World ranked it as the 19th best game of all time , " writing " Who could ever forget the insult @-@ driven duel system or the identity of the mysterious Swordmaster ? " . In 2004 , readers of Retro Gamer voted it as the 33rd top retro game . In 2010 , IGN ranked the Xbox Live Arcade version as the 20th best title of all time for that platform . In 2009 , IGN named The Secret of Monkey Island one of the ten best LucasArts adventure games .
= = = Special edition = = =
Like the original release , The Secret of Monkey Island : Special Edition received positive reviews from critics . Sean Ely of GamePro praised its updated audio , and said that the new graphics " blow the old clunker visuals ... out of the water " . He cited its script , humor , plot , puzzles and balanced difficulty level as high points , and finished , " The Secret of Monkey Island : Special Edition is impressive , hilarious and downright worth your money . " Daemon Hatfield of IGN wrote , " Almost 20 years after its release , [ The Secret of Monkey Island ] remains a blast to play . " He called the new graphics " slick , if a little generic " , and noted that the " original graphics have a certain charm to them that the fancy pants new visuals just don 't . " However , he enjoyed the redone music , the new hint function , and the added sound effects and voice acting . He summarized it as " one of the best times you 'll ever have pointing and clicking " , and noted that " few games are this funny . " Justin Calvert of GameSpot noted that " the Special Edition looks much better and is the only way to play if you want to hear ... what characters are saying , whereas the original game 's interface is less clunky . " However , he wrote that " the voice work is such a great addition to the game that it 's difficult to go back to the original edition . " He praised its humor , writing , puzzles and characters , and he believed that it had aged well . Eurogamer 's Dan Whitehead wrote , " Purists like me will almost certainly find something to grumble about over the span of the game , but the overall impact of the redesign is undeniably for the better . " However , he preferred the original game 's Guybrush design , and believed that the new control system was " rather less intuitive " than the old one . He finished by stating that " few games can stand the test of time with such confidence " .
= = Legacy = =
The Secret of Monkey Island spawned four sequels . The first , Monkey Island 2 : LeChuck 's Revenge , was released in 1991 and focuses on LeChuck 's return . Six years later , LucasArts released The Curse of Monkey Island , which features a new visual design . In 2000 , the company released Escape from Monkey Island , which uses the GrimE engine of Grim Fandango to produce 3D graphics . The next title , Tales of Monkey Island released in 2009 , is a series of five episodic chapters .
Elements of the game have appeared elsewhere in popular culture . The original version was selected as one of five for the exhibition The Art of Video Games in the Smithsonian American Art Museum in 2011 . A fictive drink recipe in the game for grog was mistakenly reported as real in 2009 by Argentinian news channel C5N , which urged adolescents against consuming the dangerous " Grog XD " drink . In Tales of Monkey Island , Guybrush refers to this news story while pushing the Grog XD button on a Grog machine .
= Temple of Eshmun =
The Temple of Eshmun ( Arabic : معبد أشمون ) is an ancient place of worship dedicated to Eshmun , the Phoenician god of healing . It is located near the Awali river , 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) northeast of Sidon in southwestern Lebanon . The site was occupied from the 7th century BC to the 8th century AD , suggesting an integrated relationship with the nearby city of Sidon . Although originally constructed by Sidonian king Eshmunazar II in the Achaemenid era ( c . 529 – 333 BC ) to celebrate the city 's recovered wealth and stature , the temple complex was greatly expanded by Bodashtart , Yatan @-@ milk and later monarchs . Because the continued expansion spanned many centuries of alternating independence and foreign hegemony , the sanctuary features a wealth of different architectural and decorative styles and influences .
The sanctuary consists of an esplanade and a grand court limited by a huge limestone terrace wall that supports a monumental podium which was once topped by Eshmun 's Graeco @-@ Persian style marble temple . The sanctuary features a series of ritual ablution basins fed by canals channeling water from the Asclepius river ( modern Awali ) and from the sacred " Ydll " spring ; these installations were used for therapeutic and purificatory purposes that characterize the cult of Eshmun . The sanctuary site has yielded many artifacts of value , especially those inscribed with Phoenician texts , providing valuable insight into the site 's history and that of ancient Sidon .
The Eshmun Temple was improved during the early Roman Empire with a colonnade street , but declined after earthquakes and fell into oblivion as Christianity replaced paganism and its large limestone blocks were used to build later structures . The temple site was rediscovered in 1900 by local treasure hunters who stirred the curiosity of international scholars . Maurice Dunand , a French archaeologist , thoroughly excavated the site from 1963 until the beginning of the Lebanese Civil War in 1975 . After the end of the hostilities and the retreat of Israel from Southern Lebanon , the site was rehabilitated and inscribed to the World Heritage Site tentative list .
= = Eshmun = =
Eshmun was the Phoenician god of healing and renewal of life ; he was one of the most important divinities of the Phoenician pantheon and the main male divinity of Sidon . Originally a nature divinity , and a god of spring vegetation , Eshmun was equated to Babylonian deity Tammuz . His role later expanded within the Phoenician pantheon , and he gained celestial and cosmic attributes .
The myth of Eshmun was related by the sixth century Syrian Neoplatonist philosopher Damascius and ninth century Patriarch of Constantinople , Photius . They recount that Eshmun , a young man from Beirut , was hunting in the woods when Astarte saw him and was stricken by his beauty . She harassed him with her amorous pursuit until he emasculated himself with an axe and died . The grieving goddess revived Eshmun and transported him to the heavens where she made him into a god of heaven .
From a historical perspective , the first written mention of Eshmun goes back to 754 BC , the date of the signing of the treaty between Assyrian king Ashur @-@ nirari V and Mati 'el , king of Arpad ; Eshmun figures in the text as a patron of the treaty .
Eshmun was identified with Asclepius as a result of the Hellenic influence over Phoenicia ; the earliest evidence of this equation is given by coins from Amrit and Acre from the third century BC . This fact is exemplified by the Hellenized names of the Awali river which was dubbed Asclepius fluvius , and the Eshmun Temple 's surrounding groves , known as the groves of Asclepius .
= = History = =
= = = Historical background = = =
In the 9th century BC , the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II conquered the Lebanon mountain range and its coastal cities . The new sovereigns exacted tribute from Sidon , along with every other Phoenician city . These payments stimulated Sidon 's search for new means of provisioning and furthered Phoenician emigration and expansion , which peaked in the 8th century BC . When Assyrian king Sargon II died in 705 BC , the Sidonian king Luli joined with the Egyptians and Judah in an unsuccessful rebellion against Assyrian rule , but was forced to flee to Kition ( modern Larnaca in Cyprus ) with the arrival of the Assyrian army headed by Sennacherib , Sargon II 's son and successor . Sennacherib instated Ittobaal on the throne of Sidon and reimposed the annual tribute . When Abdi @-@ Milkutti ascended to Sidon 's throne in 680 BC , he also rebelled against the Assyrians . In response , the Assyrian king Esarhaddon laid siege to the city . Abdi @-@ Milkutti was captured and beheaded in 677 BC after a three @-@ year siege , while his city was destroyed and renamed Kar @-@ Ashur @-@ aha @-@ iddina ( the harbor of Esarhaddon ) . Sidon was stripped of its territory , which was awarded to Baal I , the king of rival Tyre and loyal vassal to Esarhaddon . Baal I and Esarhaddon signed a treaty in 675 in which Eshmun 's name features as one of the deities invoked as guarantors of the covenant .
= = = Construction = = =
Sidon returned to its former level of prosperity while Tyre was besieged for 13 years ( 586 – 573 BC ) by the Chaldean king Nebuchadnezzar II . Nevertheless , the Sidonian king was still held in exile at the court of Babylon . Sidon reclaimed its former standing as Phoenicia 's chief city in the Achaemenid Empire ( c.529 – 333 BC ) . During this period , Xerxes I awarded king Eshmunazar II with the Sharon plain for employing Sidon 's fleet in his service during the Greco @-@ Persian Wars .
Eshmunazar II displayed his new @-@ found wealth by constructing numerous temples to Sidonian divinities . Inscriptions found on the king 's sarcophagus reveal that he and his mother , Amashtarte , built temples to the gods of Sidon , including the Temple of Eshmun by the " Ydll source near the cistern " .
As two series of inscriptions on the foundations of the monumental podium attest , construction of the sanctuary 's podium did not begin until the reign of King Bodashtart . The first set of inscriptions bears the name of Bodashtart alone , while the second contains his name and that of the crown prince Yatan @-@ milk . A Phoenician inscription , located 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) upstream from the temple , that dates to the 14th year of Bodashtart 's reign , alludes to water adduction works from the Awali river to the " Ydll " source that was used for ritual purification at the temple .
= = = Roman era & Decline = = =
The Eshmun sanctuary was damaged by an earthquake in the fourth century BC , which demolished the marble temple atop the podium ; this structure was not rebuilt but many chapels and temples were later annexed at the base of the podium .
The temple site remained a place of pilgrimage in the classical antiquity during the early Roman Empire and until the advent of Christianity , when the cult of Eshmun was banned and a Christian church was built at the temple site across the Roman street from the podium . Remnants and mosaic floors of a Byzantine church can still be seen on the site .
A Roman colonnade was built in the third century , probably by emperor Septimius Severus , and a Roman Villa showed a period of renewed relative importance for the city during the late period of Phoenicia under Roman rule . Furthermore , within the original Phoenician temple site the Romans added the processional stairway , the basins for ablutions and a nymphaeum with pictorial mosaics , that are still largely intact . Worn statuettes of three nymphs stand in the niches of a Roman fountain .
Another earthquake hit Sidon around 570 AD ; Antoninus of Piacenza , an Italian Christian pilgrim , described the city as partly in ruins . For many years after the disappearance of the cult of Eshmun , the sanctuary site was used as a quarry : Emir Fakhr @-@ al @-@ Din II , for example , used its massive blocks to build a bridge over the Awali river in the 17th century .
The site later fell into oblivion until the XIX century
= = = Modern discovery = = =
Between 1737 and 1742 , Richard Pococke , an English anthropologist , toured the Middle East and wrote of what he thought were ruins of defensive walls built with 3 @.@ 7 @-@ metre ( 12 ft ) stone blocks near the Awali river . When the French orientalist Ernest Renan visited the area in 1860 , he noticed that the Awali bridge abutments were built of finely rusticated blocks that originated from an earlier structure . He also noted in his report , Mission de Phénicie , that a local treasure hunter told him of a large edifice near the Awali bridge .
In 1900 , local clandestine treasure hunters digging at the Eshmun Temple site haphazardly discovered inscriptions carved onto the temple 's walls . This discovery stirred the interest of Theodore Macridy , curator of the Museum of Constantinople , who cleared the temple remains between 1901 and 1903 . Wilhelm Von Landau also excavated the site between 1903 and 1904 . In 1920 , Gaston Contenau headed a team of archaeologists who surveyed the temple complex . The first extensive archaeological excavation revealing the Eshmun Temple remains was undertaken by Maurice Dunand between 1963 and 1975 . Archaeological evidence shows that the site was occupied from the seventh century BC to the eighth century AD .
= = = After 1975 = = =
During the Lebanese Civil War and the Israeli occupation of South Lebanon ( 1985 – 2000 ) , the temple site was neglected and was invaded by vegetation overgrowth ; it was cleared and recovered its former condition after the Israeli withdrawal . Today the Eshmun sanctuary can be visited all year round and free of charge , it is accessible from an exit ramp off the main Southern Lebanon highway near Sidon 's northern entrance . The site holds a particular archaeological importance since it is the best preserved Phoenician site in Lebanon ; it was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List 's Cultural category on July 1 , 1996 .
In literature , the temple of Eshmun figures in Nabil Saleh 's 2009 novel , The Curse of Ezekiel as the setting where Bomilcar falls in love and rescues princess Chiboulet from the evil design of one of the temple 's priests .
= = Location = =
A number of ancient texts mention the Eshmun Temple and its location . The Phoenician inscriptions on the sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II , a Sidonian king , commemorate the construction of a " house " for the " holy prince " Eshmun by the king and his mother , queen Amashtart , at the " Ydll source by the cistern " . Dionysius Periegetes , an ancient Greek travel writer , identified the Eshmun temple by the Bostrenos River , and Antonin de Plaisance , a 6th @-@ century AD Italian pilgrim recorded the shrine as near the river Asclepius fluvius.Strabo and other Sidonian sources describe the sanctuary and its surrounding " sacred forests " of Asclepius , the Hellenized name of Eshmun , in written texts .
Located about 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) south of Beirut and 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) northeast of Sidon , the Eshmun Temple sits on the southern bank of the modern Awali river , previously referred to as Bostrenos or Asclepius fluvius in ancient text . Citrus groves , known as Bustan el @-@ Sheikh ( Arabic : بستان الشيخ , the grove of the Sheikh ) , occupy the ancient " sacred forests " of Asclepius and are a favorite summer picnic location for locals .
= = Architecture and description = =
Built under Babylonian rule ( 605 – 539 BC ) , the oldest monument at the site is a pyramidal building resembling a ziggurat that includes an access ramp to a water cistern . Fragments of marble column bases with Torus moldings and facetted columns found east of the podium are also attributed to the Babylonian era .
The pyramidal structure was superimposed during Persian rule by a massive ashlar podium constructed from heavily bossed limestone blocks that measured more than 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) across by 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) thick , which were laid down in courses 1 @-@ metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) high . The podium stands 22 metres ( 72 ft ) high , runs50 metres ( 160 ft ) into the hillside , and boasts a 70 @-@ metre ( 230 ft ) wide façade . The terrace atop of the podium was once covered by a Greco @-@ Persian style marble temple probably built by Ionic artisans around 500 BC . The marble temple has been reduced to a few remaining stone fragments due to theft .
During the Hellenistic period , the sanctuary was extended from the base of the podium across the valley . To the east base of the podium stands a large chapel , 10 @.@ 5 by 11 @.@ 5 metres ( 34 ft × 38 ft ) , dating to the 4th century BC . The chapel was adorned with a paved pool and a large stone throne carved of a single block of granite in the Egyptian style ; it is flanked by two sphinx figures and surrounded by two lion sculptures . The throne , attributed to the Sidonian goddess Astarte , rests against the chapel wall , which is embellished by relief sculptures of hunting scenes . The once important Astarte basin lost its function during the 2nd century AD and was filled with earth and statue fragments . The west base contains another 4th century BC chapel — centered on a bull protome topped capital — that remains preserved at the National Museum of Beirut .
Widely known as the " Tribune of Eshmun " because of its shape , the altar of Eshmun is a white marble structure dating to the 4th century BC . It is 2 @.@ 15 metres ( 7 @.@ 1 ft ) long by 2 @.@ 26 metres ( 7 @.@ 4 ft ) wide and 2 @.@ 17 metres ( 7 @.@ 1 ft ) tall . Unearthed in 1963 by Maurice Dunand , it stands on a limestone socleplated with marble blocks that rest against a retaining wall . The altar is adorned with Hellenistic style relief sculptures and is framed by decorative moldings , one of which divides the altar into two distinct registers of symmetrical composition . The upper register portrays 18 Greek deities , including two charioteers surrounding the Greek god Apollo , who is depicted playing a cithara ( a type of lyre ) . The lower register honors Dionysus , who leads his thiasos ( his ecstatic revenue ) in a dance to the music of pipe and cithara players . The Tribune is displayed at the National Museum of Beirut .
Northeast of the site , another 3rd century BC temple stands adjacent to the Astarte chapel . Its 22 @-@ metre ( 72 ft ) façade is built with large limestone blocks and displays a two @-@ register relief decoration illustrating a drunken revelry in honor of Dionysus , the Greek god of wine . Among the temple reliefs , one shows a man attempting to seize a large rooster which was the common sacrificial animal for Eshmun @-@ Asclepius .
The Eshmun Temple complex comprises an elaborate hydraulic installation channeling water from " Ydll " spring that is made up of an intricate system of water canals , a series of retaining basins , sacred ablution basins and paved pools . This system demonstrates the importance of ritual ablutions in Phoenician therapeutic cults .
Later vestiges date from the Roman epoch and include a colonnaded road lined with shops . Of the large marble columns bordering the Roman street only fragments and bases remain . The Romans also built a monumental staircase adorned with mosaic patterns that leads to the top of the podium . To the right of the Roman road , near the entrance of the site stands a nymphaeum with niches where statues of the nymphs once stood . The floor of the nymphaeum is covered by a mosaic depicting the Maenads . Across the colonnaded road , facing the nymphaeum , are the ruins of a Roman villa ; only the villa 's courtyard has survived along with the remains of a mosaic depicting the four seasons . To the right of the processional Roman staircase stands a cubic altar , also of Roman construction . Other Roman period structures include two columns of a great portico leading to pools and other cultic installations .
= = Function = =
Eshmun 's cult enjoyed a particular importance at Sidon as he was the chief deity after 500 BC . Aside from the extramural sanctuary at Bustan el @-@ Sheikh , Eshmun also had a temple within the city . The extramural Eshmun Temple was associated with purification and healing ; ritual lustral ablutions were performed in the sanctuary 's sacred basins supplemented by running water from the Asclepius River and the " Ydll " spring water which was considered to have a sacred character and therapeutic quality . The healing attributions of Eshmun were combined with his divine consort Astarte 's fertilizing powers ; the latter had an annex chapel with a sacred paved pool within the Eshmun sanctuary . Pilgrims from all over the ancient world flocked to the Eshmun Temple leaving votive traces of their devotion and proof of their cure . There is evidence that from the 3rd century BC onwards there have been attempts to Hellenize the cult of Eshmun and to associate him with his Greek counterpart Asclepius , but the sanctuary retained its curative function .
= = Artifacts and finds = =
Apart from the large decorative elements , carved friezes and mosaics which were left in situ , many artifacts were recovered and moved from the Eshmun Temple to the national museum , the Louvre or are in possession of the Lebanese directorate general of antiquities . Some of these smaller finds include a collection of inscribed ostraca unearthed by Dunand providing rare examples of cursive Phoenician writing in the Phoenician mainland . One of the recovered ostracon bears the theophoric Phoenician name " grtnt " which suggests that veneration of the lunar @-@ goddess Tanit occurred in Sidon .
A number of fragmented votive life @-@ size sculptures of little children lying on their side and holding a pet animal or a small object were also recovered at the temple site ; among the best known of these is a sculpture of a royal child holding a dove with his right hand ; the boy 's head is shaved , his torso is bare and his lower body is wrapped in a large cloth . The socle of this sculpture is inscribed with a dedication from Baalshillem , the son of a Sidonian king to Eshmun , which illustrates the importance of the site to the Sidonian monarchy . These votive sculptures appear to have been purposely broken after dedication to Eshmun and then ceremoniously cast into the sacred canal , probably simulating the sacrifice of the sick child . All of these sculptures represent boys . A31.5 cm × 27 cm ( 12 @.@ 4 in × 10 @.@ 6 in ) limestone bust of a Kouros dating from the 6th century BC was found at the site , but unlike the archaic Greek kouroi this figure is not bare .
Among the notable finds is a golden plaque showing a snake curling on a staff , a Hellenic symbol of Eshmun. and a granite altar bearing the name of Egyptian Pharaoh Achoris uncovered in the Eshmun sanctuary . This gift attests to the good relations between the Pharaoh and the kings of Sidon .
The repute of the sanctuary was far reaching . Cypriot pilgrims from Paphos left marks of their devotion for Astarte on a marble stele inscribed both in Greek and Cypriot syllabary at Astarte 's shrine ; this stele is now in the custody of the Lebanese directorate general of antiquities .
= = Pillaging = =
Treasure hunters have sought out the Eshmun Temple since antiquity ; around 1900 artifacts bearing Phoenician inscriptions from the temple site found their way to Beirutine antiquities markets where they stirred the interest of the Ottoman authorities and prompted a series of archeological digs . During the civil war , upon a request from then Lebanese director general of antiquities Maurice Chehab , Maurice Dunand moved more than 2000 artifacts from Sidon to a subterranean chamber at the Byblos crusader castle , 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) north of Beirut . In 1981 , the depot was looted and around 600 sculptures and architectural elements were stolen and smuggled out of Lebanon . Rolf Stucky , ex @-@ director of the Institute of Classical Archeology of Basel affirmed during a conference in Beirut in December 2009 the successful identification and return of eight sculptures to the Lebanese national museum .
= Wilhelm Busch =
Heinrich Christian Wilhelm Busch ( 15 April 1832 – 9 January 1908 ) was a German humorist , poet , illustrator and painter . He published comic illustrated cautionary tales from 1859 , achieving his most notable works in the 1870s . Busch 's illustrations used wood engraving , and later , zincography .
Busch drew on contemporary parochial and city life , satirizing Catholicism , Philistinism , strict religious morality and bigotry . His comic text was colourful and entertaining , using onomatopoeia , neologisms and other figures of speech , and led to some work being banned by the authorities .
Busch was influential in both poetry and illustration , and became a source for future generations of comic artists . The Katzenjammer Kids was inspired by Busch 's Max and Moritz , one of a number of imitations produced in Germany and the United States . The Wilhelm Busch Prize and the Wilhelm Busch Museum help maintain his legacy . His 175th anniversary in 2007 was celebrated throughout Germany . Busch remains one of the most influential poets and artists in Western Europe .
= = Family background = =
In the late 18th century Johann Georg Kleine , Wilhelm Busch 's maternal grandfather , settled in the small village of Wiedensahl . There , in 1817 , he bought a thatched half @-@ timbered house , where Wilhelm Busch was to be born about 15 years later . Amalie Kleine , Johann 's wife and Wilhelm Busch 's grandmother , kept a shop in which Busch 's mother Henriette assisted while her two brothers attended high school . When Johann Georg Kleine died in 1820 , his widow continued to run the shop with Henriette .
At the age of 19 Henriette Kleine married surgeon Friedrich Wilhelm Stümpe . Henriette became widowed at the age of 26 , with her three children to Stümpe dying as infants . About 1830 Friedrich Wilhelm Busch , the illegitimate son of a farmer , settled in Wiedensahl after completing a business apprenticeship in the nearby village of Loccum . He took over the Kleine shop in Wiedensahl , which he completely modernised .
= = Life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Wilhelm Busch was born on 15 April 1832 , the first of seven children to the marriage of Henriette Kleine and Friedrich Wilhelm Busch . His six siblings followed shortly after : Fanny ( 1834 ) , Gustav ( 1836 ) , Adolf ( 1838 ) , Otto ( 1841 ) , Anna ( 1843 ) and Hermann ( 1845 ) ; all survived childhood . His parents were ambitious , hard @-@ working and devout Protestants who later , despite becoming relatively prosperous , could not afford to educate all three sons . Busch 's biographer Berndt W. Wessling suggested that Friedrich Wilhelm Busch invested heavily in his sons ' education partly because his own illegitimacy held significant stigma in rural areas .
The young Wilhelm Busch was a tall child , but with a rather delicate and graceful physique . The coarse boyishness of his later protagonists " Max and Moritz " was rare in his childhood . He described himself in autobiographical sketches and letters as sensitive and timid , as someone who " carefully studied apprehension " , and who reacted with fascination , compassion and distress when animals were killed in the autumn . He described the " transformation to sausage " as " dreadfully compelling " , leaving a lasting impression ; pork nauseated him throughout his life .
In the autumn of 1841 , after the birth of his brother Otto , Busch 's education was entrusted to the 35 @-@ year @-@ old clergyman Georg Kleine , his maternal uncle at Ebergötzen , this probably through lack of space in the Busch family home , and his father 's desire for a better education than the small local school could provide , where 100 children were taught within a space of 66 m2 ( 710 sq ft ) . The nearest convenient school was located in Bückeburg , 20 km ( 12 mi ) from Wiedensahl . Kleine , with his wife Fanny Petri , lived in a rectory at Ebergötzen , while Busch was lodged with an unrelated family . Kleine and his wife were responsible and caring , exercised a substitute parental role , and provided refuge for him in future unsuccessful times .
Kleine 's private lessons for Busch were also attended by Erich Bachmann , the son of a wealthy Ebergötzen miller . Both became friends , according to Busch the strongest friendship of his childhood . This friendship was echoed in the 1865 story Max and Moritz . A small pencil portrait by the 14 @-@ year @-@ old Busch depicted Bachmann as a chubby , confident boy , and showed similarities with Max . Busch portrayed himself with a " cowlick " , in the later " Moritzian " perky style .
Kleine was a philologist , his lessons not held in contemporary language , and it is not known for certain all subjects Busch and his friend were taught . Busch did learn elementary arithmetic from his uncle , although science lessons might have been more comprehensive , as Kleine , like many other clergymen , was a beekeeper , and published essays and textbooks on the subject — Busch demonstrated his knowledge of bee @-@ keeping in his future stories . Drawing , and German and English poetry , were also taught by Kleine .
Busch had little contact with his natural parents during this period . At the time , the 165 km ( 103 mi ) journey between Wiedensahl and Ebergötzen took three days by horse . His father visited Ebergötzen two to three times a year , while his mother stayed in Wiedensahl to look after the children . The 12 @-@ year @-@ old Busch visited his family once ; his mother at first did not recognize him . Some Busch biographers think that this early separation from his parents , especially from his mother , resulted in his eccentric bachelorhood . In the autumn of 1846 , Busch moved with the Kleine 's to Lüthorst , where , on 11 April 1847 , he was confirmed .
= = = Study = = =
In September 1847 Busch began studying mechanical engineering at Hanover Polytechnic . Busch 's biographers are not in agreement as to why his Hanover education ended ; most believe that his father had little appreciation of his son 's artistic inclination . Biographer Eva Weissweiler suspects that Kleine played a major role , and that other possible causes were Busch 's friendship with an innkeeper , Brümmer , political debates in Brümmer 's tavern , and Busch 's reluctance to believe every word of the Bible and catechism .
Busch studied for nearly four years at Hanover , despite initial difficulties in understanding the subject matter . A few months before graduation he confronted his parents with his aspiration to study at the Düsseldorf Art Academy . According to Bush 's nephew Hermann Nöldeke , his mother supported this inclination . His father eventually acquiesced and Busch moved to Düsseldorf in June 1851 , where , to his disappointment at not being admitted to the advanced class , he entered preparatory classes . Busch 's parents had his tuition fees paid for one year , so in May 1852 he traveled to Antwerp to continue study at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts under Josephus Laurentius Dyckmans . He led his parents to believe that the Academy was less regimented than Düsseldorf , and had the opportunity to study old masters . At Antwerp he saw for the first time paintings by Peter Paul Rubens , Adriaen Brouwer , David Teniers and Frans Hals . The pictures aroused his interest , but made him doubt his own skills . Eventually , in 1853 , after suffering heavily from typhus , he abandoned his Antwerp studies and returned penniless to Wiedensahl .
= = = Munich = = =
Busch was ravaged by disease , and for five months spent time painting and collecting folk tales , legends , songs , ballads , rhymes and fragments of regional superstitions . Busch 's biographer Joseph Kraus saw these collections as useful additions to folklore , as Busch noted the narrative background to tales and the idiosyncrasies of storytellers . Busch tried to release the collections , but as a publisher could not be found at the time they were issued after his death . During the Nazi era Busch was known as an " ethnic seer " .
After Busch had spent six months with his uncle Kleine at Lüthorst , he expressed an aim to continue study in Munich . This request caused a rift with his father who , however , eventually funded this move ; - see for comparison Busch 's illustrated story of Painter Klecksel . Busch 's expectations of the Munich Academy of Fine Arts were not met . His life became aimless ; there were occasional return visits to Lüthorst , but contact with his parents had been broken off . In 1857 and 1858 , as his position seemed to be without prospects , he contemplated emigration to Brazil to keep bees .
Busch made contact with the artist association Jung München ( Young Munich ) , met several notable Munich artists , and wrote and provided cartoons for the Jung München newspaper . Kaspar Braun , who published the satirical newspapers Münchener Bilderbogen ( Picture Sheets from Munich ) and Fliegende Blätter ( Flying Leaves ) , proposed a collaboration with Busch . This association provided Busch with sufficient funds to live . An existing self @-@ caricature suggests that at this time he had an intense relationship with a woman from Ammerland . His courtship with a seventeen @-@ year @-@ old merchant 's daughter , Anna Richter , whom Busch met through his brother Gustav , ended in 1862 . Busch 's biographer , Diers , suggests that her father probably refused to entrust his daughter to an almost unknown artist without regular income .
In his early Munich years Busch 's attempt to write libretti , which are almost forgotten today , were unsuccessful . Up to 1863 he worked on two or three major works ; the third was composed by Georg Kremplsetzer . Busch 's Liebestreu und Grausamkeit , a romantic opera in three acts , Hansel und Gretel and Der Vetter auf Besuch , an opera buffa of sorts , were not particularly successful . There was a dispute between Busch and Kremplsetzer during the staging of Der Vetter auf Besuch , leading to the removal of Busch 's name from the production ; the piece was renamed Singspiel von Georg Kremplsetzer .
In 1873 Busch returned several times to Munich , and took part in the intense life of the Munich Art Society as an escape from provincial life . In 1877 , in a last attempt to be a serious artist , he took a studio in Munich . He left Munich abruptly in 1881 , after he disrupted a variety show and subsequently made a scene through the effects of alcohol The 1878 nine episode illustrated tale Eight Sheets in the Wind describes how humans behave like animals when drunk . Busch 's biographer Weissweiler felt the story was only superficially funny and harmless , but was a study on addiction and its induced state of delusion .
= = = Publication of Max and Moritz = = =
Between 1860 and 1863 Busch wrote over one hundred articles for the Münchener Bilderbogen and Fliegende Blätter , but he felt his dependence on publisher Kaspar Braun had become constricting . Busch appointed Dresden publisher Heinrich Richter , the son of Saxon painter Ludwig Richter , as his new publisher — Richter 's press up to that time was producing children 's books and religious Christian devotional literature . Busch could choose themes , although Richter raised some concerns regarding four suggested illustrated tales that were proposed . However , some were published in the 1864 as Bilderpossen , proving a failure . Busch then offered Richter the manuscripts of Max and Moritz , waiving any fees . Richter rejected the manuscript as sales prospects seemed poor . Busch 's former publisher , Braun , purchased the right to Max and Moritz for 1 @,@ 000 gulden , corresponding to approximately double the annual wage of a craftsman .
For Braun the manuscript was fortuitous . Initially the sales of Max and Moritz were slow , but sales figures improved after the 1868 second edition . Overall there were 56 editions and more than 430 @,@ 000 copies sold up to Busch 's death in 1908 . Despite at first being ignored by critics , teachers in the 1870s described Max and Moritz as frivolous and an undesirable influence on the moral development of young people .
= = = Frankfurt = = =
Increasing economic success allowed Busch to visit Wiedensahl more frequently . Busch had decided to leave Munich , as only few relatives lived there , and the artists ' association was temporarily disbanded . In June 1867 Busch met his brother Otto for the first time , in Frankfurt . Otto was working as a tutor to the family of a wealthy banker and industrialist , Kessler . Busch became friends with Kessler 's wife , Johanna , a mother of seven and an influential art and music patron of Frankfurt . She regularly opened salons at her villa , frequented by artists , musicians and philosophers . She believed Busch to be a great painter , a view supported by Anton Burger , a leading painter of the Kronberger Malerkolonie , the Kronberg @-@ based group of painters . While his humorous drawings did not appeal to her , she supported his painting career . At first she established an apartment and studio for Busch in her villa , later providing him with an apartment nearby . Motivated by Kessler 's support and admiration , and introduction to the cultural life of Frankfurt , the ' Frankfurter Years ' were the most artistically productive for Busch . At this time he and Otto discovered the philosophical works of Arthur Schopenhauer .
Busch did not remain in Frankfurt . Towards the end of the 1860s he alternated between Wiedensahl and Lüthorst , and Wolfenbüttel where his brother Gustav lived . The association with Johanna Kessler lasted five years , and after his return to Wiedensahl in 1872 they communicated by letter . This contact was interrupted between 1877 and 1891 , after which it was revived with the help of Kessler 's daughters .
= = = Later life = = =
Biographer Weissweiler does not dismiss the possibility that Busch 's increasing alcohol dependence hindered self @-@ criticism . He refused invitations to parties , and publisher Otto Basserman sent him to Wiedensahl to keep his alcohol problem undetected from those around him . Busch was also a heavy smoker , resulting in symptoms of severe nicotine poisoning in 1874 . He began to illustrate drunkards more often .
Dutch writer Marie Anderson corresponded with Busch . More than fifty letters were exchanged between January and October 1875 in which they discussed philosophy , religion and ethics . Although only one Anderson letter survives , Busch 's letters are in manuscripts . They met in Mainz in October 1875 , after which he returned to Basserman at Heidelback in a " horrible mood " . According to several people at the time , Busch 's failure to find a wife was responsible for his conspicuous behaviour . There is no evidence that Busch had a close relationship with any woman after that with Anderson .
Busch lived with his sister Fanny 's family after her husband Pastor Hermann Nöldeke 's death in 1879 . His nephew Adolf Nöldeke remembers that Busch wanted to move back to Wiedensahl with the family . Busch renovated the house , which Fanny looked after even though he was a rich man , and became " father " to his three young nephews . She would , however , have preferred to live in a more urban area for the education of her sons . For Fanny and her three sons , Busch could not replace their former idyllic life . The years around 1880 were psychically and emotionally exhausting for Busch , who was still reliant on alcohol . He would not invite visitors to Wiedensahl ; because of this Fanny lost contact with her friends in the village , and whenever she questioned his wishes , Busch became furious ; Even his friends Otto Friedrich Bassermann , Franz von Lenbach , Hermann Levi and Wilhelm von Kaulbach were not invited ; he would meet them in Kassel or Hanover .
Busch stopped painting in 1896 and signed @-@ over all publication rights to Bassermann Verlag for 50 @,@ 000 gold marks . Busch , now aged 64 , felt old . He needed spectacles for writing and painting , and his hands trembled slightly . In 1898 , together with his aging sister Fanny Nöldeke , he accepted Bassermann 's suggestion to move into a large parsonage in Mechtshausen . Busch read biographies , novels and stories in German , English and French . He organized his works and wrote letters and poems . Most of the poems from the collections Schein und Sein and Zu guter Letzt were written in 1899 . The following years were eventless for Busch . He developed a sore throat in early January 1908 , and his doctor detected a weak heart . During the night of 8 – 9 January 1908 Busch slept uneasily , taking camphor , and a few drops of morphine as a tranquilizer . Busch died the following morning before his physician , called by Otto Nöldeke , came to assist .
= = Work = =
During the Frankfort period Busch published three self @-@ contained illustrated satires . Their anti @-@ clerical themes proved popular during the Kulturkampf . Busch 's satires typically did not address political questions , but exaggerated churcheyness , superstition and philistine double @-@ standards . This exaggeration made at least two of the works historically erroneous . The third illustrated satire , Father Filucius ( Pater Filucius ) , described by Busch as an " allegorical mayfly " , has greater historical context .
= = = Max and Moritz = = =
In German Eine Bubengeschichte in sieben Streichen , Max and Moritz is a series of seven illustrated stories concerning the mischievous antics of two boys , who are eventually ground @-@ down and fed to ducks .
= = = Saint Antonius of Padua and Helen Who Couldn 't Help It = = =
In Saint Antonius of Padua ( Der Heilige Antonius von Padua ) Busch challenges Catholic belief . It was released by the publisher Moritz Schauenburg at the time Pope Pius IX proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility that was harshly criticized by Protestants . The publisher 's works were heavily scrutinized or censored , and the state 's attorney in Offenburg charged Schauenberg with " vilification of religion and offending public decency through indecent writings " — a decision which affected Busch . Scenes of Antonius accompanied by a pig being admitted to heaven , and the devil being shown as a half @-@ naked ballet dancer seducing Antonius , were deemed controversial . The district court of Düsseldorf subsequently banned Saint Antonius . Schauenburg was acquitted on 27 March 1871 in Offenburg , but in Austria the satire 's distribution was prohibited until 1902 . Schauenburg refused to publish further Busch satires to avoid future accusations .
Busch 's following work , Helen Who Couldn 't Help It ( Die fromme Helene ) , was published by Otto Friedrich Bassermann , a friend whom Busch met in Munich . Helen Who Couldn 't Help It , which was soon translated into other European languages , satirizes religious hypocrisy and dubious morality :
Many details from Helen Who Couldn 't Help It criticizes the way of life of the Kesslers . Johanna Kessler was married to a much older man and entrusted her children to governesses and tutors , while she played an active role in the social life of Frankfurt .
The character of Mr. Schmock — the name based on the Yiddish insult " schmuck " — shows similarities with Johanna Kessler 's husband , who was uninterested in art and culture .
In the second part of Helen Who Couldn 't Help It Busch attacks Catholic pilgrimages . The childless Helen goes on a pilgrimage , accompanied by her cousin and Catholic priest Franz . The pilgrimage is successful as later Helen gives birth to twins , who resemble Helen and Franz . Franz is later killed by a jealous valet , Jean , for his interest in female kitchen staff . The now widowed Helen is left with only a rosary , prayer book and alcohol . Drunk , she falls into a burning oil lamp . Finally , Nolte coins a moral phrase , echoing the philosophy of Schopenhauer :
Pater Filucius ( Father Filucius ) is the only illustrated satire of this period suggested by the publisher . Also aimed at anti @-@ Catholic taste and buyers , it criticizes the Jesuit Order . Kraus felt it was the weakest of all three anti @-@ clerical works . Some satires refer to contemporary events , such as Monsieur Jacques à Paris during the Siege of 1870 ( Monsieur Jacques à Paris während der Belagerung von 1870 ) . Busch biographer Manuela Diers declares the story " tasteless work , drawing on anti @-@ French emotions and mocking the misery of French people in Paris , which is occupied by Prussian troops " . It depicts an increasingly desperate French citizen who at first eats a mouse during the German siege , then amputates his dog 's tail to cook it , and finally invents an explosion pill which kills his dog and two fellow citizens . Weissweiler believes that Busch wrote with irony . In Eginhard and Emma ( 1864 ) , a fictional family story that takes place in the Charlemagne era , he criticizes the Holy Roman Empire and calls for a German empire in its place ; in The Birthday or the Particularists ( Der Geburtstag oder die Partikularisten ) he satirizes the anti @-@ Prussian sentiments of his Hanover countrymen .
= = = Critique of the Heart = = =
Busch did not write further illustrated tales for a while , and focused on the literary Kritik des Herzens ( Critique of the Heart ) , wanting to appear more serious to his readers . Contemporary reception for the collection of 81 poems was mainly poor ; it was criticized for its focus on marriage and sexuality . His long @-@ time friend Paul Lindau called it " very serious , heartfelt , charming poems " . Dutch writer Marie Anderson was one of few people who enjoyed his Kritik des Herzens , and even planned to publish it in a Dutch newspaper .
= = = Adventures of a Bachelor = = =
Notwithstanding the hiatus after moving from Frankfurt , the 1870s were one of Busch 's most productive decades . In 1874 he produced the short illustrated tale Diddle @-@ Boom ! ( Dideldum ! ) .
Following , in 1875 , was the Knopp Trilogy , about the life of Tobias Knopp : Adventures of a Bachelor ( Abenteuer eines Junggesellen ) , Mr. and Mrs. Knopp ( Herr und Frau Knopp ) ( 1876 ) , and " Julie " ( Julchen ) ( 1877 ) . The antagonists of the trilogy are not pairs of nuisances as with Max and Moritz or Jack Crook , Bird of Evil ( Hans Huckebein , der Unglücksrabe ) . Without pathos , Busch makes Knopp become aware of his mortality :
In the first part of the trilogy , Knopp is depressed and will look for a wife . He visits his old friends and their wives who he finds in unenviable relationships . Still not convinced that the life of a bachelor is one for him , he returns home , and without further ado proposes to his housekeeper . The following marriage proposal is , according to Busch biographer Joseph Kraus , one of the shortest in the history of German literature :
According to Wessling , Busch became skeptical of marriage after writing the story . To Marie Anderson he wrote : " I will never marry ( ... ) I am already in good hands with my sister " .
= = = Last works = = =
Among Busch 's last works were the stories Clement Dove , the Poet Thwarted ( Balduin Bählamm , der verhinderte Dichter ) ( 1883 ) and Painter Squirtle ( Maler Klecksel ) ( 1884 ) , both of which focus on artistic failure , and indirectly his own failure . Both stories begin with a preface , which , for biographer Joseph Kraus , were bravura pieces of " Komische Lyrik " — German comic poetry . Clement Dove ridicules the bourgeois amateur poet circle of Munich , " The Crocodiles " ( Die Krokodile ) , and their prominent members Emanuel Geibel , Paul von Heyse and Adolf Wilbrandt . Painter Squirtle criticizes the bourgeois art connoisseur , who believes the worth of art is gauged by its price .
The prose play Edwards Dream ( Eduards Traum ) was released in 1891 , composed of several small grouped episodes , rather than one linear storyline . The work received mixed reception . Joseph Kraus felt it was the peak of Busch 's life 's work , his nephews called it a masterwork of world literature , and the publisher of a critical collective edition spoke of a narrative style that is not found in contemporary literature . Eva Weissweiler saw in the play Busch 's attempt to prove himself in the novella genre , believing that everything that angered or insulted him , and his accompanying emotional depths , are apparent in the story . The 1895 story The Butterfly ( Der Schmetterling ) parodies themes and motifs and ridicules the religious optimism of a German romanticism which contradicted Busch 's realistic anthropology influenced by Schopenhauer and Charles Darwin . Its prose is more stringent in narrative style compared to Edwards Dream . Both were not popular amongst readers , because of their unfamiliar style .
= = = Painting = = =
Busch felt his painting skills could not compete with those of the Dutch masters . He regarded few of his paintings as finished , often stacking them one on top of the other in damp corners of his studio , where they stuck together . If the pile of paintings became too high , he burnt some in his garden . Since only a few remaining pictures are dated , categorizing them is difficult . His doubts regarding his skills are expressed in his choice of materials . His ground was usually chosen carelessly . Sometimes he used uneven cardboard or poorly @-@ prepared spruce @-@ wood boards . One exception is a portrait of Johanna Kessler , on a canvas support measuring 63 centimetres ( 25 in ) by 53 centimetres ( 21 in ) , one of his largest paintings . Most of his works , even landscapes , are small . As Busch used poor grounds and colours , most are heavily darkened and have an almost monochrome effect .
Many pictures depict the countryside at Wiedensahl and Lüthorst . They include pollarded willows , cottages in cornfields , cowherds , autumn landscapes and meadows with streams . A particular feature is the use of red jackets , found in about 280 of 1000 Busch paintings and drawings . The muted or bright red coats are worn usually by a small figure , depicted from behind . The paintings generally represent typical villages . Portraits of the Kesslers , and a series of other portraits depicting Lina Weissenborn in the mid @-@ 1870s , are exceptions . A painting of a 10 @-@ year @-@ old girl from a Jewish family at Lüthorst portrays her as serious , and having dark , oriental features .
The influence of Dutch painters is clearly visible in Busch 's work . " Hals diluted and shortened ( ... ) but still Halsian " , wrote Paul Klee after visiting a Busch memorial exhibition in 1908 . A strong influence on Busch was Adriaen Brouwer , whose themes were farming and inn life , rustic dances , card players , smokers , drunkards and rowdies . He dismissed the techniques of Impressionism with its strong preoccupation with the effect of light , and used new colours , such as Aniline Yellow , and photographs , as an aid . The landscapes from the mid @-@ 1880s show the same broad brushstrokes as seen in the paintings of the young Franz von Lenbach . Busch refused to exhibit work even though he was befriended by many artists of the Munich School , which would have allowed him to do so ; it was not until near the end of his life that he presented his paintings to the public .
= = Themes , technique and style = =
Busch biographer Joseph Kraus divided his work into three periods . He points out , however , that this classification is a simplification , as some works by their nature can be of a later or earlier period . All three periods show Busch 's obsession with German middle class life . His peasants are devoid of sensitivity and village life is marked by a vivid lack of sentiment .
From 1858 to 1865 Busch chiefly worked for the Fliegenden Blätter and the Münchener Bilderbogen . The period from 1866 to 1884 is characterized by his major illustrated stories , such as Helen Who Couldn 't Help It . These stories are different in theme from works of his earlier period . The life of his characters start well , but disintegrate , as in Painter Squirtle ( Maler Klecksel ) ; someone sensitive who becomes a pedant . Others concern recalcitrant children or animals , or make the great or significant foolish and ridiculous . The early stories follow the pattern of children 's books of orthodox education , such as those by Heinrich Hoffmann 's Struwwelpeter , that aim to teach the devastating consequences of bad behaviour . Busch did not assign value to his work , as he once explained to Heinrich Richter : " I look at my things for what they are , as Nuremberg trinkets [ toys ] , as Schnurr Pfeiferen [ worthless and useless things ] whose value is to be found not in its artistic content , but in public demand ( ... ) " .
From 1885 until his death in 1908 his work was dominated by prose and poems . The 1895 prose text Der Schmetterling contains autobiographical accounts . Peter 's enchantment by the witch Lucinde , of whom he regards himself a slave , is possibly in reference to Johanna Kessler . Peter , like Busch , returns to his birthplace . It is similar in style to the romantic travel story that Ludwig Tieck established with his 1798 Franz Sternbald 's Wanderungen . Busch plays with its traditional forms , motifs , pictures , literary topics and form of narration .
= = = Technique = = =
Publisher Kaspar Braun , who commissioned Busch 's first illustrations , had established the first workshop in Germany to use wood engraving . This letterpress printing technique was developed by English graphic artist Thomas Bewick near the end of the 18th century and became the most widely used reproduction system for illustrations over the years . Busch insisted on first making the drawings , afterwards writing the verse . Surviving preparatory drawings show line notes , ideas , and movement and physiognomy studies . The draft was then transferred by pencil on white @-@ primed panels of hardwood end grain . Not only was it hard work , but the quality of the printing block was crucial . Everything left white on the block , around Busch 's drawn lines , was cut from the plate by skilled engravers . Wood engraving allows a finer differentiation than woodcut and the potential tonal values are of almost the quality of intaglio printing , such as copper engraving . Sometimes the result was not satisfactory , leading Busch to rework or reproduce plates . The wood engraving technique did not allow for fine lines , which is why Busch 's drawing , especially in his illustrated tales up to the mid @-@ 1870s , are boldly drawn , giving his work its particular characteristic .
From the mid @-@ 1870s Busch 's illustrations were printed using zincography . With this technique there was no longer any danger that a wood engraver could change the character of his drawings . The originals were photographed and transferred onto a photosensitive zinc plate . This process allowed for the application of a clear , free pen @-@ drawn ink line , and was a much faster printing method . Busch 's use of zincography began with Mr. and Mrs. Knopp .
= = = Language = = =
The effect of Busch 's illustrations are enhanced by his forthright verse , with taunts , derision , ironic twists , exaggeration , ambiguity and startling rhymes . His language had an influence on the humorous poetry of Erich Kästner , Kurt Tucholsky , Joachim Ringelnatz and Christian Morgenstern . The contrast in his later work between comic illustration and its seemingly serious accompanying text — already demonstrated in his earlier Max and Moritz — is shown in Widow Bolte 's mawkish dignity which is disproportionate to the loss of her chickens :
Many of Brusch 's couplets , part of contemporary common usage , give the impression of weighty wisdom , but in his hands become only apparent truths , hypocrisy or platitudes . His use of onomatopoeia is a characteristic of his work : " Allez @-@ oop @-@ da " — Max and Moritz steal fried chickens with a fishing rod down a chimney — " reeker @-@ rawker " ; " at the plank from bank to bank " ; " rickle @-@ rackle " , " hear the millstones grind and crackle " ; and " tinkly @-@ clinket " as Eric the cat rips a chandelier from a ceiling in Helen Who Couldn 't Help It . Busch uses names he gives characters to describe their personality . " Studiosus Döppe " ( Young Bumbel ) has little mental ability ; " Sauerbrots " ( Sourdough ) would not be of a cheerful disposition ; and " Förster Knarrtje " ( Forester Knarrtje ) could hardly be a socialite .
Many of his picture stories use verses with trochee structure :
The overweighting of the stressed syllables strengthens the humour of the lines . Busch also uses dactyls , where one accented syllable is followed by two unaccented syllables , as in his Plisch und Plum , where they underline the pedantic and solemn words with which teacher Bokelmann educates his pupils . They create tension in the Sourdough chapter from Adventures of a Bachelor , through the alternation of trochees and dactyls . Busch often synchronizes format and content in his poems , as in Fips the Monkey , where he uses the epic hexameter in a speech about wisdom .
In both his illustrations and poems Busch uses familiar fables , occasionally appropriating their morality and stories , spinning them to illustrate a very different and comic " truth " , and bringing to bear his pessimistic view of the world and human condition . While traditional fables follow the typical philosophy of differentiating between good and evil behaviour , Busch combines both .
= = = Canings and other cruelties = = =
It is not unusual to see thrashing , tormenting and caning in Busch 's works . Sharp pencils pierced through models , housewives fall onto kitchen knives , thieves are spiked by umbrellas , tailors cut their tormentors with scissors , rascals are ground in corn mills , drunkards burn , and cats , dogs and monkeys defecate while being tormented . Busch has been frequently called a sadist by educators and psychologists . Tails that are burnt , pulled off , trapped , stretched or eaten is seen by Weissweiler as not aggression against animals , but a phallic allusion to Busch 's undeveloped sexual life . Such graphic text and imagery in cartoon form was not unusual at the time , and publishers , the public or censors found it not particularly noteworthy . Topics and motifs for his early work were derived from 18th- and 19th @-@ century popular literature , the gruesome endings of which he often softened .
Caning , a common aspect of 19th @-@ century teaching , is prevalent in many of his works , for example Meister Druff in Adventures of a Bachelor and Lehrer Bokelmann in Plish and Plum , where is shown an almost sexual pleasure in applying punishment . Beatings and humiliation are found in his later work too ; biographer Gudrun Schury described this as Busch 's life @-@ motif .
In the estate of Busch there is the note " Durch die Kinderjahre hindurchgeprügelt " ( Beaten through the childhood years ) , however there is no evidence that Busch was referring to himself . He couldn 't recall any beating from his father . His uncle Kleine beat him once , not with the conventional rattan stick , but symbolically with dried dahlia stalks , this for stuffing cow hairs into a village idiot 's pipe . Weissweiler observes that Busch probably saw canings at his village school , where he went for three years , and quite possibly also received this punishment . In Abenteuer eines Junggesellen Busch illustrates a form of nonviolent progressive education that fails in one scene , and caning in the following scene ; the canings that ensued indicate Busch 's pessimistic picture of life , which has its roots in the Protestant ethic of the 19th century , in which he believed that man is inherently evil and will never master his vices . Civilisation is the aim of education , but it can only mask man 's instincts superficially . Gentleness only leads to a continuation of man 's misdeeds , therefore punishment is required , even if he retains his unrepentant character , becomes a trained puppet , or in extreme cases , dies .
= = = Antisemitism = = =
The Panic of 1873 led to growing criticism of high finance and the spread of radical Antisemitism , which in the 1880s became a broad undercurrent . These criticisms saw a separation of capital into what was construed as " raffendes " ( speculative capital ) , and what constituted " constructive " creative production capital . The " good " , " native " and " German " manufacturer was praised by Antisemitic agitators , such as Theodor Fritsch , who opposed what he saw as " ' rapacious ' ' greedy ' , ' blood @-@ sucking ' , ' Jewish ' financial capitalism in the form of ' plutocrats ' and ' usurers ' " . Busch was thought to have embraced those stereotypes . Two passages are often underlined , one in Helen Who Couldn 't Help It :
Robert Gernhardt defended Busch by stating that Jews are satirized only in three passages , of which the oldest is an illustration of a text by another author , published in 1860 . He stated that Busch 's Jewish figures are merely stereotypical , one of a number of stereotypes , such as the " limited Bavarian farmer " and the " Prussian tourist " . Joseph Kraus shares the same view , and uses a couplet from Eight Sheets in the Wind ( Die Haarbeutel ) , in which profit @-@ seeking people are :
Although Gernhardt felt that Jews for Busch were alien , the Jewish conductor Hermann Levi befriended him , suggesting that Busch had a slight bias towards Jews .
= = Biographies = =
The first biography on Busch , Über Wilhelm Busch und seine Bedeutung ( About Wilhelm Busch and His Importance ) , was released in 1886 . The publisher Eduard Daelen , also an artist and writer , echoed Busch 's anti @-@ Catholic bias , putting him on equal footing with Leonardo da Vinci , Peter Paul Rubens and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz , and uncritically quoting correspondences . Even Busch and his friends were embarrassed . Literary scholar Friedrich Theodor Vischer attacked Daelen 's biography and called him the " envious eunuch of the desiccated Philistine " . After reading this biography Johannes Proelß posted an essay in the Frankfurter Zeitung , which contained many biographical falsehoods — as a response to this , Busch wrote two articles in the same newspaper . Published in October and December 1886 , the autobiographical essay Regarding Myself ( Was Mich Betrifft ) includes basic facts , and some description of his troubles ; analysts see within the essay a deep identity crisis . Busch revised his autobiography over the following years . The last such essay was published under the title From Me About Me ( Von mir über mich ) , which includes fewer biographical details and less reflection on bitterness and amusement than Regarding Myself .
= = Legacy = =
Busch celebrated his 70th anniversary at his nephew 's house in Hattorf am Harz . Over 1 @,@ 000 congratulatory messages were sent to Mechtshausen from around the world . Wilhelm II praised the poet and artist , whose " exquisite works are full of genuine humour and are everlasting for the German people " . The Austrian Alldeutsche Vereinigung ( Pan @-@ German Association ) repealed the ban on Der heilige Antonius von Padua . Verlag Braun & Schneider , who owned the rights of Max and Moritz , gave Busch 20 @,@ 000 Reichsmark ( around € 200 @,@ 000 or $ 270 @,@ 000 ) , which was donated to two hospitals in Hanover .
Since then , on the dates of his birth and death , he has been celebrated frequently . During the 175th anniversary in 2007 , there were numerous re @-@ publications of Busch works . Deutsche Post issued stamps depicting the Busch character Hans Huckebein — itself the inspiration for the nickname of the never @-@ built Focke @-@ Wulf Ta 183 German jet fighter design of 1945 — and the German Republic minted a 10 Euro silver coin faced with his portrait . Hanover declared 2007 the " Wilhelm Busch Year " , with images featuring Busch works erected within the city centre .
The Wilhelm Busch Prize is awarded annually for satirical and humorous poetry . The Wilhelm Busch Society , active since 1930 , aims to " ( ... ) collect , scientifically revise and promote Wilhelm Busch 's works with the public " . It supports the development of caricature and satirical artwork as a recognized branch of the visual arts . It is an advocate of the Wilhelm Busch Museum . Memorials are located in places he lived , including Wiedensahl , Ebergötzen , Lüthorst , Mechtshausen and Hattorf am Harz .
= = = Influence on comics = = =
Andreas C. Knigge described Busch as the " first virtuoso " of illustrated stories . From the second half of the 20th century he was considered the " Forefather of Comics " . His early illustrations differ from those of the colleagues of Kaspar Braun . They show an increasing focus on protagonists , are less detailed in drawing and atmosphere , and develop from a dramatic understanding of the whole story . All Busch 's illustrated tales have a plot that firstly describes the circumstance , then a resulting conflict , then solution . Plots are developed through consecutive scenes , similar to film storyboards . Busch conveys an impression of movement and action , at times strengthened through a change of perspective . According to Gert Ueding , his depiction of movement is unique .
One of Busch 's notable stories is Der Virtuos ( 1865 ) , which describes the life of a pianist who plays privately for an excited listener . Satirizing the self @-@ publicizing artist 's attitude and his overblown adoration , it varies from Busch 's other stories as each scene does not contain prose , but is defined with music terminology , such as " Introduzione " , " Maestoso " and " Fortissimo vivacissimo " . As the scenes increase in tempo , each part of his body and lappet run around . The penultimate scene again depicts the pianist 's movements , with score sheets floating above the grand piano on which musical notes are dancing . Over the years graphic artists have been fascinated by Der Virtuos . August Macke , in a letter to gallery owner Herwarth Walden , described Busch as the first Futurist , stating how well he captured time and movement . Similar pioneering scenes are in Bilder zur Jobsiade ( 1872 ) . Job fails to answer rather easy questions set by twelve clergy , who shake their heads in synchronicity . Each scene is a movement study that presages Eadweard Muybridge 's photography . Muybridge began his work in 1872 , not released until 1893 .
= = = " Moritzian " influence = = =
Busch 's greatest success , both within Germany and internationally , was with Max and Moritz : Up to the time of his death it was translated into English , Danish , Hebrew , Japanese , Latin , Polish , Portuguese , Russian , Hungarian , Swedish and Walloonian . Several countries banned the story – about 1929 the Styrian school board prohibited sales of Max and Moritz to teens under eighteen . By 1997 more than 281 dialect and language translations had been produced .
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variable due to the contrasting air masses and frontal storms . The Pampero wind brings in cold , dry air from the south while warm humid tropical air produces sultry nortes ( a gentle wind usually from the northeast formed by trade winds and the South Atlantic High that brings cloudy , hot , and humid weather and is responsible for bringing heat waves ) . Often , the passage of the Pampero winds occurs as a cold front passes through , leading to strong gusts from the south or southeast , a decrease in humidity and temperature , and an increase in the atmospheric pressure . When the cold Pampero winds meet with warm humid air from the north , thunderstorms are produced . The Sudestada winds are formed when a high pressure system located in southern Argentina interacts with a low pressure system over Uruguay and southern Brazil . When Sudestadas form , they bring long periods of precipitation , cloudy weather and cooler temperatures . These are common during the winter months . Because the Sudestada brings the highest wind speeds ( particularly when these winds are combined with the astronomical tides ) , the Sudestada is responsible for floods that occur in low @-@ lying areas . Its geomorphology along with inadequate drainage network and infrastructure , a flat landscape , and low elevations ( much of Buenos Aires lies between 4 and 24 metres ( 13 and 79 ft ) above sea level ) makes Buenos Aires highly vulnerable to flooding , particularly during heavy rainfall . Flooding impacts the neighbourhoods La Boca and Barracas which are in the southern parts of the city , more low @-@ lying and inhabited by poor people ( of low socioeconomic status ) .
The urban heat island makes the city warmer than suburban and rural areas . On average , Buenos Aires is warmer than the surrounding areas by 1 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 5 ° C ( 2 @.@ 7 to 6 @.@ 3 ° F ) owing to the urban heat island . The average heat island is in summer than in winter . This varies by season ; its influence during the day is the strongest in July than in January . In contrast , the urban heat island effect during nights is the most intense in January than in July .
The El Niño – Southern Oscillation is a major factor in the variation of annual precipitation within Buenos Aires and the Pampas , particularly during spring and summer . During an El Niño year , precipitation is higher , with a significant increase in precipitation from November to January . In contrast , La Niña years are associated with lower precipitation ; precipitation is below average during October – December .
= = Seasonal weather = =
= = = Spring = = =
Springs in Buenos Aires are typically mild during the day with cool to cold nights . The average high is 22 @.@ 5 ° C ( 72 @.@ 5 ° F ) while the average low is 13 @.@ 2 ° C ( 55 @.@ 8 ° F ) . It is one of the rainiest seasons in the city , averaging 316 @.@ 5 mm ( 12 @.@ 46 in ) of precipitation and 28 days with measurable precipitation . Nonetheless , most precipitation events are short in duration .
Spring is characterized by changeable weather with temperatures that can fluctuate . Cold polar air from the south can bring cooler temperatures . An extreme example of this was in November 2007 , when cold polar air from the south brought temperatures down to 2 @.@ 5 ° C ( 36 @.@ 5 ° F ) on the morning of November 15 . The same polar air affected many parts of the country , bringing cold temperatures and snow in coastal parts of Patagonia . In contrast , hot humid air from the north produces sultry days ; the highest temperature recorded in spring is 36 @.@ 8 ° C ( 98 @.@ 2 ° F ) on 27 November 1955 . In some cases , heat waves , can occur , particularly in November .
= = = Summer = = =
Summers are hot and humid . On average , mornings and afternoons are hot whereas temperatures drop considerably at night . The average high is 29 @.@ 1 ° C ( 84 @.@ 4 ° F ) while the average low is 19 @.@ 3 ° C ( 66 @.@ 7 ° F ) . With a mean precipitation of 384 @.@ 8 mm ( 15 @.@ 15 in ) , it is the rainiest season . This is due to hot temperatures and high insolation that lead to the development of a low pressure system called the Chaco Low situated over northern Argentina that interacts with the South Atlantic High to generate a pressure gradient that brings moist easterly winds to the region , favouring precipitation , which mostly occurs in the form of convective thunderstorms . The Chaco Low also interacts with the South Atlantic high to bring warm and tropical air from the north which is the strongest in summer when the Chaco Low is at its strongest due to higher insolation .
Heat waves are a common feature of summers in the city . These heat waves place extra demand on electricity usage , leading to shortages . In extreme cases , these power shortages during heat waves can cause traffic jams and protests , such as the December 2013 heat wave ( longest heat wave ever recorded in Buenos Aires ) where increased energy demand lead to energy shortages and power cuts , protests against the government over the lack of service , and traffic jams as a result of these protests . However , most heat waves are of short duration ( usually less than a week ) , and are followed by the passage of the cold , dry Pampero wind , which brings violent and intense thunderstorms with strong gusts and hail followed by cooler temperatures and lower humidity . Occasionally , a tornado can form , which can strike the city although most tornadoes are relatively weak and rarely cause deaths . The greatest risk for tornadoes occurs in the summer season due to the favourable conditions . These severe storms can damage cars , houses and disrupt public services such as transportation and collection and disposal of urban solid waste .
= = = Autumn = = =
At the beginning of autumn , temperatures are warm to hot in the afternoon while nights and mornings are mild . Later on in the season , conditions are cooler featuring mild afternoons , and cold nights and mornings . The average high and low are 23 @.@ 0 ° C ( 73 @.@ 4 ° F ) and 14 @.@ 0 ° C ( 57 @.@ 2 ° F ) respectively while precipitation averages 351 @.@ 4 mm ( 13 @.@ 83 in ) during this season . Similar to spring , the season is characterized by changeable weather conditions with temperatures that can fluctuate ; temperatures as high as 37 @.@ 9 ° C ( 100 @.@ 2 ° F ) and as low as − 4 @.@ 0 ° C ( 24 @.@ 8 ° F ) have been recorded . Periods of rainy weather occur although these are usually of short duration . Frosts rarely occur , though they can occur as early as May .
= = = Winter = = =
June to August are the winter months in Buenos Aires . Winters are cold with mild temperatures during the day and cold nights . Highs during the season average 16 @.@ 3 ° C ( 61 @.@ 3 ° F ) while lows average 8 @.@ 1 ° C ( 46 @.@ 6 ° F ) . Lows rarely drop below 0 ° C ( 32 @.@ 0 ° F ) , averaging 2 days each year at the central observatory , and 1 day at Aeroparque . Cold waves can occur in these months in which periods of cold temperatures can persist for days . These cold waves , particularly during severe winters lead to increases in energy demand , which can cause significant energy shortages . Snowfall occasionally occurs in the surrounding areas of the city but rarely within Buenos Aires proper ; since the start of meteorological observations in 1906 at the central observatory , snowfall has only been observed thrice : on 9 July 2007 during a winter storm , June 1918 , and July 1928 . This is due to the city center having higher temperatures than the surrounding areas owing to the urban heat island effect .
Most of the precipitation comes from frontal systems associated with cyclogenesis and strong southeasterly winds ( Sudestada ) , which bring long periods of precipitation , cloudy weather and cooler temperatures . Winters are cloudy while relative humidity is very high , often 90 % or higher , making the weather dull , grey and cool . Occasionally , warm air masses from the north bring warmer temperatures . These warm air masses can bring sunny weather , particularly during the afternoon when they come from the north or northwest as a result of a trough located in central Argentina . On the other hand , warm air masses from Brazil bring humid conditions , featuring high humidity with high cloud cover that is typical of a warm front of a frontal system and typical of tropical maritime air . These warm air masses that are responsible for the high humidity and cloud cover are the warmest air masses , leading to the warmest temperatures . Nonetheless , these are short lived as the Chaco Low , which is responsible for bringing in warm and tropical air from the north is weaker in winter due to lower insolation , leading to the winds from the north being less intense and shorter lived .
Towards the end of winter in August , there are important changes in the atmospheric circulation . Warm , humid air penetrates the city , higher solar radiation and frequent synoptic weather disturbances from the west occur during the end of the winter . As such , the end of winter is usually characterized by heavy storms with lightning . This is popularly known as the Santa Rosa Storm , around August 30 . Based on 107 years of weather observations ( 1906 – 2012 ) from the central observatory , 58 years have seen stormy weather occurring on days close to August 30 , although not all of these have led to heavy precipitation .
= = Extremes = =
= = = Temperature = = =
According to the central observatory , which has one of the most reliable and oldest records in South America , the highest temperature in Buenos Aires , 43 @.@ 3 ° C ( 109 @.@ 9 ° F ) , was recorded on 29 January 1957 while the lowest temperature recorded is − 5 @.@ 4 ° C ( 22 @.@ 3 ° F ) on 9 July 1918 . The warmest year on record is 2015 , with a mean annual temperature of 18 @.@ 6 ° C ( 65 @.@ 5 ° F ) . On the other hand , 1911 was the coldest year , with a mean annual temperature of 15 @.@ 4 ° C ( 59 @.@ 7 ° F ) .
= = = Precipitation = = =
The year with the maximum precipitation was 1900 , when the city received 2 @,@ 024 mm ( 79 @.@ 7 in ) of precipitation . On the other hand , 1916 has been the driest year , with a mean annual precipitation of 504 mm ( 19 @.@ 8 in ) . The highest precipitation for a single day was recorded on 27 February 1930 , when 194 @.@ 1 mm ( 7 @.@ 64 in ) of precipitation fell .
= = Statistics = =
= = Books = =
= Early skyscrapers =
The early skyscrapers were a range of tall , commercial buildings built between 1884 and 1939 , predominantly in the American cities of New York and Chicago . Cities in the United States were traditionally made up of low @-@ rise buildings , but significant economic growth after the Civil War and increasingly intensive use of urban land encouraged the development of taller buildings beginning in the 1870s . Technological improvements enabled the construction of fireproofed iron @-@ framed structures with deep foundations , equipped with new inventions such as the elevator and electric lighting . These made it both technically and commercially viable to build a new class of taller buildings , the first of which , Chicago 's 138 @-@ foot ( 42 m ) tall Home Insurance Building , opened in 1884 . Their numbers grew rapidly and by 1888 they were being labelled skyscrapers .
Chicago initially led the way in skyscraper design , with many constructed in the center of the financial district during the late 1880s and early 1890s . Sometimes termed the products of the Chicago school of architecture , these skyscrapers attempted to balance aesthetic concerns with practical commercial design , producing large , square palazzo @-@ styled buildings hosting shops and restaurants on the ground level and containing rentable offices on the upper floors . In contrast , New York 's skyscrapers were frequently narrower towers which , more eclectic in style , were often criticized for their lack of elegance . In 1892 , Chicago banned the construction of new skyscrapers taller than 150 feet ( 46 m ) , leaving the development of taller buildings to New York .
The first decade of the 20th century saw a new wave of skyscraper construction . The demand for new office space to hold America 's expanding workforce of white @-@ collar staff continued to grow . Engineering developments made it easier to build and live in yet taller buildings . Chicago built new skyscrapers in its existing style , while New York experimented further with tower design . Iconic buildings such as the Flatiron were followed by the 612 @-@ foot ( 187 m ) tall Singer Tower , the 700 @-@ foot ( 210 m ) Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower and the 792 @-@ foot ( 241 m ) Woolworth Building . Though these skyscrapers were commercial successes , criticism mounted as they broke up the ordered city skyline and plunged neighboring streets and buildings into perpetual shadow . Combined with an economic downturn , this led to the introduction of zoning restraints in New York in 1916 .
In the interwar years , skyscrapers spread to nearly all major US cities , while a handful were built in other Western countries . The economic boom of the 1920s and extensive real estate speculation encouraged a wave of new skyscraper projects in New York and Chicago . New York City 's 1916 Zoning Resolution helped shape the Art Deco or " set @-@ back " style of skyscrapers , leading to structures that focused on volume and striking silhouettes , often richly decorated . Skyscraper heights continued to grow , with the Chrysler and the Empire State Building each claiming new records , reaching 1 @,@ 046 feet ( 319 m ) and 1 @,@ 250 feet ( 380 m ) respectively . With the onset of the Great Depression , the real estate market collapsed and new builds stuttered to a halt . Popular and academic culture embraced the skyscraper through films , photography , literature and ballet , seeing the buildings as either positive symbols of modernity and science , or alternatively examples of the ills of modern life and society . Skyscraper projects after World War II typically rejected the designs of the early skyscrapers , instead embracing the international style ; many older skyscrapers were redesigned to suit contemporary tastes or even demolished — such as the Singer Tower , once the world 's tallest skyscraper .
= = Background : 1850 – 79 = =
= = = Commercial and social drivers = = =
Early skyscrapers emerged in the US as a result of economic growth , the financial organization of American businesses , and the intensive use of land . New York was one of the centers of early skyscraper construction , and had a history as a key seaport located on the small island of Manhattan , on the east coast of the US . As a consequence of its colonial history , New York real estate was broken up into many small parcels of land , with few large sites . During the first half of the 19th century it became the national center of American finance , and the banks in the financial district of Wall Street competed fiercely with English institutions for international dominance .
The Great Fire of 1835 destroyed most of the old financial buildings , and in their place a wide variety of new buildings were erected and demolished in quick succession during the 1840s and 1850s ; traveler Philip Hone suggested that the entire city was being rebuilt every decade . Most buildings adopted the Italian Renaissance inspired palazzo @-@ style of architecture popular amongst their rivals in England , and rose no more than five or six stories . New York did not have any restrictions on the height of buildings but in practice low @-@ rise buildings were the norm , at least until 1865 , with the tallest buildings being the city 's churches . New York 's population tripled between 1840 and 1870 , and property values soared , increasing by more than 90 percent between 1860 and 1875 .
Further west , the city of Chicago became the other major site in the development of early skyscrapers . In contrast to New York , Chicago emerged as a major metropolis only in the mid @-@ 19th century , growing from a village of around fifty inhabitants in 1830 , to a city of 30 @,@ 000 in 1850 and nearly 300 @,@ 000 by 1870 . Chicago became the railroad hub for the American West and the primary trading city for the emerging territories , famous for its commercial culture . It saw itself as different from the cities on the east coast and was immensely proud of its status as a growing , vibrant center .
By the 1870s Chicago had become the main financial center for the West , but in October 1871 the Great Chicago Fire destroyed the wooden heart of the city . The city was rebuilt on large plots of land in a new grid network , and followed new city ordinances that prohibited construction in wood . These factors encouraged the building of taller properties in new innovative designs , which , like New York , saw a range of businesses and services being packed into single buildings .
The construction of taller buildings during the 1870s was hindered by the financial Panic of 1873 and the ensuing economic depression , which lasted until around 1879 . Construction slowed and property values slumped . By 1880 , however , the recovery was well underway , with new builds in New York returning to the pace of 1871 , and the economic upturn making the construction of taller buildings an attractive financial option again , establishing many of the preconditions for the development of the skyscraper .
= = = Technological developments = = =
The emergence of skyscrapers was made possible by technological improvements during the middle of the 19th century . One of these developments was the iron framed building . Traditional buildings supported their internal floors through their walls , but the taller the building , the thicker the walls had to become , particularly at the base : buildings of any substantial height rapidly saw their lower floors eaten up by brick or masonry . In the 1860s French engineers experimented with using built @-@ up plate girders made of wrought iron to construct buildings supported by internal metal frames . These frames were stronger than traditional masonry and permitted much thinner walls . The methodology was extensively described in engineering journals and was initially used to build warehouses .
Using these metal frames for taller buildings , however , meant exposing them to the potentially devastating effects of wind pressure . As a consequence , protective wind bracing had to be introduced , enabled by the work of Augustin @-@ Jean Fresnel who produced equations for calculating the loads and moments on larger buildings . Metal @-@ framed buildings were also particularly vulnerable to fire and required special fireproofing . French engineers had made advances in this area in the early 19th century , but major breakthroughs only came with the work of architect Peter Wight in the 1860s . Spurred on by the catastrophic fires in Chicago in 1871 and Boston in 1872 , his findings were turned into a wide variety of patented fire proofing products during the 1870s .
Taller , heavier buildings such as skyscrapers also required stronger foundations than smaller buildings . Earlier buildings had typically rested their foundations on rubble , which was in turn laid down on the soft top layer of the ground called the overburden . As buildings became taller and heavier , the overburden could not support their weight and foundations increasingly needed to rest directly on the bedrock below . In both New York and Chicago this required digging down a considerable distance through soft and often @-@ waterlogged soil , risking the hole filling up with water before the foundations were complete . The deeper the foundations needed to be , the greater the challenge . Special water @-@ tight boxes called caissons were invented to deal with this problem in England in 1830 , and adopted in the US during the 1850s and 1860s .
The development of the elevator was also essential to the emergence of the early skyscrapers , as office building taller than around six stories would have been impractical without them . Powered elevators were first installed in England during the 1830s and spread to US factories and hotels by the 1840s . Elevators using hoist ropes , however , could only function effectively in low @-@ rise buildings and this limitation encouraged the introduction of the hydraulic elevator in 1870 , even though early models contained dangerous design flaws . By 1876 these problems had been resolved , providing a solution for servicing the early skyscrapers .
New environmental technologies in heating , lighting , ventilation and sanitation were also critical to creating taller buildings that were attractive to work in . Central heating could not be easily extended to serve larger buildings ; in the 1850s , a system using low @-@ pressure steam and steam @-@ operated fans became adopted in the construction of the later skyscrapers . Many US buildings were lit by gas but this carried safety risks and was difficult to install in taller buildings . As an alternative , electric lights were installed from 1878 onwards , powered by basement generators . Ventilation was also a challenge , as smoke drifting into offices from the streets and the fumes from the gas lighting made air quality a major health issue . A steam @-@ driven , forced @-@ draft ventilation system was invented in 1860 and became widely used in taller buildings by the 1870s , overcoming much of the problem . Improvements in iron piping permitted running hot and cold water and sanitation facilities to be installed throughout taller buildings for the first time .
= = Emergence of the skyscraper : 1880 – 99 = =
= = = The first skyscraper = = =
There is academic disagreement over which building should be considered the first skyscraper . The term was first used in the 1780s to describe a particularly tall horse , before later being applied to the sail at the top of a ship 's mast , tall hats and bonnets , tall men and a ball that was hit high into the air . In the 1880s it began to be applied to buildings , first in 1883 to describe large public monuments and then in 1889 as a label for tall office blocks , coming into widespread use over the next decade . Identifying the first " true skyscraper " is not straightforward , and various candidates exist depending on the criteria applied . George Post 's New York Equitable Life Building of 1870 , for example , was the first tall office building to use the elevator , while his Produce Exchange of 1884 made substantial structural advances in metal frame design . The Home Insurance Building in Chicago , opened in 1884 , is , however , most often labelled the first skyscraper because of its innovative use of structural steel in a metal frame design .
The Home Insurance Building was a 138 @-@ foot ( 42 m ) tall , 10 @-@ story skyscraper designed by William Le Baron Jenney , who had been trained as an engineer in France and was a leading architect in Chicago . Jenney 's design was unusual in that it incorporated steel into the building 's internal metal frame alongside the traditional wrought iron . This frame took the weight of the floors of the building and helped to support the weight of the external walls as well , proving an important step towards creating the genuine non @-@ structural curtain walls that became a feature of later skyscrapers . The design was not perfect – some of the weight was still carried by masonry walls , and the metal frame was bolted , rather than riveted , together – but it was clearly a significant advance in tall building construction .
The approach quickly caught on in Chicago . In 1889 the Tacoma Building replaced the bolted metal design with a stronger , riveted approach , and Chicago 's Chamber of Commerce Building introduced interior light courts to the structural design of skyscrapers . In the 1890 Rand McNally Building the last remaining technical issues were resolved , resulting in the first entirely self @-@ supporting , steel @-@ framed skyscraper . Some buildings , such as The Rookery and the Monadnock Building , combined elements of both the newer and older styles , but generally Chicago rapidly adopted steel structures as a flexible and effective way to produce a range of tall buildings . Specialist professional structural engineers began to establish practices in Chicago specialising in the steel frames need for the new skyscraper .
Technical challenges overcome , there was a boom in skyscraper construction in Chicago from 1888 onwards , the city leading the way in the new form . By 1893 , Chicago had built 12 skyscrapers between 16 and 20 stories tall , tightly clustered in the centre of the financial district . Chicago 's skyscrapers , however , were constrained by the contemporary limits of steel @-@ frame design and the muddy sub @-@ soil in the city , which together limited most of their skyscrapers to around 16 or 17 stories . Chicago 's skyscrapers rapidly became tourist destinations , for the views of the wider city they provided from their upper floors and as attractive sites in their own right . Tourists were advised to hire cabs for street tours of the skyscrapers – by lying back in the cab , they would be able to safely take in the tops of the tall buildings .
The Masonic Temple was the most prominent of these new skyscrapers . Built by the Freemasons of Chicago in 1892 , at a time when the Masons was a fast @-@ growing social community , the lavish 302 @-@ foot ( 92 m ) tall skyscraper had 19 stories , the bottom ten holding shops and the higher levels containing the Masons ' private suites and meeting halls , some able to hold up to 1 @,@ 300 people . At the top was a roof garden and observation gallery . The Freemasons were competing with their local rivals the Odd Fellows , who intended to build a much higher skyscraper , 556 feet ( 169 m ) tall , that they announced would be the tallest building in the world . Newspapers picked up the story , circulating facts about the size of the Temple and making comparison to historical buildings such as the Capitol or the Statue of Liberty . The Odd Fellows project failed , but the Masonic Temple capitalized on the publicity , being declared the " tallest commercial building in the world " .
In comparison , New York trailed behind Chicago , having only four buildings over 16 stories tall by 1893 . Part of the delay was caused by the slowness of the city authorities to authorize metal @-@ frame construction techniques ; it was not until 1889 that they relented and allowed Bradford Gilbert to construct the Tower Building , an 11 @-@ story iron @-@ framed skyscraper . This encouraged the building of more skyscraper towers in New York , although the city remained cautious about the technology for some years . Finally , in 1895 a breakthrough was made with the construction of the American Surety Building , a twenty @-@ story , 303 @-@ foot ( 92 m ) high @-@ steel development that broke Chicago 's height record . From then on , New York thoroughly embraced skeleton frame construction . In particular , New York newspaper companies adopted the skyscraper , building several along Park Row , sometimes termed " Newspaper Row " , in the 1880s and 1890s . A few early skyscrapers were also constructed in Baltimore , Boston , Pittsburgh , St. Louis , and Buffalo , including the Wainwright and the Guaranty Buildings . Early examples on the West Coast include the Old Chronicle Building and the Call Building in San Francisco , as well as the Luzon Building in Tacoma , Washington .
= = = Architectural challenges = = =
The architects of early skyscrapers faced a number of challenges . The most fashionable architectural style in the late 19th century was the French Beaux @-@ Arts movement , sometimes termed the Italian Renaissance style , which applied Classical aesthetic principles to modern buildings . American architects trained in the Beaux @-@ Arts style at the Parisian Académie des Beaux @-@ Arts began to return home in the 1880s , bringing these ideals and standards with them . Applying contemporary Beaux @-@ Arts standards to early skyscrapers , however , was not straightforward . The buildings that the Beaux @-@ Arts movement emulated and built were typically much shorter and broader than any skyscraper , and it was impossible to accurately reproduce the style in a tall , narrow building .
Skyscrapers were also primarily commercial buildings , and economics as well as aesthetics had to play an important part in their design . The architectural writer Barr Ferree noted in 1893 that " current American architecture is not a matter of art , but of business . A building must pay , or there will be no investor ready with the money to meet its cost . This is at once the curse and the glory of American architecture . " George Hill echoed the theme , condemning unnecessary features on the basis that " every cubic foot that is used for purely ornamental purposes beyond that needed to express its use and to make it harmonize with others of its class , is a waste " .
By the 1890s , Chicago architects were producing a solution to this problem , creating a new architectural style , often termed the " Chicago school of architecture " . The school included architects such as Louis Sullivan , William Le Baron Jenney and John Root , whose designs combined architectural aesthetic theory with practical commercial sense . They favoured placing rich , ornate designs on the outside of skyscrapers at the ground level and simpler , plainer ornamentation on the upper levels , with strong vertical lines . The roofs of their skyscrapers typically formed a comprehensible outline and structure when seen at a distance as part of the city skyline . The intent was to draw the observer 's eye upwards , celebrating what Sullivan termed the " lofty " nature of the skyscraper , but not wasting resources on intricate detailing unlikely to appeal to a busy businessman . At the same time , the more lavish ground floor designs would make the building stand out to passers @-@ by and pull in the necessary business for a successful commercial building .
This community also saw close collaboration between architects , specialist structural engineers and building contractors emerge on the new skyscraper projects . Historically the industry had been dominated by individuals and small firms who combined the roles of architect and engineer , but this broke down in Chicago during the period , being replaced by a partnership between specialist architects who focused on the appearance of the skyscraper , and specialist engineers who focused on the structures that enabled it to be built . Chicago architectural firms grew to be large , hierarchical and with numerous specialist staff ; the famous D. H. Burnham & Company , for example , felt like a small factory to visitors , and ultimately expanded to employ 180 staff .
The resulting Chicago school produced large , solid @-@ looking skyscrapers , built with a common appearance and to a common height . The result was usually a box @-@ like palazzo , illuminated with a large light court , ideally , if space allowed , in the center . The outside of the building was commonly divided into three parts : a base , middle section and the roof line . This tripartite design was intended both to emulate classical columns , and reflect the functions of the different parts of the skyscraper . The central court could form a simple courtyard , but many companies preferred to roof over the courtyard with glass to produce an atrium for shops and restaurants . Rents for these shops were up to five or six times that for office space , and made an important difference to the income from a property . Chicago skyscraper windows were also a feature of the style ; these were large , fixed windows flanked by smaller sash windows on either side , which provided access to sunlight and adequate ventilation . Sometimes these protruded from the building to form a slight bay .
Although the exterior of the Chicago skyscrapers buildings were relatively plain , the entrance ways and lobbies were fitted out in a grand style . The Unity Building , for example , was reported as including " Numidian , Alps , Green and Sienna marbles ... an artistic screen of glass and bronze ... a marble balcony " alongside " Corinthian columns with finely carved capitals , gold @-@ leaf and silver chandeliers , and silver @-@ plated latticework " on the elevators . The aim was to project a sense of prosperity and solid financial credentials , which in turn would attract tenants willing to pay high rents . For the tenants , such surroundings were good for their own business credibility , and affirmed their own social status as professionals .
New York faced similar architectural challenges , but , in comparison to Chicago , skyscraper architects there worked less closely with engineers and other specialists and instead , held strong backgrounds in the Beaux Arts movement and perceived their role to be primarily artistic rather than a partnership with the mechanical arts . Their practices tended to be smaller , resembling atelier style workshops . Structural engineers in New York took longer to build up a strong professional role there , a trend reflected in the lower engineering quality of many early skyscrapers in the city . The New York style emphasised stunning height and a somewhat eclectic use of architectural features from other periods , creating an energetic , flamboyant appearance . Towers were common , making best use of the relatively small plots of land in New York . Some New York skyscrapers emulated the tripartite style of Chicago , but others broke their exterior down into many different layers , each with its own style . Proponents argued that this reintroduced a sense of human proportion to these tall buildings ; critics felt that the results were confused and ungainly .
= = = Life in early skyscrapers = = =
Early skyscrapers were mainly made up of small office cubicles , commonly only 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) across , which were placed adjacent to one another along long corridors , following a pattern first invented in the Oriel Chambers building in England in 1864 . This allowed the average small company to rent a small amount of space using one or two offices , but held out the option for future expansion by renting additional office cubicles if required at a later date . A skyscraper office relied on natural sunlight from the windows but if necessary was dimly lit from electric desk @-@ top lamps . By the standards of the day , these offices were very modern , with radiators , air vents and the latest fixtures and fittings , and modern communication systems , including telephone and pneumatic tubes were often installed . As a result , many businesses chose to move out of their older , low @-@ rise offices in Chicago to take up tenancy in the new skyscrapers , which were felt to be more convenient and healthier .
The first skyscrapers were mainly occupied by male workers but this changed during the 1890s , with female employees becoming more common . The percentage of female clerical workers in Chicago , for example , increased from 11 percent in 1880 to 21 percent by 1890 , reaching 30 percent by 1900 . Various moral concerns were raised about men and women mixing in such offices , which were characterised as being masculine spaces , full of tobacco smoke and profanity and therefore unsuitable for women . The new female workers typically worked as typists or stenographers , using the recently invented typewriter , which grew in number in US offices from 146 in 1879 to 65 @,@ 000 by 1890 .
Skyscrapers provided a wide range of in @-@ house services for their tenants , including shops , restaurants , barbers , tobacconists , newsagents , tailors , professional specialists and libraries . Skyscrapers also employed a substantial number of service staff to maintain and support them ; a building such as the Chicago Board of Trade spent 20 percent of its rental revenue on service staff , employing 41 people , including janitors , elevator operators , engineers and an electrician . With this collection of services and facilities , skyscrapers of the period were often referred to as small cities in their own right .
= = = Criticism and reform in Chicago = = =
Opposition to Chicago 's skyscrapers began to grow during the late 1880s and early 1890s . Even before the development of the skyscraper , some criticized large buildings in Chicago for dominating churches and private houses , and this sentiment strengthened . Critics complained that the concentration of tall buildings in the center of the city was causing huge congestion , and each new skyscraper was also burning additional coal to power its facilities , together consuming a total of over one million tons each year , leaving smoke and stagnant air hanging over Chicago . Many were concerned over the risk of a major fire breaking out and spreading , uncontrolled , from building to building .
Chicago was not alone in having concerns over the growth of the skyscraper . In Boston , the Fiske and the Ames Buildings were built in the late 1880s , 183 feet ( 56 m ) and 190 feet ( 58 m ) tall respectively , but protests by local civic campaigners and the real estate industry resulted in the city passing a law to limit new buildings to a maximum of 123 feet ( 37 m ) , effectively banning the construction of skyscrapers . The cities of Philadelphia , Los Angeles and Washington D.C. similarly introduced height controls to limit skyscraper construction .
The decisive factor in favour of change in Chicago , however , was the economic slowdown in the early 1890s , which would end in the financial panic of 1893 . The recession , combined with the frantic building of the previous few years , meant that Chicago suddenly had a significant surplus of office space , threatening occupancy levels and rents . Regulation was introduced by the city council to control the problem in 1892 , with support from the real estate industry who hoped to slow the construction of additional office space and shore up their diminishing profit margins . The height of new buildings was limited to 150 feet ( 46 m ) , with lower height levels on narrower streets , effectively curtailing the construction of any taller skyscrapers .
= = The " First Great Age " : 1900 – 19 = =
= = = Pre @-@ war boom = = =
The early years of the 20th century saw a range of technically sophisticated , architecturally confident skyscrapers built in New York ; academics Sarah Landau and Carl Condit term this " the first great age " of skyscraper building . Some were relatively conservative buildings in a classical style , such as the Mutual Life , Atlantic Mutual and Broad Exchange Buildings , all designed by Clinton and Russell . Others broke new ground , including the Flatiron Building which opened in 1903 near Madison Square . The Chicago firm of Daniel Hudsdon Burnham designed the 307 feet ( 94 m ) high , 21 story structure ; the unusually shaped , narrow building needed particularly strong wind bracing , while the facade was richly textured and incorporated stylistic features more common in Chicago . A critical and popular success , the Flatiron was likened to the Parthenon of Ancient Greece and became , for a time , a New York icon .
The construction of the Singer Tower was announced by the company in 1906 , who intended to produce the tallest skyscraper in the world . The company already had several lower @-@ rise buildings in New York that the tower would be incorporated into and planned to rent out the bottom half of the tower to tenants to subsidise their use of the upper half . The skyscraper was designed by Ernest Flagg , a Beaux @-@ Arts advocate and noted critic of existing skyscrapers , who justified taking on the project as a way of generating support for skyscraper reform . The design was technically challenging , as such a tall , narrow tower needed special wind bracing , and the deep bedrock on the site required particularly deep foundations . The tower was faced in dark brick and followed the Beaux @-@ Arts style used by the rest of the complex , with a galleried lobby fitted out in Italian marble . When it opened in 1908 it had 47 stories and was 612 feet ( 187 m ) tall ; visitors paid $ 0 @.@ 50 ( $ 12 in 2010 terms ) each to use the observation area at the top of the building to see the views .
The Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower was opened in 1909 , the culmination of a long building project by N. LeBrun and Sons to hold Metropolitan Life 's growing headquarters staff , 2 @,@ 800 strong by 1909 . At 700 feet ( 210 m ) high and with 50 stories , it became the world 's new tallest building . Metropolitan Life intended the skyscraper to promote the company 's image and the build was surrounded by publicity . The tower featured on the front of prominent magazines such as Scientific American , as well as on the sides of corn flake boxes , coffee packets and cars . The tower was loosely modelled on the Venician St Mark 's Campanile , and featured extensive Early Renaissance @-@ styled detailing , with the more modern additions of huge clock faces , electric flashlights for night @-@ time illumination and an observation deck at the top . Contemporary architects Everett Waid and Harvey Corbett described how the building had " the latest ideas in ventilation , air conditioning , sound deadening , artificial lighting , intercommunicating pneumatic tubes , telephones , call bells , unit operating clock systems [ and ] special elevator and escalator installations " . The design won critical acclaim within the American architectural profession .
The construction of the Woolworth Building was announced in 1910 by Frank Woolworth , who wanted to create the largest income @-@ producing property in the US . The project grew , and Woolworth finally opted for a 55 story , 792 @-@ foot ( 241 m ) high skyscraper , the latest tallest building in the world , at a cost of $ 13 @.@ 5 million ( $ 5 @.@ 1 billion in 2010 terms ) . The architect Cass Gilbert designs included a very high proportion of usable – and thus rentable – floor space , with a great deal of light and a flexible floor plan that could be subdivided for different tenants . Up @-@ to @-@ date fittings were installed to encourage a high @-@ class of tenants , including the world 's fastest elevators , safety features and a swimming pool . Gilbert adopted the Beaux @-@ Arts style , using accented terracotta and glass to emphasis vertical lines , elegantly echoing the structural frame underneath and incorporating 15th and 16th century Flamboyant Gothic @-@ styled features . It was capped by a gilded tower that blended into the sky behind it to produce an illusion of even greater height . The building was floodlit at night , topped with red and white flashing lights . It was famously dubbed the " Cathedral of Commerce " , rather to Gilbert 's displeasure as he had attempted to avoid copying ecclesiastical architecture .
Meanwhile , Chicago 's skyscraper industry also boomed during the decade before World War I. The city 's elevated train network was operating by 1910 , allowing more workers to come into the centre . In 1910 alone 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 square feet ( 140 @,@ 000 m2 ) of new offices were opened and by the end of the decade , Chicago had the second largest number of headquarters offices in the US . Chicago architectural firms such as Daniel H. Burnham and then Graham , Anderson , Probst & White continued to design skyscrapers in the palazzo style made popular in the previous decade . Chicago had hosted the World 's Columbian Exposition in 1895 , a massive international event which had excited interest in the themes of classical architecture and well @-@ designed city landscapes . Chicago also had extensive discussions in 1909 about the potential for designing large parts of the city , the Burnham Plan of Chicago .
The resulting skyscrapers reflected these debates : the Railway Exchange , the Peoples Gas and the Illinois Continental and Commercial Bank Buildings were each substantial , quarter of block wide palazzo cubes of common height , their facades divided into a classical tripartite design , and sporting classical columns and other features . Despite the apparent uniformity of design , individual buildings varied considerably in the detail of their designs in effort to express their particular identities , the Peoples Gas Building using texture and the Railway Exchange Building white terracotta , for example .
= = = Improvements in construction = = =
The process of building skyscrapers became more sophisticated , starting with the acquisition of the real estate needed for the site . Brokers working on commission would secretly acquire the individual bits of land required for a project , operating under a variety of names to avoid the price increasing once a planned build became known . The properties at the front of the site would typically be bought first , as if news broke of the skyscraper then those owning property at the back of the plot would have little choice but to sell anyway . The funding for skyscraper developments was normally lent by banks , insurance companies or raised through bonds sold through a specialised bond house , with the latter becoming increasingly popular after World War I.
Efforts were made to improve the processes for erecting skyscrapers , largely through the work of general contractors such as Louis Horowitz and Frank Gilbreth , who in turn drew on recent work by efficiency specialist Frederick Taylor . Time schedules were devised for all the work to be undertaken , with cost carefully monitored and reports produced each day . The results were demonstrated on the Woolworth Building construction project , where 1 @,@ 153 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 153 @,@ 000 kg ) of steel were assembled in only six days , a record for the period . Improved windbracing techniques introduced . The use of pneumatic caissons in skyscraper foundations grew more advanced ; in the construction of the 1908 Manhattan Municipal Building they were successfully sunk 144 feet ( 44 m ) below the surface , with specially conditioned workers operating in shifts with constant medical support .
New technologies were also introduced within the buildings . Fast Otis elevators powered by electricity rather than steam @-@ driven hydraulics began to be installed in skyscrapers for the first time , with Ellithorpe safety air cushions protecting the passengers in the case of failure . Lighting improved with the recommended levels in 1916 being around twice the level of electric lighting than in the 1890s . Nonetheless , skyscrapers still relied primarily on natural sunlight , which required installing large windows and having tall ceilings to allow the sunlight to penetrate the back of the offices ; an office deeper than 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) was not considered a practical design .
= = = Life in the skyscrapers = = =
One of the reasons for the increase in the numbers of skyscrapers during the period was the growth in demand for office workers . In part this demand was fuelled by many US firms becoming larger and more complex , and white @-@ collar sectors such as insurance and banking grew in scale . It was also driven by changing technology . The typewriter was joined in the office by the adding machine , the telephone and filing cabinets , all adding to the demand for office space and requiring increasingly specialised workers .
Tenants and rental income were essential to the financial success of any skyscraper , as even the largest skyscrapers and those founded by prominent companies rented out much of their office space . Owners could charge significantly more for office space close to the main windows , making it most efficient to build skyscrapers with as much premium office space as possible , even if this cost slightly more to construct in the first instance . As a result , a standard pattern for office units in both New York and Chicago emerged , with either a single rectangular office adjoining an exterior wall , or a " T " shaped design , with a reception room giving way to two windowed offices , separated by glass partitions . Skyscrapers usually took on large numbers of relatively small companies as their tenants . A skyscraper such as the Woolworth Tower had around 600 different tenants in 1913 , for example , while a typical tenant might rent four or five office units in a skyscraper .
= = = Criticism = = =
Skyscrapers , particularly those in New York , attracted considerable comment , much of it negative . On his return to New York , the writer Henry James condemned the buildings in The American Scene as simply " giants of the mere market " , " mercenary monsters " doomed to be torn down in turn as other , even larger , buildings took their place . In Chicago the combination of the environmental pollution and skyscrapers meant that , as Charles Warner complained , " one can scarcely see across the streets on a damp day , and the huge buildings loom up in the black sky in ghostly dimness " .
Wider artistic sentiments varied . Many , like , Alfred Stieglitz harboured mixed feelings over New York 's skyscrapers , reflected in his famous 1903 portrait of the Gridiron building , and his 1910 work Old and New New York that contrasts the growing steel frame of the emerging Vanderbilt Hotel with the old low @-@ rise blocks of the street below . Poets also wrote about the issues , the early Modernist Sadakichi Hartmann describing how " from the city 's stir and madd 'ning roar " the Flatiron 's " monstrous shape soars in massive flight " . Artists such as Alvin Coburn and John Marin experimented with producing portraits of New York 's skyscrapers , capturing the positive and negative aspects of the modern structures . In 1908 artist Harry Pettit produced a romantic interpretation of a future New York , filled with giant skyscrapers supporting aerial bridges and receiving dirigibles from around the globe .
Amongst the architectural community , the Exposition in Chicago inspired many in America to champion designing cities that had a unified design , in which each building had unique features but elegantly complemented its neighbours , typically by being built to a common height : " horizontal visual unity " . In the aftermath of the Exposition , many of these advocates joined with the Beaux @-@ Arts movement to form the City Beautiful movement , proposing low @-@ rise cities with wide boulevards , built in a classical style . These critics condemned New York 's skyscrapers , Montgomery Schuyler describing how they had produced a " horribly jagged sierra " of a city skyline and complaining that no modern skyscraper had turned out to be an architectural success . Charles Lamb argued that the skyscraper impinged on the rights of the rest of the city by destroying the collective appearance of an urban area . Some architects , such as Charles McKim and Stanford White refused to work on such projects altogether .
= = = Reform in New York = = =
Calls were made in New York for legislation to prevent the growth of skyscrapers , citing their effect on the city skylines , but these attempts faced legal obstacles . The US constitution did not give local authorities authority to prevent the buildings on the grounds of aesthetics alone , and any such law in New York was considered likely to face judicial challenge .
Others argued that legal reform of skyscraper construction was needed for public health and safety reasons , an area in which US law was normally more supportive of state intervention . The risk of fire was one concern ; while skyscrapers might be relatively fireproof , their height made conventional fire @-@ fighting difficult . The architect Charles Bragdon considered a large scale , devastating high @-@ rise fire to be inevitable if regulation was not forthcoming . The Baltimore fire of 1904 was widely cited as an example of this risk and , although Baltimore had almost no real skyscrapers , city lawyers argued that the taller buildings had caused the flames to spread through the city during the blaze . Baltimore subsequently passed a law in 1904 , banning buildings higher than 70 feet ( 21 m ) . Other campaigners argued that skyscrapers were compromising access to light and air , noting that when tall buildings rose straight up from the sidewalk , they cast long shadows across the street , preventing healthy sunlight from ever reaching smaller buildings below .
Early attempts by Ernest Flagg to limit the height of New York 's skyscrapers in 1896 failed ; further unsuccessful attempts followed between 1906 and 1908 , and legislation was turned down again in 1909 , partially due to pressure from the real estate industry . After 1913 , however , the property market in New York entered a recession and vacancy levels in buildings began to rise . The campaign for change was helped by the construction of the Equitable Building in 1915 at the estimated cost of $ 29 million ( $ 10 @.@ 9 billion in 2010 terms ) , which rapidly became infamous as its vast height and bulk blocked views and cast neighbours into permanent shade . The real estate industry finally ceased its objections to new legislation and the 1916 Zoning Resolution was passed .
The details of the legislation itself was largely the work of architect George Ford . Ford had sympathies with the City Beautiful movement , disliked the unimaginative form of many New York skyscrapers and had concerns over urban public health , but he also found tall buildings exciting and believed that horizontal visual unity produced boring architecture . As a consequence of Ford 's influence , New York 's laws were relatively complex and divided up the city into different zones ; in each zone , a particular zoning envelope applied , controlling the height to which buildings could be built . Typically a building could only rise up from the sidewalk vertically by around 100 feet ( 30 m ) , after which the building had to be set back at a set angle to allow sunlight to reach the street below . On a quarter of the site , however , the owner could build as high as they wished , without any further restrictions .
= = Inter @-@ war period , boom and depression : 1920 – 39 = =
= = = Post @-@ war boom = = =
A real estate boom occurred in the US after the end of the First World War , with a particular surge in the construction of new skyscrapers between 1925 and 1931 . In New York , a quarter of the financial district was rebuilt between 1928 and 1931 , with 17 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 m2 ) of new office @-@ space added between 1925 and 1929 alone . Chicago saw pressure grow on its existing office @-@ space during the war ; limited wartime construction created supply shortages and rent levels rose in response by around 100 percent between 1919 and 1924 . This level of potential profits encouraged an explosion of new building projects in the city . The boom inflated prices in the real estate market , leading to speculative financing and building projects , including the introduction of 100 percent mortgages for new builds . An early edition of the Fortune magazine commented wryly that " all a man needs to own a skyscraper is the money and the land . And he may be able to get along without the money . "
Skyscrapers continued to grow in height throughout the 1920s . In part this was the result of improvements in technology : steel @-@ frame structures had become increasingly efficient , while improvements in elevator design made taller buildings easier to ascend . Commercial factors were at work too , as growing commercial demand pushed up rents , enabling taller projects , while the higher offices attracted more sunlight , permitting the charging of premium rents . The tallest buildings could also acquire publicity for their owners , in turn making it easier to find and keep the best tenants . Furthermore , the higher the cost of the underlying real estate , the taller a building needed to be to generate a suitable return on the investment , and the minimum sensible commercial height for a skyscraper project grew to between 40 and 45 stories . 70 story skyscrapers became relatively common , although an influential 1930 study demonstrated that the best rate of return on a skyscraper was to build it 63 stories high , returning an annual profit of 10 @.@ 25 percent .
Skyscrapers continued to spread both across the US and internationally . New York and Chicago remained the center of skyscraper development but most major centres in the US had built skyscrapers by 1929 , frequently as a result of competition between rival cities for status and investment . Cincinnati built the Cincinnati Towers in 1914 , followed by the Carew Tower Complex in 1930 . In Detroit , the General Motors Building opened in 1920 and the Fisher Building in 1928 . Cleveland acquired the Union Trust Building in 1923 and the Terminal Tower in 1929 ; the latter , built by the Van Sweringen brothers , was , for a short period , the second tallest building in the world . Seattle had built Smith Tower as early as 1914 and the Los Angeles local government granted itself an exemption from city planning restrictions , in order to build the Los Angeles City Hall in 1928 . In 1928 , the Industrial Trust Tower was built in Providence .
Skyscrapers were also built in other developed countries , although reaching nowhere near the level of construction seen in the US . This was partially due to a lack of funding but also because of local architectural preferences . European cities including London and Paris had laws to ban tall buildings , but elsewhere skyscrapers began to appear including Toronto 's Imperial Bank of Commerce Building , Antwerp 's Boerentoren or Buenos Aires ' Kavanagh Building . Many other European skyscrapers were proposed in a frenzy of excited planning , although few materialised . Soviet Russia began the construction of the 1 @,@ 365 @-@ foot ( 416 m ) Palace of the Soviets in the late 1930s , in the Socialist Classicism style , which would have become the tallest building in the world , but war intervened and the skyscraper was never completed . In the post @-@ war years , this style would result in the monumental Seven Sisters of Moscow building .
The technology used in constructing skyscrapers continued to develop . Time was increasingly a factor in the projects , and architects and their specialist teams developed faster ways to design and construct the buildings to minimise the interest payments during the build and hasten the arrival of rental income . By 1930 skyscrapers were being erected in just 12 months by teams of workers totalling 5 @,@ 000 men , with four floors being assembled in a typical week . Building skyscraper towers involved some adaption of engineering techniques , as effectively two different buildings were being designed – the base and the tower – which needed to be efficiently linked using elevators and other service facilities . Most new offices settled around a standard size , 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) wide by 20 to 30 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 to 9 @.@ 1 m ) deep , depending on the height of the ceiling , with multiple small windows considered better than a few larger ones . The output of electric lighting continued to improve , although this began to give off excessive heat within the offices . Air conditioning was first installed in a few skyscrapers during the 1930s .
= = = Art Deco skyscrapers and New York 's set @-@ back style = = =
During the 1920s and 1930s many skyscrapers were designed in an Art Deco style . This architectural approach typically combined what Carol Willis terms an " aesthetic of simple , sculptural mass " with the use of rich colour and ornamentation on the surfaces of the buildings . The aim was to call attention to the increasingly complex three @-@ dimensional shape of the skyscraper , in contrast to earlier styles which could be critiqued , as historian Larry Ford suggests , as being merely " short buildings made taller with additional stories " . Windows were de @-@ emphasised in favour of creating a strong sense of shape and mass , the surrounding walls treated as textured fabric , dressing the building underneath . Skyscrapers of this period typically lost their ornamental horizontal divisions , being broken up by physical changes in their shape as one looked up the building , the whole forming a striking silhouette .
In New York , the 1916 act to allow light and air to reach the streets encouraged a stepped or ziggurat approach to skyscraper design ; this " set @-@ back " style often made unrestricted use of the 25 percent of the site allowed by law to complete with a very tall tower . This encouraged a diversity of buildings , while maintaining an element of harmony and consistency of style . The Paramount Building and 120 Wall Street , for example , were constructed in the set @-@ back style without towers , partially because the limited size of the sites would have made the towers relatively narrow and – when packed with the necessary elevators and service facilities – economically unviable . Many other skyscrapers built on larger or more expensive plots opted for the tallest towers possible , including the $ 24 million ( $ 3 @.@ 8 billion in 2010 terms ) Bank of Manhattan Trust Building and the City Bank @-@ Farmers Trust Company Building . New York continued its lead in tall skyscrapers throughout the period ; in 1920 it had ten times the number of tall buildings than its nearest rival Chicago .
Some New York skyscrapers complemented traditional , cubicle offices linked by corridors , with larger , more open @-@ plan spaces called " general offices " . These maximised the number of workers that could fitted into a given space , and provided for greater flexibility . Expensive corporate suites were also created during the 1930s , especially on Wall Street , typically on the highest levels of the buildings . These were used by the corporate executives and were usually lavishly outfitted in a range of traditional and exotic styles . The lobbies of these skyscrapers remained grand affairs , although some banks now eschewed renting out space to shops and restaurants in favour of a more exclusive atmosphere . The largest skyscrapers held up to 16 @,@ 000 workers , although between 5 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 was more common , and the buildings held a wide range of services to support them , including beauty salons , private luncheon clubs , chiropodists and gymnasiums . A skyscraper such as the Cities Service Building directly employed over 200 staff to manage and protect the property . The technology within the offices also grew still more sophisticated , with dictating , automatic typing and tabulating machines being used by teams of ever more specialised office workers .
= = = Chicago 's towers = = =
Chicago altered its laws in the 1920s to allow towers to be built as part of its skyscrapers . In 1920 the maximum building height in Chicago was increased to 260 feet ( 79 m ) , and unoccupied structures on a building , such as ornamental towers , were allowed to extend up to 400 feet ( 120 m ) high . Additional changes came in 1923 , with taller , occupied towers being permitted for the first time , but subject to controls on overall volumes . The main building of a skyscraper could be up to 264 feet ( 80 m ) tall , and a tower could be built on up to 25 percent of the plot , but this tower could not have a volume of more than a sixth of the main block . In practice , this meant that a tower could not be built more than around 20 stories tall in a typical Chicago skyscraper development .
Initially , Chicago still preferred palazzo @-@ styled buildings with large light courts in the centre , not least because they remained the most profitable designs . The Wrigley Building , built under the 1920 law , demonstrated the effect of two ornamental towers on top of a skyscraper . Under the revised law , the Straus Building and the Pittsfield Building took the palazzo design and added somewhat stunted towers on top in the early 1920s , producing profitable buildings .
One of the period 's most famous buildings , the Tribune Tower , emerged from a competition held by the Tribune Company in 1922 to celebrate its 75th anniversary . The newspaper was one of the largest in the world and used the competition , in which members of the public were invited to influence the design of the skyscraper , to build a loyal following amongst its readership and generate free publicity . The final design was determined by a competition panel largely made up of the company 's appointees , who chose John Howells and Raymond Hood 's tower design . The resulting tower was a conservative , Gothic design and controversy about the decision broke out almost immediately : Louis Sullivan and many others criticized Howells and Hood 's design as being derivative of the Woolworth Tower . Regardless of its critics , the Tribune received as many as 20 @,@ 000 visitors to its observation gallery when it opened in 1925 . The unbuilt second @-@ place entry in the competition , a more simplified stepped @-@ back design by Eliel Saarinen , also proved highly influential .
The popularity of the older style then began to wane in favor of a greater emphasis on towers . One common way of building these within Chicago 's laws was to build a square main block with a central service core , and then simply place a tower on the top ; the more massive the main block , the taller the tower could be . The Trustees System Service Building and the Foreman State National Bank Building form good examples of this approach . Alternatively , the front of the main block could be recessed , as at the Chicago Civic Opera Building or the LaSalle @-@ Wacker Building , sacrificing volume but producing the visual effect of two high wings flanking a very tall tower . The distinctive New York " setback " style was not adopted in Chicago , the only example of the style being the Palmolive Building on North Michigan Avenue .
= = = Great Depression = = =
The boom in skyscraper construction began to falter following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , with fast economic growth giving way to the slump years of the Great Depression : building of all sorts slowed considerably . The real estate market that lay behind new skyscraper builds collapsed and the value of many properties dropped dramatically : the American Insurance Union tower cost $ 8 million ( $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in 2010 terms ) to build in 1927 , but was valued at only $ 3 @.@ 5 million ( $ 900 million ) by 1933 ; the Bank of Manhattan Trust Building defaulted on its debts in 1935 and was put on sale for just $ 1 @.@ 2 million ( $ 240 m ) . The major bond house of S. W. Straus , behind many successful developments , defaulted on the $ 214 million ( $ 47 billion ) in bonds held by 60 @,@ 000 investors ; the Van Swerigan developer brothers went bankrupt . Vacancy rates began to increase as the recession bit , increasing from only one percent in central New York in early 1920 to 17 percent in 1931 and 25 percent by 1934 .
In the face of the recession , some skyscrapers projects were canceled or scaled back . Plans by the Metropolitan Life company to build a 100 @-@ story skyscraper alongside their existing tower had been put forward in 1929 , but were shelved in the face of the recession and public criticism of such expenditure in the economic climate . Instead the first phase of the project , known as the North Building ended up only 32 stories high in 1932 and the building , even at this height , was only fully completed in 1950 . In many other cases , projects which had already been commissioned continued through to completion . This resulted in 26 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 m2 ) of new office space being added to New York between 1931 – 34 even after the start of the recession , adding to the problem of underoccupancy . Some of these buildings , however , became iconic structures , pushing the limits of skyscraper height sharply upwards .
The Chrysler Building was completed in 1930 , just after the Depression began to affect the industry . Architect William Van Alen competed with the designers of the Bank of Manhattan Trust Building to produce the tallest building in the world , and famously erected the Chrysler spire in a last @-@ minute , secret move in order to acquire the title for his own 69 story , 1 @,@ 046 @-@ foot ( 319 m ) tall building . The exterior was built of white and grey brick , but metal was used extensively to ornament it further , including gargoyles , nickel @-@ chrome eagles ' heads , and a winged helmet of Mercury . The entrance used black granite to contrast with the nickel @-@ chrome windows , and the foyer gave way to red marble and a mural ceiling . The design of each part of the building was individualist and distinct , with even each elevator different in design . A Chrysler showroom was placed on the first floor of the building , and an observation deck and the exclusive " Cloud Club " on the upper levels .
The Empire State Building originated from a 1928 project to redevelop the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel into a 50 @-@ story mixed @-@ use development ; the purchase of the site for $ 14 million ( $ 2 @.@ 1 billion ) set a record in New York for the year . John Raskob and Pierre du Pont entered into the project as financial backers , and concluded that the project would be more profitable if the site was used to build an extremely tall 80 @-@ story skyscraper instead . Although revised financial estimates suggested that the height should be cut back , the caché of having the world 's tallest building was considerable and instead an
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ament consisted of six 45 @-@ calibre BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch Mk X guns in single @-@ gun turrets , a much more powerful gun than used in the Devonshires . The guns were distributed in two centreline turrets , one each fore and one aft of the superstructure , and four wing turrets disposed in the corners about the funnels . The centreline turrets could traverse a total of 285 ° while the wing turrets were limited to about 120 ° on the broadside due to muzzle blast . The gun had an elevation range of − 5 ° to + 15 ° . The 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 230 mm ) shell weighed 380 pounds ( 172 @.@ 4 kg ) and was fired at a maximum muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 778 ft / s ( 847 m / s ) . This gave it a range of 15 @,@ 500 yards ( 14 @,@ 200 m ) at maximum elevation . The gun 's rate of fire was about three rounds per minute and the ships carried 100 rounds for each gun .
Their secondary armament of ten 50 @-@ calibre BL 6 @-@ inch Mk XI guns was arranged in single embrasures . They were mounted amidships on the main deck and were only usable in calm weather . The guns could only traverse about 120 ° on the broadside . They initially had a maximum elevation of + 13 ° , but this was later increased to + 20 ° . This gave them a range of 14 @,@ 310 yards ( 13 @,@ 090 m ) at an elevation of + 15 ° with their 100 @-@ pound ( 45 @.@ 4 kg ) shell . Each gun was provided with 150 rounds .
Twenty Vickers quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 3 @-@ pounder guns were fitted for defence against torpedo boats , six on turret roofs and fourteen in the superstructure , all on pivot mounts . These guns were too small to be useful against the torpedo boats before they got within torpedo range . They fired a 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) shell that weighed 3 @.@ 3 pounds ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) and was fired at a maximum muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 587 ft / s ( 789 m / s ) . This gave it a range of 7 @,@ 550 yards ( 6 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of + 20 ° . 250 rounds were carried for each gun .
The ships also mounted three submerged 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes . They carried a total of eighteen torpedoes in addition to the six 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedoes that could be used by the two 45 @-@ foot ( 13 @.@ 7 m ) steam pinnaces .
= = = Armour = = =
The Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class ships had a 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) waterline armour belt of Krupp cemented armour that covered 260 feet ( 79 @.@ 2 m ) of the hull amidships . It covered the side of the ship up to the upper deck , a height of 14 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 42 m ) above the waterline and reached 4 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 47 m ) below it . Between the central citadel and the bow , the belt armour was 4 inches ( 102 mm ) thick and it extended to the stern with a thickness of 3 inches ( 76 mm ) . Transverse bulkheads six inches thick protected the citadel from raking fire .
The faces of the gun turrets were 7 @.@ 5 inches thick with 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) sides and a 2 @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) roof . The barbettes were protected by six inches of armour as were the ammunition hoists , although the armour for those thinned to three inches between the armour belt . Two @-@ inch armour screens separated each of the six @-@ inch guns . The thickness of the lower deck was only .75 inches ( 19 mm ) except for a patch of 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 38 mm ) armour over the steering gear and another 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick over the engine cylinders . The sides of the conning tower were 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick .
= = Modifications = =
The funnels proved to be too short in service and they were raised about 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) four years after completion to keep the superstructure free of smoke in a following wind . In March 1916 , both ships had all their six @-@ inch guns removed , the embrasures plated over , and six of the guns were remounted on the upper deck . In May 1917 , two more were added to Duke of Edinburgh on the forecastle . The ship 's foremast was converted to a tripod mast to support the weight of the fire @-@ control director probably added in 1917 .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
Duke of Edinburgh and Black Prince served in the Channel , Atlantic and Home Fleets before World War I. They were stationed in the Mediterranean when World War I began and participated in the pursuit of the Goeben and Breslau as part of the 1st Cruiser Squadron , but was ordered not to engage . After the German ships reached Ottoman waters , the ships were sent to the Red Sea in mid @-@ August to protect troop convoys arriving from India . While on escort duty they captured three German merchantmen .
The two sisters rejoined the 1st Cruiser Squadron in December 1914 , which had transferred to the Grand Fleet and participated in the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 . Black Prince became separated from the fleet when darkness fell and was sunk with all hands by German battleships later that night . Duke of Edinburgh was not damaged during the battle and was the only ship of her squadron to survive . After Jutland Duke of Edinburgh was ordered to reinforce the patrols north of the Shetland Islands against German blockade runners and commerce raiders . She was eventually transferred to the Atlantic in August 1917 for convoy escort duties . The ship was sold for scrap in 1920 .
= John Baldwin ( educator ) =
John Baldwin ( October 13 , 1799 – December 28 , 1884 ) was an American educator , and the founder of Baldwin Institute ( later Baldwin University ) in Berea , Ohio , which would eventually merge into Baldwin – Wallace College . He was also the founder of Baker University and Baldwin City , Kansas , and contributed money to start schools in Bangalore , India that are today called Baldwin Boys High School , Baldwin Girls High School and Baldwin Co @-@ Education Extension High School .
Born in Connecticut , Baldwin originally was a teacher in Maryland and Connecticut before moving to Ohio in the late 1820s . He became part of the lyceum movement , and situated himself in Berea , Ohio . He opened up Baldwin Institute in 1846 upon seeing the dissolution of the Norwalk Seminary . Nine years later , the Institute became Baldwin University . He moved to Kansas around 1857 , laying the foundation for Baldwin City , Kansas , as well as Baker University . In his later life , he purchased a Louisiana plantation , and made contributions to education in India late in his life .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
John Baldwin was born in Branford , Connecticut on 13 October 1799 to Joseph Baldwin and Rosanna Malley . His mother was a well @-@ educated woman , as well as intensely religious . She attempted to become a student at Yale University , but was not allowed because she was a woman . Due to this , John resolved to make no distinction between races or sexes should he ever found a school . His father enlisted in the Continental Army during the American Revolution as a private and left as a captain . When John turned eighteen , he joined the Methodist Church . As a student at a private school , he paid his way by chopping firewood , ringing the bell , and building fires . Afterwards , he became a teacher in Fishkill , New York , Maryland , and Litchfield , Connecticut . As a teacher in Maryland , his stance on slavery , as well as black people as a whole , was revealed . A mulatto boy was sent to his school daily as a servant for his master 's son . Baldwin began to teach them in common . When the student 's father found out about this , he demanded Baldwin not teach him any more , to which he replied , " I do not charge anything for teaching him " and continued to teach him .
= = = Founding Berea = = =
After marrying Mary Chappel on January 31 , 1828 , they moved to Middleburg Township in Cuyahoga County , Ohio in April of that year . It was there that Baldwin joined forces with James Gilbrith , a disciple of Josiah Holbrook who wanted to found a lyceum village . In the village , which was founded in 1837 and situated just north of his farm , Baldwin ran the Lyceum Village School for five years until June 1842 , when it went bankrupt . However , one day while walking home , he had an impulse to take a new route across the river on his farm . He noticed a grouping of exposed rocks , which would make superior grindstones . This was the beginning of the Berea grindstone industry . Baldwin shipped his grindstones to Cleveland by ox carts . After the Big Four Railroad was built from Cleveland to Cincinnati , Baldwin built a railroad which would connect his quarries to the Big Four Depot . It was then that Baldwin and the others of the Lyceum Village tried to think of a name for their new town . After Gilbrith proposed Tabor , John Baldwin suggested Berea , citing Acts 17 : 10 – 11 . After a coin flip , Berea was chosen .
= = = Baldwin Institute = = =
In 1843 , Baldwin noticed that the Norwalk Seminary , located in Norwalk , Ohio , was dissolving due to lack of funds . He approached Thomas Thompson , who was the elder of the Norwalk District ( which included Cleveland and Berea ) , and asked him to visit Berea . At Baldwin 's Old Red House , an agreement was made where Baldwin would create a campus on his farm similar to the Norwalk Seminary . Baldwin Institute officially opened on April 9 , 1846 . It was meant to open in 1845 , but the process was delayed until the completion of a building on Baldwin 's farm , which was erected by Baldwin himself , made of stone quarried on his farm and brick made of clay . The institute was open to people of all races , male or female , as Baldwin wanted . It became Baldwin University and was given a charter in 1855 . The university later became Baldwin – Wallace College in 1913 .
= = = Life in Kansas = = =
At age fifty @-@ eight , Baldwin desired to satisfy his nature of being a pioneer again by moving to Kansas , which was at that time a territory . He arrived as the brunt of the fighting in the territory was ending . Upon his arrival , he founded Baldwin City and built the first college building in the territory , which became the foundation for Baker University . He was in Kansas only for a short time when tragedy struck . On August 30 , 1858 , John 's son Milton died unexpectedly after having been sick for only three days . Within a couple years , he laid out a town , built a grist mill and a saw mill , and he turned over the town and college to the Methodist Conference and returned to Berea , although he continued to finance it .
= = = Later years & family legacy = = =
In 1867 , Baldwin purchased the Darby plantation in Louisiana , a plantation of about 1 @,@ 700 acres ( 6 @.@ 9 km2 ) . At the age of eighty , Baldwin learned of the situation in India ; there were large numbers of Europeans in India who could not get a proper education . The Baldwin High School for Boys and the Baldwin High School for Girls were then built in 1880 . John Baldwin died at his home in Baldwin , Louisiana on Sunday , December 28 , 1884 , at 10 A.M. Baldwin 's family even left their legacy on the campus long after Baldwin 's death . A person of historical significance to the university 's history is Philura Gould Baldwin . Philura Gould Baldwin graduated in 1886 and was the granddaughter of John Baldwin . Philura started the school 's first library by collecting and cataloging books . Beyond this , Philura suggested the traditional colors of brown and gold for the school colors . These were also the school colors for Baldwin University , which still stand today . Philura died from consumption at age 26 ( b . November 28 , 1865 ; d . March 3 , 1892 ) . The Baldwin family donated funds for a library that was dedicated in her memory in June 1894 . The Philura Gould Baldwin Library was eventually made part of the Malicky Center in the 1900s .
= = Personal views = =
John Baldwin was a person whose views seemed to run counter to the conventional customs of the time . Despite his accomplishments , he never wrote a book , held public office , or even kept books . Although he was not an abolitionist by definition , he had no problem teaching blacks and whites as equals , as evident by his opening Baldwin Institute without regard to race or gender . His parents taught him to fear God , and he consequently devoted himself to living humbly and righteously , to being kind to the poor , and to joining the Methodist Church .
= Steve Nash =
Stephen John Nash , OC , OBC ( born February 7 , 1974 ) , is a Canadian retired professional basketball player who played in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He was an eight @-@ time NBA All @-@ Star and a seven @-@ time All @-@ NBA selection . Twice , Nash was named the NBA Most Valuable Player while playing for the Phoenix Suns . He currently serves as general manager of the Canadian national team and as a player development consultant for the Golden State Warriors .
After a successful high school basketball career in British Columbia , Nash earned a scholarship to Santa Clara University in California . In his four seasons with the Broncos , the team made three NCAA Tournament appearances , and he was twice named the West Coast Conference ( WCC ) Player of the Year . Nash graduated from Santa Clara as the team 's all @-@ time leader in assists and was taken as the 15th pick in the 1996 NBA draft by the Phoenix Suns . He made minimal impact and was traded to the Dallas Mavericks in 1998 . By his third season with the Mavericks , he was voted to his first NBA All @-@ Star Game and had earned his first All @-@ NBA selection . Together with Dirk Nowitzki and Michael Finley , Nash led the Mavericks to the Western Conference Finals the following season . He became a free agent after the 2003 – 04 season and returned to the Phoenix Suns .
In the 2004 – 05 season , Nash led the Suns to the Western Conference Finals and was named the league 's MVP . He was named MVP again in the 2005 – 06 season and was runner @-@ up for a third consecutive MVP to Nowitzki in 2006 – 07 . Named by ESPN in 2006 as the ninth greatest point guard of all time , Nash led the league in assists and free @-@ throw percentage at various points in his career . He is also ranked as one of the top players in NBA league history in three @-@ point shooting , free @-@ throw shooting , total assists , and assists per game .
Nash has been honoured for his contributions to various philanthropic causes . In 2006 , he was named by Time as one of the 100 most influential people in the world . He was appointed to the Order of Canada in 2007 and invested to the order in 2016 , and was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Laws by the University of Victoria in 2008 .
Nash has been a co @-@ owner of the Vancouver Whitecaps FC of Major League Soccer ( MLS ) since the team entered the league in 2011 . In 2012 , he was named general manager of the Canadian men 's national basketball team , for whom he played from 1991 to 2003 .
= = Early life = =
Nash was born in Johannesburg , South Africa , to a Welsh mother , Jean , and English father , John , on 7 February 1974 . His family moved to Regina , Saskatchewan when he was 18 months old , before settling in Victoria , British Columbia . He therefore holds British as well as Canadian citizenship . Before the family settled in Canada , his father played professional soccer in various parts of the world . Nash often played soccer and ice hockey with his younger brother Martin , and did not start playing basketball until he was 12 or 13 years old . In grade eight , however , he told his mother that one day he would play in the NBA and would become a star . He was neighbour to future NHL stars Russ and Geoff Courtnall , who used to babysit him and played soccer coached by Nash 's father .
= = High school career = =
Nash originally attended Mount Douglas Secondary School in Saanich , British Columbia , but after his grades began to drop , his parents decided to enroll him at St. Michaels University School , a private boarding school in Victoria . There , he starred in basketball , soccer , and rugby union . While playing basketball during his senior season , Nash averaged 21 @.@ 3 points , 11 @.@ 2 assists , and 9 @.@ 1 rebounds per game . In the 1991 – 92 season , he led his team in his final year to the British Columbia AAA provincial championship title , and was named the province 's Player of the Year .
= = College career = =
Although Nash 's high school coach , Ian Hyde @-@ Lay , sent letters of inquiry and highlight reels on Nash 's behalf to over 30 American universities , Nash was not recruited by any university , until Santa Clara coach Dick Davey requested video footage of the young guard . After watching Nash in person , Davey said he " was nervous as hell just hoping that no one else would see him . It didn 't take a Nobel Prize winner to figure out this guy 's pretty good . It was just a case of hoping that none of the big names came around . " However , Davey also told Nash that he was " the worst defensive player " he had ever seen .
Nash was awarded a scholarship by Santa Clara for the 1992 – 93 season . At that time , it had been five years since the Broncos appeared in the NCAA tournament . That changed when Nash led the Broncos to a WCC Tournament title and an upset win over the No. 2 seeded Arizona in the first round of the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . In that game , Nash scored six straight free throws in the last 30 seconds of the contest . Although Santa Clara was defeated by Temple in the next round , the 1992 – 93 campaign was considered a successful one . However , the Broncos failed to sustain the momentum the following season , and only managed a 5 – 7 record in the conference . The team rebounded in the 1994 – 95 season , with Nash being named Conference Player of the Year and the Broncos topping the WCC . Featuring the league leader for scoring and assists in Nash , the Broncos returned to the NCAA tournament , but they were defeated by Mississippi State . After the season , Nash contemplated turning professional , and decided against it when he learned that he would probably not be considered as a first @-@ round pick in the 1995 NBA Draft .
In the 1995 – 96 season , Nash began attracting the attention of the national media and professional scouts . He had spent the summer before that honing his skills , playing with the Canadian national team and working out with the likes of established NBA players Jason Kidd and Gary Payton . Santa Clara again captured the WCC title , and for the second consecutive year , Nash was named Conference Player of the Year , the first Bronco to do so since Kurt Rambis . He scored 28 points in leading the No. 10 seed Broncos to a first round upset win over No. 7 seed Maryland , but then the Broncos were eliminated by Kansas . Nash 's performances ensured that he earned an honourable mention All @-@ America as a senior by The Associated Press and the USBWA . He also finished his career as Santa Clara 's all @-@ time leader in career assists ( 510 ) , free @-@ throw percentage ( .862 ) , and made and attempted three @-@ pointers ( 263 – 656 ) . He remains third on the school 's all @-@ time scoring list ( 1 @,@ 689 ) , and holds Santa Clara 's single @-@ season free @-@ throw percentage record ( .894 ) . In September 2006 , Nash had his jersey ( # 11 ) retired , becoming the first Santa Clara student @-@ athlete to receive that honour .
= = = College statistics = = =
= = Professional career = =
= = = Phoenix Suns ( 1996 – 98 ) = = =
After graduating with a degree in sociology , Nash was selected 15th overall by the Phoenix Suns in the first round of the 1996 NBA draft . Upon hearing the draft announcement , Suns fans booed in disapproval of the relatively unknown player . This was because despite his impressive college accomplishments , Nash had not played in one of the major college conferences . A major influence in Phoenix 's choice was assistant coach Donnie Nelson , who met Nash back in high school as he was coached by Nelson 's friend Ken Shields , and would eventually befriend the player as he played in Santa Clara . During his first two seasons in the NBA , Nash played a supporting role behind NBA star point guards Kevin Johnson , Sam Cassell , and later , Jason Kidd . Both Johnson and Cassell had NBA Finals experience , while Kidd was the second overall pick in the 1994 NBA Draft and already an All @-@ Star when he arrived at Phoenix .
In his rookie season , Nash only managed 10 @.@ 5 minutes a game , but in his second season , his playing time increased significantly and he was even ranked 13th in the league for three @-@ point field @-@ goal percentage . Nevertheless , the Canadian 's tenure with the Suns did not last . Nelson had just taken a job as assistant general manager of the Dallas Mavericks under his father , Don Nelson , and convinced him to acquire the under @-@ utilised Nash . Following the 1998 NBA Draft , Nash was traded from the Suns to the Mavericks in exchange for Martin Müürsepp , Bubba Wells , the draft rights to Pat Garrity and a first @-@ round draft pick ( who later turned out to be future Phoenix team @-@ mate Shawn Marion ) .
= = = Dallas Mavericks ( 1998 – 2004 ) = = =
It was in Dallas that Nash established himself as a formidable point guard , beginning a decade as one of the game 's top players . During his first year as a Maverick ( the lockout @-@ shortened 1998 – 99 season ) he started in all 40 games he played in , and averaged 7 @.@ 9 points , 2 @.@ 9 rebounds and 5 @.@ 5 assists per game . The 19 – 31 Mavericks failed to make the playoffs but in the 1999 – 2000 season , the team 's prospects improved considerably . Nash missed 25 mid @-@ season games due to an ankle injury , but came back to record six double @-@ doubles in the last month of play . He finished the season with averages of 8 @.@ 6 points and 4 @.@ 9 assists per game . More importantly for the team , second @-@ year teammate and friend Dirk Nowitzki was blossoming quickly into a top player , veteran Michael Finley was having an All @-@ Star @-@ calibre year , and the team 's new owner , billionaire Mark Cuban , was bringing new energy and excitement to the franchise . Nash now had a supportive environment in which he could thrive .
In the 2000 – 01 season , Nash averaged 15 @.@ 6 points and 7 @.@ 3 assists per game in a breakout season . With Nash directing the team 's offense , Nowitzki and Finley playing at their best , and the acquisition of All @-@ Star Juwan Howard complementing the high @-@ scoring trio , the Mavericks earned a playoff berth for the first time in more than a decade . Dallas lost in the Western Conference Semifinals four games to one to the San Antonio Spurs , but it marked the beginning of a memorable run for Nash and the Mavericks . In the 2001 – 02 season , Nash posted career @-@ highs of 17 @.@ 9 points and 7 @.@ 7 assists per game and earned a spot in the NBA All @-@ Star Game and on the All @-@ NBA Third Team . He was now an All @-@ Star , increasingly appearing in television commercials and , with Finley and Nowitzki , a part of the Dallas Mavericks " Big Three . " Dallas earned another trip to the playoffs but lost again in the Semifinals to the Sacramento Kings four games to one .
Nash closely replicated his previous season 's performance in the 2002 – 03 season , averaging 17 @.@ 7 points and 7 @.@ 3 assists per game , again earning All @-@ Star and All @-@ NBA Third Team honours . Nowitzki and Nash led the Mavericks from a 14 @-@ game winning streak to open the season all the way to the Western Conference Finals , where they lost to the eventual NBA champions , the San Antonio Spurs four games to two . It was only the second Conference Finals appearance in the franchise 's history . The 2003 – 04 season saw an offensively boosted Mavericks roster ( with the acquisitions of Antoine Walker and Antawn Jamison ) but a dip in Nash 's scoring contributions . As a result , he was not selected for the All @-@ Star and All @-@ NBA team rosters even though he achieved new career highs in assists per game ( 8 @.@ 8 ) and free @-@ throw accuracy ( 91 @.@ 6 % ) . In the playoffs , the fifth @-@ seeded Dallas failed to make progress yet again as the Sacramento Kings saw them off four games to one .
After the 2003 – 04 season , Nash became a free agent . He attempted to negotiate a long @-@ term contract with Cuban , who was paying Walker , Finley , Nowitzki and Jamison nearly $ 50 million in combined salaries that season . Cuban wanted to build his franchise around the younger Nowitzki and did not want to risk signing the 30 @-@ year @-@ old Nash to a long @-@ term deal , and offered Nash a four @-@ year deal worth about $ 9 million annually , with a fifth year partially guaranteed . The Phoenix Suns on the other hand offered the point guard a six @-@ year , $ 63 million contract . Nash was reluctant to leave Dallas and returned to Cuban to see if he would match the deal ; Cuban did not , and Nash signed with the Suns for the 2004 – 05 season . The Canadian would go on to win two League MVP awards with Phoenix , and on a 14 June 2006 appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman , Cuban wondered out loud , " ... you know Steve 's a great guy and I love him to death , but why couldn 't he play like an MVP for us ? "
= = = Return to Phoenix ( 2004 – 2012 ) = = =
Nash joined a Suns team which had emerging young players in Shawn Marion , Joe Johnson and Amar 'e Stoudemire . In the season before Nash arrived , the Suns had recorded a 29 – 53 win – loss record , and they were projected to have another poor season . Head coach Mike D 'Antoni favoured an up @-@ tempo style of basketball ; this required smaller and more athletic players with the capability to outrun and outshoot their opponents . Nash 's familiarity with this style combined with the athleticism of his teammates produced an NBA @-@ best 62 – 20 record and a points @-@ per @-@ game average of 110 @.@ 4 , the highest in a decade . The catalyst of this turnaround , Nash averaged 11 @.@ 5 assists per game while making 50 @.@ 2 % of his field goals and 43 @.@ 1 % of his three @-@ pointers in the regular season . He edged Shaquille O 'Neal to win the 2004 – 05 NBA MVP award , becoming the first Canadian to earn the honour , as well as the third point guard ever to be named MVP , along with Magic Johnson and Bob Cousy . In the playoffs , Phoenix swept the Memphis Grizzlies in four games before meeting the Dallas Mavericks in the second round . Nash led the Suns to a 4 – 2 series win , and the Suns reached the Western Conference finals for the first time since 1993 , but lost to the eventual NBA Champions and arch @-@ rival , the San Antonio Spurs , in five games .
The next season , Stoudemire suffered a serious knee injury , and Johnson and Quentin Richardson were traded away . The Suns were not expected to repeat their successful 2005 season , but with Nash directing the same high @-@ tempo offence , the team compiled a respectable 54 – 28 record and won the division title . The Suns were again the highest @-@ scoring team in the league with seven players averaging double figures in points per game , and Nash was voted for the first time to start for the 2006 Western All @-@ Star team . Having recorded career highs in points ( 18 @.@ 8 ) , rebounds ( 4 @.@ 2 ) , field goal percentage ( .512 ) and free @-@ throw percentage ( a league @-@ leading .921 ) , and leading the league with 10 @.@ 5 assists per game , Nash was named the league MVP for the second year in a row . In the first round of the playoffs , Phoenix overcame a 3 – 1 deficit against the Los Angeles Lakers and won the series 4 – 3 . The Los Angeles Clippers were their Conference Semifinals opponents , and the Suns again needed seven games to clinch the series . For the second year in a row however , the Suns bowed out in the Conference Finals , this time to Nash 's former team , Dallas .
In the 2006 – 07 season , Nash had another stellar campaign , averaging 18 @.@ 6 points and a career @-@ high 11 @.@ 6 assists per game while becoming the first person since Magic Johnson in 1990 – 91 to average 18 points and 11 assists per game during the regular season . Nash received the most votes for first @-@ team All @-@ NBA and was joined by teammate Stoudemire ; the two were the first teammates to make the first team since Kobe Bryant and Shaquille O 'Neal in 2003 – 04 . Nash received 129 first @-@ place votes and 645 total points from the panel of 129 media members . He narrowly missed being MVP a third consecutive time , coming in second with 44 first place votes to 83 for Dirk Nowitzki . In the playoffs , the Suns eliminated the Lakers in five games before losing 4 – 2 to the Spurs in the Conference Semifinals .
Nash played in 81 regular @-@ season games during the 2007 – 08 season ; in this campaign , the Western Conference was especially competitive and he led the Suns to 55 wins and the sixth seed for the 2008 NBA Playoffs . Although there was a dip in his regular @-@ season output , Nash 's shooting remained sharp ; the accuracy of his shooting was on par with his 2005 – 06 MVP campaign ( shooting at least 50 % from the field , 40 % from the three @-@ point arc , and 90 % from the free throw line ) . On 31 January 2008 , he collected his All @-@ Star stripes for the sixth time in his career . However , Nash continued to experience agony in the playoffs . Despite a mid @-@ season trade that sent Shawn Marion to the Miami Heat and brought four @-@ time NBA champion Shaquille O 'Neal to the team , the Suns were defeated in the first round of the playoffs by the San Antonio Spurs for the third time in four years . In the deciding Game 5 , Nash was perceived to have suffered from " elimination @-@ game jitters " , and turned over the ball twice in the final two minutes of what was a tight contest . Nevertheless , Nash was later named to the All @-@ NBA Second Team for the 2007 – 08 season .
Before the 2008 – 09 season began , coach D 'Antoni was replaced by Terry Porter , who preferred a more defensive @-@ oriented style of basketball . The Suns had difficulties adapting to this new system , and even a December trade involving sending stalwarts Raja Bell and Boris Diaw to the Charlotte Bobcats for athletic swingman Jason Richardson saw the team continue to struggle . Porter was then replaced by Alvin Gentry in February after a 28 – 23 record , but the Suns were unable to secure the final seed for the playoffs , resulting in Nash missing the playoffs for the first time since he returned to Phoenix for his second stint .
Nash and the Suns opened the 2009 – 10 season with a series of strong performances , going 8 – 1 in their first nine games ( a franchise @-@ best since 1980 – 81 ) , with Nash producing two 20 @-@ assists games . On 21 January 2010 , Nash was named as the starting point guard for the West for the 2010 NBA All @-@ Star Game . With him operating at the point , the Suns were the highest @-@ scoring team in the league for the fifth season in a row , and were seeded third in the conference for the playoffs with 54 wins . Behind solid performances by Richardson and veteran Grant Hill , the Suns defeated the Portland Trail Blazers 4 – 2 in the first round of the playoffs , and swept the Spurs 4 – 0 in the second round . The Suns met the defending champions , Los Angeles Lakers , in the Conference Finals . After losing the first two games , Phoenix won the next two to tie the series . A Ron Artest buzzer @-@ beater in Game 5 pushed the Lakers one game closer to the Finals , and Kobe Bryant 's 37 points in Game 6 completed the defeat of the Suns .
The Suns underwent two major roster changes in the 2010 – 11 season . During the pre @-@ season , Stoudemire left for New York , while longtime teammate Leandro Barbosa was traded for Hedo Türkoğlu . Josh Childress and Hakim Warrick were also recruited to join the Suns . Not long after the season began , Türkoğlu , Richardson , and Earl Clark were traded to Orlando for Vince Carter , Marcin Gortat , and Mickaël Piétrus , while rising star Goran Dragic was traded to the Houston Rockets for Aaron Brooks . The Suns had difficulty being even a .500 team , and for the second time since Nash returned to Phoenix , the Suns failed to make the playoffs .
In February 2012 , Nash was named to his eighth All @-@ Star Game . At the time , he was leading the NBA in assists per game . On 21 April 2012 , Nash passed Oscar Robertson for career assists versus the Denver Nuggets . Despite his stellar play the Suns missed the playoffs for the second consecutive time . He finished the season averaging 12 @.@ 5 points and 10 @.@ 7 assists per game on 53 @.@ 2 % shooting from the field ( tying his career high ) .
= = = Los Angeles Lakers ( 2012 – 2015 ) = = =
On July 11 , 2012 , the Los Angeles Lakers acquired Nash in a sign @-@ and @-@ trade deal with Phoenix . Nash also considered signing with New York or Toronto , but he decided that Los Angeles was the best fit for him and his family . Nash switched his jersey number , as his customary No. 13 was retired by Los Angeles in honour of Wilt Chamberlain . Nash , an avid soccer fan , chose No. 10 to pay homage to Glenn Hoddle , Zinedine Zidane and other soccer playmakers who wore the number . Entering his 17th NBA season , Nash came to the Lakers with concerns over his defense and the health of his back .
In the second game of the 2012 – 13 season , Nash suffered a non @-@ displaced fracture in his left leg after a collision with Damian Lillard of the Portland Trail Blazers . He was expected to miss at least one week , but was out of the lineup for close to seven weeks . He was reunited with D 'Antoni , who took over as Lakers coach after Mike Brown was fired after a 1 – 4 start . On 22 December , Nash returned against the Golden State Warriors , helping the Lakers win their first overtime game of the season , 118 – 115 , scoring 12 points with 9 assists in 41 minutes of play . The Lakers won three of the first four games after Nash returned . However , they lost their next four , including a 125 – 112 loss to Houston on 8 January 2013 , when Nash assisted on an Antawn Jamison jumper to become the fifth player in NBA history to reach 10 @,@ 000 career assists .
Kobe Bryant was moved to defend the opponent 's primary ball handler , freeing Nash from unfavourable matchups . Nash also struggled with Dwight Howard to run the pick and roll , a play that D 'Antoni had expected would be a staple for the Lakers . D 'Antoni moved Nash off the ball and made him more of a spot @-@ up shooter , while Bryant became the primary facilitator on offense . Nash missed the last eight games of the season with a right hip injury that also caused nerve damage in his right hamstring . The team qualified for the playoffs as the seventh seed , but were swept 4 – 0 by San Antonio in the first round . Nash missed the last two games of the series after recurring issues with his hip and hamstring . In what he called arguably " the most frustrating " season of his career , Nash missed a career @-@ high 32 games in the regular season , and averaged his fewest assists ( 6 @.@ 7 ) since 1999 – 2000 , when he was a part @-@ time starter with Dallas .
During 2013 – 14 season , Nash continued to suffer nerve problems stemming from his leg injury the prior season . In November , he was sidelined for an estimated minimum of two weeks due to nerve root irritation . Nash returned on February 4 , 2014 , shooting 3 @-@ for @-@ 6 for 7 points . On February 7 , 2014 , his 40th birthday , he scored a season @-@ high 19 points in a victory over the Philadelphia 76ers . On March 13 , Nash was ruled out for the remainder of the season by D 'Antoni . He was suffering from a recurrence of nerve problems stemming from an earlier collision to his left leg with Chicago 's Kirk Hinrich , and the Lakers wanted to give Kendall Marshall and Jordan Farmar more playing time . However , Nash returned on March 21 after a groin injury to Farmar that was expected to sideline him a minimum of two weeks .
In July 2014 , Nash announced that the 2014 – 15 season would be his last . During the preseason , he experienced back pain , and further aggravated his back while lifting luggage . On 23 October , less than a week before the start of what would have been the 40 @-@ year @-@ old Nash 's 19th year in the NBA , he was ruled out for the season due to a recurring back injury . Nash only played in three preseason games before he started to feel more pain in his back . Nash on injuring his back : " Being on the court this season has been my top priority , and it is disappointing to not be able to do that right now . I work very hard to stay healthy , and unfortunately my recent setback makes performing at full capacity difficult . I will continue to support my team during this period of rest and will focus on my long @-@ term health . "
= = Retirement and consulting duties = =
Nash announced his retirement from playing on March 21 , 2015 . Before the announcement , the Cleveland Cavaliers had said to Nash 's agent that they were interested in him as a backup for Kyrie Irving if Nash asked for a buyout . Nash refused it , due to both his health concerns and wanting to retire as a Laker in gratitude for the opportunity given by the club . Nash was later on approached by another former team of his , the Dallas Mavericks , to have one last season with them instead , but he declined due to his aforementioned health concerns .
On September 25 , 2015 , it was confirmed that Nash would take on part @-@ time consulting duties for the Golden State Warriors .
= = International career = =
In the early 1990s , Nash was cut from the Canadian junior national team by head coach Ken Olynyk , father of future NBA player Kelly Olynyk . At age 17 , he was the youngest member of Team Canada at the 1991 World University Games , where the team won a silver medal .
In 1993 , while in college , he played for the senior national team at the Tournament of the Americas and competed in the Canada Games ( for the British Columbia team ) and World University Games . He won a bronze medal at the Canada Games and won a silver medal at the World University Games , losing to Team USA in a closely contested final , which included players such as Michael Finley and Damon Stoudamire .
At the 1999 Tournament of the Americas , Nash led Canada to the silver medal , qualifying the team for the Olympics for the first time in 12 years ; he was named tournament MVP . Nash captained Canada at the 2000 Sydney Olympics . He led Canada to win their round robin group with a victory over Spain and a stunning 83 – 75 win over favoured Yugoslavia when he scored 26 points with eight rebounds and eight assists . Canada was eliminated in the quarterfinals with a five @-@ point loss to France and Nash left the court in tears . Nash expressed disappointment with the result , saying " It hurts a lot . I feel like I let everybody down . We could have been in the championship game . We were good enough . " Nevertheless , he did see a possible silver lining , saying " Hopefully kids [ in Canada ] will be inspired to play — that 's what I really hope . " A victory in its final game of the tournament , a placement game against Russia , enabled Canada to salvage seventh place . Nash 's Olympic performance propelled him to stardom in Canada and he finished fifth in voting for the 2000 Lionel Conacher Award , which is handed out to the Canadian male athlete of the year .
Nash again led Team Canada during qualifying for the 2004 Summer Olympics at the FIBA Americas Olympic Qualifying Tournament in San Juan , Puerto Rico . He led the tournament in assists and was named tournament MVP , but Canada finished fourth , missing out on the three Olympic spots available . That was the last time Nash played for Canada ; he was reportedly upset about the firing of head coach Jay Triano in 2004 . In December 2007 , he said , " In my mind right now , I 'm not going to play for Canada any more . "
On May 8 , 2012 , Nash became General Manager of the Canadian senior national team . Three months later , he rehired Triano as head coach .
= = Player profile = =
Nash is most noted for his playmaking , ball @-@ handling skills and shooting . He led the league in assists for five years , averaging 11 @.@ 5 assists per game in 2004 – 05 , 10 @.@ 5 in 2005 – 06 , 11 @.@ 6 in 2006 – 07 , 11 @.@ 0 in 2009 – 10 and 11 @.@ 4 in 2010 – 11 and won the 2005 and 2010 NBA All @-@ Star Skills Contests . As of the end of 2012 – 13 season , he had a 90 @.@ 4 % career free @-@ throw shooting average ( best in NBA history ) and a 42 @.@ 8 % career three @-@ point shooting average ( eighth @-@ best in league history ) , and ranked as one of the top 10 players in league history in total assists , assists per game , and three @-@ point field goals made . In addition , he is
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ranked second ( starting from 1986 – 87 ) in regular season point @-@ assist double doubles . In the 2005 – 06 season , Nash became the fourth player in NBA history to shoot 50 % or better from the field , 40 % from three @-@ point range ( 43 @.@ 9 ) , and 90 % from the line , joining Larry Bird , Reggie Miller , and Mark Price in the 50 – 40 – 90 Club . Nash would repeat this feat three more times in the 2007 – 08 , 2008 – 09 and 2009 – 10 campaigns . Nash ( four times ) and Larry Bird ( two times ) are the only players to have accomplished this feat more than once . A two @-@ time NBA MVP , Nash is only the second point guard ( along with Magic Johnson ) to win the MVP award multiple times and the third guard in NBA history to earn back @-@ to @-@ back MVPs ( joining Johnson and Michael Jordan ) . Only ten other NBA players have won back @-@ to @-@ back MVP awards : Johnson , Jordan , Bill Russell , Wilt Chamberlain , Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , Moses Malone , Larry Bird , Tim Duncan , LeBron James , and Stephen Curry . On 11 May 2006 , ESPN.com rated Nash as the 9th @-@ best point guard of all time , and in a survey by nba.com in 2007 , Nash received 85 % of the votes by the league 's general managers as best point guard in the league . In a similar survey in 2009 , Nash was rated as the best passer of the ball and the player possessing the best basketball IQ . Commenting on Nash losing out to former teammate Dirk Nowitzki for the 2007 NBA MVP , Boston Celtics centre and Hall of Famer Russell stated : " I think , on the world stage , he 's one of our great athletes in all sports ... I 'm a big fan . The two MVPs he got , he deserved . Part of the reason that he 's so good and so effective is that the guys like playing with him . He creates an atmosphere where they win games . "
In terms of specific skills , Nash was particularly effective playing the pick and roll , notably with Nowitzki when he was with the Mavericks and later with the Suns ' Amar 'e Stoudemire and Shawn Marion . When Nash returned to Phoenix in 2004 , he helped the Suns improve from a 29 – 53 record in 2003 – 04 to 62 – 20 in 2004 – 05 , reaching the Conference Finals for the first time in 11 years , earning him his first MVP award . The next season , he led the Suns into the Conference Finals , despite the injuries of all three big men ( Stoudemire , Kurt Thomas and Brian Grant ) ; further , Nash was responsible for seven of his teammates attaining career @-@ highs in season scoring . With Nash operating at the point , between the 2005 – 06 and 2009 – 10 seasons , the Suns led the league in field goal percentage .
= = = NBA career statistics = = =
= = = = Regular season = = = =
= = = = Playoffs = = = =
= = = NBA career highlights = = =
2 × NBA Most Valuable Player : 2005 , 2006
8 × NBA All @-@ Star : 2002 – 03 , 2005 – 08 , 2010 , 2012
7 × All @-@ NBA selection :
First team : 2005 – 07
Second team : 2008 , 2010
Third team : 2002 , 2003
2 × NBA All @-@ Star Weekend Skills Challenge winner : 2005 , 2010
5 × NBA regular season leader for assists per game : 2005 ( 11 @.@ 5 ) , 2006 ( 10 @.@ 5 ) , 2007 ( 11 @.@ 6 ) , 2010 ( 11 @.@ 0 ) , 2011 ( 11 @.@ 4 )
6 × NBA regular season leader for total assists : 2005 ( 861 ) , 2006 ( 826 ) , 2007 ( 884 ) , 2010 ( 892 ) , 2011 ( 855 ) , 2012 ( 664 )
2 × NBA regular season leader for free @-@ throw percentage : 2006 ( .921 ) , 2010 ( .938 )
7 × NBA regular season leader for assists per 48 minutes : 2004 ( 12 @.@ 6 ) , 2005 ( 16 @.@ 1 ) , 2006 ( 14 @.@ 2 ) , 2007 ( 15 @.@ 8 ) , 2008 ( 15 @.@ 5 ) , 2010 ( 16 @.@ 1 ) , 2011 ( 16 @.@ 4 )
4 × member of 50 – 40 – 90 Club : ( 2006 , 2008 – 10 )
Has more 50 – 40 – 90 seasons than any other player in NBA history
One of only seven players to have ever shot 50 – 40 – 90
One of only two players ( the other being Larry Bird ) to have shot 50 – 40 – 90 more than once
Lou Marsh Trophy ( Canadian athlete of the year ) : 2005
3 × Lionel Conacher Award ( Canadian male athlete of the year ) : 2002 , 2005 , 2006
J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award ( NBA award for outstanding citizenship and community service ) : 2007
Highest career free throw percentage in NBA history ( minimum 1200 career attempts ) , 90 @.@ 42 percent
= = Off the court = =
= = = Personal life = = =
In 2001 , Nash met Alejandra Amarilla in Manhattan . They married in June 2005 and had twin daughters , Lola and Bella , born on 14 October 2004 , . and a son , Matteo , born 12 November 2010 . On the day of his son 's birth , Nash made a statement to Life & Style in which he announced the birth but called it a " bittersweet moment " , revealing that he and his wife had " lived separately for the past several months " and are " in the process of dissolving " their marriage .
Nash 's younger brother , Martin , played soccer for the Vancouver Whitecaps FC and made 30 appearances for the Canadian national soccer team . Their younger sister , Joann , was the captain of the University of Victoria Vikes women 's soccer team for three years and was named a Canada West Universities Athletic Association All @-@ Star . She is married to professional ice hockey player Manny Malhotra .
Nash has a medical condition called spondylolisthesis , which causes muscle tightness and back pain . Due to the condition , when he is not in the game he lies on his back rather than sitting on the bench to keep his muscles from stiffening .
= = = Charity = = =
In 2001 , Nash formed the Steve Nash Foundation . Through grants to public service and nonprofit entities , the foundation aims to foster health in kids by funding projects that provide services to children affected by poverty , illness , abuse , or neglect , and create opportunity for education , play , and empowerment . It focuses its resources on communities in Phoenix , Arizona , and British Columbia , Canada . It was given charitable status in 2004 . This foundation was awarded the Steve Patterson Award for Excellence in Sports Philanthropy in 2008 . Nash also founded the Jim Jennings Memorial Endowment Fund , established in honour of a volunteer staff member at Santa Clara University who served the basketball team for more than 20 years .
Elsewhere , Nash is the sponsor of the Steve Nash Youth Basketball League in British Columbia that has grown over 10 @,@ 000 participants . He has also become involved with GuluWalk , a Canadian @-@ operated charitable organization that raises awareness and funds for the war @-@ affected children of northern Uganda . In September 2007 , Nash and Yao Ming headlined a group of NBA players who travelled to China and played an exhibition game with the Chinese national basketball team . The charity event reportedly raised 2 @.@ 5 million dollars , earmarked for Chinese children in need .
In May 2006 , Nash was named by Time as one of the 100 most influential people in the world . In the accompanying write @-@ up by Charles Barkley , Nash was lauded for his unselfishness on the basketball court , and being " just a nice guy " who had paid for a new pediatric cardiology ward in a Paraguayan hospital . On 28 December 2007 , it was announced that Nash would receive Canada 's highest civilian honour , the Order of Canada , and on 3 June 2008 , it was announced that Nash would receive a star on Canada 's Walk of Fame . On 18 September 2009 , he was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree by the University of Victoria , in recognition of his athletic achievements and his philanthropic work on behalf of young people through the Steve Nash Foundation .
= = = Endorsements = = =
Nash is selective in his endorsements , preferring companies he deems socially responsible . After winning his first MVP award , he was approached to serve as spokesperson for numerous products , including MDG Computers , Raymond Weil watches , Vitamin Water , and Clearly Canadian bottled water . He also has a longstanding relationship with Nike . Nash is represented by agent Bill Duffy .
= = = Soccer = = =
Nash grew up playing soccer — he stated in a 2005 interview that he could have played professionally if he had focused on it — and continues to hold an interest in the sport . When Dirk Nowitzki arrived in the NBA from Germany , he and Nash became close friends , in part because they enjoyed watching soccer together . Nash is friends with several professional soccer players , including Alessandro Del Piero , Thierry Henry , Owen Hargreaves , Massimo Ambrosini and Steve McManaman . During his off @-@ season , when he lives in New York City , he has trained with the New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer , and once tried to arrange a pick @-@ up game in the city 's Central Park with the Red Bulls and one of his local teams .
Nash , whose father was born in the Tottenham district of London , is a lifelong Tottenham Hotspur supporter , and has expressed interest in owning a minority stake in the club . " I 'd like to be an owner . It 's something I could do for the rest of my life after my little window of popularity dies , " he said in an interview with The New York Times . Nash added , " I 've been a passionate supporter all my life . My parents are from north London and so it 's not like I 'm some Yank who wants to make a profit out of football . I don 't care about making money . I just want to see Spurs succeed and , if I can help , that 's great . " However , he said any participation in Spurs would come after his basketball career is over , and he has had only " casual contact " with chairman Daniel Levy and former director of football Damien Comolli . Nash is also a fan of Spain 's FC Barcelona , and Brazilian team Sport Club Corinthians Paulista , which his former Suns teammate Leandro Barbosa supports . When Barbosa visited Corinthians in 2007 , the club gave him a shirt with Nash 's name and jersey number .
Nash had also previously made statements about his intention to bring Major League Soccer to Vancouver as early as 2011 , which he has succeeded in doing . He joined the USL @-@ 1 Vancouver Whitecaps FC team 's ownership group in July 2008 and in March 2009 , Vancouver was officially named as a future MLS expansion city , set to join the league in 2011 . Nash occasionally attends practice for his co @-@ owned team , also called Vancouver Whitecaps FC .
Nash , along with former Yahoo ! president and fellow Victoria @-@ native Jeff Mallett , are investors in Women 's Professional Soccer , a soccer league that was launched in March 2009 . Nash cited his twin daughters and wanting to have role models for them to look up to as a reason for supporting the league . Nash also co @-@ hosted Showdown in Chinatown in 2008 , an 8 @-@ on @-@ 8 charity soccer game held at Sara D. Roosevelt Park . He scored two goals in his team 's 8 – 5 victory . Participants included Thierry Henry , Jason Kidd , Baron Davis , and Suns teammates Raja Bell and Leandro Barbosa .
In July 2013 , Nash participated in a training session with the Italian soccer club Inter Milan at the New York Red Bulls ' facilities in New Jersey . He also trained with the New York Cosmos B of the American fourth @-@ division National Premier Soccer League in 2015 .
On January 5 , 2016 , it was announced that Nash was part of a group that purchased a $ 21 million stake in Spanish Segunda División club RCD Mallorca . The group also included Phoenix Suns owner Robert Sarver and Suns vice chairman Andy Kohlberg .
= = = Other interests = = =
Nash and a Montreal @-@ based partner , Leonard Schlemm , opened the first Steve Nash Sports Club in the spring of 2007 in downtown Vancouver , a high @-@ end , $ 5 @-@ million , 38 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 580 m2 ) facility that will mirror Nash 's own fitness philosophy .
In 2007 , Nash wrote and produced an 81 @-@ second commercial for Nike titled " Training Day " , directed by Julian Schnabel 's daughter Lola , which gained popularity as a viral video on YouTube . Nash also started a film production company together with his cousin , filmmaker Ezra Holland , and intends to produce independent films . The first creative effort to come from Meathawk was a 91 @-@ second commercial , titled " The Sixty Million Dollar Man " , for Nike 's eco @-@ friendly Trash Talk shoe , the first high @-@ performance shoe to be made — at the behest of the environmentally conscious Nash — from recycled materials . Nash has worn the shoe since February 2008 but Nike produced only 5 @,@ 000 pairs for sale . The ad which broke virally on Earth Day 2008 , was written by Nash and the directors of the spot , Danny Vaia and Ezra Holland . It is a spoof remake of the title sequence of the American television series The Six Million Dollar Man and plays on Nash 's numerous on @-@ court collisions . Amar 'e Stoudemire and Raja Bell have cameo appearances . Nash and Holland also co @-@ directed the documentary Into the Wind , about iconic Canadian athlete and activist Terry Fox , as part of ESPN 's 30 for 30 series . In October 2013 , Nash appeared in the music video for " City of Angels " by Thirty Seconds to Mars .
For the 2010 Winter Olympics held in Vancouver , Nash became the first NBA player in Olympic history to carry the torch and light the Olympic cauldron .
Nash is also known for his outspoken political views . He was an early , public opponent of the 2003 Iraq War , wearing a custom @-@ made T @-@ shirt to the 2003 NBA All Star Game that stated " No war – Shoot for peace " . Although Nash did get positive support from teammate Nick Van Exel among others , he also drew criticism from David Robinson , a former Naval officer and fellow NBA player as well as commentators like Skip Bayless who criticized Nash as being uninformed and advised him to " just shut up and play " . Nash has also recently been critical of Arizona 's SB1070 , legislation which seeks to aggressively address illegal immigration , as he felt " the law obviously can target opportunities for racial profiling . "
= U.S. Route 80 in California =
U.S. Route 80 ( US 80 ) was a U.S. highway in California that continued east across the country to Georgia . The western terminus was in San Diego , California , and US 80 continued east through the city on several different alignments through the years . The highway went through the Cuyamaca Mountains , encountering many switchbacks , before descending to El Centro . After passing through the sand dunes , the highway crossed the Colorado River into Yuma , Arizona .
The highway replaced a 1912 plank road across much of Imperial County . The winding two @-@ lane road through the Cuyamaca Mountains was one of the factors that led to a four @-@ hour journey from San Diego to El Centro . During the 1930s , the road was realigned through the mountains , but several curves remained . In the 1950s , work began on constructing what would become Interstate 8 ( I @-@ 8 ) to replace the old highway in San Diego to bypass the cities of San Diego , La Mesa , and El Cajon . This started with the construction of the Alvarado Canyon road as well as Mission Valley Road through the San Diego area , as well as construction a replacement for the old highway across the Viejas Grade . The construction continued across the rest of the route through the next two decades . US 80 was gradually decommissioned after 1964 as I @-@ 8 , through San Diego and Imperial counties , was completed . In 2006 , the highway was designated by the California State Legislature as Historic U.S. Route 80 .
= = Route description = =
There were multiple alignments through the downtown San Diego area . The route as of 1928 began at Broadway ( US 101 ) and ran along 4th Avenue north to University Avenue in the Hillcrest district , then went east on University Avenue . By 1933 , the routing had shifted to use Park Boulevard south of University Avenue into downtown , to end at Market Street ; the city council voted that July to use University Avenue west of Park Boulevard to connect to US 101 , to obtain federal funding for improving that road . The next year , the Point Loma highway was referred to as the western terminus of US 80 by E.E. Wallace , a district highway engineer . Nevertheless , the state @-@ produced highway maps from the next few years did not reflect the change , or this choice of the western terminus .
In the early days of World War II , some maps showed the western terminus of US 80 at the Cabrillo National Monument on Point Loma , running north on Catalina Boulevard , north then east on Cañon Street , northeast on Rosecrans Street , southeast on Lytton Street , east on Barnett Avenue , south on Pacific Highway ( US 101 ) and finally east on Market Street , before continuing north along Park Boulevard to El Cajon Boulevard . US 395 ran concurrently along the route from downtown San Diego to the intersection with Fairmount Avenue . By 1942 , the US 395 concurrency had been removed . With the completion of the Cabrillo Freeway , between 1946 and 1948 , US 80 shifted from Park Boulevard to 11th Avenue north onto the new freeway before continuing east onto El Cajon Boulevard towards La Mesa . The final San Diego alignment , with signs to be placed in 1954 , moved the western terminus to the intersection with US 101 where it traveled east on what was known as Camino del Rio and Alvarado Canyon Road , and then continuing on the Mission Valley road towards La Mesa . According to Caltrans district engineer Jacob Dekema , during the 1950s , the parts of Camino Del Rio and Rosecrans Street from Lytton Street and Rosecrans Street to Pacific Highway were considered a part of US 80 .
East of San Diego , US 80 followed the path of El Cajon Boulevard through La Mesa and then onto Main Street near downtown El Cajon before heading towards the Mountain Springs grade . The route was realigned from Arnold Way onto Alpine Boulevard as it passed through Alpine and the Viejas Indian Reservation , before entering the Laguna Mountains and the Cleveland National Forest on the alignment used by I @-@ 8 . At Laguna Junction , a cafe for travelers existed from 1916 until when the building was taken down to provide land for the interchange with I @-@ 8 . A section of old US 80 — with the first few miles signed as SR 79 — continues to serve as access to the communities of Descanso , Guatay and Pine Valley ; SR 79 intersected US 80 east of Descanso . At the time , the Ellis Wayside Rest provided a rest area for travelers ; later , the state recognized it as a historic site . Exiting the national forest , US 80 continued in a southeasterly direction towards Live Oak Springs and Boulevard , intersecting with the eastern terminus of SR 94 . US 80 then came close to the Mexican border as it curved around the Jacumba Mountains and into the hot spring town of Jacumba . East of there , US 80 passed by the Desert View Tower .
US 80 then descended rapidly into Imperial County along the In @-@ Ko @-@ Pah Gorge just west of Coyote Wells and Ocotillo before entering the city limits of El Centro . East of El Centro , US 80 again continued into Holtville . US 80 cut a southeasterly trajectory , running parallel and very close to the Mexican border , and traversing the Algodones Dunes and the Colorado Desert . It finally reached Winterhaven before crossing the Colorado River into Yuma , Arizona . Almost the entire length of the former US 80 within Imperial County has since been designated County Route S80 .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
Route 12 was added to the state highway system in 1909 from San Diego to El Centro , and Route 27 was added from El Centro to Yuma in 1915 . Before a highway was constructed through the Imperial San Dunes , travelers had to pass to the north in order to reach Yuma . The first route through Imperial Valley was originally a plank road made of pieces of wood that were tied together . The road was completed by October 1912 , and portions were still visible into the 2010s . The Ocean @-@ to @-@ Ocean Bridge across the Colorado River was open in 1915 , and a new plank road was opened that year which became state @-@ maintained in 1917 , and used a foundation of wooden rails , with the planks bound together by steel , as opposed to simple planks that were fastened to rails . However , traffic congestion and dusty conditions made travel along the plank road difficult . The delay in constructing a road to San Diego caused increased development in Los Angeles and resulted in that city becoming the trade and population center of Southern California .
A stagecoach road existed into the 19th century that passed through the mountains east of San Diego . Construction was discussed as early as 1911 , with The San Diego Union and Daily Bee saying that it " will be one of the best in the system . " Well before the freeway was constructed , the automobile road through the mountains east of San Diego was narrow and wound through the mountains ; it was officially dedicated in 1912 . This trip was known to take up to four hours , and frequently resulted in the radiator boiling over , flat tires , or broken fan belts ; recent inclement weather would result in cars becoming mired in the mud . But meanwhile , Colonel Ed Fletcher declared the road a " success " , and indicated his belief that a concrete road from San Diego to Yuma would soon follow , responding to criticism that a road from Los Angeles to Brawley should have been built .
US 80 was designated on November 11 , 1926 , along with the rest of the U.S. Routes . The asphalt road was constructed through the valley as the main east – west route , and was open by 1927 . Another road was constructed in the early 1930s , to remove curves and widen the lanes . The result was a two @-@ lane road that still had many switchbacks , with one popularly known as " Dead Man 's Curve " . Planning for this new alignment was underway in 1932 , and much of the work was to be located at the Viejas Grade , and at the segment just west of Alpine . Paving continued on US 80 into 1934 , just west of the sand dunes .
Meanwhile , Imperial County businessmen hoped to promote the use of this road over the route from Phoenix to Los Angeles , to increase tourism . Eventually , US 80 did become the most used road into Southern California from the east , but by 1947 , the Highway 80 Associated was formed to increase the traffic on the road , since the war and advertising by other cities had caused it to fall again . Four years later , US 80 was reported to be the most used transcontinental highway , and there was a 40 percent increase in the out @-@ of @-@ state cars that traveled through the state inspection station at Yuma during the first three months of that year . But in 1954 , there were reports that traffic had decreased , because the road to Phoenix , Arizona from Lordsburg , New Mexico had improved .
= = = Early freeway development = = =
Starting in 1932 , county and state officials proposed rerouting US 80 away from what is now La Mesa Boulevard . Although the city raised concerns about the proposal , due to the shift in transportation design towards " free @-@ access highways " where vehicles could travel up to 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) , and the success of the Arroyo Seco Parkway in Los Angeles , the La Mesa Scout newspaper withdrew their objections to the construction . In the meantime , parts of El Cajon Boulevard through downtown El Cajon were widened in 1935 . Federal funds were allocated for rerouting US 80 in 1940 ; by then , La Mesa Boulevard had been designated as a U.S. 80 Business Route , and El Cajon Boulevard then carried the US 80 designation to San Diego . But in 1947 , the San Diego Highway Development Association criticized the proliferation of traffic signals and businesses on El Cajon Boulevard , during the discussion of how to resolve traffic issues on US 101 through Oceanside .
World War II stalled most freeway projects in the San Diego area . Plans were developed by 1946 for a freeway through Alvarado Canyon that would connect with the Cabrillo Freeway . Funding was obtained by 1949 for the 5 @.@ 4 miles ( 8 @.@ 7 km ) portion between 70th Street and Lake Murray Boulevard , and Fairmout Avenue . The first portion of the Alvarado Canyon Highway , the first freeway thorough La Mesa , was opened in early 1950 . Reports indicated that this decreased the time to travel from La Mesa to San Diego by a factor of two , with 7 @,@ 000 trips on the route each day . That same year , the San Diego city manager expressed concerns at the Highway Commission meeting about shifting US 80 away from El Cajon Boulevard to the Alvarado Canyon and Mission Valley Road route , due to the potential loss of commerce for businesses located near the current route .
In 1948 , the Highway 80 Chamber of Commerce president complained that funds were being prioritized for US 395 construction , instead of on US 80 . In September , the county supervisors approved the Mission Valley road as a limited access highway , but held off on processing the results from surveying . The next month , $ 1 million was allocated to the realignment of the Viejas grade , namely , increasing the radius of the curves from 300 feet ( 91 m ) to 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) , as well as limiting the grade to 4 percent . By 1949 , the project was under way , with prisoners contributing to the labor force , and was projected to include a tunnel as well as several crossings of the Sweetwater River . A longer 34 miles ( 55 km ) tunnel through the Cuyamaca Mountains was also proposed that year , which would have been the longest in the world . But by 1950 , work on the Viejas grade had stalled , due to the prison labor camp being shut down ; efforts were then made to start work again . More funds were allocated by the State Highway Commission a few months later , and the work was to be put out for bid to complete the project .
Meanwhile , construction continued on the western part of the US 80 freeway . On August 27 , 1951 , the final link in the new freeway between Point Loma and La Mesa was dedicated . The next year , planning continued for the possibility of a freeway bypass of El Cajon that would connect to the existing US 80 freeway . However , many El Cajon Boulevard motel owners raised objections over the reassigning of the US 80 designation to the new freeway , as it would potentially harm business . In response , the Highway Development Association proposed designating El Cajon Boulevard as a business route . But in order to obtain funding for the construction , the new route would have to be added to the state highway system by the California State Legislature , or be designated as US 80 . Later , a Freeway 80 Association was formed to encourage public support for the construction of the bypass of El Cajon , and the conversion of the Alvarado Canyon and Mission Valley roads into a freeway . Following the city of San Diego council and county approval , the California State Assembly transportation committee heard complaints from citizens claiming that they had not been adequately notified about the plans for US 80 or SR 94 , or given enough time to provide input .
In Imperial County , discussion regarding rerouting US 80 south of the city of Holtville began in August 1953 . The next year , the state director of public works announced that the route would be rebuilt to the south for 7 miles ( 11 km ) as a freeway . In February 1954 , the California Highway Commission declared that both the Alvarado Canyon and Mission Valley roads , as well as the new Holtville alignment , were to be part of US 80 ; an alignment was also chosen for the part of the highway that passed through El Cajon . A $ 934 @,@ 211 contract was given out to construct the Holtville portion in April . Contrary to the recommendation of the California Senate Interim Committee on Highways to study constructing the freeway to replace US 80 on a new alignment , San Diego County officials decided to pursue upgrading the existing road to become a freeway . Another route through the Lyons Valley was considered as an alternative . The Highway Development Association proposed adding grade @-@ separated interchanges on the routing of US 80 through San Diego , as well as reconstructing the interchange with the Cabrillo Freeway , as well as finishing the work on the Viejas Grade and through the mountains . That year , according to Caltrans , the interchange with US 395 was the busiest in the county .
= = = Interstate Highway System = = =
In April 1955 , a Caltrans official announced that US 80 would be built as a freeway for its entire length in California , as it was to be included in the Interstate Highway System . In the meantime , while plans moved further along on US 101 , the mayor of San Diego asked the California Highway Commission to keep the US 80 project on track . However , the construction was put on hold because of lower traffic levels on US 80 , compared to other local highways . State Assemblyman Hegland raised the issue in the Assembly Highway subcommittee in December , stating that the construction of the freeway would help the economy and the Port of San Diego . State Senator Collier went even further and blamed the delay on San Diego County officials , in addition to linking the delay to damaging the program to develop the port . The bridge over the Colorado River was replaced in 1956 , at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 2 million , and was in use until 1978 , when the I @-@ 8 bridge was built .
Finally , in May 1957 , bids opened for the part of US 80 between Grossmont Boulevard in La Mesa and Chase Avenue in El Cajon , that would connect to the new SR 67 freeway . Groundbreaking took place on June 10 , and the project was to cost $ 3 @.@ 6 million . The rebuilding of the Cabrillo Freeway interchange became a priority due to the availability of federal funding , and due to the traffic problems encountered with having ramps entering from both the left and the right . In July , the Highway Development Association decided to formally raise the issue of the incomplete highway survey through Imperial County at the next California Highway Commission meeting . In 1958 , federal funds were allocated to construct US 80 from Taylor Street to Fairmount Avenue as an eight @-@ lane freeway , and from there to 70th Street as a divided highway . In August , the state announced that there were four proposed routes for US 80 through the mountains , including one with a tunnel . A contract was later awarded to construct the freeway from Taylor Street to the Cabrillo Freeway at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 2 million . In November , Caltrans announced that the Walker Canyon route had been chosen for US 80 , which would allow for the route to be constructed in stages , as well as being the least expensive alternative .
By the end of the year , plans were being made for construction of the freeway between Flume Drive east of El Cajon and Laguna Junction , and the portion of the freeway from Fairmount Avenue to Lake Murray Boulevard was contracted for $ 2 @.@ 6 million . In January 1960 , the Taylor Street to Cabrillo Freeway portions were under construction , including the interchange at the latter , and were scheduled to be complete by October , while the Cabrillo Freeway to Fairmout Avenue portion was up for bid ; the next month , the contract was awarded for $ 4 @.@ 6 million , with interchanges to be constructed at Texas Street and Ward Road to replace traffic signals . In July , the new I @-@ 8 designation for the road was announced , and plans to post signs were made . Another contract for the portion from Grossmont Summit near Chase Avenue to Ballantyne Avenue was awarded for $ 2 @.@ 7 million in November .
But in 1960 , Jacob Dekema , the district highway engineer , stated that due to lower traffic on US 80 , the completion of the freeway through the mountains would be delayed until at least 1971 . Construction of the section of US 80 from Magnolia Avenue to Third Street was contracted for $ 2 @.@ 7 million in April . That year , work continued on the freeway , and in August , only one traffic signal was left on the highway west of El Cajon , at Ward Road . In August , Dekema announced that bids for the portion between Lake Murray Boulevard and Third Street would be opened the following month ; once that was completed , the entire freeway west of El Cajon would be complete . Eastbound lanes between US 395 and Fairmount Avenue opened on November 23 .
The portion from the Grossmont summit to Magnolia Avenue and SR 67 was completed in April 1961 . By August , the entirety of the freeway west of El Cajon was complete , with the exception of the portions from near Lake Murray Boulevard to near La Mesa Boulevard for $ 3 @.@ 1 million , as well as between Magnolia Avenue and the El Cajon eastern city limits for $ 2 @.@ 7 million . In addition to this , the part of the freeway from near Grays Well to Ogilby Road in Imperial County was also being constructed for $ 2 @.@ 3 million . The 2 @.@ 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) freeway portion east of Magnolia Avenue that connected with the undivided US 80 opened on September 6 . The final section in La Mesa was completed in April 1962 . Construction started on the Mountain Springs portion of US 80 in September 1962 . That year , US 80 west of the Cabrillo Freeway interchange was declared to be the busiest road in the City of San Diego , at 71 @,@ 000 daily vehicles .
US 80 was removed from the state highway system in the 1964 state highway renumbering when I @-@ 80 was designated ; I @-@ 8 assumed the routing from San Diego to El Centro and Yuma . However , US 80 signs were posted for several years afterward on the remaining portions of the original asphalt road that had not been bypassed by the freeway . The AASHO formally recognized California 's requested elimination of US 80 by 1969 . Gradually , the route was removed from Arizona , New Mexico and part of Texas between 1977 and 1991 . After the freeway was built , the population of Jacumba went from 400 to 200 , and many businesses closed or relocated . However , the population began to increase after a few years , and residents began commuting to jobs in El Centro and San Diego . Following a campaign from the local Old Highway 80 Committee and endorsement from the San Diego County Board of Supervisors , the California State Legislature passed a resolution allowing for the route to be designated and signed as a state historic route , Historic U.S. Route 80 , in 2006 .
= = Major intersections = =
This table refers to the route as it was in 1942 .
= Harmy 's Despecialized Edition =
Harmy 's Despecialized Edition is a series of fan edits of the first three films in the George Lucas @-@ created Star Wars franchise : Star Wars , The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi . The edits were created by a team of Star Wars fans led by Petr " Harmy " Harmáček , an English teacher from Plzeň , Czech Republic . The original Star Wars trilogy was released theatrically by 20th Century Fox for Lucasfilm between 1977 and 1983 . Subsequent releases on home media , such as the 1997 " Special Edition " releases , introduced significant changes to the films , including additional scenes and new computer @-@ generated imagery – these changes were met with a mixed response from critics . As of 2014 , the films are no longer widely available in their original theatrical releases .
Harmáček felt that altering the films in this way constituted " an act of cultural vandalism " , and in 2010 was inspired to create his own series of fan edits that restored the theatrical releases in high @-@ definition . With no experience in professional film editing , he taught himself as he went , using programs such as Avisynth and Adobe After Effects . Taking the 1993 LaserDisc releases as a guide and a majority of source material from the 2011 Blu @-@ ray releases , Harmáček and a team of eight other fans constructed the edits over many thousands of hours of work . In 2011 , one year after the project had begun , the first version of Harmy 's Despecialized Edition was published online . Updated versions have been created in the years that followed .
As a fan edit , Harmy 's Despecialized Edition cannot be legally bought or sold , and is " to be shared among legal owners of the officially available releases only " . Consequently , the films are only available via various BitTorrent trackers . Reaction to the project has been positive : Nathan Barry of Wired praised the films as " an absolute joy to watch " , while Gizmodo described them as " very , very good " . Sean Hutchinson of Inverse placed Harmy 's Despecialized Edition at number one on his list of the best Star Wars fan edits and called them " the perfect pre @-@ 1997 way to experience the saga " .
= = Background = =
The original Star Wars trilogy was a Lucasfilm production released theatrically by 20th Century Fox between 1977 and 1983 , and was subsequently released on home media during the 1980s and 1990s . The films were distributed by CBS / Fox Video on several formats , such as VHS , Betamax and LaserDisc . In 1997 , to coincide with the 20th anniversary of Star Wars , Lucas rereleased new cuts of the trilogy to theaters , naming them the " Special Editions " . The Special Editions made a number of changes to the original releases , including additions such as enhanced digital effects , previously unreleased scenes , and entirely new CGI sequences .
Reaction to the new cuts was mixed , with commentators criticising unnecessary additions such as a computer @-@ generated Jabba the Hutt in the first film and a new musical number in Return of the Jedi ; an alteration involving the bounty hunter Greedo shooting at Han Solo drew significant ire . Further changes to the series were added to the 2004 DVD and the 2011 Blu @-@ ray releases – these changes also drew criticism . The final release of the original cuts was in 2006 , when unrestored masters used for the 1993 LaserDisc were added as a bonus feature to a limited run of DVDs under the name George 's Original Unaltered Trilogy ( GOUT ) . In 2010 , Lucas stated that bringing the original cuts to Blu @-@ ray would be a " very , very expensive " process ; as of 2014 , the films are only widely available in their altered versions .
As a result of these changes , a group of fans met on various Internet forums to construct higher quality cuts as fan edits by using the available home media and blending the Special Edition DVDs with the LaserDisc transfers . One such edit for The Empire Strikes Back was created by Star Wars fan Adywan .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Petr Harmáček ( known online by the alias " Harmy " ) had watched a dubbed version of the original cut of Star Wars at the age of six , and had then seen the Special Editions of The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi on their 1997 release . Although initially admiring them , he became disappointed when he learnt how much the films had been changed retroactively ; he argued that replacing the original effects with re @-@ composited digital effects was " an act of cultural vandalism " . A fan of the original trilogy , he had written his undergraduate thesis on their cultural impact . After seeing a trailer for Adywan 's cut of The Empire Strikes Back , Harmáček was inspired to create a version of the film that " undid " the post @-@ 1977 changes and restored the theatrical releases in high @-@ definition . He described his motivation as : " I wanted to be able to show people who haven 't seen Star Wars yet , like my little brother or my girlfriend , the original , Oscar @-@ winning version , but I didn 't want to have to show it to them in bad quality . " Harmáček 's edits were the first to recreate the theatrical releases in HD .
= = = Editing = = =
Harmáček began creating his new cuts in 2010 . At the time , he was working as an English teacher in Plzeň , Czech Republic , and had no professional experience with film editing . Instead , he taught himself as the project progressed , beginning with Photoshop skills that he had developed in college . To remove the post @-@ 1977 changes , Harmáček was required to go through the film frame @-@ by @-@ frame , correcting colors and rotoscoping . Undoing some shots took only an hour , while others took hundreds . Lightsabers were color @-@ corrected , shots of the Millennium Falcon cockpit were cropped , Boba Fett 's voice was changed , and CGI characters and backgrounds were removed . Most of the source material used for Harmy 's Despecialized Edition was taken from the 2011 Blu @-@ ray release , while other sequences were upscaled from GOUT . To create the cuts , source material was taken from the 2011 Blu @-@ ray releases , HDTV broadcasts of the 2004 DVDs , GOUT , digital broadcasts of the 1997 Special Edition , the 1993 LaserDiscs , digital transfers of a Spanish 35 mm Kodak LPP and 70 mm film cels , a 16 mm print and still images of the original matte paintings . Harmáček edited these sources together using programs such as Avisynth and Adobe After Effects .
To help , Harmáček was assisted by a group of similarly @-@ minded fans from the website OriginalTrilogy.com , whom he knew by their online aliases Dark Jedi , YouToo , Puggo , Team Negative 1 , Belbucus , Hairy _ Hen , CatBus and Laserschwert . In total , the project took thousands of hours of work between them . In 2011 , one year after the project had begun , the first version of Harmy 's Despecialized Edition was published online ; new and updated versions have been created regularly in the five years that followed . As of August 2014 , the most recent version is v2.5. As a result of the project , Harmáček was able to quit his teaching job and in 2015 was hired by UltraFlix to prepare and restore a library of 4K @-@ encoded films for sale and rent .
= = = Legality = = =
The legal standing of Harmy 's Despecialized Edition is contentious . As fan edits , the cuts tread a line between Fair Use and copyright infringement . OriginalTrilogy.com states that the edits are " made for culturally historical and educational purposes " and that they are " to be shared among legal owners of the officially available releases only " . Consequently , the films are only available via various BitTorrent trackers . Harmáček himself remarked : " I 'm convinced that 99 % of people who download this already bought Star Wars 10 times over on DVD . " As of November 2015 , he has received no legal issues from Lucasfilm over the Despecialized Edition .
= = Reception = =
Reaction to Harmy 's Despecialized Edition has been positive . Writing for Inverse , Sean Hutchinson placed it at number one on his list of the best Star Wars fan edits , and described them as " the perfect pre @-@ 1997 way to experience the saga " . Whitson Gordon of Lifehacker called the edits " the best version of Star Wars you can watch " , and named them " the version of Star Wars we 've all been clamoring for the last 20 years " . Similarly , Nathan Barry of Wired praised the films as " an absolute joy to watch " , while Gizmodo described them as " very , very good " . In an article listing Ars Technica 's favorite Star Wars items , Sam Machkovech selected Harmy 's Despecialized Edition , calling them " a treat " .
= Sense and Sensibility ( 2008 miniseries ) =
Sense and Sensibility is a 2008 British television drama adaptation of Jane Austen 's 1811 novel Sense and Sensibility . The screenplay was written by Andrew Davies , who revealed that the aim of the series was to make viewers forget Ang Lee 's 1995 film Sense and Sensibility . The series was " more overtly sexual " than previous Austen adaptations , and Davies included scenes featuring a seduction and a duel that were absent from the feature film . Sense and Sensibility was directed by John Alexander and produced by Anne Pivcevic . Hattie Morahan and Charity Wakefield star as Elinor and Marianne Dashwood , two sisters who go on " a voyage of burgeoning sexual and romantic discovery " .
The series was shot on location in the English counties of Berkshire , Surrey , Buckinghamshire and Devon for two months from April 2007 . Sense and Sensibility was co @-@ produced by the BBC and American studio WGBH Boston . It was aired in three parts from 1 January 2008 in the United Kingdom and attracted an average of 6 million viewers per episode . The first episode also became one of the top ten most streamed programmes on the BBC iPlayer . Sense and Sensibility garnered mostly positive reviews from television critics , while the cast and crew earned several award nominations for their work . It was released on a two @-@ disc DVD in the UK on 14 January 2008 .
= = Plot = =
When Henry Dashwood ( Simon Williams ) dies , he leaves his entire fortune and his home , Norland Park , to his son John ( Mark Gatiss ) . John promises that he will provide for his stepmother , Mrs. Dashwood ( Janet McTeer ) , and half @-@ sisters Elinor ( Hattie Morahan ) , Marianne ( Charity Wakefield ) , and Margaret ( Lucy Boynton ) . However , John 's wife , Fanny ( Claire Skinner ) , convinces him to give the family a smaller inheritance than he had intended . Fanny 's brother , Edward Ferrars ( Dan Stevens ) , comes to visit , and he quickly befriends Elinor . While Mrs. Dashwood hopes they will become engaged , Fanny informs her that his mother will not approve the match . Mrs. Dashwood receives a letter from her cousin , Sir John Middleton ( Mark Williams ) , offering her a small cottage house on his estate , Barton Park in Devonshire . She and her daughters decide to leave Norland immediately .
During a welcome dinner at Barton Park , Sir John introduces the Dashwoods to his wife , Lady Middleton ( Rosanna Lavelle ) ; her mother , Mrs. Jennings ( Linda Bassett ) ; and their family friend , Colonel Brandon ( David Morrissey ) . Brandon instantly falls in love with Marianne , but she believes he is too old for her . While out walking with Margaret , Marianne falls and twists her ankle . She is rescued by a young man , who carries her back to the cottage . He introduces himself as John Willoughby ( Dominic Cooper ) , and states that he will return to check on Marianne the following day . Brandon also comes to visit , but upon seeing Willoughby , he quickly departs . Willoughby and Marianne grow close through their mutual love of poetry , and he later takes a lock of her hair . Mrs. Dashwood and Elinor begin to speculate on whether they have become secretly engaged .
Brandon invites the Dashwoods and the Middletons to a party on his estate at Delaford , but before the trip can take place , he is called away on urgent business . Willoughby requests a private audience with both Mrs. Dashwood and Marianne , leading them both to expect that he will propose . However , Willoughby reveals that his aunt is sending him on business to London , and he may not be able to return to Devonshire for at least a year . Shortly after Willoughby 's departure , Edward comes to visit , and the Dashwoods notice that he appears to be unhappy and distant . Mrs. Jennings ' nieces , Lucy ( Anna Madeley ) and Anne Steele ( Daisy Haggard ) , come to Barton Park . When Lucy learns that the Dashwoods are acquainted with the Ferrars , Lucy confides in Elinor that she and Edward have been secretly engaged for four years , news that devastates Elinor . Mrs. Jennings invites Elinor and Marianne to spend some time with her in London , and Marianne hopes she will see Willoughby . However , he does not visit or reply to her letters .
During a party , Marianne finds Willoughby , but he barely acknowledges their acquaintance . Marianne later learns that he is engaged to the wealthy Miss Grey and becomes inconsolable . Brandon calls on the Dashwoods and explains to Elinor that Willoughby seduced then abandoned his young ward , Eliza Williams , who has given birth to his child . Mrs. Ferrars ( Jean Marsh ) learns of Edward 's engagement to Lucy and threatens to disinherit him unless he calls it off , but Edward refuses . Brandon later offers him a living on his estate at Delaford , which Edward gladly accepts . While staying with Mrs. Jennings ' daughter , Marianne goes walking in a storm and collapses . Brandon finds her and brings her home , where she falls seriously ill with a fever . During Marianne 's recovery , Willoughby comes to talk with Elinor . He insists that he loved Marianne and would have married her , but he had to marry a rich woman because his aunt disowned him after learning of his behaviour toward Eliza . After Marianne recovers , the sisters return home and Marianne begins spending time at Delaford , eventually falling in love with Brandon . Elinor learns that Lucy Steele has become Mrs. Ferrars , and assumes that Lucy and Edward have married . However , Edward arrives at the cottage and explains to the Dashwoods that Lucy has wed his brother Robert ( Leo Bill ) . Edward then declares his love to Elinor and proposes . They marry , as do Marianne and Brandon .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and adaptation = = =
On 5 October 2005 , a reporter for the BBC News revealed that writer Andrew Davies was planning to adapt Jane Austen 's Sense and Sensibility into a major television drama due to be broadcast on the BBC in two years . Davies commented , " When they are great stories , you keep on coming back to them and doing them in different ways with different people at different lengths . " Davies explained that his script was in the early stages and that no actors had yet been cast . The writer later expressed his delight at adapting the novel during an interview with Paul Carey from the Western Mail , calling Austen his " favourite novelist " . He also admitted that due to the acclaim he received for his adaptation of Pride and Prejudice , there was pressure on him to get Sense and Sensibility right . Davies later stated that the aim of the miniseries was to make viewers forget about Ang Lee 's 1995 film adaptation of the novel .
The opening episode of Sense and Sensibility features the moment Willoughby seduces Eliza , a young schoolgirl . Davies told Carey and Claire Hill from the Western Mail that he wanted " to do justice " to Willoughby 's back story , saying that it is " quite interesting and steamy stuff like a lot of underage sex that goes on and is just talked about . I want to put it on the screen . " Davies elaborated on this further in an interview with The Independent 's Peter Chapman , saying that the seduction and abandonment of a schoolgirl in the novel needed dramatising . He believed readers " hardly notice " the moment , which he felt was very important . The writer noted that the series was " more overtly sexual " than previous adaptations of Austen 's works and added , " The novel is as much about sex and money as social conventions . " Davies also included a duel between Colonel Brandon and Willoughby in his screenplay , an event that was absent from Lee 's film adaptation of the novel .
Davies believed that Lee 's film did not overcome " the problem of the guys who get the girls not seeming quite good enough " , and set out to try to find a way of making them into heroes in his script . He said that Austen should have made the reader feel that Edward was worthy of Elinor and explained how Marianne falls in love with Colonel Brandon , after having her heart broken by Willoughby . The writer increased the male roles , so they could be turned into stronger characters . Davies told Hill that the team " worked very hard " on the men . Brandon is seen rescuing people and doing a lot of fast horse riding , while Edward was given a wood @-@ chopping scene where he vents his frustrations about his engagement . Davies also made the Dashwood sisters younger and " more vulnerable "
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than how they were portrayed in Lee 's film . Hattie Morahan , who portrayed Elinor in the drama , stated , " We are trying to play the story as it was written . In the novel the girls are 19 and 17 , so these romantic relationships are real rites of passage for them . "
= = = Casting = = =
Davies commented that he would have liked to have been in charge of the casting . He revealed that he had initially objected to Hattie Morahan being cast in the role of the eldest Dashwood sister , Elinor . However , he was glad that his objections were ignored , because he fell in love with her performance . Morahan told The Daily Telegraph 's Jasper Rees that she deliberately chose not to watch the 1995 film adaptation of Sense and Sensibility or think about Emma Thompson 's portrayal of the character . She explained that she had not " [ b ] ecause you would go mad . It would distort your work . I thought , it 'll be original by virtue of the fact that it 's me doing it and there is only one me . "
Charity Wakefield successfully auditioned for the role of Marianne Dashwood . The actress revealed , " Marianne is the embodiment of youth and hope . I was so excited to be offered the part because I felt that it was a role which I could really attack . I understand her character and feel that we have lots in common . " Dan Stevens was chosen to play Edward Ferrars , Elinor 's love interest . The actor revealed to a BBC journalist that he had really wanted the part and was excited by the challenge of the character . Stevens became ill with tonsillitis during the shoot , and quipped that there are very few shots of him in full health still in the series .
David Morrissey portrayed Colonel Brandon . The actor was sent the script by his agent , and he initially questioned whether another Austen adaptation was needed . However , he then read the script and thought it was " just brilliant " , especially as Davies had added more scenes featuring the male characters . Dominic Cooper took on the role of John Willoughby , Brandon 's rival for Marianne 's affections . Describing his character , Cooper said " The way I tried to persuade myself he wasn 't too bad was that he 's a 25 @-@ year @-@ old young guy and he genuinely falls in love with Marianne – he 's not just doing it for one moment in time . " Cooper said that he had fun working on the project .
Janet McTeer and Lucy Boynton were cast as Mrs Dashwood and Margaret Dashwood respectively . Mark Gatiss portrayed John Dashwood ; his casting was revealed in June 2007 . Claire Skinner received the role of John 's wife , Fanny , while Mark Williams was cast as Sir John Middleton . Linda Bassett and Jean Marsh were given the roles of Mrs Jennings and Mrs Ferrars respectively . Robert Bianco from USA Today commented that both women were " wonderfully cast " . Actresses Anna Madeley and Daisy Haggard portrayed Lucy Steele and her sister Anne , a character who was omitted from the 1995 film .
= = = Filming = = =
Sense and Sensibility was shot entirely on location within England , mostly in the counties of Berkshire , Surrey , Buckinghamshire , and Devon . Filming began in April 2007 and lasted until early June . Blackpool Mill , a fifteenth @-@ century cottage in north Devon , was turned into Barton Cottage , the home of the Dashwood girls . The art director for the series , James Merifield , had walked past the cottage in 2006 and thought it would be an ideal setting for a film . He was later sent back to the cottage by the location manager for Sense and Sensibility , and he decided the place would be right for the production . The owners of Blackpool Mill , Sir Hugh and Lady Stucley , were contacted in February 2007 by the BBC who inquired about the possibility of filming there . Caroline Gammell from The Daily Telegraph reported that " camera crews , production assistants , directors and actors swarmed over Blackpool Mill , turning the rustic four @-@ bedroom home into the romantic hub of Jane Austen 's novel . Set designers took the cottage more firmly into the 19th century , adding a porch at the front as well as dormer windows , fake shutters and an extra chimney . " The interior of cottage was " a little scruffy " for Mrs Dashwood 's status , so scenes featuring the inside of the cottage were filmed in a studio . Filming took place at the cottage over eight days in May .
Wakefield revealed that it rained constantly during filming , often soaking the cast and crew . However , the bad weather led to Davies writing in a scene featuring Edward in a wet shirt chopping logs in the rain , which rivalled the famous lake scene in Pride and Prejudice . Cooper told The Birmingham Post 's Georgina Rodgers that the bad weather affected his first scene , in which Willoughby carries an injured Marianne home . He explained that the scene was shot on a vertical slope with a rain machine , as the natural rain does not show up on camera . His cloak also kept getting caught under his foot , which made picking up Wakefield even harder . Cooper added , " I couldn 't move and I just kept falling head over heels . " Wrotham Park served as the exterior to Norland , the Dashwood family 's home . Ham House in Richmond was used for Norland 's interior shots , while the grounds were used for exterior scenes . The National Trust was asked not to cut the grass for several weeks before filming began . Ham House also doubled for Cleveland . Loseley Park was chosen for the exterior shots of Sir John Middleton 's home , Barton Park . The library doubled for Colonel Brandon 's own , while the entrance was used for scenes featuring a gathering of guests for a day out . The Oak Room was also used for the scenes involving Marianne , after she falls sick . Other filming locations included Dorney Court , Hall Barn , Lincoln 's Inn and Clovelly Pier .
= = = Costumes and make @-@ up = = =
The costume designer for Sense and Sensibility was Michele Clapton . She and assistant costume designer Alex Fordham undertook a large amount of research looking for inspiration . They spent hours looking at paintings and books from the time period , while also visiting art galleries and the Victoria and Albert Museum . During an interview for the drama 's BBC Online website , Fordham revealed that they tried to find references from every area , including eighteenth @-@ century cartoons . Clapton stated that the team wanted to make a lot of the costumes , rather than re @-@ use what was already available from other productions . To get the sense of colour that they wanted , they had to dye and create a lot of the pieces . The wardrobe team worked closely with the make @-@ up department and the production designer . After their first meeting , they came up with a colour palette for the whole show . Clapton chose to give Elinor and Marianne contrasting wardrobes . The " flighty " and " artistic " Marianne wears strong colours compared to Elinor , who has a different personality and complexion . Fordham revealed that with Marianne being younger and a " wild child " , her wardrobe contains a lot of Buttercup yellows , which suited Wakefield 's complexion and her character 's freshness .
Willoughby 's wardrobe was designed to reflect his " poetic " and " fashionable " nature , while Fordham believed Edward was more suited to the eighteenth @-@ century rural colours . With Colonel Brandon being a stronger character , his costumes were half way between the two . His clothes were designed to be out of date and firm , using more heathers instead of the rural colours . The production had an emphasis on youth and passion , which Clapton incorporated into her work . The designer said , " Ten years ago , female characters in 19th @-@ century dramas would all have their hair done in very precise ringlets , all neat and perfect just like in the portraits . Now we 're trying to achieve a more believable , natural look , especially when the Dashwoods are at home . " She added that the director had wanted the characters to " feel more human . " Morrissey commented that the period costumes were " slightly uncomfortable " for modern life , but as soon as the cast were riding horses or walking across fields , they realised why they were made that way . He added , " When you 're dancing , they 're quite restrictive , but that 's quite good for posture – posture was different then , and that 's important . But they give you a feel for the character which is really an advantage to you as an actor . "
Karen Hartley @-@ Thomas was the hair and make @-@ up designer for the production . She began prepping a couple of months before filming began , and she met with the director and producer early on to discuss the whole look of the film . Like the costumers , she read books and went to art galleries during her research . The female characters in Sense and Sensibility wear a " no make @-@ up look " because in the time period in which the film is set , only the lower classes would have worn white and pink make @-@ up . The Dashwood sisters wore no mascara and only a little corrective and blush . Hartley @-@ Thomas also used very little make @-@ up on the men , as she does not like them looking made up . Discussing the hair , Hartley @-@ Thomas said " Elinor 's hair is always quite neat and done , where Marianne , being a freer character and more rebellious , she has lots of different looks and lots of wild looks with the hair loose . " She also explained that some of the male actors wore wigs because the men in those days would have had a lot more volume to their hair , whereas the modern styles tend to be shorter and clippered . John Dashwood and his son were given red hair , as Hartley @-@ Thomas wanted them to stand out amongst the more natural colours of the other male characters .
= = Broadcast = =
Sense and Sensibility was aired in three parts , with the first shown on 1 January 2008 . The other two episodes were broadcast on 6 and 13 January . The first episode of Sense and Sensibility became one of the top ten streamed programmes on the BBC iPlayer following its broadcast . In the United States , Sense and Sensibility was broadcast on PBS , as part of their Austen Masterpiece Theatre series . The drama was split into two episodes , which aired on 30 March and 6 April 2008 . Sense and Sensibility began airing from 26 June 2008 on the UKTV channel in Australia .
= = = Home media = = =
Sense and Sensibility was released on a two @-@ disc DVD in the UK on 14 January 2008 . All three episodes were given away free with a copy of the Daily Mail in 2009 . The offer was part of the newspaper 's British Classics collection . The Region 1 DVD was released a few days after its premiere on PBS . The two @-@ disc set also included the BBC 's Miss Austen Regrets , as well as commentary and interviews from the cast and crew .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The first episode of Sense and Sensibility attracted 5 @.@ 54 million viewers upon its first broadcast in the United Kingdom , giving it twenty per cent of the audience share for its broadcast time . The second episode posted a small increase of 5 @.@ 74 million viewers , while the concluding part attracted an audience of 6 @.@ 76 million .
= = = Critical response = = =
Sense and Sensibility received mostly positive reviews from critics . However , the Jane Austen Society criticised it for being " too raunchy " and accused Davies of " degrading fine English literature " , after he included a seduction scene in the opening episode . The chairman of the society , Patrick Stokes , stated , " Sexing this story up says more about the BBC than Jane Austen . It is lowering itself by degrading fine English literature in the battle for ratings . While it is good that it draws people 's attention to her works , there is not a lot you can do if someone makes a hash of it . " A BBC spokesman believed the drama was not overtly sexual and stated that they had received no complaints about it , though they did get several calls from viewers expressing their appreciation for the series .
Melinda Houston , writing for The Age , called Sense and Sensibility " a gorgeous adaptation of her most frivolous work " and added , " It 's all beautifully made , beautifully cast , and the script snaps and crackles . Maybe Eleanor isn 't quite as flawed as originally drawn but that 's unlikely to detract from your enjoyment . " Lenny Ann Low from The Sydney Morning Herald stated , " The locations , costumes and acting are excellent , with a particularly striking use of light – cold and grey skies foretelling doom through to rich candlelight signalling new passions . " The New York Times critic Ginia Bellafante said , " There 's nothing glaringly wrong with this new Sense and Sensibility , the last in Masterpiece 's winter @-@ long homage to Austen ; it is both lush and tidy . But it alters the emotional chemistry , and the result is an adaptation that feels more arid than Mr. Lee 's effort . "
Nancy Banks @-@ Smith from The Guardian called Sense and Sensibility " a charmingly domestic and spontaneous treatment of the story " , adding that it had become " a younger sister " of Lee 's 1995 film . Variety 's Brian Lowry commented , " this latest Sense & Sensibility has done a splendid job casting its various roles , despite an inevitable wattage deficit compared with the most recent theatrical version . Davies and director John Alexander have also taken some liberties by crafting scenes of the men together ( something Austen herself never did ) – having the steely Brandon , for example , pull Willoughby aside to question his intentions toward Marianne . Featuring a top @-@ drawer cast , the filmmakers create several delicate moments – from Willoughby 's elegant seduction of Marianne to the stoic Elinor 's pining for the elusive Edward who , as played by Stevens , adorably stammers in a Hugh Grant @-@ like way . "
Serena Davies from The Daily Telegraph praised the first episode , calling it " faithful to the spirit of the book " and stating that the series " deftly stepped out of the shadows of two formidable predecessors : Ang Lee 's gorgeous 1995 film version of the novel , and scriptwriter Andrew Davies 's own masterpiece , Pride and Prejudice . " Davies enjoyed Morahan 's " luminous " performance as Elinor , as well as Williams and Morrissey 's turns as Sir John and Colonel Brandon respectively , although she thought the opening scene was " misconceived " . Davies ' colleague , James Walton , proclaimed , " In the end , this Sense and Sensibility was perhaps brilliantly competent rather than surpassingly brilliant . Nevertheless , it still proved easily good enough to get the costume @-@ drama year off to a hugely enjoyable start . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
The crew of Sense and Sensibility garnered several award nominations for their work on the drama . At the 14th Shanghai Television Festival , the series was nominated for Magnolia Award for Best Television Film or Miniseries , Alexander won the Best Television Film Director award , while Morahan won Best Performance by an Actress in a Television Film for her turn as Elinor Dashwood . Davies was nominated in the Writer 's Award category at the 35th Broadcasting Press Guild Awards for his screenplay , and Clapton received a nomination for Outstanding Costume Design for a Television Movie or Mini @-@ Series at the Costume Designers Guild Awards . For his work on the score , Phipps earned nominations for a BAFTA Television Craft Award for Best Original Television Music and a Creative Arts Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition for a Miniseries , Movie or Special . Cinematographer Sean Bobbitt was also nominated for an Emmy Award in the Cinematography for a Miniseries , Movie or Special category .
= Marble Madness =
Marble Madness is an arcade video game designed by Mark Cerny and published by Atari Games in 1984 . The player uses a trackball to guide an onscreen marble through six obstacle @-@ filled courses within a time limit . Marble Madness was Atari 's first game to use the Atari System 1 hardware and to be programmed in the C programming language . It was also one of the first games to use true stereo sound ; previous games used either monaural sound or simulated stereo .
Cerny drew inspiration from miniature golf , racing games , and artwork by M. C. Escher . He applied a minimalist approach in designing the appearance of the game 's courses and enemies .
Marble Madness was commercially successful . The game was ported to numerous platforms and inspired the development of other games . A sequel was developed and planned for release in 1991 , but canceled when location testing showed the game could not compete with other titles .
= = Gameplay = =
Marble Madness is an isometric platform game in which the player manipulates an onscreen marble from a third @-@ person perspective . The player controls the marble 's movements with a trackball , though most home versions use game controllers with directional pads . The aim of the game is for the player to complete six maze @-@ like , isometric race courses before a set amount of time expires . With the exception of the first race , any time left on the clock at the end of a race is carried over to the next one , and the player is granted a set amount of additional time as well . The game allows two players to compete against each other , awarding bonus points and extra time to the winner of each race ; both players have separate clocks .
As the game progresses , the courses become increasingly difficult and introduce more enemies and obstacles . Each course has a distinct visual theme . For example , the first race ( titled " Practice " ) is a simple course that is much shorter than the others , while the fifth race ( named " Silly " ) features polka @-@ dot patterns and is oriented in a direction opposite that of the other courses .
= = Development = =
Marble Madness was developed by Atari Games , with Mark Cerny as the lead designer and Bob Flanagan as the software engineer . Both Cerny and Flanagan handled programming the game . It uses the Atari System 1 hardware , an interchangeable system of circuit boards , control panels , and artwork . The game features pixel graphics on a 19 inch Electrohome G07 model CRT monitor , and uses a Motorola 68010 central processing unit ( CPU ) with a MOS Technology 6502 subsystem to control the audio and coin operations . Marble Madness was Atari 's first game to use an FM sound chip produced by Yamaha , which is similar to a Yamaha DX7 synthesizer and creates the music in real time so that it is in synchronization with the game 's on @-@ screen action . The game 's music was composed by Brad Fuller and Hal Canon who spent a few months becoming familiar with the capabilities of the sound chip .
Cerny and Flanagan first collaborated on a video game based on Michael Jackson 's Thriller . The project was canceled and the two began working on an idea of Cerny 's that eventually became Marble Madness . Development lasted 10 months . Following the North American video game crash of 1983 , video game development within Atari focused on providing a distinctive experience through the use of a unique control system and by emphasizing a simultaneous two @-@ player mode . Cerny designed Marble Madness in accordance with these company goals . He was first inspired by miniature golf and captivated by the idea that a play field 's contours influenced the ball 's path . Cerny began testing various ideas using Atari 's digital art system . After deciding to use an isometric grid , Cerny began developing the game 's concept . His initial idea involved hitting a ball in a way similar to miniature golf , but Atari was unenthusiastic . Cerny next thought of racing games and planned for races on long tracks against an opponent . Technology limitations at the time were unable to handle the in @-@ game physics necessary for the idea , and Cerny switched the game 's objective to a race against time .
The development toolkit for the Motorola CPU included a compiler for the C programming language , which the two programmers were familiar with . After Atari had conducted performance evaluations , it approved usage of the language . Cerny and Flanagan 's decision to program Marble Madness in the C language had positive and negative consequences . Atari games had previously been programmed in assembly language . The C language was easier to program , but was less efficient , so the game operates at the slower speed of 30 Hz instead of the normal 60 Hz frequency of arcade games at the time . Cerny decided to use a trackball system ( marketed by Atari as Trak @-@ Ball ) to give the game a unique control system , and he chose a motorized trackball for faster spinning and braking when the in @-@ game ball traveled downhill and uphill , respectively . As it was building the prototypes , Atari 's design department informed Cerny that the motorized trackball 's design had an inherent flaw — one of the four supports had poor contact with the ball — and the use of a regular trackball was more feasible . Additionally , Cerny had anticipated the use of powerful custom chips that would allow RAM @-@ based sprites to be animated by the CPU , but the available hardware was a less @-@ advanced system using ROM @-@ based , static sprites .
These technical limitations forced Cerny to simplify the overall designs . Inspired by M. C. Escher , he designed abstract landscapes for the courses . In retrospect , Cerny partly attributed the designs to his limited artistic skills . He was a fan of the 3D graphics used in Battlezone and I , Robot , but felt that the visuals lacked definition and wanted to create a game with " solid and clean " 3D graphics . Unlike most other arcade games of the time , the course images were not drawn on the pixel level . Instead , Cerny defined the elevation of every point in the course , and stored this information in a heightmap array . The course graphics were then created by a ray tracing program that traced the path of light rays , using the heightmap to determine the appearance of the course on screen . This format also allowed Cerny to create shadows and use spatial anti @-@ aliasing , a technique that provided the graphics with a smoother appearance . Cerny 's course generator allowed him more time to experiment with the level designs . When deciding what elements to include in a course , practicality was a big factor ; elements that would not work or would not appear as intended were omitted , such as an elastic barricade or a teeter @-@ totter scale . Other ideas dropped from the designs were breakable glass supports , black hole traps , and bumps and obstacles built into the course that chased the marble .
Cerny 's personal interests changed throughout the project , leading to the inclusion of new ideas absent from the original design documents . The game 's enemy characters were designed by Cerny and Sam Comstock , who also animated them . Enemies had to be small in size due to technical limitations . Cerny and Comstock purposely omitted faces to give them unique designs and create a minimalistic appearance similar to the courses . Atari 's management , however , suggested that the marble should have a smiley face to create an identified character , similar to Pac @-@ Man . As a compromise , the cabinet 's artwork depicts traces of a smiley face on the marbles . Flanagan programmed a three @-@ dimensional physics model to dictate the marble 's motions and an interpreted script for enemy behavior . As Marble Madness neared completion , the feedback from Atari 's in @-@ house focus testing was positive . In retrospect , Cerny wished he had included more courses to give the game greater longevity , but extra courses would have required more time and increased hardware costs . Atari was experiencing severe financial troubles at the time and could not extend the game 's development period as it would have left their production factory idle .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Marble Madness was commercially successful following its December 1984 release and was positively received by critics . Around 4 @,@ 000 cabinets were sold , and it soon became the highest @-@ earning game in arcades . However , the game consistently fell from this ranking during its seventh week in arcades that Atari tracked the game 's success . Cerny attributed the six @-@ week arcade life to Marble Madness 's short gameplay length . He believed that players lost interest after mastering it and moved on to other games . The arcade cabinets have since become fairly rare . Stan Szczepanski holds the official world record of 187 @,@ 880 points .
Bruce Webster of BYTE wrote that the graphics of the Amiga version of Marble Madness in December 1986 " are really amazing " . While criticizing the lack of a pause function or a top scores list , he stated that it " is definitely worth having if you own an Amiga " . Many reviewers felt that the high level of skill required to play the game was part of its appeal . In 2008 , Levi Buchanan of IGN listed Marble Madness as one of several titles in his " dream arcade " , citing the game 's difficulty and the fond memories he had playing it . Author John Sellers wrote that difficulty was a major reason that players were attracted . Other engaging factors included the graphics , visual design , and the soundtrack . Retro Gamer 's Craig Grannell , in referring to the game as one of the most distinctive arcade games ever made , praised its visuals as " pure and timeless " . In 2008 , Guinness World Records listed it as the number seventy @-@ nine arcade game in technical , creative , and cultural impact . Marble Madness was one of the first games to use true stereo sound and have a recognizable musical score . British composer Paul Weir commented that the music had character and helped give the game a unique identity . A common complaint about the arcade cabinet was that the track ball controls frequently broke from repeated use .
Marble Madness inspired other games that feature similar gameplay based on navigating a ball through progressively more difficult courses ; such games are often described in terms that relate them to Marble Madness . Melbourne House 's Gyroscope and Electric Dreams Software 's Spindizzy were the first such games ; both met with a good reception . In 1990 , Rare released Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll , which incorporated elements similar to Marble Madness . The Super Monkey Ball series uses similar gameplay based on rolling a ball , but adds other features such as minigames and monkey characters . Archer Maclean 's Mercury also contains many elements similar to Marble Madness , but with minor variations , including the ability to change color , added hazards , and that the player controls a blob of liquid mercury rather than a marble .
= = = Ports and unreleased sequel = = =
Beginning in 1986 , the game was ported to numerous platforms with different companies handling the conversions ; several home versions were published by Electronic Arts , Tiger Electronics released handheld and tabletop LCD versions of the game , and it was ported to the Nintendo Entertainment System by Rare . Early versions featured simplified graphics , and the different ports were met with mixed reception . John Harris of Gamasutra thought the arcade 's popularity fueled the sales of the home versions , while Thomas Hanley of ScrewAttack commented that most versions were not as enjoyable without a track ball . Grannell echoed similar statements about the controls and added that many had poor visuals and collision detection . He listed the Amiga , Game Boy , and Sega Mega Drive ports as the better conversions , and the Sinclair ZX Spectrum , PC , and Game Boy Advance versions among the worst . Compute ! writers called the Amiga version 's graphics and gameplay " arcade @-@ quality " . Editors for Computer Gaming World stated that the Amiga version was superior to the arcade original , while the Commodore version had an extra level not present in other versions . Dragon 's three reviewers — Hartley , Patricia , and Kirk Lesser — praised the Apple IIGS port , calling it a " must have " title for arcade fans . MegaTech reviewers rated the Sega Mega Drive release a favorable 73 % . In 2003 , Marble Madness was included in the multi @-@ platform title Midway Arcade Treasures , a compilation of classic games developed by Williams Electronics , Midway Games , and Atari Games . Electronic Arts released a mobile phone port in 2010 that includes additional levels with different themes and new items that augment the gameplay . Marble Madness was also included in the 2012 multi @-@ platform compilation Midway Arcade Origins . A port of the game is also playable in Lego Dimensions via an Arcade Dock in the level " Prime Time " .
An arcade sequel titled Marble Man : Marble Madness II was planned for release in 1991 , though Cerny was uninvolved in the development . Development was led by Bob Flanagan who designed the game based on what he felt made Marble Madness a success in the home console market . Because the market 's demographic was a younger audience , Flanagan wanted to make the sequel more accessible and introduced , ball like a superhero ( a.k.a. Marble Man ) . Marble Man expanded on the gameplay of the original game by featuring new abilities for the marble such as Heli , Cloak , Knobby , and Crusher , included pinball minigames between sets of levels , and allowed up to three players to traverse isometric courses . Its final wave is called " King of the Mountain " . Flanagan intended to address the short length of the first game and , with the help of Mike Hally , developed seventeen courses .
Atari created prototypes for location testing , but the game did not fare well against more popular titles at the time such as Street Fighter II . Atari assumed the track balls accounted for the poor reception and commissioned a second model with joystick controls . Because the new models were met with the same poor reception , production was halted and the focus shifted to Guardians of the ' Hood , a beat ' em up game . The prototypes that were produced have since become collector items .
= Adolf Eichmann =
Otto Adolf Eichmann ( pronounced [ ˈɔto ˈaːdɔlf ˈaɪ ̯ çman ] ; 19 March 1906 – 1 June 1962 ) was a German Nazi SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer ( lieutenant colonel ) and one of the major organisers of the Holocaust . Eichmann was tasked by SS @-@ Obergruppenführer ( general / lieutenant general ) Reinhard Heydrich with facilitating and managing the logistics of mass deportation of Jews to ghettos and extermination camps in German @-@ occupied Eastern Europe during World War II . In 1960 , he was captured in Argentina by Mossad , Israel 's intelligence service . Following a widely publicised trial in Israel , he was found guilty of war crimes and hanged in 1962 .
After an unremarkable school career , Eichmann briefly worked for his father 's mining company in Austria , where the family had moved in 1914 . He worked as a travelling oil salesman beginning in 1927 , and joined the Nazi Party and SS in 1932 . After returning to Germany in 1933 , he joined the Sicherheitsdienst ( SD ; Security Service ) , where he was appointed head of the department responsible for Jewish affairs — especially emigration , which the Nazis encouraged through violence and economic pressure . After the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , Eichmann and his staff arranged for Jews to be concentrated into ghettos in major cities with the expectation they would be transported farther east or overseas . Eichmann drew up plans for a Jewish reservation , first at Nisko in south @-@ east Poland and later in Madagascar , but neither of these plans were ever carried out .
As the Nazis began the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 , their Jewish policy changed from emigration to extermination . To co @-@ ordinate planning for the genocide , Heydrich hosted the regime 's administrative leaders at the Wannsee Conference on 20 January 1942 . Eichmann collected information for Heydrich , attended the conference , and prepared the minutes . Eichmann and his staff became responsible for Jewish deportations to extermination camps , where the victims were gassed . After Germany invaded Hungary in March 1944 , Eichmann oversaw the deportation of much of that country 's Jewish population . Most of the victims were sent to Auschwitz concentration camp , where 75 to 90 per cent were murdered upon arrival . By the time the transports were stopped in July 1944 , 437 @,@ 000 of Hungary 's 725 @,@ 000 Jews had been killed . Historian Richard J. Evans estimates that between 5 @.@ 5 and 6 million Jews were killed by the Nazis . Eichmann said towards the end of the war that he would " leap laughing into the grave because the feeling that he had five million people on his conscience would be for him a source of extraordinary satisfaction . "
After Germany 's defeat in 1945 , Eichmann fled to Austria . He lived there until 1950 , when he moved to Argentina using false papers . Information collected by the Mossad , Israel 's intelligence agency , confirmed Eichmann 's location in 1960 . A team of Mossad and Shin Bet agents captured Eichmann and brought him to Israel to stand trial on 15 criminal charges , including war crimes , crimes against humanity and crimes against the Jewish people . Found guilty on many of these charges , he was sentenced to death by hanging and executed on 1 June 1962 . The trial was widely followed in the media and was later the subject of several books , including Hannah Arendt 's work Eichmann in Jerusalem , in which Arendt coined the phrase " the banality of evil " to describe Eichmann .
= = Early life and education = =
Otto Adolf Eichmann , the eldest of five children , was born in 1906 to a Calvinist Protestant family in Solingen , Germany . His parents were Adolf Karl Eichmann , a bookkeeper , and Maria ( née Schefferling ) , a housewife . The elder Adolf moved to Linz , Austria , in 1913 to take a position as commercial manager for the Linz Tramway and Electrical Company , and the rest of the family followed a year later . After the death of Maria in 1916 , Eichmann 's father married Maria Zawrzel , a devout Protestant with two sons .
Eichmann attended the Kaiser Franz Joseph Staatsoberrealschule ( state secondary school ) in Linz , the same high school Adolf Hitler had attended some 17 years before . He played the violin and participated in sports and clubs , including a Wandervogel woodcraft and scouting group that included some older boys who were members of various right @-@ wing militias . His poor school performance resulted in his father withdrawing him from the Realschule and enrolling him in the Höhere Bundeslehranstalt für Elektrotechnik , Maschinenbau und Hochbau vocational college . He left without attaining a degree and joined his father 's new enterprise , the Untersberg Mining Company , where he worked for several months . From 1925 to 1927 he worked as a sales clerk for the Oberösterreichische Elektrobau AG radio company . Next , between 1927 and early 1933 , Eichmann worked in Upper Austria and Salzburg as district agent for the Vacuum Oil Company AG .
During this time , he joined the Jungfrontkämpfervereinigung , the youth section of Hermann Hiltl 's right @-@ wing veterans movement , and began reading newspapers published by the Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) . The party platform included removal of the Weimar Republic in Germany , rejection of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles , radical antisemitism , and anti @-@ Bolshevism . They promised a strong central government , increased Lebensraum ( living space ) for Germanic peoples , formation of a national community based on race , and racial cleansing via the active suppression of Jews , who would be stripped of their citizenship and civil rights .
= = Early career = =
On the advice of family friend and local Schutzstaffel ( SS ; protection squadron ) leader Ernst Kaltenbrunner , Eichmann joined the Austrian branch of the NSDAP , member number 889 @,@ 895 . He joined the Nazi Party on 1 April 1932 , and his membership in the SS was confirmed seven months later ( SS member number 45 @,@ 326 ) . His regiment was SS @-@ Standarte 37 , responsible for guarding the party headquarters in Linz and protecting party speakers at rallies , which would often become violent . Eichmann pursued party activities in Linz on weekends while continuing in his position at Vacuum Oil in Salzburg .
A few months after the Nazi seizure of power in Germany in January 1933 , Eichmann lost his job due to staffing cutbacks at Vacuum Oil . The Nazi Party was banned in Austria around the same time . These events were factors in Eichmann 's decision to return to Germany .
Like many other National Socialists fleeing Austria in the spring of 1933 , Eichmann left for Passau , where he joined Andreas Bolek at his headquarters . After he attended a training programme at the SS depot in Klosterlechfeld in August , Eichmann returned to the Passau border in September , where he was assigned to lead an eight @-@ man SS liaison team to guide Austrian National Socialists into Germany and smuggle propaganda material from there into Austria . In late December , when this unit was dissolved , Eichmann was promoted to SS @-@ Scharführer ( squad leader , equivalent to corporal ) . Eichmann 's battalion of the Deutschland Regiment was quartered at barracks next door to Dachau concentration camp .
By 1934 , Eichmann requested transfer to the Sicherheitsdienst ( SD ; Security Service ) of the SS , to escape the " monotony " of military training and service at Dachau . Eichmann was accepted into the SD and assigned to the sub @-@ office on Freemasons , organising seized ritual objects for a proposed museum . After about six months , Eichmann was invited by Leopold von Mildenstein to join his Jewish Department , Section II / 112 of the SD , at its Berlin headquarters . Eichmann 's transfer was granted in November 1934 . He later came to consider this as his big break . He was assigned to study and prepare reports on the Zionist movement and various Jewish organisations . He even learned a smattering of Hebrew and Yiddish , gaining a reputation as a specialist in Zionist and Jewish matters . On 21 March 1935 Eichmann married Veronika ( Vera ) Liebl ( 1909 – 93 ) . The couple had four sons : Klaus ( b . 1936 in Berlin ) , Horst Adolf ( b . 1940 in Vienna ) , Dieter Helmut ( b . 1942 in Prague ) and Ricardo Francisco ( b . 1955 in Buenos Aires ) . Eichmann was promoted to SS @-@ Hauptscharführer ( head squad leader ) in 1936 and was commissioned as an SS @-@ Untersturmführer ( second lieutenant ) the following year .
Nazi Germany used violence and economic pressure to encourage Jews to leave Germany of their own volition ; around 250 @,@ 000 of the country 's 437 @,@ 000 Jews emigrated between 1933 and 1939 . Eichmann travelled to British Mandatory Palestine with his superior Herbert Hagen in 1937 to assess the possibility of Germany 's Jews voluntarily emigrating to that country , disembarking with forged press credentials at Haifa , whence they travelled to Cairo in Egypt . There they met Feival Polkes , an agent of the Haganah , with whom they were unable to strike a deal . Polkes suggested that more Jews should be allowed to leave under the terms of the Haavara Agreement , but Hagen refused , surmising that a strong Jewish presence in Palestine might lead to their founding an independent state , which would run contrary to Reich policy . Eichmann and Hagen attempted to return to Palestine a few days later , but were denied entry after the British authorities refused them the required visas . They prepared a report on their visit , which was published in 1982 .
In 1938 , Eichmann was posted to Vienna to help organise Jewish emigration from Austria , which had just been integrated into the Reich through the Anschluss . Jewish community organisations were placed under supervision of the SD and tasked with encouraging and facilitating Jewish emigration . Funding came from money seized from other Jewish people and organisations , as well as donations from overseas , which were placed under SD control . Eichmann was promoted to SS @-@ Obersturmführer ( first lieutenant ) in July 1938 , and appointed to the Central Agency for Jewish Emigration in Vienna , created in August . By the time he left Vienna in May 1939 , nearly 100 @,@ 000 Jews had left Austria legally , and many more had been smuggled out to Palestine and elsewhere .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Transition from emigration to deportation = = =
Within weeks of the invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 , Nazi policy toward the Jews changed from voluntary emigration to forced deportation . After discussions with Hitler in the preceding weeks , on 21 September SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich , head of the SD , advised his staff that Jews were to be collected into cities in Poland with good rail links to facilitate their expulsion from territories controlled by Germany , starting with areas that had been incorporated into the Reich . He announced plans to create a reservation in the General Government ( the portion of Poland not incorporated into the Reich ) , where Jews and others deemed undesirable would await further deportation . On 27 September 1939 the SD and Sicherheitspolizei ( comprising the Gestapo and Kripo police agencies ) were combined into the new SS @-@ Reichssicherheitshauptamt ( RSHA ; Reich Main Security Office ) , which was placed under Heydrich 's control .
After a posting in Prague to assist in setting up an emigration office there , Eichmann was transferred to Berlin in October 1939 to command the Central Office for Jewish Emigration for the entire Reich under Heinrich Müller , head of the Gestapo . He was immediately assigned to organise the deportation of 70 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 Jews from Ostrava district in Moravia and Katowice district in the recently annexed portion of Poland . On his own initiative , Eichmann also laid plans to deport Jews from Vienna . Under the Nisko Plan , Eichmann chose Nisko as the location for a new transit camp where Jews would be temporarily housed before being deported elsewhere . In the last week of October 1939 , 4 @,@ 700 Jews were sent to the area by train and were essentially left to fend for themselves in an open meadow with no water and little food . Barracks were planned but never completed . Many of the deportees were driven by the SS into Soviet @-@ occupied territory and others were eventually placed in a nearby labour camp . The operation soon was called off , partly because Hitler decided the required trains were better used for military purposes for the time being . Meanwhile , as part of Hitler 's long @-@ range resettlement plans , hundreds of thousands of ethnic Germans were being transported into the annexed territories , and ethnic Poles and Jews were being moved further east , particularly into the General Government .
On 19 December 1939 , Eichmann was assigned to head RSHA Referat IV B4 ( RSHA Sub @-@ Department IV @-@ B4 ) , tasked with overseeing Jewish affairs and evacuation . Heydrich announced Eichmann to be his " special expert " , in charge of arranging for all deportations into occupied Poland . The job entailed co @-@ ordinating with police agencies for the physical removal of the Jews , dealing with their confiscated property , and arranging financing and transport . Within a few days of his appointment , Eichmann formulated a plan to deport 600 @,@ 000 Jews into the General Government . The plan was stymied by Hans Frank , governor @-@ general of the occupied territories , who was disinclined to accept the deportees as to do so would have a negative impact on economic development and his ultimate goal of Germanisation of the region . In his role as minister responsible for the Four Year Plan , on 24 March 1940 Hermann Göring forbade any further transports into the General Government unless cleared first by himself or Frank . Transports continued , but at a much slower pace than originally envisioned . From the start of the war until April 1941 , around 63 @,@ 000 Jews were transported into the General Government . On many of the trains in this period , up to a third of the deportees died in transit . While Eichmann claimed at his trial to be upset by the appalling conditions on the trains and in the transit camps , his correspondence and documents of the period show that his primary concern was to achieve the deportations economically and with minimal disruption to Germany 's ongoing military operations .
Jews were concentrated into ghettos in major cities with the expectation that at some point they would be transported further east or even overseas . Horrendous conditions in the ghettos — severe overcrowding , poor sanitation , and a lack of food — resulted in a high death rate . On 15 August 1940 , Eichmann released a memorandum titled Reichssicherheitshauptamt : Madagaskar Projekt ( Reich Main Security Office : Madagascar Project ) , calling for the resettlement to Madagascar of a million Jews per year for four years . When Germany failed to defeat the Royal Air Force in the Battle of Britain , the invasion of Britain was postponed indefinitely . As Britain still controlled the Atlantic and her merchant fleet would not be at Germany 's disposal for use in evacuations , planning for the Madagascar proposal stalled . Hitler continued to mention the Plan until February 1942 , when the idea was permanently shelved .
= = = Wannsee Conference = = =
From the start of the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 , Einsatzgruppen ( task forces ) followed the army into conquered areas and rounded up and killed Jews , Comintern officials , and ranking members of the Communist Party . Eichmann was one of the officials who received regular detailed reports of their activities . On 31 July , Göring gave Heydrich written authorisation to prepare and submit a plan for a " total solution of the Jewish question " in all territories under German control and to co @-@ ordinate the participation of all involved government organisations . The Generalplan Ost ( General Plan for the East ) called for deporting the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to Siberia , for use as slave labour or to be murdered .
Eichmann stated at his later interrogations that Heydrich told him in mid @-@ September that Hitler had ordered that all Jews in German @-@ controlled Europe were to be killed . The initial plan was to implement Generalplan Ost after the conquest of the Soviet Union . However , with the entry of the United States into the war in December and the German failure in the Battle of Moscow , Hitler decided that the Jews of Europe were to be exterminated immediately rather than after the war , which now had no end in sight . Around this time , Eichmann was promoted to SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer ( lieutenant colonel ) , the highest rank he achieved .
To co @-@ ordinate planning for the proposed genocide , Heydrich hosted the Wannsee Conference , which brought together administrative leaders of the Nazi regime on 20 January 1942 . In preparation for the conference , Eichmann drafted for Heydrich a list of the numbers of Jews in various European countries and prepared statistics on emigration . Eichmann attended the conference , oversaw the stenographer who took the minutes , and prepared the official distributed record of the meeting . In his covering letter , Heydrich specified that Eichmann would act as his liaison with the departments involved . Under Eichmann 's supervision , large @-@ scale deportations began almost immediately to extermination camps at Bełżec , Sobibor , Treblinka and elsewhere . The genocide was code @-@ named Operation Reinhard in honour of Heydrich , who died in Prague in early June from wounds suffered in an assassination attempt . Kaltenbrunner succeeded him as head of the RSHA .
Eichmann did not make policy , but acted in an operational capacity . Specific deportation orders came from Himmler . Eichmann 's office was responsible for collecting information on the Jews in each area , organising the seizure of their property , and arranging for and scheduling trains . His department was in constant contact with the Foreign Office , as Jews of conquered nations such as France could not as easily be stripped of their possessions and deported to their deaths . Eichmann held regular meetings in his Berlin offices with his department members working in the field and travelled extensively to visit concentration camps and ghettos . His wife , who disliked Berlin , resided in Prague with the children . Eichmann initially visited them weekly , but as time went on his visits tapered off to once a month .
= = = Hungary = = =
Germany invaded Hungary on 19 March 1944 . Eichmann arrived the same day , and was soon joined by top members of his staff and five or six hundred members of the SD , SS , and Sicherheitspolizei ( SiPo ; security police ) . Hitler 's appointment of a Hungarian government more amenable to the Nazis meant that the Hungarian Jews , who had remained essentially unharmed until that point , would now be deported to Auschwitz to serve as forced labour or be gassed . Eichmann toured northeastern Hungary in the last week of April and visited Auschwitz in May to assess the preparations . Round @-@ ups began on 16 April , and from 14 May , four trains of 3 @,@ 000 Jews per day left Hungary and travelled to the camp at Auschwitz II @-@ Birkenau , arriving along a newly built spur line that terminated a few hundred metres away from the gas chambers . Only between 10 and 25 per
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. The " Plus One " lifeline , introduced in season thirteen , allows a contestant to bring a companion with him or her to the podium for help in answering a question . The introduction of this lifeline reduced the number of Jump the Question lifelines available from two to one . On occasional specially designated weeks , starting with a Halloween @-@ themed week that aired from October 29 to November 2 , 2012 , the shuffle format used a special lifeline called " Crystal Ball " , which allows the contestant to see the money value of a round one question prior to giving an answer . Jump the Question was removed at the end of the show 's thirteenth syndicated season . For the show 's fourteenth season , during a special week of college shows , players got another lifeline called " Extra Help " , played similarly to " Plus One " and allowing for another companion to help the player ; however , it could only be used after " Plus One " was used .
= = = Top prize winners = = =
The first contestant to correctly answer all 15 questions and win the top prize of $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 was John Carpenter , on the episode aired November 19 , 1999 . In 2000 , the million dollar top prize was awarded five times : to Dan Blonsky on the episode aired January 18 , to Joe Trela on March 23 , to Bob House on June 13 , to Kim Hunt on July 6 , and to David Goodman on July 11 .
In January 2001 , when no contestant had won $ 1 million in any show that aired over a period of five months , the top prize was then changed from a flat $ 1 million to an accumulating jackpot that increased by $ 10 @,@ 000 for each episode where the top prize was not won . On April 10 , 2001 , Kevin Olmstead correctly answered the final question and won $ 2 @,@ 180 @,@ 000 , making him the biggest winner in television history at the time . The top prize for correctly answering the final question returned to $ 1 million following Olmstead 's win and has remained unchanged since ; just five days after Olmstead 's win , the standard $ 1 million prize was awarded to Bernie Cullen . The last top prize winner on the original network version was Ed Toutant , on the episode aired September 7 , 2001 ; he had previously appeared on the episode aired January 31 , 2001 , where he was ruled to have answered his $ 16 @,@ 000 question incorrectly , but when it was discovered that there was a mistake in that question , Toutant was invited back and won a $ 1 @.@ 86 million jackpot . On the Super Millionaire spin @-@ off , Robert Essig won $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 after answering the twelfth question and then walked away , not reaching the final question for $ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
On the syndicated version 's first season , two contestants correctly answered all 15 questions and won the top prize of $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 : Kevin Smith on February 18 , 2003 , and Nancy Christy on May 8 of the same year . During the Million Dollar Tournament of Ten which aired in November 2009 , Sam Murray , who had previously supplied correct responses for eleven questions , risked his winnings on a special $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 question ; he was the only contestant to answer his question correctly .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Hosts = = =
The original network version of the U.S. Millionaire and the subsequent primetime specials were hosted by Regis Philbin . When the syndicated version was being developed , the production team felt that it was not feasible for Philbin to continue hosting , as the show recorded four episodes in a single day , and that the team was looking for qualities in a new host : it had to be somebody who would love the contestants and be willing to root for them . Rosie O 'Donnell was initially offered a hosting position on this new edition , but declined the opportunity almost immediately . Eventually Meredith Vieira , who had previously competed in a celebrity charity event on the original network version , was named host of the new syndicated edition .
ABC originally offered Vieira hosting duties on the syndicated Millionaire to sweeten one of her re @-@ negotiations for the network 's daytime talk show The View , which she was moderating at the time . When the show was honored by GSN on its Gameshow Hall of Fame special , Vieira herself further explained her motivation for hosting the syndicated version as follows :
I did the show because I fell in love with the show , and really , first and foremost , as a parent , [ I feel that ] there aren 't that many shows on television that you can watch as a family . And when Michael Davies approached me and said , " Would you be interested in hosting the syndicated version ? " , I said , " Just point me toward the contract ! I am so there ! "
From 2007 to 2011 , when Vieira was concurrently working as a co @-@ host of Today , guest hosts appeared in the second half of each season of the syndicated version . Guest hosts who filled in for Vieira included Philbin , Al Roker , Tom Bergeron , Tim Vincent , Dave Price , Billy Bush , Leeza Gibbons , Cat Deeley , Samantha Harris , Shaun Robinson , Steve Harvey , John Henson , Sherri Shepherd , Tim Gunn , and D. L. Hughley .
On January 10 , 2013 , Vieira announced that after eleven seasons with the syndicated Millionaire , she would be leaving the show as part of an effort to focus on other projects in her career . She finalized taping of her last episodes with the show in November 2012 . Her successor as host of the syndicated Millionaire , Cedric the Entertainer , was introduced to the show when season twelve premiered on September 2 , 2013 . On April 30 , 2014 , Deadline announced that Cedric had decided to leave the show in order to lighten his workload , resulting in him being succeeded by Terry Crews for the 2014 – 2015 season . Crews was succeeded by Chris Harrison , host of The Bachelor and its spin @-@ offs , when season 14 premiered on September 14 , 2015 .
= = = Production staff = = =
The original executive producers of the U.S. Millionaire were British television producers Michael Davies and Paul Smith , the latter of whom undertook the responsibility of licensing Millionaire to American airwaves as part of his effort to transform the UK program into a global franchise . Smith served until 2007 and Davies until 2010 ; additionally , Leigh Hampton ( previously co @-@ executive producer in the later days of the network version and in the syndicated version 's first two seasons ) served as an executive producer from 2004 to 2010 . Rich Sirop , who was previously a supervising producer , became the executive producer in 2010 and held that position until 2014 , when he left Millionaire to hold the same position with Vieira 's newly launched syndicated talk show , and was replaced by James Rowley . Vincent Rubino , who had previously been the syndicated Millionaire 's supervising producer for its first two seasons , served as that version 's co @-@ executive producer for the 2004 – 05 season , after which he was succeeded by Vieira herself , who continued to hold the title until her departure in 2013 ( sharing her position with Sirop for the 2009 – 10 season ) .
Producers of the network version included Hampton , Rubino , Leslie Fuller , Nikki Webber , and Terrence McDonnell . For its first two seasons the syndicated version had Deirdre Cossman for its managing producer , then Dennis F. McMahon became producer for the next two seasons ( joined by Dominique Bruballa as his line producer ) , after which Jennifer Weeks produced the next four seasons of syndicated Millionaire shows , initially accompanied by Amanda Zucker as her line producer , but later joined for the 2008 – 09 season by Tommy Cody ( who became sole producer in the 2009 – 10 season ) . The first 65 shuffle format episodes were produced by McPaul Smith , and as of 2011 , the title of producer is held by Bryan Lasseter . The network version had Ann Miller and Tiffany Trigg for its supervising producers ; they were joined by Wendy Roth in the first two seasons , and by Michael Binkow in the third and final season . After Rubino 's promotion to co @-@ executive producer , the syndicated version 's later supervising producers included Sirop ( 2004 – 09 ) , Geena Gintzig ( 2009 – 10 ) , Brent Burnette ( 2010 – 12 ) , Geoff Rosen ( 2012 – 14 ) , and Liz Harris ( 2014 – 16 ) .
The original network version of Millionaire was directed by Mark Gentile , who later served as the syndicated version 's consulting producer for its first two seasons , and then as the director of Duel , which ran on ABC from December 2007 to July 2008 . The syndicated version was directed by Matthew Cohen from 2002 to 2010 , by Rob George from 2010 to 2013 , and by Brian McAloon in the 2013 – 14 season . Former Price Is Right director Rich DiPirro became Millionaire 's director in 2014 .
= = Production = =
The U.S. version of Millionaire is a co @-@ production of 2waytraffic , a division of Sony Pictures Entertainment , and Valleycrest Productions , a division of The Walt Disney Company . 2waytraffic purchased Millionaire 's original production company Celador in 2008 , while Valleycrest has produced the series since its beginning , and holds the copyright on all U.S. Millionaire episodes to date . The show is distributed by Valleycrest 's corporate sibling Disney – ABC Domestic Television ( previously known as Buena Vista Television ) .
The U.S. Millionaire was taped at ABC 's Television Center East studio on the Upper West Side of Manhattan in New York from 1999 to 2012 . Tapings were moved to NEP Broadcasting 's Metropolis Studios in East Harlem in 2013 , and production moved to studios located in Stamford , Connecticut the following year . Episodes of the syndicated version are produced from June to December . The show originally taped four episodes in a single day , but that number has since been changed to five .
= = = Origins = = =
When the U.S. version of Millionaire was first conceived in 1998 , Michael Davies was a young television producer who was serving as the head of ABC 's little @-@ noticed reality programming division ( at a time when reality television had not yet become a phenomenon in America ) . At that time , ABC was lingering in third place in the ratings indexes among U.S. broadcast networks , and was on the verge of losing its status as one of the " Big Three " networks . Meanwhile , the popularity of game shows was at an all @-@ time nadir , as with the exception of The Price Is Right , the genre was absent from networks ' daytime lineups at that point . Having earlier created Debt for Lifetime Television and participated with Al Burton and Donnie Brainard in the creation of Win Ben Stein 's Money for Comedy Central , Davies decided to create a primetime game show that would save the network from collapse and revive interest in game shows .
Davies originally considered reviving CBS 's long @-@ lost quiz show The $ 64 @,@ 000 Question for a new era , with a new home on ABC . However , this effort 's development was limited as when the producer heard that the British Millionaire was about to make its debut , he got his friends and family members in the UK to record the show , and subsequently ended up receiving about eight FedEx packages from different family members , each containing a copy of Millionaire 's first episode . Davies was so captivated by everything that he had seen and heard , from host Chris Tarrant 's intimate involvement with the contestant to the show 's lighting system and music tracks , that he chose to abandon his work on the $ 64 @,@ 000 Question revival in favor of introducing Millionaire to American airwaves , convinced that it would become extraordinarily popular .
When Davies presented his ideas for the U.S. Millionaire to ABC , the network 's executives initially rejected them , so he resigned his position there and became an independent producer . Determined to bring his idea for the show to fruition , Davies decided that he was betting his whole career on Millionaire 's production , and the first move that he made was planning to attach a celebrity host to the show . Along with Philbin , a number of other popular television personalities were considered for hosting positions on the U.S. Millionaire during its development , including Peter Jennings , Bob Costas , Phil Donahue , and Montel Williams , but among those considered , it was Philbin who wanted the job the most , and when he saw an episode of the British Millionaire and was blown away by his content , Davies and his team ultimately settled on having him host the American show . When Davies approached ABC again after having hired Philbin , the network finally agreed to accept the U.S. Millionaire . With production now ready to begin , the team had only five months to finish developing the show and get it launched , with Davies demanding perfection in every element of Millionaire 's production .
= = = Audition process = = =
With few exceptions , any legal resident of the United States who is 18 years of age or older has the potential of becoming a contestant through Millionaire 's audition process . Those ineligible include employees , immediate family or household members , and close acquaintances of SPE , Disney , or any of their respective affiliates or subsidiaries ; television stations that broadcast the syndicated version ; or any advertising agency or other firm or entity engaged in the production , administration , or judging of the show . Also ineligible are current candidates for political office and individuals who have appeared on a different game show outside of cable that has been broadcast within the past year , is intended to be broadcast within the next year , or played the main game on any of the U.S. versions of Millionaire itself .
Potential contestants of the original primetime version had to compete in a telephone contest which had them dial a toll @-@ free number and answer three questions by putting objects or events in order . Callers had ten seconds to enter the order on a keypad , with any incorrect answer ending the game / call . The 10 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 candidates who answered all three questions correctly were selected into a random drawing in which approximately 300 contestants competed for ten spots on the show using the same phone quiz method . Accommodations for contestants outside the New York City area included round trip airfare ( or other transportation ) and hotel accommodations .
The syndicated version 's potential contestants , depending on tryouts , are required to pass an electronically scored test comprising a set of thirty questions which must be answered within a 10 @-@ minute time limit . Contestants who fail the test are eliminated , while those who pass are interviewed for an audition by the production staff , and those who impress the staff the most are then notified by postal mail that they have been placed into a pool for possible selection as contestants . At the producers ' discretion , contestants from said pool are selected to appear on actual episodes of the syndicated program ; these contestants are given a phone call from staff and asked to confirm the information on their initial application form and verify that they meet all eligibility requirements . Afterwards , they are given a date to travel to the show 's taping facilities to participate in a scheduled episode of the show . Unlike its ABC counterpart , the syndicated version does not offer transportation or hotel accommodations to contestants at the production company 's expense ; that version 's contestants are instead required to provide transportation and accommodations of their own .
The syndicated Millionaire also conducts open casting calls in various locations across the United States to search for potential contestants . These are held in late spring or early summer , with all dates and locations posted on the show 's official website . The producers make no guarantee on how many applicants will be tested at each particular venue ; however , the show will not test any more than 2 @,@ 500 individuals per audition day .
In cases when the show features themed episodes with two people playing as a team , auditions for these episodes ' contestants are announced on the show 's website . Both members of the team must pass the written test and the audition interview successfully in order to be considered for selection . If only one member of the team passes , he or she is placed into the contestant pool alone and must continue the audition process as an individual in order to proceed .
= = = Music = = =
Originally , the U.S. Millionaire carried over the musical score from the British version , composed by father @-@ and @-@ son duo Keith and Matthew Strachan . Unlike older game show musical scores , Millionaire 's musical score was created to feature music playing almost throughout the entire show . The Strachans ' main Millionaire theme song took some inspiration from the " Mars " movement of Gustav Holst 's The Planets , and their question cues from the $ 2 @,@ 000 to the $ 32 @,@ 000 / $ 25 @,@ 000 level , and then from the $ 64 @,@ 000 / $ 50 @,@ 000 level onwards , took the pitch up a semitone for each subsequent question , in order to increase tension as the contestant progressed through the game . On GSN 's Gameshow Hall of Fame special , the narrator described the Strachan tracks as " mimicking the sound of a beating heart , " and stated that as the contestant worked their way up the money ladder , the music was " perfectly in tune with their ever @-@ increasing pulse . "
The original Millionaire musical score holds the distinction of being the only game show soundtrack to be acknowledged by the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers , as the Strachans were honored with numerous ASCAP awards for their work , the earliest of them awarded in 2000 . The original music cues were given minor rearrangements for the clock format in 2008 ; for example , the question cues were synced to the " ticking " sounds of the game clock . Even later , the Strachan score was removed from the U.S. version altogether for the introduction of the shuffle format in 2010 , in favor of a new musical score with cues written by Jeff Lippencott and Mark T. Williams , co @-@ founders of the Los Angeles @-@ based company Ah2 Music .
= = = Set = = =
The U.S. Millionaire 's basic set is a direct adaptation of the British version 's set design , which was conceived by Andy Walmsley . Paul Smith 's original licensing agreement for the U.S. Millionaire required that the show 's set design , along with all other elements of the show 's on @-@ air presentation ( musical score , lighting system , host 's wardrobe , etc . ) , adhere faithfully to the way in which they were presented in the British version ; this same licensing agreement applied to all other international versions of the show , making Walmsley 's Millionaire set design the most reproduced scenic design in television history . The original version of the U.S. Millionaire 's set cost $ 200 @,@ 000 to construct . The U.S. Millionaire 's production design is handled by George Allison , whose predecessors have included David Weller and Jim Fenhagen .
Unlike older game shows whose sets are or were designed to make the contestant ( s ) feel at ease , Millionaire 's set was designed to make the contestant feel uncomfortable , so that the program feels more like a movie thriller than a typical quiz show . The floor is made of Plexiglas beneath which lies a huge dish covered in mirror paper . Before the shuffle format was implemented in 2010 , the main game had the contestant and host sit in chairs in the center of the stage , known as " Hot Seats " ; these measured 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) high , were modeled after chairs typically found in hair salons , and each seat featured a computer monitor directly facing it to display questions and other pertinent information . Shortly after the shuffle format was introduced to Millionaire , Vieira stated in an interview with her Millionaire predecessor on his morning talk show that the Hot Seat was removed because it was decided that the seat , which was originally intended to make the contestant feel nervous , actually ended up having contestants feel so comfortable in it that it did not service the production team any longer .
The lighting system is programmed to darken the set as the contestant progresses further into the game . There are also spotlights situated at the bottom of the set area that zoom down on the contestant when they answer a major question ; to increase the visibility of the light beams emitted by such spotlights , oil is vaporized , creating a haze effect . Media scholar Dr. Robert Thompson , a professor at Syracuse University , stated that the show 's lighting system made the contestant feel as though they were outside of prison when an escape was in progress .
When the shuffle format was introduced , the Hot Seats and corresponding monitors were replaced with a single podium , and as a result , the contestant and host stand throughout the game and are also able to walk around the stage . Also , two video screens were installed – one that displays the current question in play , and another that displays the contestant 's cumulative total and progress during the game . In September 2012 , the redesigned set was improved with a modernized look and feel , in order to take into account the show 's transition to high @-@ definition broadcasting , which had just come about the previous year . The two video screens were replaced with two larger ones , having twice as many projectors as the previous screens had ; the previous contestant podium was replaced with a new one ; and light @-@ emitting diode ( LED ) technology was integrated into the lighting system to give the lights more vivid colors and the set and gameplay experience a more intimate feel .
= = Broadcast history = =
= = = ABC = = =
The U.S. version of Millionaire was launched by ABC as a half @-@ hour primetime program on August 16 , 1999 . When it premiered , it became the first U.S. network game show to offer a million @-@ dollar top prize to contestants . After airing thirteen episodes and reaching an audience of 15 million viewers by the end of the show 's first week on the air , the program expanded to an hour @-@ long format when it returned in November . The series , of which episodes were originally shown only a day after their initial taping , was promoted to regular status on January 18 , 2000 and , at the height of its popularity , was airing on ABC five nights a week . The show was so popular during its original primetime run that rival networks created or re @-@ incarnated game shows of their own ( e.g. , Greed , Twenty One , etc . ) , as well as importing various game shows of British and Australian origin to America ( such as Winning Lines , Weakest Link , and It 's Your Chance of a Lifetime ) .
The nighttime version initially drew in up to 30 million viewers a day three times a week , an unheard @-@ of number in modern network television . In the 1999 – 2000 season , it averaged # 1 in the ratings against all other television shows , with 28 @,@ 848 @,@ 000 viewers . In the next season ( 2000 – 01 ) , three nights out of the five weekly episodes placed in the top 10 . However , the show 's ratings began to fall during the 2000 – 01 season , so that at the start of the 2001 – 02 season , the ratings were only a fraction of what they had been one year before , and by season 's end , the show was no longer even ranked among the top 20 . ABC 's reliance on the show 's popularity led the network to fall quickly from its former spot as the nation 's most watched network .
As ABC 's overexposure of the primetime Millionaire led the public to tire of the show , there was speculation that the show would not survive beyond the 2001 – 02 season . The staff planned on switching it to a format that would emphasize comedy more than the game and feature a host other than Philbin , but in the end , the primetime show was canceled , with its final episode airing on June 27 , 2002 .
= = = Syndication = = =
In 2001 , Millionaire producers began work on a half @-@ hour daily syndicated version of the show , with the idea being that it would serve as an accompaniment to the network series which was still in production . ABC 's cancellation of the network Millionaire ended that idea ; however , the syndicated Millionaire still had enough interest to be greenlit and BVT sold the series to local stations for the 2002 – 03 season . The syndicated series nearly met the same fate as its predecessor , however , due in part to worries that stemmed from a decision made by one of its affiliates .
In the New York media market , BVT sold the syndicated Millionaire to CBS 's flagship station , WCBS @-@ TV . In the season that had passed , WCBS ' mid @-@ afternoon schedule included the syndicated edition of NBC 's Weakest Link , which aired at 4 pm from its January 2002 premiere . Joining Millionaire as a new syndicated series was a spinoff of The Oprah Winfrey Show hosted by Dr. Phil McGraw . WCBS picked up both series for 2002 – 03 , with Dr. Phil serving as lead @-@ in for the syndicated Millionaire , which was plugged into the time slot that Weakest Link had been occupying .
At mid @-@ season , WCBS announced that for the 2003 – 04 season it had acquired the broadcast rights to The People 's Court after WNBC , which had been airing the revived series since its 1997 debut , dropped it from its lineup . WCBS announced plans to move The People 's Court into the time slot that was occupied by Millionaire and the still @-@ airing 4 : 30 pm local newscast once it joined the station 's lineup in September 2003 . This led to speculation that the syndicated Millionaire would not be returning for a second season , and BVT 's concerns over losing its New York affiliate were compounded by the fact that there were not many time slots available for the show in New York outside of the undesirable late @-@ night slots that syndicators try to avoid .
In June 2003 , a shakeup at one of BVT 's corporate siblings provided the series with an opening . ABC announced that it would be returning the 12 : 30 pm network time slot to its affiliates in October of that year following the cancellation of the soap opera Port Charles . ABC 's flagship , WABC @-@ TV , was thus in need of a program to fill the slot and BVT went to them asking if the station would pick up Millionaire . WABC agreed to do this and when the new season launched that fall , the station began airing Millionaire at 12 : 30 pm . Millionaire continued to air on WABC in the afternoon until the end of the 2014 – 15 season , when it acquired the broadcast rights to FABLife for the 2015 – 16 season . To make room for FABLife , the afternoon airing of Millionaire was moved to independent station WLNY @-@ TV .
According to e @-@ mails released in the Sony Pictures Entertainment hack , Millionaire narrowly avoided cancellation after the 2014 – 15 season . The show 's declining ratings prompted DADT to demand a dramatically reduced licensing fee for renewal , which SPE was hesitant to accept . The series was nonetheless renewed for the 2015 – 16 season , with various cuts to the show 's production budget and a return to the original format ( but with only 14 questions ) . Had the show not been renewed , SPE would have placed the show on extended hiatus for three years , reclaimed full rights to the show ( without the innovations and format added in the syndicated run , to which DADT owns intellectual property rights ) , and shopped the revived show to another network or syndicator .
= = = GSN = = =
GSN acquired the rerun rights to the U.S. Millionaire in August 2003 . The network initially aired only episodes from the three seasons of the original prime @-@ time run ; however , additional episodes were later added . These included the Super Millionaire spin @-@ off , which aired on GSN from May 2005 to January 2007 , and the first two seasons of the syndicated version , which began airing on November 10 , 2008 .
= = Special editions = =
Various special editions and tournaments have been conducted which feature celebrities playing the game and donating winnings to charities of their choice . During celebrity editions on the original ABC version , contestants were allowed to receive help from their fellow contestants during the first ten questions . The most successful celebrity contestants throughout the show 's run have included Drew Carey , Rosie O 'Donnell , Norm MacDonald , and Chip Esten , all of whom won $ 500 @,@ 000 for their respective charities . The episode featuring O 'Donnell 's $ 500 @,@ 000 win averaged 36 @.@ 1 million viewers , the highest number for a single episode of the show .
There have also been special weeks featuring two or three family members or couples competing as a team , a " Champions Edition " where former big winners returned and split their winnings with their favorite charities , a " Zero Dollar Winner Edition " featuring contestants who previously missed one of the first @-@ tier questions and left with nothing , and a " Tax @-@ Free Edition " in which H & R Block calculated the taxes of winnings to allow contestants to earn stated winnings after taxes , and various theme weeks featuring college students , teachers , brides @-@ to @-@ be , etc. as contestants . Additionally , the syndicated version once featured an annual " Walk In & Win Week " with contestants who were randomly selected from the audience without having to take the audition test .
Special weeks have also included shows featuring questions concerning specific topics , such as professional football , celebrity gossip , movies , and pop culture . During a week of episodes in November 2007 , to celebrate the 1,000th episode of the syndicated Millionaire , all contestants that week started with $ 1 @,@ 000 so that they could not leave empty @-@ handed , and only had to answer ten questions to win $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . During that week , twenty home viewers per day also won $ 1 @,@ 000 each .
= = = Who Wants to Be a Super Millionaire = = =
In 2004 , Philbin returned to host 12 episodes of a spin @-@ off program titled Who Wants to Be a Super Millionaire in which contestants could potentially win $ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . ABC aired five episodes of this spin @-@ off during the week of February 22 , 2004 , and an additional seven episodes later that year in May . As usual , the contestants were to answer a series of 15 multiple choice questions of increasing difficulty , but the dollar values were substantially increased . The payout structure of Super Millionaire was as follows : first going from $ 1 @,@ 000 to $ 5 @,@ 000 in increments of $ 1 @,@ 000 ; then from $ 10 @,@ 000 to $ 30 @,@ 000 in increments of $ 10 @,@ 000 ; then to $ 50 @,@ 000 , $ 100 @,@ 000 , $ 500 @,@ 000 , and $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ; and finally from $ 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 to $ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 with the dollar value doubling for each new question .
Contestants were given the standard three lifelines in place at the time ( 50 : 50 , Ask the Audience , and Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend ) at the beginning of the game . However , after correctly answering the $ 100 @,@ 000 question , the contestant earned two additional lifelines : Three Wise Men and Double Dip . The Three Wise Men lifeline involved a panel of three experts , one of whom was always a former Millionaire contestant and at least one of whom was female . When this lifeline was used , the contestant and panel had 30 seconds to discuss the question and choices before the audio and video feeds were dropped . If the contestant decides to use Double Dip , the contestant is then forbidden from walking away from the question and is given two chances to answer the given question and if both answers are wrong , the contestant drops to $ 100 @,@ 000 .
= = = 10th Anniversary Celebration = = =
To celebrate the tenth anniversary of Millionaire 's U.S. debut , the show returned to ABC primetime for an eleven @-@ night event hosted by Philbin , which aired August 9 – 23 , 2009 . The Academy Award @-@ winning movie Slumdog Millionaire and the 2008 economic crisis helped boost interest of renewal of the game show .
The episodes featured game play based on the previous rule set of the syndicated version ( including the rule changes implemented in season seven ) but used the Fastest Finger round to select contestants . Various celebrities also made special guest appearances at the end of every episode ; each guest played one question for a chance at $ 50 @,@ 000 for a charity of their choice , being allowed to use any one of the four lifelines in place at the time ( Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend , Ask the Audience , Double Dip , and Ask the Expert ) , but still earned a minimum of $ 25 @,@ 000 for the charity if they answered the question incorrectly .
The finale of the tenth anniversary special , which aired on August 23 , 2009 , featured Ken Basin , an entertainment lawyer , Harvard Law graduate , and former Jeopardy ! contestant , who went on to become the first contestant to play a $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 question in the " clock format " era . With a time of 4 : 39 ( 45 seconds + 3 : 54 banked time ) , Basin was given a question involving President Lyndon Baines Johnson 's fondness for Fresca . Using his one remaining lifeline , Basin asked the audience , which supported his own hunch of Yoo @-@ hoo rather than the correct answer . He decided to answer the question and lost $ 475 @,@ 000 , becoming the first contestant in the U.S. version to answer a $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 question incorrectly . After Basin finished his run , Vieira appeared on @-@ camera and announced that all remaining Fastest Finger contestants would play with her on the first week of the syndicated version 's eighth season . After this , the million dollar question was not played again on a standard episode until September 25 , 2013 , when Josina Reaves became the second U.S. Millionaire contestant to incorrectly answer her $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 question .
= = = Million Dollar Tournament of Ten = = =
Although the syndicated Millionaire had produced two millionaires in its first season , Nancy Christy 's May 2003 win was still standing as the most recent when the program began its eighth season in fall of 2009 . Deciding that six @-@ plus years had been too long since someone had won the top prize , producers conducted a tournament to find a third million dollar winner . For the first nine weeks of the 2009 – 10 season , each episode saw contestants attempt to qualify for what was referred to as the " Tournament of Ten " . Contestants were seeded based on how much money they had won , with the biggest winner ranked first and the lowest ranked tenth . Ties were broken based on how much time a contestant had banked when they had walked away from the game .
The tournament began on the episode aired November 9 , 2009 , and playing in order from the lowest to the highest seed , tournament contestants played one at a time at the end of that episode and the next nine . The rules were exactly the same as they were for a normal million dollar question under the clock format introduced the season before , except here , the contestants had no lifelines at their disposal . Each contestant received a base time of 45 seconds . For each question they had answered before walking away , the contestants received any unused seconds that were left when they gave their answers . The accumulated total of those unused seconds was then added to the base time to give the contestants their final question time limit .
Each contestant had the same decision facing them as before , which was whether to attempt to answer the question or walk away with their pre @-@ tournament total intact . Attempting the question and answering incorrectly incurred the same penalty as in regular play , with a reduction of their pre @-@ tournament winnings to $ 25 @,@ 000 . If the question was answered correctly , the player that did so became the tournament leader . If another player after him / her answered correctly , that player assumed the lead and the previous leader kept their pre @-@ tournament winnings . The highest remaining seed to have attempted and correctly answered their question at the end of the tournament on November 20 , 2009 would be declared the winner and become the syndicated series ' third millionaire .
The first contestant to attempt to answer the million dollar question was Sam Murray , the tournament 's eighth @-@ seeded qualifier . On November 11 , Murray was asked approximately how many people had lived on Earth in its history and correctly guessed 100 billion . Murray was still atop the leaderboard entering the November 20 finale as he remained the only contestant to even attempt to answer his or her question . The only person who could defeat him was top seed and $ 250 @,@ 000 winner Jehan Shamsid @-@ Deen , who was asked a question regarding the Blorenge , cited as " a rare example of a word that rhymes with orange " . Shamsid @-@ Deen considered taking the risk , believing ( correctly ) that the name belonged to a mountain in Wales . However , she decided that the potential of losing $ 225 @,@ 000 did not justify the risk and elected to walk away from the question , giving Murray the win and the million dollar prize .
= = Reception = =
Since its introduction to the United States , Who Wants to Be a Millionaire has been credited with not only single @-@ handedly reviving the game show genre , but also breaking new ground for it . The series revolutionized the look and feel of game shows with its unique lighting system , dramatic music cues , and futuristic set . The show also became one of the highest @-@ rated and most popular game shows in U.S. television history , and has been credited with paving the way for the rise of the reality TV phenomenon to prominence throughout the 2000s .
The U.S. Millionaire also made catchphrases out of various lines used on the show . In particular , " Is that your final answer ? " , asked by Millionaire 's hosts whenever a contestant 's answer needs to be verified , was popularized by Philbin during his tenure as host , and was also included on TV Land 's special " 100 Greatest TV Quotes and Catch Phrases " , which aired in 2006 . Meanwhile , during his tenure as host , Cedric signed off shows with a catchphrase of his own , " Watch yo ' wallet ! "
The original primetime version of the U.S. Millionaire won two Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show in 2000 and 2001 . Philbin was honored with a Daytime Emmy in the category of Outstanding Game Show Host in 2001 , while Vieira received one in 2005 , and another in 2009 . TV Guide ranked the U.S. Millionaire # 7 on its 2001 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time , and later ranked it # 6 on its 2013 " 60 Greatest Game Shows " list . GSN ranked Millionaire # 5 on its August 2006 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time , and later honored the show in January 2007 on its only Gameshow Hall of Fame special .
= = Other media = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
In 2000 , Pressman released two board game adaptions of Millionaire as well as a junior edition recommended for younger players . Several video games based on the varying gameplay formats of Millionaire have also been released throughout the course of the show 's U.S. history .
Between 1999 and 2001 , Jellyvision produced five video game adaptations based upon the original primetime series for personal computers and Sony 's PlayStation console , all of them featuring Philbin 's likeness and voice . The first of these adaptations was published by Disney Interactive , while the later four were published by Buena Vista Interactive which had just been spun off from DI when it reestablished itself in attempts to diversify its portfolio . Of the five games , three featured general trivia questions , one was sports @-@ themed , and another was a " Kids Edition " featuring easier questions . In 2008 , Imagination Games released a DVD version of the show , based on the 2004 – 08 format and coming complete with Vieira 's likeness and voice , as well as a quiz book and a 2009 desktop calendar . Additionally , two Millionaire video games were released by Ludia in conjunction with Ubisoft in 2010 and 2011 ; the first of these was a game for Nintendo 's Wii console and DS handheld system based on the 2008 – 10 clock format , while the second , for Microsoft 's Xbox 360 , was based on the current shuffle format .
Ludia has also created a Facebook game based on Millionaire , which debuted on March 21 , 2011 . This game features an altered version of the shuffle format , condensing the number of questions to twelve — eight in round one , and four in round two . A contestant can compete against eight other Millionaire fans in round one , and play round two alone if they make it into the top three . There is no " final answer " rule ; the contestant 's responses are automatically locked in . Answering a question correctly earns a contestant the value of that question , multiplied by the number of people who responded incorrectly . Contestants are allowed to use two of their Facebook friends as Jump the Question lifelines in round one , and to use the Ask the Audience lifeline in round two to invite up to 50 such friends of theirs to answer a question for a portion of the prize money of the current question .
= = = Disney Parks attraction = = =
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire – Play It ! was an attraction at the Disney 's Hollywood Studios theme park ( when it was known as Disney @-@ MGM Studios ) at the Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando , Florida and at Disney California Adventure Park in Anaheim , California . Both the Florida and California Play It ! attractions opened in 2001 ; the California version closed in 2004 , and the Florida version closed in 2006 and was replaced by Toy Story Midway Mania !
The format in the Play It ! attraction was very similar to that of the television show that inspired it . When a show started , a " Fastest Finger " question was given , and the audience was asked to put the four answers in order ; the person with the fastest time was the first contestant in the Hot Seat for that show . However , the main game had some differences : for example , contestants competed for points rather than dollars , the questions were set to time limits , and the Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend lifeline became Phone a Complete Stranger which connected the contestant to a Disney cast member outside the attraction 's theater who would find a guest to help . After the contestant 's game was over , they were awarded anything from a collectible pin , to clothing , to a Millionaire CD game , to a 3 @-@ night Disney Cruise .
= Sir Bevil Grenville 's Monument =
Sir Bevil Grenville 's Monument is a monument erected in 1720 on Lansdown , then called " Lansdowne Hill " , 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) north @-@ west of the city of Bath , in Somerset , England . It was designated a Grade II * listed building on 1 February 1956 , and a scheduled monument on 12 December 1950 .
The monument commemorates the heroism of the Civil War Royalist commander Sir Bevil Grenville ( 1596 @-@ 1643 ) of Stowe , Kilkhampton in Cornwall and Bideford in Devon , who on 5 July 1643 fell mortally wounded at the Battle of Lansdowne , leading his regiment of Cornish pikemen . It was erected by Grenville 's grandson and has been maintained by his descendants . This has included the repair of inscriptions carved on the base of the monument , eulogising Grenville and his forces .
= = Background = =
The Battle of Lansdowne took place on 5 July 1643 during the Civil War . The Royalists under Lord Hopton attacked the Parliamentarians led by Sir William Waller who occupied a commanding position on Lansdowne Hill . Under the leadership of Sir Bevil Grenville , Hopton 's Cornish pikemen stormed Waller 's breastworks , while Royalist musketeers outflanked Waller by passing through the woods on each side of his position . Grenville was mortally wounded in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat as Parliamentarian horse counter @-@ attacked and were driven off . He received a mortal blow to the head with a pollaxe and was taken to the rectory at nearby Cold Ashton where he died . His death was a set @-@ back from which the king 's cause in the Westcountry never recovered , for he alone knew how to handle the unruly Cornishmen .
= = History = =
The monument was erected in 1720 by George Granville , 1st Baron Lansdowne ( 1666 @-@ 1735 ) , grandson of Sir Bevil and heir male to William Granville , 3rd Earl of Bath ( d.1711 ) , great @-@ grandson of Sir Bevil and the last male in the senior line of the family . In 1714 Baron Lansdowne had erected a mural monument to Sir Bevil in the Grenville Chapel in the Church of St James the Great , Kilkhampton , Cornwall , in which parish was situated the Grenville seat of Stowe .
The monument has been repaired several times . Initially in 1777 and again in 1828 and then in 1879 , each time the repairs were funded by Granville 's descendants . Note that the original spelling was Bevil Granville but today Grenville or Greville are commonly used .
= = Description = =
The monument is of ashlar stone masonry , 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) high , in the English Baroque style . On the south side is a slate tablet inscribed with a quotation from the account by Lord Clarendon ( 1609 @-@ 1674 ) in his History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England of the Battle of Lansdowne ( 1643 ) . On the north side are two poems . On top is a griffin ( the crest and supporters of the Grenvilles ) holding an escutcheon displaying the Grenville coat of arms : Gules , three clarions or . On another side are shown the Royal Arms of King Charles II ( 1660 @-@ 1685 ) supported by the arms of Sir Bevil 's eldest son and heir John Granville , 1st Earl of Bath ( 1628 – 1701 ) and by the arms of the latter 's half first cousin General George Monck , 1st Duke of Albemarle , KG ( 1608 @-@ 1670 ) . Monck was the principal figure behind the Restoration of the Monarchy to King Charles II in 1660 , in effecting which he was much assisted by Sir John Grenville , for which services both were elevated to the peerage .
= = Inscription = =
The Elegy on Sir Bevil Grenville by William Cartwright , a fellow Royalist , who died shortly after Sir Bevil on 29 November 1643 , is inscribed on the monument :
This was not Nature ’ s courage nor that thing ,
We valour call which Time and Reason bring ,
But a diviner fury fierce and high ,
Valour transported into Ecstasy .
= Baby Jesus theft =
Baby Jesus theft is the theft of plastic or ceramic figurines of the infant Jesus from outdoor public and private nativity displays during the Christmas season . It is an " enduring ( and illegal ) practice " according to New York Times journalist Katie Rogers , " believed to be part of a yearly tradition , often carried out by bored teenagers looking for an easy prank . " The prevalence of such thefts has caused the owners of outdoor manger scenes to protect their property with GPS devices , surveillance cameras , or by other means .
= = Incidents = =
Dozens of communities across America have suffered thefts of Baby Jesus figurines , and , in some instances , entire nativity scenes , Washington DC journalist Daniel Nasaw reports for Britain 's The Guardian . He observes that it is unclear whether such theft is on the rise , as it is not tracked by federal law enforcement .
In 2008 , a Baby Jesus was stolen from First United Methodist Church in Kittanning , Pennsylvania and replaced with a pumpkin , and , in Eureka Springs , Arkansas , a thief not only stole the Baby Jesus from a public display but absconded with the concrete block and chain that was supposed to act as a deterrent . Some communities suffer repeat Baby Jesus thefts . A Baby Jesus was stolen in December 2008 from a Stony Point town display . A town official remarked , " If someone did it as a prank , I don 't find it funny . " The nativity had been vandalized the year before , and a menorah next to it had been toppled and broken .
During some Christmases of the first decade of the 21st century , the Baby Jesus statue was often stolen from the outdoor nativity scene in Jönköping in Sweden , once thrown into the nearby lake of Vättern . This has led to the nativity scene , resembling a wooden stable , being closed by nights .
Some figurines have been defaced with profanity or Satanic symbols . In December 2008 , for example , a fiberglass Baby Jesus valued at US $ 375 was stolen from a Eureka Springs , Arkansas park and later recovered , but had been defaced by racial slurs , a swastika , and a Hitler mustache . The eyes were also blacked out and pieces had been broken off , rendering it damaged beyond repair .
In his autobiography , The Long Hard Road Out Of Hell , Marilyn Manson admitted playing a prank in which he and a few friends stole figurines of Jesus then replaced them with hams . They sent a communique to a newspaper posing as a black radical group saying that it was a protest against " the plasticisation of the black man 's wisdom with the so @-@ called ' White Christmas ' . "
= = Security measures = =
Some nativity display owners have taken measures to secure their property against would @-@ be thieves . Others are reluctant to exercise such vigilance . One Indiana man who suffered the loss of his Baby Jesus figurine rebuffed suggestions to secure the figurines on his porch because , " that would be like putting Jesus in jail " . Traditional security measures are not always foolproof . The Baby Jesus fastened to the National Christmas Creche at Independence Hall disappeared within days .
Some communities , churches , and citizens are employing electronic technology to protect their property . A Texas family , for example , positioned surveillance cameras in their yard and discovered a teenage girl stealing their Baby Jesus figurine , valued at nearly US $ 500 . In 2008 , a security device distributor offered its surveillance cameras and GPS devices to 200 non @-@ profit religious institutions for a month 's use gratis . GPS protection has met with some success . In one case , after a life @-@ size ceramic nativity figurine disappeared from the lawn of a community center in Wellington , Florida , sheriff 's deputies tracked it to an apartment where it was found lying face @-@ down on a carpet . An 18 @-@ year @-@ old woman was arrested .
= = Perspectives = =
While Baby Jesus thefts are largely regarded as pranks , they are set apart by the involvement of a religious icon . " They think it 's a prank , but it isn 't a prank to some of these people , " Pennsylvania state police Corporal Paul Romanic told The Morning Call newspaper , in regards to an incident in which ten nativity scene figures were found in a yard after being stolen from across Bucks County , Pennsylvania . " Plus , it 's just wrong to steal the baby Jesus . "
Some have wondered if an anti @-@ Christian sentiment lurks behind the thefts . Attorney Mike Johnson of the Alliance Defending Freedom ( formerly the Alliance Defense Fund ) , a Christian legal group , stated , " I suspect most of it is childish pranks . Clearly , there are adults with an agenda to remove Christ from Christmas . But they tend to occupy themselves with the courts and courtroom of public opinion . " Stephen Nissenbaum , the author of The Battle for Christmas and a retired professor , views Baby Jesus theft as neither innocent vandalism nor religious hate crimes . Nissenbaum writes that , " What it means is that it 's OK to go around violating even pretty important norms , as long as real human harm isn 't being done . It 's not exactly devaluing Christianity , but it is sort of a ritualized challenge to it . It could be Christian kids doing it — and on January 2 they become good Christians again . "
Historian Daniel Silliman has argued that , whatever the thieves ' intention , the act puts the culture of Christmas in a different light . " Baby Jesus thieves literally take the Christ out of Christmas , " Silliman writes . " When they do , it becomes apparent that the sacred object is also a piece of property , protected by the law that protects property and this whole apparatus that defends Christmas : fences and lights , tracking devices and private security companies , patrolling police and the courts . The commercialization of Christmas is visible here in a way it might not be , otherwise . That ’ s the power of the joke . "
= = In drama = =
In " The Big Little Jesus , " the December 24 , 1953 episode of the television series Dragnet , Sgts . Friday and Smith are called upon to investigate the theft of a Baby Jesus from a church nativity display on Christmas Eve . Unable to solve the crime , the officers tell the priest that Mass must be celebrated without the Baby Jesus . The figurine is restored when a boy arrives with it in a wagon . He tells the officers that he had vowed that if he got a wagon for Christmas , Baby Jesus would have the first ride . This episode was remade when Dragnet went to color ; it is not only the only episode made twice , but the only story not based on an actual police case . The episode was originally broadcast on radio on December 22 , 1953 , making it the only episode to appear on all three Jack Webb versions of the series .
= Stocksbridge Park Steels F.C. =
Stocksbridge Park Steels Football Club is an English association football club based in Stocksbridge , South Yorkshire . They play in Division One South of the Northern Premier League at level eight of the English football league system . The club was formed in 1986 after a merger between two other clubs , and sports a yellow and blue home kit . They play at the Bracken Moor ground .
They initially played in the Northern Counties East League and progressed through the NCEL 's divisions before winning promotion to Division One of the Northern Premier League ( NPL ) in 1996 . They reached the Premier Division of the NPL in 2009 , but were relegated back to Division One South in 2014 .
Steels have participated in the FA Cup every year since 1992 , reaching the 4th qualifying round in 2003 , and first entered the FA Trophy in 1996 after previously participating in the FA Vase .
= = History = =
Stocksbridge Park Steels F.C. was formed in 1986 as the result of the merger of Stocksbridge Works , the works team of the local British Steel Corporation plant , with another local club , Oxley Park Sports . The new club was immediately admitted to the Northern Counties East League Division Two , the works club having previously played in Division Three of the same league .
The Steels spent five seasons in Division Two before being placed in Division One when the lower division was discontinued upon league re @-@ organisation in 1991 . In the same year Mick Horne was appointed as the club 's manager , and he led the team to the championship of Division One in the 1991 – 92 season .
In Stocksbridge 's first season in the Premier Division the team finished near the bottom of the table , but in the 1993 – 94 season the Steels became Northern Counties East League champions . The club failed to gain promotion to the Northern Premier League , however , as their stadium did not meet the required standard . The club finished second in the division two seasons later , losing the championship on goal difference to Hatfield Main , and on this occasion were admitted to the Northern Premier League Division One .
Stocksbridge finished in the top half of the table in the club 's first five seasons at the higher level , with a best finish of fourth place in the 2000 – 01 season , but the following season the Steels finished only two places from the bottom of the league . Shortly before the end of this season , manager Mick Horne tendered his resignation after 11 years in charge and was replaced by his assistant , former Norwich City player Wayne Biggins .
Under Biggins ' management , the Steels had their best ever runs in both the FA Cup and FA Trophy and set a club record with a 17 – 1 defeat of Oldham Town in the FA Cup preliminary round in August 2002 , but remained near the bottom of the league table . After the Steels were defeated 6 – 0 by Shildon in the final qualifying round of the 2003 – 04 FA Cup , Biggins attempted to resign but the board of directors persuaded him to continue in his job . However , he left in November 2003 , with the club again fighting a battle against relegation .
Former assistant manager of local rivals Worksop Town Peter Rinkcavage was appointed as Stocksbridge 's new manager , and in the 2005 – 06 season he led the team to a sixth @-@ place finish , sufficient to qualify for the play @-@ offs for promotion to the Northern Premier League Premier Division . After holding Kendal Town to a 1 – 1 draw in the semi @-@ final , the Steels lost a penalty shoot @-@ out , ending their hopes of promotion .
The following season Stocksbridge again finished in sixth place , although with only two teams promoted , it was not high enough to qualify for the play @-@ offs . Stocksbridge did , however , defeat Worksop Town to win the Sheffield and Hallamshire Senior Cup . Following this win manager Rinkcavage resigned in order to return to his former club , Worksop , as manager , with Gary Marrow replacing him for the 2007 – 08 season , for which the club was placed in the Southern section of the now @-@ regionalised Division One . Stocksbridge again qualified for the play @-@ offs , but lost to Sheffield . In the 2008 – 09 season , the Steels again qualified for the play @-@ offs and defeated Belper Town in the final to gain promotion to the Northern Premier League Premier Division for the first time . During the following season , Marrow resigned as manager and was replaced by Simon Collins . The Steels spent five years in the Premier Division , never finishing out of the bottom half of the table , and were relegated at the end of the 2013 – 14 season .
= = = Season by season record = = =
= = Colours and crest = =
The Steels have generally worn a kit of yellow shirts with varying amounts of blue trim , blue shorts , and yellow stockings during their short history . The club badge is predominantly yellow and blue to reflect this , and features a representation of a clock tower located on Nanny Hill , near the club 's stadium . Two footballs displaying the year of the club 's formation were added on the occasion of the club 's twentieth anniversary in 2006 . The club is unusual in having an alternate crest for its away shirts with the colours reversed . The team 's nickname is " Steels " or " The Steels " .
= = Stadium = =
The Steels have always played their games at Bracken Moor , the former home of Stocksbridge Works . In 2006 it was announced that the stadium was to be sponsored by local newspaper Look Local for a term of five years , resulting in its official name being changed to the Look Local Stadium , a deal which was later extended to 2013 . The stadium has a maximum capacity of 3 @,@ 500 , with 450 seats .
The ground was a cricket pitch until shortly after the Second World War , when it was purchased by a local steelmaking company and converted into a football stadium . Stone @-@ built changing rooms were erected in the mid @-@ 1960s , replacing a small hut , as was a seated stand and terracing . The main stand has a distinctive angled awning which extends from the fascia and seats which came from Sheffield Wednesday 's Hillsborough Stadium . Floodlights were installed at the stadium in 1990 and the terracing partially covered four years later .
As one side of the ground directly adjoins a cricket pitch , the club was required to erect a dividing fence in order to gain entry to the Northern Premier League . The fence is temporary in nature and is removed during the cricket season . It was partially funded by money raised from friendlies against Sheffield Wednesday and Sheffield United .
= = Supporters = =
The average attendance at the Look Local Stadium was 180 in the 2008 – 09 season , the ninth highest of twenty teams in the Northern Premier League Division One South , with the largest attendance being 451 for the visit of Sheffield . The average figure was a decrease of 3 compared to the previous season . The highest attendance in the club 's history was 2 @,@ 000 , for a friendly match against Sheffield Wednesday to mark the inauguration of the ground 's floodlights in October 1991 .
The club has a Supporters ' Club which was set up in the mid @-@ 1990s . The Supporters ' Club organises events to raise funds for the football club , and operates the club shop at the Look Local Stadium .
= = = Rivalries = = =
Frickley Athletic and Worksop Town are considered to be local rivals to the Steels . Stocksbridge 's highest ever league attendance against their rivals is 610 for a match against Worksop .
= = Players = =
= = = Notable former players = = =
For details of players who have played in the Football League either before or after playing for Stocksbridge Park Steels , see Category : Stocksbridge Park Steels F.C. players .
= = Managers = =
= = Honours = =
= = Records = =
Stocksbridge 's best league finish was a fourth @-@ place finish in the Northern Premier League Division One , which at the time sat at the seventh level in the overall English football league system , in the 2000 – 01 season . The largest number of points the team has registered in a season was 76 in the 2006 – 07 season , but that was only enough to secure a sixth @-@ place finish .
The club 's best performance in the FA Cup was an appearance in the fourth and final qualifying round in the 2003 – 04 season . After winning four matches to progress from the preliminary round , the Steels lost 6 – 0 away to Shildon . In the same season the club achieved its best performance in the FA Trophy , reaching the second round proper only to lose 4 – 2 away to Blyth Spartans .
The club 's record victory was a 17 – 1 win over Oldham Town in the FA Cup in 2002 . Striker Paul Jackson scored ten of the goals , equalling the 55 @-@ year @-@ old record for the most goals scored by a single player in an FA Cup match . Ted McDougall 's nine goals for AFC Bournemouth against Margate in 1971 remains the record in the FA Cup proper , whereas Jackson 's ten is the record for the qualifying rounds . The Steels ' record defeat was a 7 – 2 loss to Witton Albion in the 2001 – 02 season .
The record for the most appearances for the club is held by Gary Hurlestone with 254 . The club 's all @-@ time record goalscorer is Trevor Jones , who scored 145 times for the Steels . The largest transfer fee paid for a Stocksbridge player is £ 15 @,@ 000 , paid by Wolverhampton Wanderers for Lee Mills in December 1992 .
= Happy Working Song =
" Happy Working Song " is a song written by composer Alan Menken and lyricist Stephen Schwartz for Walt Disney Pictures ' musical film Enchanted ( 2007 ) . Recorded by American actress Amy Adams in her starring role as Giselle , the uptempo pop song both parodies and pays homage to a variety of songs from several Disney animated feature films , particularly " Whistle While You Work " from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) . Produced by Menken , Schwartz and Danny Troob , the song appears on the film 's soundtrack Enchanted : Original Soundtrack .
" Happy Working Song " takes place in Robert 's untidy apartment in Manhattan , New York , in which Giselle spends her first night in the city after having been magically transported there from the fictional Andalasia . The next morning , Giselle awakens to find the apartment in a state of neglect and decides to clean it , summoning several animals to her aid . Additionally , the musical number references similar scenes from Disney 's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Cinderella ( 1950 ) . Based on 1950s music , " Happy Working Song " ' s bridge deliberately references the song " Belle " from Disney 's Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) .
Musically , " Happy Working Song " shares similarities with the songs " Heigh @-@ Ho " from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , " The Work Song " from Cinderella and " Something There " from Beauty and the Beast . The song has garnered vastly positive reviews , with both film and music critics praising its humorous , witty lyrics , allusions and references to previous Disney films and songs , as well as Adams ' performance . " Happy Working Song " was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 80th Academy Awards in 2008 alongside Enchanted 's own " That 's How You Know " and " So Close " , making the film one of only four to achieve this feat . Ultimately , the song lost to " Falling Slowly " from Once ( 2007 ) , while the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences subsequently decided to limit the total number of Best Original Song nominations to only two per film .
= = Background , writing and references = =
Veteran Disney composer Alan Menken became actively creatively involved with Enchanted in 2006 , subsequently inviting his longtime collaborator , lyricist Stephen Schwartz , with whom Menken had previously worked on Disney 's Pocahontas ( 1995 ) and The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) , to co @-@ write the songs and musical numbers for Enchanted alongside him . Menken said of the general songwriting process , " the first challenge for us was finding that musical palette and lyrical palette and performance palette that really spoke to everybody and said that we are in the world of early Walt and to have that place to start . "
When it came to writing " Happy Working Song " , Menken and Schwartz were directly influenced by the song " Whistle While You Work " from Disney 's first full @-@ length animated feature film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) , with Schwartz describing " Happy Working Song " as a " spoof " and " one of the funniest sequences of the film " . According to Schwartz , " Happy Working Song " was written rather quickly , having come " [ to the songwriters ] really fast " . Schwartz elaborated , " ' Happy Working Song ' is ... pretty much out of Snow White and ' Whistle While You Work ' and that little thing where they do the dishes and Dopey with the soap bubbles and everything . " In addition to this , " Happy Working Song " features references to both the musical number " The Work Song " and " the busy little mice " from Disney 's Cinderella ( 1950 ) , but to a significantly lesser extent . Lyrically , Schwartz decided to approach the song comically as demonstrated by its phrase " Even though you are vermin . "
Conceptually , Menken explained that " As the characters become sort of three dimensional , songs become more contemporary . " Ultimately , Menken believes that , melodically , " Happy Working Song " is very much similar to the songs " Belle " and " Something There " from Beauty and the Beast . Additionally , orchestrator and arranger Danny Troob revealed the bridge of " Happy Working Song " is directly based on the bridge of " Belle " , particularly serving as " a deliberate reference on [ the songwriters ' ] part . " Addressing the musical similarities between " Happy Working Song " and " Something There " , Troob explained that the former occupies a different " drive " and " attitude " , additionally sounding " a little bit more brisk ... because [ Giselle is ] working . " Troob elaborated , " Beauty and the Beast was , for its time , very forward @-@ looking , and ' Happy Working Song ' is deliberately retro . " Troob decided to alter and deliberately steer the song away from Menken and Schwartz 's original 1970s @-@ inspired musical arrangement in an attempt to " make it feel like the 1950s " by " manipulating instruments [ sic ] textures . "
American actress Amy Adams , who portrays Giselle , had previously " worked in musical theater before
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2012 ) . Game Faces : Five Early American Champions and the Sports They Changed . Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8032 @-@ 3817 @-@ 6 .
Plint , Michael ( 1992 – 1993 ) . " The Workmans : Travellers Extraordinary " ( PDF ) . Alpine Journal 97 : 231 – 237 . Retrieved 15 October 2013 .
Tingley , Stephanie A. ( 1998 ) . " Fanny Bullock Workman " . In Ross , Donald ; Schramer , James J. Dictionary of Literary Biography : American Travel Writers , 1850 – 1915 189 . Detroit : Gale. pp. 360 – 365 . ISBN 0 @-@ 7876 @-@ 1844 @-@ 6 .
Tinling , Marion ( 1989 ) . Women into the Unknown : A Sourcebook on Women Explorers and Travelers . New York : Greenwood Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 313 @-@ 25328 @-@ 5 .
= Grammy Award for Video of the Year =
The Grammy Award for Video of the Year was an honor presented to recording artists at the 24th Grammy Awards in 1982 and the 25th Grammy Awards in 1983 for music videos . The Grammy Awards , an annual ceremony that was established in 1958 and originally called the Gramophone Awards , are presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to " honor artistic achievement , technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry , without regard to album sales or chart position " .
First presented in 1982 to Michael Nesmith for Elephant Parts , the award was reserved for quality " video cassettes or discs in any format created specifically for the home video market " . In 1983 , Olivia Newton @-@ John was presented the award for Olivia Physical . Beginning with the 1984 Grammy Awards , the Video of the Year award category was replaced with the categories Best Video , Short Form and Best Video Album ( now known as Best Music Video and Best Music Film , respectively ) .
= = Recipients = =
Nominees for the 24th Grammy Awards ( 1982 ) , Video of the Year included : Eubie Blake for One Night Stand : A Keyboard Event , the band Blondie for Eat to the Beat , Bruce Seth Green for the participative video collection of puzzles and games known as The First National Kidisc , and Michael Nesmith , former member of The Monkees , for the hour @-@ long video Elephant Parts ( also known as Michael Nesmith in Elephant Parts ) . One Night Stand was a recording of a jazz program billed as " an evening of all @-@ stars " at Carnegie Hall , with appearances by Kenny Barron , Arthur Blythe , George Duke , Herbie Hancock , Roland Hanna , Bobby Hutcherson and ten other musicians . Blondie 's video cassette Eat to the Beat accompanied their 1979 album of the same title . The First National Kidisc , one of the first interactive and educational videodiscs , contained activities designed for children . Without " fancy digital effects " , Green 's Kidisc provided five to ten hours of interactive capability within a 30 @-@ minute video through the use of dual audio tracks , freeze framing , slow motion , and other techniques . Features included plane flying , jokes , paper plane construction , music performance , and other games .
The award went to Nesmith , who is known for creating one of the first companies to distribute television programs and films on home video , and for establishing the television music video format that eventually became MTV . In 1976 , Nesmith produced a video for his song " Rio " , and later incorporated it into the " montage of music and gags " called Elephant Parts after starting the company Pacific Arts Video Records . In 1985 , Elephant Parts was adapted into a seven @-@ episode summer series on NBC titled Michael Nesmith in Television Parts .
Nominees for the 25th Grammy Awards included : Elton John for Visions : Elton John , Olivia Newton @-@ John for Olivia Physical , the rock band The Tubes for The Tubes Video , a recording of Jacques Offenbach 's opera The Tales of Hoffman by the Royal Opera conducted by Georges Prêtre with Plácido Domingo , and the interactive disc for children Fun and Games by various artists ( produced by Margaret Murphy ) . Both Visions and The Tubes Video were directed by Russell Mulcahy . Visions consisted of " artistic " videos for all of the songs on John 's 1981 album The Fox . According to The Tubes ' official site , the now out of print video collection contained music videos primarily for tracks that appeared on their 1981 album The Completion Backward Principle . The award was presented to Newton @-@ John ( then her fourth Grammy Award ) in February 1983 at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles . Released a few years following her role in the 1978 film Grease , the aerobics video contained songs from her 1981 album Physical as well as enough sexual innuendo and provocation to generate controversy .
= = Category retirement = =
The Video of the Year category was discontinued with the establishment of the MTV Video Music Awards in 1984 , whose top award is also presented for Video of the Year . The Academy replaced the category with awards for Best Video , Short Form and Best Video Album beginning with the 26th Grammy Awards . For the awards held in 1988 and 1989 , the criteria changed and honors were presented for the categories Best Concept Music Video and Best Performance Music Video . The Academy returned to the previous format in 1990 , though the two categories were renamed Best Long Form Music Video ( changed to Best Music Film in 2014 ) and Best Short Form Music Video ( shortened to Best Music Video in 2014 ) respectively .
= All of Creation ( song ) =
" All of Creation " is a song by Christian rock band MercyMe . The song , written by MercyMe , Brown Bannister , and Dan Muckala , lyrically revolves around the themes of love , life , and belief , as well as the foundation of Christian faith . The song was intended to refer to the birth , death , and resurrection of Jesus in each verse and has been described as ' pop ' and ' worship ' .
Released to radio on January 29 , 2010 as the lead single from MercyMe 's 2010 album The Generous Mr. Lovewell , " All of Creation " attained considerable success on Christian radio . The single spent ten weeks atop Billboard magazine 's Hot Christian Songs chart and eleven weeks atop the Christian AC Monitored chart , and peaked at No. 1 on the Soft AC / Inspo chart . The song also peaked inside the top ten on the Christian CHR chart , No. 2 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , and at No. 14 on the Heatseekers Songs chart . The song was ranked at the top spot on Billboard magazine 's 2010 year @-@ end Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts , as well as at No. 16 on the year @-@ end Christian Digital Songs chart and No. 23 on the year @-@ end Christian CHR chart . " All of Creation " was nominated for " Song of the Year " and " Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year " at the 42nd GMA Dove Awards , and was nominated for " Christian Song of the Year " at the 2011 Billboard Music Awards .
= = Background = =
In an interview with Kevin Davis of New Release Tuesday , lead singer Bart Millard said the idea behind the song was related to the theme of the album The Generous Mr. Lovewell . Millard stated , " The entire album deals with three main aspects of love . The theme of the record is to ' love well ' as Jesus commands us in the greatest commandment . There are songs about inward love such as in our song ' Beautiful . ' There are songs based on ' we love because He first loved us , ' which is the basis of this first single , ' All of Creation ' . " Millard also said , " I set out to write a song that was confessional and refers to the birth , death and resurrection of Jesus in each verse . It was my intent to mention every stage of Christ ’ s condescension and atoning sacrifice throughout the song . "
= = Composition = =
" All of Creation " is a Christian rock song with a length of 3 minutes and 56 seconds . It is set in common time and the key of B ♭ major with a steady rock tempo of 104 beats per minute . The song has also been described as ' pop ' and ' worship ' .
Lyrical themes in the song include love , life , and belief . Lead singer Bart Millard intended the song to refer to the birth , death , and resurrection of Jesus in each verse . Guitarist Mike Scheuchzer said the song is " a picture of the change we want to see in our own lives . Without love like this , everything we do , everything we are , is in vain . "
Millard also noted , " Not a lot of songs mention the foundation of what we believe in . The whole idea that Christ was born of a virgin , he died on the cross , he rose again . Just the basic principles of Christianity " . He also commented that " the song kind of takes us there , I say ' kind of ' because the first line used to be talking about until a child was born , but it was instantly a Christmas song ... but it does , the first verse goes through talking about how we were completely separated until the cross , basically . " Regarding the chorus of the song , Millard said " the whole idea of the chorus and the sense that it brings in , with the tons of voices singing , is the fact that there 's a day thats going to come when we are going to worship and be as one . "
= = Release and promotion = =
" All of Creation " was officially released to radio on January 29 , 2010 and as a digital single on March 2 , 2010 . The song also had a limited CD single release at select Walmart locations .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Critical reception to " All of Creation " was mixed to positive . While Kevin Davis of Christianmusicreview called the song " ( a ) worship chorus written for the church in the style of ' You Reign ' or ' God With Us ' " and Kevin McNeese of New Release Tuesday called the song " amazing " , Roger Gelwicks of Jesus Freak Hideout , while noting that " it 's not a bad song by any means " , stated that " ( it ) sounds precisely like the successful singles that have made MercyMe famous ... there 's nothing new that 's offered that hasn 't been heard before from the band " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" All of Creation " debuted at No. 31 for the chart week of February 13 , 2010 on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart . It advanced to No. 21 in its second chart week , and to No. 10 in its third week . The song advanced to No. 3 in its seventh chart week , and to No. 2 in its ninth chart week . In its tenth chart week , " All of Creation " advanced to No. 1 , a position it held for ten consecutive weeks . The song dropped to No. 2 in its nineteenth chart week , and held that spot for an additional week before dropping to No. 3 . " All of Creation " held the No. 3 spot for seven consecutive weeks before dropping to No. 6 and spent an additional ten weeks on the chart before dropping out . " All of Creation " spent a total of thirty @-@ eight weeks on the Hot Christian Songs chart . On the Heatseekers Songs chart , " All of Creation " debuted at No. 16 for the chart week of March 20 , 2010 . The song dropped to No. 22 the following week but advanced to No. 15 in its fourth chart week . It reached its peak of No. 14 for the chart week of April 24 , 2010 , and spent another nine weeks on the chart before dropping out . In all , the song spent fifteen weeks on the Heatseekers Songs chart . " All of Creation " spent eleven weeks atop the Billboard Christian AC Monitored chart , the longest run MercyMe has spent at No. 1 in their career . The song also topped the Hot Christian AC and Soft AC / Inspo charts and peaked inside the top 10 on the Christian CHR chart , as well as at No. 11 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart .
" All of Creation " was listed on several year @-@ end charts in 2010 . It ranked at No. 1 on the Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts , No. 16 on the Christian Digital Songs chart , and No. 23 on the Christian CHR chart .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
" All of Creation " was nominated for two awards at the 42nd GMA Dove Awards : " Song of the Year " and " Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year " . It was also nominated for " Christian Song of the Year " at the 2011 Billboard Music Awards .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" All of Creation " – 3 : 56
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy =
The assassination of Robert Francis " Bobby " Kennedy , a United States Senator and brother of assassinated President John Fitzgerald " Jack " Kennedy , took place shortly after midnight on June 5 , 1968 , in Los Angeles , California , during the campaign season for the 1968 presidential election .
After winning the California and South Dakota primary elections for the Democratic nomination for President of the United States , Kennedy was fatally shot as he walked through the kitchen of the Ambassador Hotel and died in the Good Samaritan Hospital twenty @-@ six hours later . Sirhan Sirhan , a 24 @-@ year @-@ old Palestinian / Jordanian immigrant , was convicted of Kennedy 's murder and is serving a life sentence for the crime . The shooting was recorded on audio tape by a freelance newspaper reporter , and the aftermath was captured on film .
Kennedy 's body lay in repose at St. Patrick 's Cathedral in New York for two days before a funeral Mass was held on June 8 . His body was interred near his brother John at Arlington National Cemetery . His death prompted the protection of presidential candidates by the United States Secret Service . Hubert Humphrey later went on to win the Democratic nomination for the presidency , but ultimately lost the election to Republican Richard Nixon .
As with his brother John 's death , Kennedy 's assassination and the circumstances surrounding it have spawned a variety of conspiracy theories . Kennedy remains one of only two sitting United States Senators to be assassinated , the other being Huey Long .
= = Background = =
Kennedy visited the British Mandate of Palestine in 1948 and wrote dispatches at the time for the Boston Post about his trip and the effect it had on him when he was twenty @-@ two years old . During his stay , he wrote that he grew to admire the Jewish inhabitants of the area . As a Senator , he later became a strong supporter and advocate for Israel .
Kennedy was United States Attorney General from January 1961 until September 3 , 1964 , when he resigned to run for election to the United States Senate . He took office as Senator from New York on January 3 , 1965 .
The run up to the 1968 presidential election saw the incumbent president , Lyndon B. Johnson , serving during a period of social unrest . There were riots in the major cities despite Johnson 's attempts to introduce anti @-@ poverty and anti @-@ discrimination legislation , and there was significant opposition to the ongoing military action in Vietnam .
The assassination of Martin Luther King , Jr. on April 4 , 1968 led to further riots across the US . Kennedy entered the race for the Democratic Party 's nomination for president on March 16 , 1968 — four days after Senator Eugene McCarthy received a large percentage of the vote in the New Hampshire primary against the incumbent President ( 42 % to Johnson 's 49 % ) . Two weeks later , a demoralized Johnson announced he was no longer seeking re @-@ election . One month later , Vice President Hubert Humphrey announced he would seek the presidency . Humphrey did not participate in any primaries but he did obtain the support of many Democratic Party delegates . Following the California primary , Kennedy was in second place with 393 delegates compared to Humphrey 's 561 and McCarthy ’ s 258 .
= = Assassination = =
The 1968 presidential primary elections in California were held on Tuesday , June 4 . The statewide results gave Kennedy 46 % and McCarthy 42 % . Four hours after the polls closed in California , Kennedy claimed victory in the state 's Democratic presidential primary . He spoke by phone with South Dakota Senator George McGovern . At approximately 12 : 10 a.m. PDT on June 5 , he addressed his campaign supporters in the Ambassador Hotel 's Embassy Room ballroom , in the Mid @-@ Wilshire district of Los Angeles . At the time , the government provided Secret Service protection for incumbent presidents but not for presidential candidates . Kennedy 's only security was provided by former FBI agent William Barry and two unofficial bodyguards , former professional athletes . During the campaign , Kennedy had welcomed contact with the public , and people had often tried to touch him in their excitement .
Kennedy had planned to walk through the ballroom when he had finished speaking , on his way to another gathering of supporters elsewhere in the hotel . However , with deadlines fast approaching , reporters wanted a press conference . Campaign aide Fred Dutton decided that Kennedy would forgo the second gathering and instead go through the hotel 's kitchen and pantry area behind the ballroom to the press area . Kennedy finished speaking and started to exit when William Barry stopped him and said , " No , it 's been changed . We 're going this way . " Barry and Dutton began clearing a way for Kennedy to go left through swinging doors to the kitchen corridor , but Kennedy , hemmed in by the crowd , followed maître d 'hôtel Karl Uecker through a back exit .
Uecker led Kennedy through the kitchen area , holding Kennedy 's right wrist but frequently releasing it as Kennedy shook hands with those he encountered . Uecker and Kennedy started down a passageway narrowed by an ice machine against the right wall and a steam table to the left . Kennedy turned to his left and shook hands with busboy Juan Romero just as Sirhan Sirhan stepped down from a low tray @-@ stacker beside the ice machine , rushed past Uecker , and repeatedly fired what was later identified as a .22 caliber Iver @-@ Johnson Cadet revolver .
After Kennedy had fallen to the floor , Agent Barry saw Sirhan holding a gun and hit him twice in the face while others , including maîtres d ' Uecker and Edward Minasian , writer George Plimpton , Olympic gold medal decathlete Rafer Johnson and former professional football player Rosey Grier of the Los Angeles Rams , forced Sirhan against the steam table and disarmed him as he continued firing his gun in random directions . Five other people were also wounded : William Weisel of ABC News , Paul Schrade of the United Auto Workers union , Democratic Party activist Elizabeth Evans , Ira Goldstein of the Continental News Service and Kennedy campaign volunteer Irwin Stroll .
After a minute , Sirhan wrestled free and grabbed the revolver again , but he had already fired all the bullets and was subdued . Barry went to Kennedy and laid his jacket under the candidate 's head , later recalling : " I knew immediately it was a .22 , a small caliber , so I hoped it wouldn 't be so bad , but then I saw the hole in the Senator 's head , and I knew " . Reporters and photographers rushed into the area from both directions , contributing to the confusion and chaos . As Kennedy lay wounded , Juan Romero cradled the senator 's head and placed a rosary in his hand . Kennedy asked Romero , " Is everybody OK ? " and Romero responded , " Yes , everybody 's OK . " Kennedy then turned away from Romero and said , " Everything 's going to be OK . " Captured by Life photographer Bill Eppridge and Boris Yaro of the Los Angeles Times , this moment became the iconic image of the assassination . There was some initial confusion in who was shot , one witness believing that the primary victim was Kennedy 's campaign manager , Stephen Edward Smith . This was quickly realized to be untrue .
Kennedy 's wife Ethel stood outside the crush of people at the scene , seeking help . She was soon led to her husband and knelt beside him . He turned his head and seemed to recognize her . Smith promptly appeared on television and calmly asked for a doctor . After several minutes , medical attendants arrived and lifted Kennedy onto a stretcher , prompting him to whisper , " Don 't lift me ... " which were to become his last words . He lost consciousness shortly thereafter . Kennedy was taken a mile away to Central Receiving Hospital , where he arrived near death . One doctor slapped his face , calling , " Bob , Bob " , while another doctor manually massaged Kennedy 's heart . After obtaining a good heartbeat , doctors handed a stethoscope to Ethel so she could hear her husband 's heart beating , much to her relief .
After about 30 minutes , Kennedy was transferred several blocks to the Hospital of the Good Samaritan for surgery . A gymnasium near the hospital was set up as temporary headquarters for the press and news media to receive updates on the senator 's condition . Surgery began at 3 : 12 a.m. PDT and lasted three hours and 40 minutes . Ten and a half hours later , at 5 : 30 p.m. PDT on Wednesday , spokesman Frank Mankiewicz announced that Kennedy 's doctors were " concerned over his continuing failure to show improvement " ; his condition remained " extremely critical as to life " .
Kennedy had been shot three times . One bullet , fired at a range of about 1 inch ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) , entered behind his right ear , dispersing fragments throughout his brain . The other two entered at the rear of his right armpit ; one exited from his chest and the other lodged in the back of his neck . Despite extensive neurosurgery at the Good Samaritan Hospital to remove the bullet and bone fragments from his brain , Kennedy died at 1 : 44 A.M. PDT on June 6 , nearly 26 hours after the shooting .
After receiving word of Senator Kennedy 's death , his spokesman Frank Mankiewicz left the hospital and walked to the gymnasium where the press and news media were set up for continuous updates on the situation . At 2 : 00 AM PDT on June 6 , Mankiewicz approached the podium , took a few moments to compose himself and made the official announcement :
I have , uh , a short ..... I have a short announcement to read , which I will read , uh ..... at this time . Senator Robert Francis Kennedy died at 1 : 44 AM today , June 6 , 1968 . With Senator Kennedy at the time of his death were his wife Ethel , his sisters Mrs. Stephen Smith , Mrs. Patricia Lawford , his brother @-@ in @-@ law Mr. Stephen Smith , and his sister @-@ in @-@ law Mrs. John F. Kennedy . He was 42 years old . Thank you .
= = Perpetrator = =
Sirhan Sirhan was a Palestinian Arab with Jordanian citizenship , born in Jerusalem , who held strongly anti @-@ Zionist beliefs . A diary found during a search of Sirhan 's home stated for the entry on May 19 : " My determination to eliminate RFK is becoming more and more of an unshakable obsession . RFK must die . RFK must be killed . Robert F. Kennedy must be assassinated ..... Robert F. Kennedy must be assassinated before 5 June 68 . " It has been suggested that the date of the assassination is significant , because it was the first anniversary of the start of the Six Day War between Israel and its Arab neighbors . When Sirhan was booked by police , they found in his pocket a newspaper article that discussed Kennedy 's support for Israel , and at his trial , Sirhan testified that he began to hate Kennedy after learning of this support . In 1989 , he told David Frost : " My only connection with Robert Kennedy was his sole support of Israel and his deliberate attempt to send those 50 bombers to Israel to obviously do harm to the Palestinians " . Some scholars believe the assassination was one of the first major incidents of political violence in the United States stemming from the Arab – Israeli conflict in the Middle East .
The interpretation that he was mostly motivated by Middle Eastern politics has been criticized as an oversimplification that ignores Sirhan 's deeper psychological problems . During his trial , Sirhan 's lawyers attempted to use a defense of diminished responsibility , while their client tried to confess to the crime and change his plea to guilty on several occasions . Sirhan testified that he had killed Kennedy " with 20 years of malice aforethought " . The judge did not accept this confession and it was later withdrawn .
Sirhan pleaded guilty on April 17 , 1969 , and six days later , he was sentenced to death . The sentence was commuted to life in prison in 1972 after the California Supreme Court , in its decision in California v. Anderson , invalidated all pending death sentences imposed in California prior to 1972 . Since that time , Sirhan has been denied parole fifteen times and is currently confined at the Richard J. Donovan Correctional Facility in southern San Diego County . Sirhan 's lawyers have claimed that he was framed , and Sirhan claims to have no memory of his crime .
= = Media coverage = =
As the shooting took place , ABC News was signing off from its electoral broadcast , while the CBS broadcast was already over . It was not until 21 minutes after the shots that CBS 's coverage of the shooting would begin . The reporters who had been present to report on Kennedy 's win in the primary ended up crowding into the kitchen where he had been shot and the immediate aftermath was captured only by audio recording and cameras that had no live transmission capability . ABC was able to show scant live footage from the kitchen after Kennedy had been transported but unlike CBS and NBC , all of ABC 's coverage from the Ambassador was in black and white . CBS and NBC shot footage in the kitchen of the shooting 's aftermath on color film , which could not be broadcast until it was developed two hours after the incident .
Reporter Andrew West of KRKD , a Mutual Broadcasting System radio affiliate in Los Angeles , captured on audio tape the sounds of the immediate aftermath of the shooting but not the actual shooting itself . Using his reel @-@ to @-@ reel tape recorder and attached microphone , West had just recorded the senator 's victory speech . With the audio still rolling , West asked the Senator the following question :
Andrew West : " Senator , how are you going to counter Mr. Humphrey and his backgrounding you as far as the delegate votes go ? "
Senator Kennedy : " It just goes back to the struggle for it . "
After this brief exchange , West turned off his tape recorder and followed Kennedy and his entourage to the kitchen pantry . Just a few minutes later , seconds after Kennedy was shot , West turned his recorder on again and started reporting the sudden developments .....
Andrew West : " Senator Kennedy has been shot ! Senator Kennedy has been shot ; is that possible ? Is that possible ? It 's ..... is it possible , ladies and gentlemen ? It is possible , he has ..... not only Senator Kennedy , oh my God . Senator Kennedy has been shot , and another man , a Kennedy campaign manager , and possibly shot in the head . "
Several seconds later , West gave an on @-@ the @-@ spot account of the struggle with Sirhan in the hotel kitchen pantry , shouting at Rafer Johnson to " Get the gun , Rafer , get the gun ! " and telling others to " get a hold of [ Sirhan 's ] thumb and break it , if you have to ! Get his thumb ! Hold him , hold him ! We don 't want another Oswald ! "
Over the following week , NBC devoted 55 hours to the shooting and aftermath , ABC 43 , and CBS 42 , with all three networks preempting their regular coverage and advertisements to cover the story .
= = Conspiracy theories = =
As with the 1963 assassination of his brother , President John F. Kennedy , Robert Kennedy 's death has been the subject of widespread analysis . Some individuals involved in the original investigation and some researchers have suggested alternative scenarios for the crime , or have argued that there are serious problems with the official case .
= = = CIA involvement theory = = =
In November 2006 , the BBC 's Newsnight program presented research by filmmaker Shane O 'Sullivan alleging that several CIA officers were present on the night of the assassination . Three men who appear in films and photographs from the night of the assassination were positively identified by former colleagues and associates as former senior CIA officers who had worked together in 1963 at JMWAVE , the CIA 's main anti @-@ Castro station based in Miami . They were JMWAVE Chief of Operations David Morales , Chief of Maritime Operations Gordon Campbell and Chief of Psychological Warfare Operations George Joannides .
The program featured an interview with Morales 's former attorney Robert Walton , who quoted him as having said , " I was in Dallas when we got the son of a bitch and I was in Los Angeles when we got the little bastard . " O 'Sullivan reported that the CIA declined to comment on the officers in question . It was also alleged that Morales was known for his deep anger toward the Kennedys for what he saw as their betrayal during the Bay of Pigs Invasion .
= = = Second gunman theory = = =
The location of Kennedy 's wounds suggested that his assailant had stood behind him , but some witnesses said that Sirhan faced west as Kennedy moved through the pantry facing east . This has led to the suggestion that a second gunman actually fired the fatal shot , a possibility supported by coroner Thomas Noguchi who stated that the fatal shot was behind Kennedy 's right ear and had been fired at a distance of approximately one inch . Other witnesses , though , said that as Sirhan approached , Kennedy was turning to his left shaking hands , facing north and so exposing his right side . During a re @-@ examination of the case in 1975 , the Los Angeles Superior Court ordered expert examination of the possibility of a second gun having been used , and the conclusion of the experts was that there was little or no evidence to support this theory . As recently as 2008 , eyewitness John Pilger asserted his belief that there must have been a second gunman .
In 2007 , analysis of an audio tape recording of the shooting made by freelance reporter Stanislaw Pruszynski appeared to indicate , according to forensic expert Philip Van Praag , that thirteen shots were fired , even though Sirhan 's gun held only eight rounds . Van Praag states that the recording also reveals at least two cases where the timing between shots was shorter than physically possible . The presence of more than eight shots on the tape was corroborated by forensic audio specialists Wes Dooley and Paul Pegas of Audio Engineering Associates in Pasadena , California , forensic audio and ballistics expert Eddy B. Brixen in Copenhagen , Denmark , and audio specialist Phil Spencer Whitehead of the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta , Georgia . Some other acoustic experts , however , have stated that no more than eight shots were recorded on the audio tape .
On February 22 , 2012 , Sirhan 's lawyers , William Pepper and Laurie Dusek , filed a court brief in U.S. District Court in Los Angeles claiming that a second gunman fired the shots that killed Kennedy . It was the fourth and final in a series of federal briefs filed under the writ of habeas corpus by Pepper and Dusek beginning in October 2010 . A ruling is now pending in the Sirhan federal case .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
= = = Memorial = = =
Following the autopsy on June 6 , Kennedy 's body was returned to New York City , where he lay in repose at St. Patrick 's Cathedral , viewed by thousands , until a funeral mass on the morning of June 8 .
Kennedy 's younger brother , Edward Moore " Ted " Kennedy , eulogized him with the words :
My brother need not be idealized , or enlarged in death beyond what he was in life ; to be remembered simply as a good and decent man , who saw wrong and tried to right it , saw suffering and tried to heal it , saw war and tried to stop it . Those of us who loved him and who take him to his rest today , pray that what he was to us and what he wished for others will some day come to pass for all the world . As he said many times , in many parts of this nation , to those he touched and who sought to touch him : " Some men see things as they are and say why . I dream things that never were and say why not . "
Immediately following the mass , Kennedy 's body was transported by a slow @-@ moving train to Washington , D.C. , and thousands of mourners lined the tracks and stations , paying their respects as the train passed by .
On the way to the cemetery , the funeral procession passed through Resurrection City , a shantytown protest set up as part of the Poor People 's Campaign . The procession stopped in front of the Lincoln Memorial , where residents of Resurrection City joined the group and sang " The Battle Hymn of the Republic " .
Kennedy was buried near his older brother John , in Arlington National Cemetery , in the first burial ever to take place there at night ; the second was the burial of his younger brother Ted .
After Kennedy 's assassination , Congress altered the Secret Service 's mandate to include protection for presidential candidates . The remaining candidates were immediately protected under an executive order issued by Lyndon Johnson , putting a strain on the poorly resourced Secret Service .
= = = 1968 election = = =
At the time of his death , Kennedy was substantially behind Humphrey in convention delegate support , but many believe that Kennedy would have ultimately secured the nomination following his victory in the California primary . Only thirteen states held primaries that year , meaning that most delegates at the Democratic convention could choose a candidate based on their personal preference . Historian Arthur M. Schlesinger , Jr . , and others have argued that Kennedy 's broad appeal and charisma would have been sufficiently convincing at the 1968 Democratic National Convention to give him the nomination . Historian Michael Beschloss believed , however , that Kennedy would not have secured the nomination . Humphrey , after a National Convention in Chicago marred by violence in the streets , was far behind in opinion polls but gained ground . He ultimately lost the general election to Republican Richard Nixon by the narrow popular vote margin of 43 @.@ 4 % to 42 @.@ 7 % . Nixon won by a more decisive 301 @-@ 191 margin in the electoral vote .
= = = Cultural and societal impact = = =
Kennedy 's assassination was a blow to the optimism for a brighter future that his campaign brought for many Americans who lived through the turbulent 1960s . Juan Romero , the busboy who shook hands with Kennedy right before he was shot , later said , " It made me realize that no matter how much hope you have it can be taken away in a second . "
Jack Newfield , a reporter that had been traveling with the campaign , expressed his feelings on the effect of the assassination , closing his memoir on Kennedy with :
Now I realized what makes our generation unique , what defines us apart from those who came before the hopeful winter of 1961 , and those who came after the murderous spring of 1968 . We are the first generation that learned from experience , in our innocent twenties , that things were not really getting better , that we shall not overcome . We felt , by the time we reached thirty , that we had already glimpsed the most compassionate leaders our nation could produce , and they had all been assassinated . And from this time forward , things would get worse : our best political leaders were part of memory now , not hope .
The stone was at the bottom of the hill and we were all alone .
= = Artifacts , museums and locations today = =
After the failed campaign of preservationists to preserve the Ambassador Hotel where Kennedy was shot , the hotel was demolished in 2005 – 2006 , with the last section of the Ambassador falling in January 2006 , leaving only the annex that housed the hotel entrance , a shopping arcade , the coffee shop , and the historic Cocoanut Grove , all of which were promised to be preserved in some manner . From 2006 to 2010 , six new schools were built on the site and named the Robert F. Kennedy Community Schools . Plans to re @-@ create the pantry in the area of the school complex and create a museum , dedicated to Kennedy 's assassination , fell through after commission chairman Cruz Reynoso , a former state Supreme Court justice , said in court , " We didn 't want to celebrate the death . We wanted to celebrate his life , particularly his ideals . "
The handcuffs that were used by now @-@ retired police officer Arturo Placecia to arrest Sirhan Sirhan are now part of the collection of the upcoming National Law Enforcement Museum in Washington , D.C ..
The blood @-@ stained suit coat , shorts , shirt , belt , tie and socks which Kennedy wore when he was shot are now in the possession of the Los Angeles County District Attorney . Controversy arose in 2010 when Kennedy 's clothing was transported to the California Homicide Investigators Association conference in Las Vegas , where they were included in a temporary public display of never @-@ before @-@ seen artifacts from famous crime scenes , related to prolific serial killers and infamous murders , such as the Black Dahlia murder and the murder of Hollywood actress Sharon Tate . The items and Kennedy 's clothing were subsequently removed from the exhibit and returned to the LAPD vault , with the LAPD apologizing to the Kennedy family .
Until 1987 , the LAPD retained the original files , reports , transcripts , fragments of the bullets that struck Kennedy and the four other bystanders in the kitchen pantry , the .22 caliber Iver @-@ Johnson handgun used by Sirhan , Kennedy 's blood @-@ stained clothes , and numerous other artifacts related to the assassination . In 1987 , the LAPD donated the entire evidence collection ( except for Kennedy 's clothes which remain in possession of the LAPD ) to the California State Archives in Sacramento for permanent preservation . The collection remains in the California State Archives .
The Robert F. Kennedy Assassination Archives at Southeastern Massachusetts University also contain a large collection of materials on the Robert Kennedy assassination . Included among these records are files donated by several writers and researchers and materials purchased from the National Archives and Records Administration @-@ Pacific Southwest Region , the Los Angeles County District Attorney 's office , and the FBI . Another source of information on the case is the Assassination Archives and Research Center . The Center maintains an extensive collection of government documents , interviews , unpublished manuscripts , photographs , audio tapes , and secondary works .
Some items - such as the bullet @-@ pocked ceiling tiles - were removed long ago and intentionally destroyed by the LAPD and not used in Sirhan 's trial . A large number of the photographs of the pantry area and the tapes of the recorded interviews with individuals who were present during the assassination suffered a similar fate . Conspiracy theorists today believe that the destroyed evidence was vital as it proved that Sirhan Sirhan may have had an accomplice and there has been a cover @-@ up , similar to the assassination of John Kennedy , Robert Kennedy 's brother . Furnishings from the defunct Ambassador Hotel , ranging from bedroom furniture to silver champagne buckets , were auctioned off over the years until the hotel 's demolition .
= Watchmen =
Watchmen is an American comic @-@ book limited series published by DC Comics in 1986 and 1987 , and collected in 1987 . The series was created by a British collaboration consisting of writer Alan Moore , artist Dave Gibbons , and colorist John Higgins . Watchmen originated from a story proposal Moore submitted to DC featuring superhero characters that the company had acquired from Charlton Comics . As Moore 's proposed story would have left many of the characters unusable for future stories , managing editor Dick Giordano convinced Moore to create original characters instead .
Moore used the story as a means to reflect contemporary anxieties and to deconstruct and parody the superhero concept . Watchmen depicts an alternate history where superheroes emerged in the 1940s and 1960s , helping the United States to win the Vietnam War . In 1985 , the country is edging toward nuclear war with the Soviet Union , freelance costumed vigilantes have been outlawed and most former superheroes are in retirement or working for the government . The story focuses on the personal development and moral struggles of the protagonists as an investigation into the murder of a government sponsored superhero pulls them out of retirement .
Creatively , the focus of Watchmen is on its structure . Gibbons used a nine @-@ panel grid layout throughout the series and added recurring symbols such as a blood @-@ stained smiley face . All but the last issue feature supplemental fictional documents that add to the series ' backstory , and the narrative is intertwined with that of another story , an in @-@ story pirate comic titled Tales of the Black Freighter , which one of the characters reads . Structured , at times , as a nonlinear narrative , the story skips through space , time and plot . In the same manner , entire scenes and dialogue have parallels with others through synchronicity , coincidence and repeated imagery .
A commercial success , Watchmen has received critical acclaim both in the comics and mainstream press , and is considered by several critics and reviewers to be one of the most significant works of 20th @-@ century literature . Watchmen was recognized in Time 's List of the 100 Best Novels as one of the best English language novels published since 1923 , and placed # 91 on The Comics Journal 's list of the top 100 comics of the 20th century .
After a number of attempts to adapt the series into a feature film , director Zack Snyder 's Watchmen was released in 2009 . A video game series , Watchmen : The End Is Nigh , was released in the same year to coincide with the film 's release . In 2012 , DC Comics published Before Watchmen , a comic @-@ book series acting as a prequel to the original Watchmen series , without Moore and Gibbons ' involvement .
= = Publication history = =
Watchmen , created by writer Alan Moore and artist Dave Gibbons , was first published as a 12 @-@ issue miniseries from DC Comics , cover @-@ dated September 1986 to October 1987 . It was subsequently collected in 1987 as a DC Comics trade paperback that has had at least 22 printings as of September 2008 ; as well , a trade paperback was published by Warner Books , a DC sister company , in 1987 .
In February 1988 , DC published a limited @-@ edition , slipcased hardcover volume , produced by Graphitti Design , that contained 48 pages of bonus material , including the original proposal and concept art . In 2005 , DC released Absolute Watchmen , an oversized slipcased hardcover edition of the series in DC 's Absolute Edition format . Assembled under the supervision of Dave Gibbons , Absolute Watchmen included the Graphitti materials , as well as restored and recolored art by John Higgins . That December DC published a new printing of Watchmen issue # 1 at the original 1986 cover price of $ 1 @.@ 50 as part of its " Millennium Edition " line .
In 2012 , DC launched a prequel line , with various creative teams producing the characters ' early adventures before the events of the graphic novel .
In 2016 DC Universe : Rebirth one @-@ shot , numerous symbols of Watchmen , such as the blood @-@ splattered smiley face , and the dialogue between Doctor Manhattan and Ozymandias in the last issue of Watchmen is shown . Further Watchmen imagery was added in the DC Universe : Rebirth Special # 1 second printing , which featured an update to Gary Frank 's cover , better revealing the outstretched hand of Doctor Manhattan in the top right corner .
= = Background and creation = =
In 1985 , DC Comics acquired a line of characters from Charlton Comics . During that period , writer Alan Moore contemplated writing a story that featured an unused line of superheroes that he could revamp , as he had done in his Miracleman series in the early 1980s . Moore reasoned that MLJ Comics ' Mighty Crusaders might be available for such a project , so he devised a murder mystery plot which would begin with the discovery of the body of the Shield in a harbour . The writer felt it did not matter which set of characters he ultimately used , as long as readers recognized them " so it would have the shock and surprise value when you saw what the reality of these characters was " . Moore used this premise and crafted a proposal featuring the Charlton characters titled Who Killed the Peacemaker , and submitted the unsolicited proposal to DC managing editor Dick Giordano . Giordano was receptive to the proposal , but opposed the idea of using the Charlton characters for the story . Moore said , " DC realized their expensive characters would end up either dead or dysfunctional . " Instead , Giordano persuaded Moore to continue with new characters . Moore had initially believed that original characters would not provide emotional resonance for the readers , but later changed his mind . He said , " Eventually , I realized that if I wrote the substitute characters well enough , so that they seemed familiar in certain ways , certain aspects of them brought back a kind of generic super @-@ hero resonance or familiarity to the reader , then it might work . "
Artist Dave Gibbons , who had collaborated with Moore on previous projects , recalled he " must have heard on the grapevine that he was doing a treatment for a new miniseries . I rang Alan up , saying I ’ d like to be involved with what he was doing . " and Moore sent him the story outline . Gibbons told Giordano he wanted to draw the series Moore proposed and Moore approved . Gibbons brought colorist John Higgins onto the project because he liked his " unusual " style ; Higgins lived near the artist , which allowed the two to " discuss [ the art ] and have some kind of human contact rather than just sending it across the ocean " . Len Wein joined the project as its editor , while Giordano stayed on to oversee it . Both Wein and Giordano stood back and " got out of their way " ; Giordano remarked later , " Who copy @-@ edits Alan Moore , for God 's sake ? "
After receiving the go @-@ ahead to work on the project , Moore and Gibbons spent a day at the latter 's house creating characters , crafting details for the story 's milieu and discussing influences . The pair was particularly influenced by a Mad parody of Superman named " Superduperman " ; Moore said , " We wanted to take Superduperman 180 degrees — dramatic , instead of comedic " . Moore and Gibbons conceived of a story that would take " familiar old @-@ fashioned superheroes into a completely new realm " ; the writer said his intention was to create " a superhero Moby Dick ; something that had that sort of weight , that sort of density " . The writer came up with the character names and descriptions , but left the specifics of how they looked to Gibbons . Gibbons did not sit down and design the characters deliberately , but rather " did it at odd times ... spend [ ing ] maybe two or three weeks just doing sketches . " Gibbons designed his characters to make them easy to draw ; Rorschach was his favorite to draw because " you just have to draw a hat . If you can draw a hat , then you 've drawn Rorschach , you just draw kind of a shape for his face and put some black blobs on it and you 're done . "
Moore began writing the series very early on , hoping to avoid publication delays such as those faced by the DC limited series Camelot 3000 . When writing the script for the
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disabilities in lower extremities " In 2002 , the Australian Paralympic Committee defined this classification for para @-@ Alpine as a sit skiing classification for " athletes with disabilities in their lower limbs and fair sitting balance . " The IPC defines this class for para @-@ Nordic skiing as for " those with impairments in the lower limbs and trunk . The athlete retains the use of abdominal muscles and trunk extensor muscles , especially those muscle attaching to the pelvis . " Cross Country Canada described this para @-@ Nordic classification as " Impairment in the lower limbs and trunk with fair upper abdominal and trunk muscle activity with some functional sitting balance . Athlete is unable to stand . "
For international para @-@ Alpine skiing competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing . A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions . For para @-@ Nordic skiing events , classification is handled by IPC Nordic Skiing Technical Committee on the international level and by the national sports federation such as Cross @-@ Country Canada on a country by country level . When being assessed into this classification , a number of things are considered including reviewing the skiers medical history and medical information on the skier 's disability , having a physical and an in person assessment of the skier training or competing . During the assessment process , a testing board is used for this classification with six different tests being conducted that look for balance on different planes and to test for upper body strength and levels of mobility . The guideline scores for people to be assessed in this classification are 9 - 15 .
= = = LW11.5 = = =
The IPC defines this class for para @-@ Nordic skiing as for " with impairments in the lower limb ( s ) and the trunk . Athletes have near normal trunk muscles activation . " Cross Country Canada defined this para @-@ Nordic classification as " Impairement in the lower limbs and trunk . With good upper abdominal and trunk muscle activity and good sitting balance . Athlete may be able to stand " in 2012 . Skiers in this class may be able to " stand or walk with or without aid of orthosis " . They may also have Grade 2 or less hip extension .
= = Equipment = =
In para @-@ Alpine skiing , the skier uses a mono @-@ ski , which are required to have breaks on both sides of the ski . The chair can detach from a ski . Helmets are required for this class in para @-@ Alpine competition , with slalom helmets required for slalom and crash helmets required for the giant slalom . The para @-@ Nordic sit @-@ ski configuration has two skis . Skiers in this classification can use a sit @-@ ski and outriggers , which are forearm crutches with a miniature ski on a rocker at the base . In the Biathlon , athletes with amputations can use a rifle support while shooting .
= = Technique = =
In learning to ski , one of the first skills learned is getting into and out of the ski , and how to position the body in the ski in order to maintain balance . The skier then learns how to fall and to get up . The skier then works with the instructor on learning to ski on flat terrain , with the purpose of this exercise being to learn how to use the outriggers . The skier next learns how to get into and out of a chairlift . After this , the skier learns how to make basic turns , edging , medium radius turns and advance skiing techniques .
Skiers use outriggers for balance and as leverage when they fall to right themselves . Outriggers are also used for turning , with the skier using the outrigger and their upper body by leaning into the direction they want to turn . In para @-@ Nordic skiing , outriggers or ski poles are used top propel the skier forward . If a skier falls , they may require assistance in righting themselves to get back to the fall line . Doing this on their own , the skier needs to position their mono @-@ ski facing uphill relative to the fall line .
In the Biathlon , all Paralympic athletes shoot from a prone position .
= = Sport = =
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring system works by having a number for each class based on their functional mobility or vision levels , where the results are calculated by multiplying the finish time by the factored number . The resulting number is the one used to determine the winner in events where the factor system is used . During the 1997 / 1998 ski season , the percentage for this para @-@ Nordic classification was 93 % . For the 2003 / 2004 para @-@ Nordic skiing season , the percentage for was 93 % . The percentage for the 2008 / 2009 and 2009 / 2010 ski seasons was 94 % and 98 % for LW11.5. The factoring for LW11 alpine skiing classification during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season was 0 @.@ 785 for slalom , 0 @.@ 8508 for giant slalom , 0 @.@ 8324 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 8333 for downhill . The percentage for the 2012 / 2013 para @-@ Nordic season was 94 % and for LWXI.5 was 98 % .
In para @-@ Alpine events , this classification is grouped with sitting classes who are seeded to start after visually impaired classes and classes in the slalom and giant slalom . In downhill , Super @-@ G and Super Combined , this same group competes after the visually impaired classes and before standing classes . A skier is allowed one push from the starting position at the start of a para @-@ Alpine race : no one is allowed to run while pushing them . In cross @-@ country and biathlon events , this classification is grouped with other sitting classes . The IPC advises event organisers to run the men 's sit @-@ ski group first , and the women 's sit @-@ ski group section , with the visually impaired and standing skiers following . If the competitor skis off the course during a para @-@ Nordic race , they may be assisted back onto the course where they left it by a race official . Skiers cannot use their legs to break or steer during the race .
Skiers in this class may injure themselves while skiing . Between 1994 and 2006 , the German national para @-@ Alpine skiing team had three skiers in the LW11 class that had injuries while skiing . It occurred at the 1998 Winter Paralympics when the fell and extended their arm in abduction , which resulted in an Acromio @-@ clavicular separation type Rockwood II . Another 1998 Paralympic skier had a Clavicula @-@ Fracture . In 2003 , a skier dislocated their shoulder . This class has a higher rate of " plexus brachialis distorsion and a higher rate of shoulder injuries " compared to able bodied skiers .
= = Events = =
This classification has been able to compete at different skiing competitions . At the 2002 Winter Paralympics in alpine @-@ skiing , this classification was not grouped with others for the men 's downhill , Giant Slalom , slalom and Super @-@ G events while the women were grouped with LW10 and LW12 for their events with the exception of the Giant Slalom where they were only grouped with LW10 . At the 2004 Alpine World Championships , LW10 , LW11 and LW12 women competed against each other in a competition with factored results during the downhill event . At the 2005 IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships , this class was grouped with other sit @-@ skiing classifications . In cross country , this class was eligible to compete in the men 's 5 km , 10 km and 20 km individual race , with women eligible to compete in the 2 @.@ 5 km , 5 km and 10 km individual races . In the men and women 's biathlon , this classification was again grouped with sit @-@ ski classes in the 7 @.@ 4 km race with 2 shooting stages 12 @.@ 5 km race which had four shooting stages . At the 2009 IPC Alpine World Championships , there were no women and thirteen men from this class the sitting downhill event .
= = Competitors = =
Skiers in this class include Austrian Robert Frohle .
= Bates method =
The Bates method is an alternative therapy aimed at improving eyesight . Eye @-@ care physician William Horatio Bates , M.D. ( 1860 – 1931 ) attributed nearly all sight problems to habitual strain of the eyes , and felt that glasses were harmful and never necessary . Bates self @-@ published a book , Perfect Sight Without Glasses , as well as a magazine , Better Eyesight Magazine , ( and earlier collaborated with Bernarr MacFadden on a correspondence course ) detailing his approach to helping people relax such " strain " , and thus , he claimed , improve their sight . His techniques centered on visualization and movement . He placed particular emphasis on imagining black letters and marks , and the movement of such . He also felt that exposing the eyes to sunlight would help alleviate the " strain " .
Despite continued anecdotal reports of successful results , including well @-@ publicised support by Aldous Huxley , Bates ' techniques have not been objectively shown to improve eyesight . His main physiological proposition — that the eyeball changes shape to maintain focus — has consistently been contradicted by observation . In 1952 , optometry professor Elwin Marg wrote of Bates , " Most of his claims and almost all of his theories have been considered false by practically all visual scientists . " Marg concluded that the Bates method owed its popularity largely to " flashes of clear vision " experienced by many who followed it . Such occurrences have since been explained as a contact lens @-@ like effect of moisture on the eye , or a flattening of the lens by the ciliary muscles .
The Bates method has been criticized not only because there is no good evidence it works , but also because it can have negative consequences for those who attempt to follow it : they might damage their eyes through overexposure of their eyes to sunlight , put themselves and others at risk by not wearing their corrective lenses while driving , or neglect conventional eye care , possibly allowing serious conditions to develop .
= = Underlying concepts = =
= = = Accommodation = = =
Accommodation is the process by which the eye increases optical power to maintain focus on the retina while shifting its gaze to a closer point . The long @-@ standing medical consensus is that this is accomplished by action of the ciliary muscle , a muscle within the eye , which adjusts the curvature of the eye 's crystalline lens . This explanation is based in the observed effect of atropine temporarily preventing accommodation when applied to the ciliary muscle , as well as images reflected on the crystalline lens becoming smaller as the eye shifts focus to a closer point , indicating a change in the lens ' shape . Bates rejected this explanation , and in his 1920 book presented photographs that he said showed that the image remained the same size even as the eye shifted focus , concluding from this that the lens was not a factor in accommodation . However , optometrist Philip Pollack in a 1956 work characterized these photographs as " so blurred that it is impossible to tell whether one image is larger than the other " , in contrast to later photographs that clearly showed a change in the size of the reflected images , just as had been observed since the late nineteenth century .
Bates adhered to a different explanation of accommodation that had already been generally disregarded by the medical community of his time . Bates ' model had the muscles surrounding the eyeball controlling its focus . In addition to their known function of turning the eye , Bates maintained , they also affect its shape , elongating the eyeball to focus at the near @-@ point or shortening it to focus at a distance . Commenting on this hypothesis in an interview with WebMD , ophthalmologist Richard E. Bensinger stated " When we put drops in the eye to dilate the pupil , they paralyze the focusing muscles . The evidence of the anatomical fallacy is that you can 't focus , but your eye can move up and down , left and right . The notion that external muscles affect focusing is totally wrong . " Science author John Grant writes that many animals , such as fishes , accommodate by elongation of the eyeball , " it 's just that humans aren 't one of those animals . "
Laboratory tests have shown that the human eyeball is far too rigid to spontaneously change shape to a degree that would be necessary to accomplish what Bates described . Exceedingly small changes in axial length of the eyeball ( 18 @.@ 6 – 19 @.@ 2 micrometres ) are caused by the action of the ciliary muscle during accommodation . However , these changes are far too small to account for the necessary changes in focus , producing changes of only − 0 @.@ 036 dioptres .
= = = Causes of sight problems = = =
Medical professionals characterize refractive errors such as nearsightedness , farsightedness , astigmatism , and presbyopia ( the age @-@ related blurring of near @-@ point vision ) as consequences of the eye 's shape and other basic anatomy , which there is no evidence that any exercise can alter . Bates , however , believed that these conditions are caused by tension of the muscles surrounding the eyeball , which he believed prevents the eyeball from sufficiently changing shape ( per his explanation of accommodation ) when gaze is shifted nearer or farther . Bates characterized this supposed muscular tension as the consequence of a " mental strain " to see , the relief of which he claimed would instantly improve sight . He also linked disturbances in the circulation of blood , which he said is " very largely influenced by thought " , not only to refractive errors but also to double vision , crossed @-@ eye , lazy eye , and to more serious eye conditions such as cataracts and glaucoma . His therapies were based on these assumptions .
Bates felt that corrective lenses , which he characterized as " eye crutches " , are an impediment to curing poor vision . In his view , " strain " would increase as the eyes adjust to the correction in front of them . He thus recommended that glasses be discarded by anyone applying his method .
= = Treatments = =
In his writings , Bates discussed several techniques that he claimed helped patients to improve their sight . He wrote " The ways in which people strain to see are infinite , and the methods used to relieve the strain must be almost equally varied , " emphasizing that no single approach would work for everyone . His techniques were all designed to help disassociate this " strain " from seeing and thereby achieve " central fixation " , or seeing what is in the central point of vision without staring . He asserted that " all errors of refraction and all functional disturbances of the eye disappear when it sees by central fixation " and that other conditions were often relieved as well .
= = = Palming = = =
Bates suggested closing the eyes for minutes at a time to help bring about relaxation . He asserted that the relaxation could be deepened in most cases by " palming " , or covering the closed eyes with the palms of the hands , without putting pressure on the eyeballs . If the covered eyes did not strain , he said , they would see " a field so black that it is impossible to remember , imagine , or see anything blacker " , since light was excluded by the palms . However , he reported that some of his patients experienced " illusions of lights and colors " sometimes amounting to " kaleidoscopic appearances " as they " palmed " , occurrences he attributed to his ubiquitous " strain " and that he claimed disappeared when one truly relaxed . This phenomenon , however , was almost certainly caused by Eigengrau or " dark light " . In fact , even in conditions of perfect darkness , as inside a cave , neurons at every level of the visual system produce random background activity that is interpreted by the brain as patterns of light and color .
= = = Visualization = = =
Bates placed importance on mental images , as he felt relaxation was the key to clarity of imagination as well as of actual sight . He claimed that one 's poise could be gauged by the visual memory of black ; that the darker it appeared in the mind , and the smaller the area of black that could be imagined , the more relaxed one was at the moment . He recommended that patients think of the top letter from an eye chart and then visualize progressively smaller black letters , and eventually a period or comma . But he emphasized his view that the clear visual memory of black " cannot be attained by any sort of effort " , stating that " the memory is not the cause of the relaxation , but must be preceded by it , " and cautioned against " concentrating " on black , as he regarded an attempt to " think of one thing only " as a strain .
While Bates preferred to have patients imagine something black , he also reported that some found objects of other colors easiest to visualize , and thus were benefited most by remembering those , because , he asserted , " the memory can never be perfect unless it is easy . " Skeptics reason that the only benefit to eyesight gained from such techniques is itself imagined , and point out that familiar objects , including letters on an eye chart , can be recognized even when they appear less than clear .
= = = Movement = = =
He thought that the manner of eye movement affected the sight . He suggested " shifting " , or moving the eyes back and forth to get an illusion of objects " swinging " in the opposite direction . He believed that the smaller the area over which the " swing " was experienced , the greater was the benefit to sight . He also indicated that it was usually helpful to close the eyes and imagine something " swinging " . By alternating actual and mental shifting over an image , Bates wrote , many patients were quickly able to shorten the " shift " to a point where they could " conceive and swing a letter the size of a period in a newspaper " . One who mastered this would attain the " universal swing " , Bates believed .
Perhaps finding Bates ' concepts of " shifting " and " swinging " too complicated , some proponents of vision improvement , such as Bernarr Macfadden , suggested simply moving the eyes up and down , from side to side , and shifting one 's gaze between a near @-@ point and a far @-@ point .
= = = Sunning = = =
Bates believed that the eyes were benefited by exposure to sunlight . He stated that " persons with normal sight can look directly at the sun , or at the strongest artificial light , without injury or discomfort , " and gave several examples of patients ' vision purportedly improving after sungazing – this is at variance with the well @-@ known risk of eye damage that can result from direct sunlight observation .
Bates cautioned that , just as one should not attempt to run a marathon without training , one should not immediately look directly at the sun , but he suggested that it could be worked up to . He acknowledged that looking at the sun could have ill effects , but characterized them as being " always temporary " and in fact the effects of strain in response to sunlight . He wrote that he had cured people who believed that the sun had caused them permanent eye damage . In his magazine , Bates later suggested exposing only the white part of the eyeball to direct sunlight , and only for seconds at a time , after allowing the sun to shine on closed eyelids for a longer period .
Posthumous publications of Bates ' book omitted mention of the supposed benefits from direct sunlight shining on open eyes .
= = Results and criticism = =
Bates ' techniques have never been scientifically established to improve eyesight . Several of Bates ' techniques , including " sunning " , " swinging " , and " palming " , were combined with healthy changes to diet and exercise in a 1983 randomized controlled trial of myopic children in India . After 6 months , the experimental groups " did not show any statistically significant difference in refractive status " , though the children in the treatment group " subjectively … felt relieved of eye strain and other symptoms " .
In 1967 the British Medical Journal observed that " Bates [ … ] advocated prolonged sun @-@ gazing as the treatment of myopia , with disastrous results . "
The philosopher Frank J. Leavitt has argued that the method Bates described would be difficult to test scientifically due to his emphasis on relaxation and visualization . Leavitt asked " How can we tell whether someone has relaxed or imagined something , or just thinks that he or she has imagined it ? " In regards to the possibility of a placebo trial , Leavitt commented " I cannot conceive of how we could put someone in a situation where he thinks he has imagined something while we know that he has not . "
= = After Bates = =
After Bates died in 1931 , his methods of treatment were continued by his widow Emily and other associates , some of whom incorporated exercises and dietary recommendations . Most subsequent proponents did not stand by Bates ' explanation of how the eye focuses mechanically , but nonetheless maintained that relieving a habitual " strain " was the key to improving sight .
= = = Margaret Darst Corbett = = =
Margaret Darst Corbett first met Bates when she consulted him about her husband 's eyesight . She became his pupil , and eventually taught his method at her School of Eye Education in Los Angeles . She was of the stated belief that " the optic nerve is really part of the brain , and vision is nine @-@ tenths mental and one @-@ tenth only physical . "
In late 1940 , Corbett and her assistant were charged with violations of the Medical Practice Act of California for treating eyes without a licence . At the trial , many of her students testified on her behalf , describing in detail how she had enabled them to discard their glasses . One witness testified that he had been almost blind from cataracts , but that , after working with Corbett , his vision had improved to such an extent that for the first time he could read for eight hours at a stretch without glasses . Corbett explained in court that she was practicing neither optometry nor ophthalmology and represented herself not as a doctor but only as an " instructor of eye training " . Describing her method she said " We turn vision on by teaching the eyes to shift . We want the sense of motion to relieve staring , to end the fixed look . We use light to relax the eyes and to accustom them to the sun . "
The trial attracted widespread interest , as did the " not guilty " verdict . The case spurred a bill in the Californian State Legislature that would have then made such vision education illegal without an optometric or medical licence . After a lively campaign in the media , the bill was rejected .
= = = Aldous Huxley = = =
Perhaps the most famous proponent of the Bates method was the British writer Aldous Huxley . At the age of sixteen Huxley had an attack of keratitis , which , after an 18 @-@ month period of near @-@ blindness , left him with one eye just capable of light perception and the other with an unaided Snellen fraction of 10 / 200 . This was mainly due to opacities in both corneas , complicated by hyperopia and astigmatism . He was able to read only if he wore thick glasses and dilated his better pupil with atropine , to allow that eye to see around an opacity in the center of the cornea .
In 1939 , at the age of 45 and with eyesight that continued to deteriorate , he happened to hear of the Bates method and sought the help of Margaret Corbett , who gave him regular lessons . Three years later he wrote The Art of Seeing , in which he related : " Within a couple of months I was reading without spectacles and , what was better still , without strain and fatigue .... At the present time , my vision , though very far from normal , is about twice as good as it used to be when I wore spectacles . " Describing the process , Huxley wrote that " Vision is not won by making an effort to get it : it comes to those who have learned to put their minds and eyes into a state of alert passivity , of dynamic relaxation . " He expressed indifference regarding the veracity of Bates ' explanation of how the eye focuses , stating that " my concern is not with the anatomical mechanism of accommodation , but with the art of seeing . "
His case generated wide publicity as well as scrutiny . Ophthalmologist Walter B. Lancaster , for example , suggested in 1944 that Huxley had " learned how to use what he has to better advantage " by training the " cerebral part of seeing " , rather than actually improving the quality of the image on the retina .
In 1952 , ten years after writing The Art of Seeing , Huxley spoke at a Hollywood banquet , wearing no glasses and , according to Bennett Cerf , apparently reading his paper from the lectern without difficulty . In Cerf 's words :
Then suddenly he faltered — and the disturbing truth became obvious . He wasn 't reading his address at all . He had learned it by heart . To refresh his memory he brought the paper closer and closer to his eyes . When it was only an inch or so away he still couldn 't read it , and had to fish for a magnifying glass in his pocket to make the typing visible to him . It was an agonizing moment .
In response to this , Huxley wrote " I often do use magnifying glasses where conditions of light are bad , and have never claimed to be able to read except under very good conditions . " This underscored that he had not regained anything close to normal vision , and in fact never claimed that he had .
= = = Modern variants = = =
" Natural vision correction " or " natural vision improvement " continues to be marketed by practitioners offering individual instruction , many of who have no medical or optometric credentials . Most base their approach in the Bates method , though some also integrate vision therapy techniques . There are also many self @-@ help books and programs , which have not been subjected to randomized controlled trials , aimed at improving eyesight naturally . Purveyors of such approaches argue that they lack the funds to formally test them .
The heavily advertised " See Clearly Method " ( of which sales were halted by a court order in November 2006 , in response to what were found to be dishonest marketing practices ) included " palming " and " light therapy " , both adapted from Bates . The creators of the program , however , emphasized that they did not endorse Bates ' approach overall .
In his 1992 book The Bates Method , A Complete Guide to Improving Eyesight — Naturally , " Bates method teacher " Peter Mansfield was very critical of eye care professionals for prescribing corrective lenses , recommending most of Bates ' techniques to improve vision . The book included accounts of twelve " real cases " , but did not report any information about refractive error .
Czech native John Slavicek claims to have created an " eye cure " that improves eyesight in three days , borrowing from ancient yogic eye exercises , visualizations from the Seth Material , and the Bates method . Although he has testimonials from his neighbor and others , several of his students indicate that he has greatly exaggerated their cases . Slavicek 's self @-@ published manual , Yoga for the Eyes , was rejected by an ophthalmologist who evaluated it , and evinced no interest from the World Health Organization and St. Erik 's Eye Foundation in Sweden as he had not conducted double @-@ blind tests .
= = Anecdotal support = =
In support of the effectiveness of the Bates method , proponents point to the many accounts of people allegedly having improved their eyesight by applying it . While these anecdotes may be told and passed on in good faith , several potential explanations exist for the phenomena reported other than a genuine reversal of a refractive error due to the techniques practiced :
Some cases of nearsightedness are recognized as due to a transient spasm of the ciliary muscle , rather than a misshapen eyeball . These are classed as pseudomyopia , of which spontaneous reversal may account for some reports of improvement .
Research has confirmed that when nearsighted subjects remove their corrective lenses , over time there is a limited improvement ( termed " blur adaptation " ) in their unaided visual resolution , even though refraction indicates no corresponding change in refractive error . This is believed to occur due to adjustments made in the visual system . One who has been practicing Bates ' techniques and notices such improvement may not realize that simply leaving the glasses off would have had the same effect , which may be especially pronounced if the prescription was too strong to begin with .
Visual acuity is affected by the size of the pupil . When it constricts ( such as in response to an increase in light ) , the quality of focus will improve significantly , at the cost of a reduced ability to see in dim light . This is known as the " pinhole effect " . This concept is also used in photography when changing the aperture size .
Some eye defects may naturally change for the better with age or in cycles ( ophthalmologist Stewart Duke @-@ Elder suggested that this is what happened with Aldous Huxley ) . A cataract when first setting in sometimes results in much improved eyesight for a short time . One who happens to have been practicing the Bates method will likely credit it for any improvement experienced regardless of the actual cause .
Some studies have suggested that a learned ability to interpret blurred images may account for perceived improvements in eyesight . Ophthalmologist Walter B. Lancaster had this to say : " Since seeing is only partly a matter of the image on the retina and the sensation it produces , but is in still larger part a matter of the cerebral processes of synthesis , in which memories play a principal role , it follows that by repetition , by practice , by exercises , one builds up a substratum of memories useful for the interpretation of sensations and facilitates the syntheses which are the major part of seeing . " Lancaster faulted ophthalmologists in general for neglecting the role of the brain in the process of seeing , " leaving to irregular , half @-@ trained workers the cultivation of that field " .
A 1952 study involving 100 subjects claiming to experience " flashes " of clear vision , in which eyesight momentarily becomes much sharper , found only one subject who " demonstrated unusually good transient acuity ( a flash ) but she was unable to maintain it or repeat it for measurement of refraction " and concluded that " ' flashers ' ( those who can obtain remarkably large transient increases in visual acuity ) are uncommon " . A 2004 study proposed that such flashes may be caused by " negative accommodation " ( i.e. an active flattening of the lens by the ciliary muscles ) .
A 1982 study of subjects who underwent computer @-@ based visual training concluded that any perceived resulting improvement in visual acuity is best explained as a contact lens @-@ like effect of moisture on the eye , based on increased tear action exhibited by 15 out of 17 subjects who experienced such improvement .
A 2003 study of claims that " positive suggestion ( e.g. , using hypnosis ) can significantly improve visual acuity " found that " neither suggestion nor hypnotic phenomena are likely to significantly improve myopic vision " .
= = General research = =
In 2004 the American Academy of Ophthalmology ( AAO ) published a review of various research regarding " visual training " , which consisted of " eye exercises , muscle relaxation techniques , biofeedback , eye patches , or eye massages " , " alone or in combinations " . No evidence was found that such techniques could objectively benefit eyesight , though some studies noted changes , both positive and negative , in the visual acuity of nearsighted subjects as measured by a Snellen chart . In some cases noted improvements were maintained at subsequent follow @-@ ups . However , these results were not seen as actual reversals of nearsightedness , and were attributed instead to factors such as " improvements in interpreting blurred images , changes in mood or motivation , creation of an artificial contact lens by tear film changes , or a pinhole effect from miosis of the pupil . "
In 2005 the Ophthalmology Department of New Zealand 's Christchurch Hospital published a review of forty @-@ three studies regarding the use of eye exercises . They found that " As yet there is no clear scientific evidence published in the mainstream literature supporting the use of eye exercises " to improve visual acuity , and concluded that " their use therefore remains controversial . "
= = General criticisms = =
= = = Dead @-@ end = = =
A frequent criticism of the Bates method is that it has remained relatively obscure , which is seen as proof that it is not truly effective . Writer Alan M. MacRobert concluded in a 1979 article that the " most telling argument against the Bates system " and other alternative therapies was that they " bore no fruit " . In regards to the Bates method , he reasoned that " If palming , shifting , and swinging could really cure poor eyesight , glasses would be as obsolete by now as horse @-@ drawn carriages . "
= = = Corrective lenses and safety = = =
Discarding one 's corrective lenses , as Bates recommended , or wearing lenses weaker than one 's prescribed correction , as some Bates method advocates suggest , poses a potential safety hazard in certain situations , especially when one is operating a motor vehicle . James Randi related that his father , shortly after discarding glasses on the advice of Bates ' book , wrecked his car . Bates method teachers often caution that when driving , one should wear the correction legally required .
= = = Avoidance of conventional treatment = = =
One of the greatest potential dangers of faith in the Bates method is that a believer may be disinclined to seek medical advice regarding what could be a sight @-@ threatening condition requiring prompt treatment , such as glaucoma . Also , children with vision problems may require early attention by a professional in order to successfully prevent lazy eye . Such treatment may include exercises , but which are different from those associated with the Bates method , and parents who subscribe to Bates ' ideas may delay seeking conventional care until it is too late . It may further be necessary for a child at risk of developing lazy eye to wear the proper correction .
= Maneater ( 2007 film ) =
Maneater is a 2007 American television natural horror film directed by Gary Yates and produced by RHI Entertainment , starring Gary Busey , Ty Wood , and Ian D. Clark . The film aired on various video on demand channels , before officially premiering in the United States on the Syfy Channel on September 8 , 2007 . This film lends its name to the film series to which it belongs and is the third film in the series . Filmed in Winnipeg , Manitoba , Canada , the film is produced under an agreement with Syfy . Based on Jack Warner 's novel Shikar , the film details the killing spree of an escaped Bengal tiger after it gets loose in a small town along the Appalachian Trail . Trying to stop it are Sheriff Barnes ( Busey ) and big game hunter Colonel Graham ( Clark ) , while a young boy named Roy ( Wood ) who has a strange connection to the tiger , tries to save it . It is the 4th film in the Maneater Series .
Maneater is one of the few films in the series to break the standard formula of Syfy natural horror films with its use of a normal , living tiger rather than a CG animal or excusing its behavior by having it be a mutant or genetically altered . Critics heavily panned the film citing substandard acting , heavy use of stereotypical characters , a hole @-@ filled plot , unused subplots , and the use of a live tiger resulting in almost all attacks being implied rather than seen .
= = Plot = =
Two people disappear along the Appalachian Trail : a young man jogging with his girlfriend and a hermit who rarely leaves his home . Sheriff Grady Barnes ( Gary Busey ) finds a trail in the woods which leads him to parts of the hermit 's body . That night , young Roy Satterly ( Ty Wood ) is reading by flashlight when a Bengal tiger briefly appears in front of his bedroom window . In the morning , his mother , Rose ( Marina Stephenson Kerr ) , finds him sleepwalking in the woods in front of their house . A cast taken at the next victim 's scene points to a tiger as the hermit 's killer , so Sheriff Barnes holds a press conference to warn the public . The Bengal Tiger visits Roy 's home again that night .
A tabloid paper offers a $ 10 @,@ 000 reward for the tiger causing the town to be inundated with hunters and reporters . The sheriff forbids anyone from going in the woods and hunting the tiger , but while out with Deputy Sharon Weinman ( Sarah Constible ) , he sees Roy in the woods . They give chase , but instead find a dead tabloid reporter . The National Guard is called in to help . The sheriff later sees Roy in the woods again and warns him to stay out before taking him home and giving Rose the same warning . After he leaves , she mistakenly believes Roy told the sheriff lies about there being a tiger and chastises him .
Six National Guardsmen arrive , led by Sergeant Winshiser ( Aleks Paunovic ) , as does Colonel James Livingston @-@ Graham ( Ian D. Clark ) , an experienced big game hunter and tracker from England who specializes in hunting man @-@ eating tigers . Sergeant Winshiser and his men arrogantly refuse to use the sheriff 's advice and help . Graham tells the sheriff the soldiers will fail due to their arrogance and that he will start his hunt for the tiger when they finish . When the guardsmen search for the tiger , it kills one silently . Graham appears and explains how the tiger did it and helps them find the body . Later , Deputy Weinman and Deputy Ezra Hundt ( Karl Thordarson ) , the mayor 's son , find one of the National Guard trucks sitting empty on the road . They investigate and Weinman tells Hundt to call their position in to headquarters . She finds that the two guardsmen were attacked by the tiger , one being killed and the other shot by his partner . Hearing Hundt blowing the patrol car horn , she runs back to the car , but the Tiger has already killed him . Meanwhile , Roy encounters Graham in the woods and they discuss the tiger . When Roy asks if Graham is going to kill the Tiger , Graham tells him that he must because it can 't chose not to hunt whatever is around it , including people . They shake hands and part ways with Graham continuing to the scene of the National Guard attack . When he arrives , he explains how the tiger attacked the guardsmen and deputy .
Later , at another press conference , a reporter reveals that Graham was exiled from India , his former home , after he failed to kill a tiger that slaughtered over 200 people . The sheriff visits Graham that night and he explains that the situation had been beyond his control . Later that night , Roy dreams the tiger killed Graham and runs to his tent to check on him . Graham offers to walk him home , but they end up going to the store where Rose works when Roy says she is working late .
When they arrive , the Tiger attacks and kills her . They run into the store , but are separated . Graham calls for Roy , but the Tiger gets into the building and attacks him , Graham barely failing to kill the tiger with both shots he fires . Sheriff Barnes arrives after being alerted about a break @-@ in alarm and is chased into the store by the tiger . He finds Graham 's hat and a blood trail and tries to find him before hearing Roy calling out from under a truck outside . The sheriff dives under the truck and shields the boy as the Tiger tries to attack . When the Tiger jumps into the bed of the truck , they run to the sheriff 's truck . The sheriff shoots at the tiger , but hits a gasoline tank causing it to explode and kill the Tiger . Graham appears beside the building , bloody but alive . Deciding his hunting days are over , Graham returns home . Sheriff Barnes and his wife adopt the orphaned Roy .
= = Cast = =
Gary Busey as Grady Barnes
Ian D. Clark as Colonel Graham
Ty Wood as Roy Satterly
Diana Reis as Mary Barnes
Jessica Burleson as Eleanor
Sarah Constible as Deputy Sharon Weinman
Marc Devigne as Lambert
Kristen Harris as Kathy Kurick
Aaron Hughes as Sergeant Howe
Adriana O 'Neil as Mayor 's mistress
Aleks Paunovic as Sergeant Winshiser
Brittany Scobie as Sarah
Dan Skene as Cpl. Timmons
Marina Stephenson Kerr as Rose Satterly
Blake Taylor as Mayor Earl Hunt
Ryland Thiessen as Georgie Willet
Will Woytowich as Guardsman Vance
Jon Ted Wynne as Wolf the Paparazzi
Arne MacPherson as Deer Hunter
Dave Mahr as Restaurant patron
Rick Skene as Tiger truck driver ( uncredited )
= = Production = =
In October 2006 , RHI Entertainment made a deal with the Sci Fi Channel to produce a series of ten made @-@ for @-@ television natural horror films to air on the network the following year . Though the film series was dubbed " Maneater " by RHI Entertainment , the actual Maneater film is the third in the series . Although the agreement called for the films to premiere on Sci Fi , the first six films in the series actually premiered on various video on demand channels months ahead of their Sci Fi airings .
Based on Jack Warner 's 2003 debut novel Shikar , Maneater was filmed in Winnipeg , Manitoba , Canada . The film uses no CGI special effects at all , with the " killer tiger " portrayed by actual trained tigers . In scenes where the tiger is chasing various characters , the tiger is actually on a leash with his trainer behind him . The leash and trainer were edited out of the scenes during post @-@ production . While Gary Busey said the tigers were a " joy " to work with , Clark joked that he was hoping they would not think he was lunch , noting that it was his first time working with tigers .
= = Distribution = =
Maneater premiered in Canada on the subscription @-@ based video on demand channel Movie Central on Demand earlier in 2007 before it aired in the United States on the Sci Fi Channel on September 8 , 2007 as its Saturday night " Movie of the Week " premiere . On January 8 , 2008 , Genius Entertainment released the film on DVD . It included no extras , an anamorphic widescreen transfer , and a Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 audio track . The film was re @-@ released on July 22 , 2008 as part of the first volume of the " Maneater Series Collection " sets . The volume also included Blood Monkey and In the Spider 's Web , the first and second films in the series , respectively .
= = Reception = =
As with many other films in the series , Maneater was heavily panned by critics . Felix Gonzalez , Jr. of DVDReview.com referred to the film as " another Z @-@ grade extravaganza of gore and mayhem " and felt that it was typical of most Sci Fi original movies in that it contained " horrendous writing and nonsensical characters . " He considered Busey 's being the headliner was the first sign of trouble , stating that " with his ill @-@ fitting suit and incomprehensible facial expressions , ( Busey ) is actually more frightening than the tiger . " Matt Paprocki from Blogcritics felt the original novel was superior to its film adaptation , and felt the movie was " an appallingly bad creature feature that barely qualifies as such " with multiple plot holes , unexplored subplots , and stereotypical characters plagued by bad acting .
Staci Layne Wilson of Horror.com also felt the film was full of stereotypes , including a " stupid circus trainer ; bible @-@ thumping naysayer ; the great white hunter ; small @-@ minded mayor ; pinheaded press ; wise Indian sage ; [ and ] military sorts " but felt they were depicted in such an extreme manner that they were simply boring . She found the films conclusion to be predictable and " corny " . She did praise the film 's cinematography and visual appeal despite the limited number of filming locations actually used . In reviewing the film for DVD Talk , film instructor and critic Justin Felix found the use of a real tiger one of the only original elements of the film , while feeling the plot , setting , and characters followed the set Sci Fi Channel movie of the week formula . At the same time , he notes that the use of a live tiger results in most attacks occurring off screen and the tiger being rarely seen at all , taking away the " usual " fun of laughing at badly done " CG terrors . " Monsters and Critics.com 's Jeff Swindoll felt the film was a poor attempt at replicating Jaws with the tiger taking on the role of a " land shark . " While he felt the character of Colonel Graham was contrived and seemed to come from another era , Swindoll did think Ian D. Clark did portray the character decently . Like other critics , Swindoll praised the use of a live tiger , but also notes that it was obvious the tiger was playing with the actors like a " sweet pussycat " and that the post @-@ production editing did a bad job of trying to make it look like the tiger was a vicious killer .
Several reviewers praised the film for being more subdued than most of Sci @-@ Fi 's gore @-@ filled creature films and for its use of a live tiger rather than poor CGI effects . However , David Johnson of DVD Verdict , heavily criticized the film for " its significant dearth of righteous tiger @-@ attack action " . He found the implied violence resulted in a boring film that will not satisfy more horror film buff : " the gore @-@ hounds that might be attracted to the promise of a big @-@ ass tiger sinking his teeth into some hapless rednecks will be almost certainly disappointed . The big bummer is that we don 't even get any tiger on human direct action until the very end , and that 's boilerplate Lassie stuff with a stuntman fending off a laid @-@ back stunt tiger " . Conversely , unlike other reviewers , he praised the characters , feeling they were interesting and ended up being ones he " somewhat cared about . "
= SM U @-@ 41 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 41 or U @-@ XLI was a U @-@ 27 class U @-@ boat or submarine for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . U @-@ 41 , built by the Austrian firm of Cantiere Navale Triestino ( CNT ) at the Pola Navy Yard , was launched in November 1917 . When she was commissioned in February 1918 , she became the last boat of her class to enter service . She was also the last domestically constructed Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ boat to enter service .
She had a single hull just over 122 feet ( 37 m ) in length . She displaced 280 metric tons ( 276 long tons ) when surfaced and over 325 metric tons ( 320 long tons ) when submerged . Her two diesel engines moved her at up to 9 knots ( 17 km / h ) on the surface , while her twin electric motors propelled her at up to 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while underwater . She was armed with two bow torpedo tubes and could carry a load of up to four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and a machine gun .
During a short service career marred by repeated engine breakdowns , U @-@ 41 sank one ship , the French steamer Amiral Charner of 4 @,@ 604 gross register tons ( GRT ) . U @-@ 41 was at Cattaro at war 's end , and was ceded to France as a war reparation in 1920 . She was towed to Bizerta and broken up within a year .
= = Design and construction = =
Austria @-@ Hungary 's U @-@ boat fleet was largely obsolete at the outbreak of World War I. The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy satisfied its most urgent needs by purchasing five Type UB I submarines that comprised the U @-@ 10 class from Germany , by raising and recommissioning the sunken French submarine Curie as U @-@ 14 , and by building four submarines of the U @-@ 20 class that were based on the 1911 Danish Havmanden class .
Once these steps had alleviated their most urgent needs , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy selected the German Type UB II design for its newest submarines in mid 1915 . The Germans were reluctant to allocate any of their wartime resources to Austro @-@ Hungarian construction , but were willing to sell plans for up to six of the UB II boats to be constructed under license in Austria @-@ Hungary . The Navy agreed to the proposal and purchased the plans from AG Weser of Bremen , one of the two German shipyards building UB II submarines .
U @-@ 41 displaced 280 metric tons ( 276 long tons ) surfaced and 326 metric tons ( 321 long tons ) submerged . She had a single hull with saddle tanks , and was planned to be 121 feet 1 inch ( 36 @.@ 91 m ) long with a beam of 14 feet 4 inches ( 4 @.@ 37 m ) and a draft of 12 feet 2 inches ( 3 @.@ 71 m ) . For propulsion , she had two shafts , twin diesel engines of 270 bhp ( 200 kW ) for surface running , and twin electric motors of 280 shp ( 210 kW ) for submerged travel . She was capable of 9 knots ( 16 @.@ 7 km / h ) while surfaced and 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 41 in Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships , 1906 – 1921 , the German UB II boats , upon which the U @-@ 27 class was based , had a range of over 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ) surfaced , and 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ) submerged . U @-@ 27 @-@ class boats were designed for a crew of 23 – 24 .
U @-@ 41 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and could carry a complement of four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm / 26 ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .
U @-@ 41 was ordered from Cantiere Navale Triestino ( CNT ) as a replacement for U @-@ 6 ( which had been sunk in May 1916 ) . She was laid down on 23 February 1917 at the Pola Navy Yard . During construction , U @-@ 41 was lengthened by nearly 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) to accommodate diesel engines that had been ordered for U @-@ 6 before her loss . U @-@ 41 was launched on 11 November .
= = Service career = =
On 19 February 1918 , SM U @-@ 41 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Edgar Wolf . Previously in command of U @-@ 4 for a week in April 1915 , the 28 @-@ year @-@ old Wolf was a native of Fiume ( present @-@ day Rijeka , Croatia ) . When she entered service , U @-@ 41 was the last boat of her class to do so . She was also the last domestically constructed U @-@ boat completed and commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . Wolf and U @-@ 41 departed Pola on 17 March for a patrol in the Mediterranean . On 30 March , Wolf attempted to torpedo a steamer off the coast of Africa , but missed his target . Three days later , the left diesel engine failed and Wolf steered his boat back to port , arriving at Cattaro on 5 April . U @-@ 41 sailed for Pola on 9 April and , completing the journey two days later , underwent repairs over the next six weeks . While conducting a diving trial out of Pola on 25 May , the boat sprang a leak at the depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) . She returned to Pola and underwent more extensive repairs , remaining there until August .
After making way to the submarine base at Brioni , U @-@ 41 set out on another patrol into the Mediterranean on 29 August , but put into Sebenico the next day for engine repairs . Resuming her patrol after a day 's delay , U @-@ 41 reached her patrol area east of Malta . Wolf and U @-@ 41 scored their first success on 13 September , when they torpedoed and sank the steamer Amiral Charner west of Pantellaria . The 4 @,@ 604 @-@ ton French ship was carrying horses and a general cargo from Marseilles for Salonika when she was attacked . Six were killed in the attack on the French ship . On 26 September , U @-@ 41 attacked another steamer west of Kefalonia , but was apparently unsuccessful . U @-@ 41 ended her patrol at Cattaro on 28 September .
On October 6 , Wolf and U @-@ 41 set out from Cattaro to patrol off Durazzo and the Albanian coast . After nine days without success , the boat returned to Cattaro , and remained there through the end of the war . On 1 November , U @-@ 41 was taken over by a British commission , who controlled the vessel until she was ceded to France as a war reparation in 1920 . U @-@ 41 and sister boats U @-@ 29 and U @-@ 31 were towed to Bizerta . U @-@ 29 foundered en route , but U @-@ 31 and U @-@ 41 reached their destination and were scrapped within the next year .
= Hurricane Carla =
Hurricane Carla ranks as the most intense U.S. tropical cyclone landfall on the Hurricane Severity Index . The third named storm and first Category 5 hurricane of the 1961 Atlantic hurricane season , Carla developed from an area of squally weather in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on September 3 . Initially a tropical depression , it strengthened slowly while heading northwestward , and by September 5 , the system was upgraded to Tropical Storm Carla . About 24 hours later , Carla was upgraded to a hurricane . Shortly thereafter , the storm curved northward while approaching the Yucatán Channel . Late on September 7 , Carla entered the Gulf of Mexico while passing just northeast of the Yucatán Peninsula . By early on the following day , the storm became a major hurricane after reaching Category 3 intensity . Resuming its northwestward course , Carla continued intensification and on September 11 , it was upgraded to a Category 5 hurricane . Later that day , Carla weakened slightly , but was still a large and intense hurricane when the storm made landfall near Port O 'Connor , Texas . It weakened quickly inland and was reduced to a tropical storm on September 12 . Heading generally northward , Carla transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 13 , while centered over southern Oklahoma . Rapidly moving northeastward , Carla 's remnants reached the Labrador Sea , Canada and dissipated on September 17 , 1961 .
While crossing the Yucatán Channel , the outer bands of Carla brought gusty winds and severe local flooding in western Cuba and the Yucatán Peninsula , though no damage or fatalities were reported . Although initially considered a significant threat to Florida , the storm brought only light winds and small amounts of precipitation , reaching no more than 3 @.@ 15 in ( 80 mm ) . In Texas , wind gusts as high as 170 mph ( 280 km / h ) were observed in Port Lavaca . Additionally , several tornadoes spawned in the state caused notable impacts , with the most destructive twister resulting in 200 buildings severely damaged , of which at least 60 were destroyed , and 8 deaths and 55 injuries . Throughout the state , Carla destroyed 1 @,@ 915 homes , 568 farm buildings , and 415 other buildings . Additionally , 50 @,@ 723 homes , 5 @,@ 620 farm buildings , and 10 @,@ 487 other buildings suffered damage . There were 34 fatalities and at least $ 300 million ( 1961 USD ) in losses in Texas alone . Several tornadoes also touched down in Louisiana , causing the destruction of 140 homes and 11 farms and other buildings , and major damage to 231 additional homes and 11 farm and other buildings . Minor to moderate damage was also reported to 748 homes and 75 farm and other buildings . Six deaths and $ 25 million in losses in Louisiana were attributed to Carla . Heavy rainfall occurred in several other states , especially in Kansas , where flash flooding severely damaged crops and drowned 5 people . Overall , Carla resulted in $ 325 @.@ 74 million in losses and 43 fatalities .
= = Meteorological history = =
As early as September 1 , a tropical disturbance – an area of convective activity – was observed tracking westward across the Caribbean Sea within the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) . Around that time , an anticyclone was situated over the western Caribbean Sea at the upper @-@ tropospheric levels . Surface charts indicate that a low @-@ level circulation was developing early on September 3 . Thus , it is estimated that a tropical depression – a tropical cyclone with sustained winds with winds of less than 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) – developed about 175 miles ( 282 km ) northwest of Barranquilla , Colombia at 1200 UTC . Initially , the center of circulation remained difficult to locate on surface charts due to lack of data . At San Andrés , winds shifted west at about 12 mph ( 19 km / h ) , while barometric pressures dropped to 1 @,@ 007 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . The Weather Bureau Office in Miami , Florida issued its first bulletin at 1600 UTC on September 4 , while the depression was centered about 250 miles ( 400 km ) east @-@ southeast of Cabo Gracias a Dios , Nicaragua .
It is estimated that sustained winds reached 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) at 1200 UTC on September 5 , thus the depression strengthened into a tropical storm and was named Carla , while located just northeast of Cabo Gracias a Dios . A reconnaissance aircraft flight reported that Carla was continuing to intensify , with surface winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Radars reported an unusually large tropical cyclone , with convective bands extending about 520 miles ( 840 km ) outward from the center . Around 0000 UTC on September 6 , Carla passed near Swan Island , which reported a barometric pressure of about 995 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) and wind gusts of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) from the southwest . Based on observations obtained by a reconnaissance aircraft at 1100 UTC on September 6 – namely a barometric pressure of 982 mbar ( 29 @.@ 0 inHg ) – a bulletin issued by the Weather Bureau an hour later indicated that the storm had " probably reached hurricane intensity " . According to post @-@ season analysis , Carla reached hurricane status at that time .
Shortly after becoming a hurricane on September 6 , Carla curved northward in the northwestern Caribbean Sea . At 1200 UTC on September 7 , the storm intensified into a Category 2 hurricane while located east @-@ northeast of Cozumel , Quintana Roo , Mexico ( actual use of the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale , which was developed in 1971 , was not in effect ) . Shortly thereafter , Carla crossed the Yucatán Channel and entered the Gulf of Mexico . A strong high pressure area forced Carla to resume its original northwesterly course . Early on September 8 , the storm strengthened into a Category 3 hurricane while located just north of the Yucatán Peninsula . Thus , Carla was the third major hurricane of the season . Carla was upgraded to a Category 4 hurricane early on September 10 , while approaching the Gulf Coast of the United States . At 0000 UTC on September 11 , Carla strengthened into a Category 5 while located in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico . Six hours later , the storm reached its maximum sustained wind speed of 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) .
Although it weakened back to a Category 4 hurricane late on September 11 , Carla reached its minimum barometric pressure of 931 mbar ( 27 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Later that day , the storm struck Matagorda Island , Texas ( seven miles south of Port O 'Connor ) with winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) . Carla rapidly weakened inland , and degenerated to a Category 2 hurricane on September 12 , while passing just east of Port Lavaca . Six hours later , the storm was downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane near Shiner , shortly before being downgraded to a tropical storm between Taylor and Coupland . Beginning late on September 12 , the storm curved just east of due north . After reaching Oklahoma early on September 13 , Carla transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while located over rural Johnston County . The extratropical remnants of Carla moved rapidly northeastward and brought heavy rainfall to some areas of the Great Plains and Midwestern United States . By September 14 , it entered Canada near Sault Ste . Marie , Ontario . Continuing swiftly northeastward across Ontario , Quebec , and Labrador , before the remnants dissipated over the Labrador Sea on September 17 .
= = Preparations = =
Occurring a year after Hurricane Donna , officials in the Florida Keys took precautions to brace for potential impact from the storm . The United States Navy flew their planes out of Key West , while Coast Guardsmen evacuated Alligator Reef Light , American Shoal Light , and Sombrero Key Light . Ships docked at Key West sailed out to sea to ride out the squalls . On the morning of September 7 , a hurricane watch was issued from the entire coast of Louisiana eastward to Apalachicola , Florida . On September 8 , a hurricane watch was issued along the southwest coast of the state from Vermilion Bay westward . It was later extended westward to include the entire coast of Texas , and eastward to Apalachicola , Florida . A portion of the hurricane watch from Aransas Pass , Texas to Grand Isle , Louisiana was upgraded to a hurricane warning at 1600 UTC on September 9 . An estimated 500 @,@ 000 people fled the coasts of Texas and Louisiana , making it the largest evacuation in the history of the United States , at the time . Further , at least half of those people were from Texas . In small towns along the coast of Texas , 90 – 100 % of their populations evacuated , while 20 % of people left the larger cities . Many in Galveston stayed due to protection from the Galveston Seawall .
= = Impact = =
Carla spawned the largest hurricane @-@ related tornado outbreak on record at the time , when 26 tornadoes touched down within its circulation . However , it was overwhelmingly surpassed by Hurricane Beulah in 1967 , which spawned at least 115 tornadoes . Throughout its path , 43 fatalities and about $ 325 @.@ 74 million in damage were attributed to Carla . Most of the impact occurred in Texas , where the storm made landfall as a large and strong Category 4 hurricane .
= = = United States = = =
= = = = Texas = = = =
Abnormally high tides and storm surge was reported along the coast of Texas , reaching at least 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) above mean sea level at many coastal areas between Sabine Pass and Port Aransas . The highest tide reported was 18 @.@ 5 feet ( 5 @.@ 6 m ) at Port Lavaca , with large wave heights including 12 @.@ 6 feet ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) in Matagorda , 10 @.@ 9 feet ( 3 @.@ 3 m ) in Port Aransas , 10 @.@ 8 feet ( 3 @.@ 3 m ) in Freeport , 10 @.@ 1 feet ( 3 @.@ 1 m ) in Texas City , and 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in Galveston and Sabine . Because the storm was a Category 4 hurricane at landfall , Carla produced strong winds , especially near its path . The strongest sustained winds include 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) in Matagorda , 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) in Victoria , and 88 mph ( 142 km / h ) . Additionally , the highest wind gust observations include 175 mph ( 282 km / h ) in Port Lavaca , 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) in Matagorda , and 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) in Aransas Pass , Austwell , Edna , Port Aransas , and Victoria . Carla produced heavy rainfall in Texas , peaking at 17 @.@ 48 inches ( 444 mm ) in Bay City . Other significant precipitation totals include 16 @.@
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The storm dropped precipitation amounts of 7 inches ( 180 mm ) throughout northwestern Illinois , with a peak of 8 @.@ 18 inches ( 208 mm ) in Mount Carroll . Thus , Carla is the second wettest tropical cyclone in Illinois , behind only Hurricane Audrey in 1957 . Additionally , up to 6 @.@ 29 inches ( 160 mm ) fell in 24 hours . Severe local flooding occurred , especially in the northern portions of the state . Heavy property and agricultural damage occurred . Streets and basements were reported to have flooded , while bridge approaches and a few small bridges were washed out . Precipitation of 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 – 89 mm ) in Chicago flooded about 60 viaducts and 1 @,@ 000 basements . After the Chicago River rose 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) , the lock gate to Lake Michigan was opened to release excess water . However , the abrupt onrush of water resulted in about $ 75 @,@ 000 in damage to boats at Wilmette Harbor .
= = = = Elsewhere in the United States = = = =
Winds in Key West reached 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) , while much of Florida reported rainfall from the outer bands of Carla . In Kansas , 4 to 7 inches ( 100 to 180 mm ) of rain in only 6 hours caused flash flooding . With a peak amount of 8 @.@ 52 inches ( 216 mm ) in Haddam , Carla was the rainiest tropical cyclone in Kansas , until being surpassed by Hurricane Paine in 1986 and Tropical Storm Frances in 1998 . Severe crop damage occurred , especially in areas of Chautauqua and Shawnee Counties and to the south of the Kansas River . Many highways were left impassable due to water inundation . A family of 4 drowned after their car was swept off a road near Waverly . A fifth fatality occurred after a car with one occupant was swept into a tributary of the Marmaton River near Fort Scott . The storm persistently produced winds of 35 to 50 mph ( 56 to 80 km / h ) , causing further agricultural damage .
In Nebraska , rainfall peaked at 5 @.@ 68 inches ( 144 mm ) in Hubbrell , making Carla the rainiest tropical cyclone in the state . Heavy precipitation also fell in Missouri , especially in Brookfield , Lee 's Summit , and Pleasant Hill . The maximum rainfall total in Missouri was 9 @.@ 34 inches ( 237 mm ) in Concordia . One fatality was reported in Missouri , though the cause of death is unknown . Rainfall in Iowa peaked at 9 @.@ 03 inches ( 229 mm ) near Chariton , making Carla the rainiest tropical cyclone in the state . Up to 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of rain fell in a 12 @-@ hour period in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan , mostly between Cheboygan and Grand Rapids . However , the Weather Prediction Center indicated precipitation amounts of 6 @.@ 07 inches ( 154 mm ) in Boyne Falls . Regardless , Carla is the wettest tropical cyclone in the history of Michigan . Despite , the rainfall , flooding in Michigan was relatively minimal , limited to an washed out dam in Traverse City . Precipitation in Wisconsin reached 7 @.@ 58 inches ( 193 mm ) in Brodhead , causing Carla to rank as the wettest tropical cyclone in the state . Precipitation peaks in other states include 4 @.@ 44 inches ( 113 mm ) in Alabama , 5 @.@ 48 inches ( 139 mm ) in Arkansas , 6 @.@ 37 inches ( 162 mm ) in Mississippi , and 3 @.@ 6 inches ( 91 mm ) in Indiana .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
In Cuba , broadcasts reported severe flooding near Pinar del Río , and in Los Colomas and Punta de Cartas . Offshore Honduras on Swan Island , a rainfall amount of 3 @.@ 89 inches ( 99 mm ) was reported along with wind gusts up to 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The remnants of Carla brought tropical storm force winds to some areas of Canada . In Ontario , gusty winds caused power outages in the Clarkson – Port Credit area . Electrical services were are disrupted in New Brunswick , due to winds up to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) in Saint John . Winds of 57 mph ( 92 km / h ) lashed Halifax in Nova Scotia , thus the Halifax Public Gardens closed for threat of falling trees and branches .
= = Aftermath = =
Shortly after the storm , Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson , a lifelong resident of Texas , toured the devastation in the state and met with officials from 18 different counties , remarking that " as always , Texans are arising to a challenge ... We have suffered hurricane , tornado , and floods , but we in Texas are a bold and brave people . " After his report to President John F. Kennedy and Congress , $ 55 million was approved in aid for Texas , though Kennedy later requested an additional $ 65 million . President Kennedy issued a disaster declaration for Texas , allowing all jurisdictions in the state to apply for public assistance . The president also declared 6 parishes in Louisiana a disaster area . Helicopters deployed 88 United States Marines to Galveston to patrol devastated areas . A United States Navy task force composed of medical and construction work teams was also sent to the area . Members of the United States National Guard assisted refugees in returning to their homes and worked to prevent looting . Owing the hurricane 's intensity and destruction , the name Carla was retired and will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane . It was replaced by Carol in the 1965 season .
= Wail al @-@ Shehri =
Wail Mohammed al @-@ Shehri ( Arabic : وائل الشهري , Wāīl ash @-@ Shehrī ; also transliterated as Alshehri ) ( July 31 , 1973 – September 11 , 2001 ) was one of five hijackers of American Airlines Flight 11 , which was hijacked and flown into the North Tower of the World Trade Center as part of the September 11 attacks .
Shehri was an elementary school teacher from Khamis Mushait in the Asir region of Saudi Arabia . In early 2000 he traveled to Medina to seek treatment for mental problems . He and his younger brother Waleed traveled to Afghanistan in March 2000 and joined an Al @-@ Qaeda training camp . The brothers were chosen , along with others from the same region of Saudi Arabia , to participate in the September 11 attacks . Once selected , Shehri returned to Saudi Arabia in October 2000 to obtain a clean passport , then returned to Afghanistan . In March 2001 , he recorded his last will and testament on video .
Shehri arrived in the United States in early June 2001 , staying in budget motels in the Boynton Beach area of south Florida . On September 5 , 2001 , Shehri traveled to Boston and checked into a motel with his brother . Six days later , Shehri arrived early in the morning at Boston 's Logan International Airport and boarded American Airlines Flight 11 . Fifteen minutes after take off , the flight was hijacked and deliberately crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center at 8 : 46 a.m.
In the aftermath of the attacks , some news reports mistakenly reported Shehri as a trained pilot and son of a Saudi diplomat , who was still alive and well . The Shehri family in Khamis Mushait spoke to the media , denying those early reports , saying that the Shehri brothers had disappeared and have not been heard from since .
= = Background = =
Wail al @-@ Shehri and his younger brother Waleed were from Khamis Mushait in the Asir province , which is an impoverished area in southwestern Saudi Arabia , along the Yemeni border . Shehri was born in Annams , and grew up in the Um Saraar neighborhood in Khamis Mushait . He had ten brothers and one sister . Several of Shehri 's brothers joined the Saudi military , while his uncle may have been a major in the army and director of logistics . Shehri 's father , Mohammed Ali Asgley Al Shehri , worked as a car dealer . On weekends , the family often spent time together at the Red Sea . The family strictly adhered to the Wahabi school of Islam , which forbids many elements of modernity . As such , the Shehri family did not have satellite television or Internet , nor did his parents permit music or contact with girls . Some of Wail al @-@ Shehri 's elder brothers had visited the United States and could speak English ; however , Wail knew little English .
During high school and college , Shehri was deeply religious and attended Al @-@ Seqley Mosque , which his family had built as the local mosque . Shehri also frequented government @-@ supported religious camps in Saudi Arabia . At this time , there were strong religious feelings in Saudi Arabia , especially in the Asir region . Many young people in the region idolized Osama bin Laden , who had family ties to the area . Wail 's father was a friend of Bin Laden 's father , Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden . Ahmed al @-@ Nami and Saeed al @-@ Ghamdi , who were both hijackers on United Airlines Flight 93 , came from the same area in Saudi Arabia as the Shehri family .
After graduating from Abha teachers college in 1999 , Wail al @-@ Shehri took a job as an elementary school physical education teacher at the Khamis Mushait airbase . Five months into the job , Shehri took leave due to mental illness and depression . Rather than conventional therapy , Wail sought consultation with Muslim clerics , and hoped that a visit to Medina would help . His treatment involved verses from the Qur 'an read to him by a sheikh . He traveled to Medina together with Waleed . After the September 11 attacks , others recalled seeing the Shehri brothers in Medina .
= = Afghanistan = =
Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri disappeared after going to Medina , calling their father just once ; in the conversation , the brothers were vague about when they would return . Both had expressed interest in joining the jihad in Chechnya , though may have been diverted to Afghanistan . Before disappearing , the Shehri brothers went to Al @-@ Seqley Mosque to swear an oath and commitment to jihad , as did Ahmed al @-@ Nami and Saeed al @-@ Ghamdi . Wail presided over the ceremony , dubbing himself Abu Mossaeb al @-@ Janubi after one of Muhammad 's companions .
In March 2000 , he left for Pakistan with Waleed and Ahmed al @-@ Nami ; later , they went on to Afghanistan . Wail al @-@ Shehri followed the standard path for new al @-@ Qaeda recruits in Afghanistan , spending time in the Khalden training camp and then Al Farouq training camp near Kandahar . Details on how the non @-@ pilot ( " muscle " ) hijackers were chosen for the September 11 attacks are vague , though the hijackers appear to have been selected by senior al @-@ Qaeda leaders in 2000 from the thousands of recruits at training camps in Afghanistan . The most capable and motivated volunteers were at al @-@ Farouq , and Saudi citizens were good candidates , since it would be easy for them to obtain visas to travel to the United States . Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) director George Tenet later said that the muscle hijackers were probably told little about their mission in the United States .
Once Wail and the other muscle hijackers completed their training in Afghanistan , they received $ 2 @,@ 000 so they could return to Saudi Arabia to obtain new passports and visas . The Shehri brothers may have been assisted by a relative who worked in the Saudi passport office . Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri received passports on October 3 , 2000 , and then obtained United States visas on October 24 . On his visa application , Wail al @-@ Shehri provided vague information , stating his employer / school as " South City " , and his destination as " Wasantwn " . Wail indicated his occupation as " teacher " , and that he would be traveling with his brother on a four @-@ to @-@ six month vacation , which would be paid for with Wail 's teacher salary . Although he would not be working while on vacation , consular officials nonetheless did not question if the Shehri brothers had the financial means to support themselves while in the United States .
In late 2000 , Wail traveled to the United Arab Emirates , where he purchased traveler 's checks , presumed to have been paid for by Mustafa Ahmed al @-@ Hawsawi . Five other hijackers passed through the United Arab Emirates and purchased traveler 's checks , including Majed Moqed , Saeed al @-@ Ghamdi , Hamza al @-@ Ghamdi , Ahmed al @-@ Haznawi and Ahmed al @-@ Nami . The 9 / 11 Commission believes that three of the future muscle hijackers , including Wail and Waleed , traveled in a group from Saudi Arabia to Beirut and then onward to Iran where they could travel through to Afghanistan without getting their passports stamped . An associate of a senior Hezbollah operative is thought to have been on the same flight , although this may have been a coincidence .
Wail al @-@ Shehri appeared together with hijackers Ahmed al @-@ Nami , Hamza al @-@ Ghamdi , and Ahmed al @-@ Ghamdi on a video recorded in March 2001 , and aired on Al Jazeera in September 2002 . Shehri was seen studying maps and flight manuals , but he did not speak in the video ; it also included a segment of Abdulaziz al @-@ Omari reading his last will and testament . While in Afghanistan , another video was recorded that showed Shehri reading his last will and testament . This video was released on September 7 , 2006 .
= = United States = =
On June 5 , 2001 , Wail obtained an International Driving Permit , which was issued in Sharjah in the United Arab Emirates . Wail al @-@ Shehri arrived together with fellow al @-@ Qaeda member Ahmed al @-@ Haznawi at Miami International Airport , via London , from Dubai on June 8 . Both were admitted as tourists for six months . Shehri opened a bank account at SunTrust Bank in Florida on June 18 , with a deposit of $ 8 @,@ 000 that came from American Express traveler 's cheques purchased on June 7 in the United Arab Emirates .
Shehri moved into the Homing Inn , a budget motel in Boynton Beach , on June 21 , 2001 , sharing a room with his brother Waleed , and Satam al @-@ Suqami . Wail and Suqami both used this hotel as their address when they received Florida state non @-@ driver identifications on July 3 . Shehri checked into the Panther Motel & Apartments , in Deerfield Beach , with his brother and Suqami on August 2 , staying there until August 10 . While in Florida , Wail was a member of the World Gym in Boynton Beach , where he trained with Waleed and Suqami . During the summer of 2001 , Wail regularly used computers at the Delray Beach Public Library .
On August 28 , 2001 , Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri made reservations on American Airlines Flight 11 , using the Mail Boxes Etc. in Hollywood , Florida as their address . The Shehri brothers contacted American Airlines on September 3 by telephone to change their first @-@ class seat assignments for American Airlines Flight 11 , selecting seats on the side of the aircraft that offered a direct view of the cockpit . Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri left Florida for Boston on September 5 , traveling together on Delta Air Lines Flight 2462 .
Wail checked in together with Waleed at the Park Inn Hotel in Chestnut Hill , Massachusetts on September 5 , 2001 , staying in room 432 . While staying at the Park Inn , Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri may have called a prostitute . Wail al @-@ Shehri accompanied his brother on September 9 to the Travelex at Logan International Airport , where Waleed attempted to wire $ 5 @,@ 000 to the United Arab Emirates . Waleed had insufficient documentation , so Wail and Waleed returned the next day to complete the transaction . Mustafa Muhammad Ahmad received the funds on September 11 at Al @-@ Ansari Exchange in Sharjah . Hijacker Abdulaziz al @-@ Omari possibly spent a night at the Park Inn before leaving with Mohamed Atta for Portland , Maine on September 10 . When Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri checked out on September 11 , they left a sheet of instructions for flying a jet behind in their hotel room .
= = Attacks = =
Wail al @-@ Shehri , his brother Waleed , and Satam al @-@ Suqami arrived together at Logan Airport at 06 : 45 on the morning of September 11 , 2001 . Upon check @-@ in , all three men were selected by the Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System ( CAPPS ) for further screening of their checked baggage . As the CAPPS was only for luggage , the three hijackers did not undergo any extra scrutiny at the passenger security checkpoint . One of the five Globe Aviation security screeners on @-@ duty later reported that either Wail or Waleed had been using a crutch when they passed through security , and that the crutch had been X @-@ rayed as per regulations .
By 07 : 40 , all five hijackers were aboard the flight , which was scheduled to depart at 07 : 45 . Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri sat together in first class in seats 2A and 2B respectively . The aircraft taxied away from Gate 26 , and departed Logan International Airport at 07 : 59 , following a 14 @-@ minute delay . Flight 11 was hijacked at approximately 08 : 14 , which is when the pilot stopped responding to air traffic control . Once the hijacking began , the brothers are suspected of having stabbed two flight attendants . At 08 : 46 : 40 , Mohamed Atta deliberately crashed Flight 11 into the northern facade of the North Tower ( Tower 1 ) of the World Trade Center . The immediate damage destroyed any means of escape from above the impact zone , trapping 1 @,@ 344 people . The North Tower collapsed at 10 : 28 , after burning for 102 minutes .
= = Aftermath = =
Waleed al @-@ Shehri was reported to have been found alive by a BBC News article on September 23 , 2001 , and other news reports in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks . Reports said that the Shehri brothers were the sons of a Saudi diplomat stationed in New Delhi , Ahmed al @-@ Shehri . The diplomat 's son was trained as a pilot at Embry @-@ Riddle Aeronautical University in Daytona Beach , Florida , and was working as a pilot for Saudi Arabian Airlines . At the time of the attacks , he was in Morocco for a training program . There were also reports that Wail al @-@ Shehri was a trained pilot . In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks , Saudi officials suggested that Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri were victims of identity theft , but the diplomat 's son was the victim of mistaken identity .
Jamal Khashoggi , of Al @-@ Watan and ArabNews in Saudi Arabia , spoke with Muhammad Ali al @-@ Shehri in Khamis Mushait , who said his sons Wail and Waleed had been missing for months . Wail al @-@ Shehri 's father denied reports that Wail had an aeronautics degree , as some news reports said , " My son Wail was 25 years old and had a BA in physical education from the Abha Teacher ’ s College . He was mentally ill and had gone to numerous clerics for assistance in overcoming this instability . He had asked the school , where he taught , for a 6 @-@ month leave to go to Madinah . " His father also told reporters that he dreaded having to believe that Wail and Waleed were involved in the September 11 attacks , " If that turns out to be the truth , then I 'll never , never accept it from them . I 'll never forgive them for that . " Family members said that Wail and Waleed became very religious in the months before they disappeared , had expressed interest in going to Chechnya , and hoped for martyrdom . In a report entitled " A Saudi Apology " for Dateline NBC aired on August 25 , 2002 , John Hockenberry traveled to Asir , where he interviewed Shehri 's brother , Salah , who agreed that Wail and Waleed were deceased . Salah described them as not very religious , and suggested they had been brainwashed .
Saudi officials later stated that the names of the hijackers were in fact correct , and that 15 of the 19 hijackers were Saudi . In response to 9 / 11 conspiracy theories surrounding its original news story suggesting hijackers were still alive , the BBC issued a response in 2006 , saying that later reports on the hijackers superseded the original story . The BBC also explained that confusion arose with the Arabic names that were common .
= Red Headed Stranger =
Red Headed Stranger is a 1975 album by American outlaw country singer Willie Nelson . After the wide success of his recordings with Atlantic Records , coupled with the negotiating skills of his manager , Neil Reshen , Nelson signed a contract with Columbia Records , a label that gave him total creative control over his works . The concept for the album was inspired by the " Tale of the Red Headed Stranger " , a song that Nelson used to play as a disk jockey on his program in Fort Worth , Texas . After signing with Columbia he decided to record the song , and arranged the details during his return to Austin , Texas , from a trip to Colorado . It was recorded at low cost at Autumn Sound Studios in Garland , Texas . The songs featured sparse arrangements , largely limited to Nelson 's guitar , piano and drums . Nelson presented the finished material to Columbia executives , who were dubious about releasing an album that they at first thought was a demo . However , Nelson had creative control , so no further production was added .
A concept album , Red Headed Stranger is about a fugitive on the run from the law after killing his wife and her lover . The content consists of songs with brief poetic lyrics and arrangements of older material such as Fred Rose 's " Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain " , Wolfe Gilbert 's " Down Yonder " and Juventino Rosas ' " O 'er the Waves " . Despite Columbia 's doubts and the limited instrumentation , Red Headed Stranger was a blockbuster among country music and mainstream audiences . It was certified multi @-@ platinum , and made Nelson one of the most recognized artists in country music . The cover of " Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain " , released as a single previous to the album full release became Nelson 's first number one hit . The title of the album would become a lasting nickname for Nelson . It was ranked # 183 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , and number one on CMT 's 40 Greatest Albums in Country Music . In 2010 it was inducted to the National Recording Registry .
In 1986 Nelson starred as the Red Headed Stranger in a movie of the same name , based on the story of the album . The album has had a strong cultural impact ; the song " Time of the Preacher " has been used often in the series Edge of Darkness , and its lyrics were used as well in the first issue of the comic Preacher .
= = Background and recording = =
In 1973 Nelson signed a contract for US $ 25 @,@ 000 per year with Atlantic Records , the first country artist signed by the label . His first album with Atlantic was the critically acclaimed Shotgun Willie , which was followed by one of the first concept albums in country music , Phases and Stages . Due to the success of these recordings , Nelson signed with Columbia Records , and was given complete creative control .
During his return to Austin after a ski trip in Colorado , Nelson was inspired by his then @-@ wife , Connie Koepke , to write a western concept album . Koepke suggested the inclusion of Arthur " Guitar Boogie " Smith 's " Tale of the Red Headed Stranger " , which Nelson sang during his radio shows on KCNC in Fort Worth and previously , to his children at bedtime . Nelson decided to write a complete story that included details of events prior to the ones described in the song . As he spontaneously composed the songs , Koepke wrote down the lyrics . With his original writings , Nelson included on the story , Fred Rose 's " Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain " , Wolfe Gilbert 's " Down Yonder " , Juventino Rosas ' " O 'er the Waves " , Hank Cochran 's " Can I Sleep in Your Arms ? " , Eddy Arnold 's " I Couldn 't Believe it Was True " , and Billy Callery 's " Hands on the Wheel " . When he arrived in Austin , Nelson recorded a demo of the songs on a tape recorder accompanied with his guitar at his ranch in Fitzhugh Road .
Nelson started to look for a studio in Texas to record his new material , to avoid the modifications that they did to his recordings in his previous sessions . Engineer Phil York , who was hired free @-@ lance by the recently opened Autumn Sound Studios in Garland , Texas , heard about his need . York , an acquaintance of Nelson 's harmonicist Mickey Raphael , offered Nelson a day of free recording to boost the popularity of the studio . Nelson and his band went to the trial session during January , and recorded five songs . Later , Rapahel called back York , announcing that Nelson would record the entire album there . After hearing the tapes by Nelson , the band started to improvise to the song " Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain " . Disliking the result , Nelson decided to strip down the instrumentation . Nelson also instructed York to undo the equalization he performed on the tracks , remarking that it was the method his producers used in Nashville . The recording took five days , with an additional day for the mixing , that summed up to US $ 4 @,@ 000 in studio costs.The addtitional costs took the total to US $ 20 @,@ 000 .
Nelson featured arrangements of acoustic guitar , accompanied by piano , played by his sister , Bobbie , as well complementary arrangements of drums , harmonica and mandolin . The sparsely instrumented acoustic arrangements caused Columbia directors to doubt the wisdom of releasing the album as presented , feeling it was under @-@ produced and no more than a demo . However , Nelson had complete creative control , and it was released without any further modifications .
= = Concept = =
The story begins with " Time of the Preacher " , where the character evokes his love for his wife , whom he suspects is unfaithful . In the following song , " I Couldn 't Believe It Was True " , the infidelity is revealed . This leads to a short version of " Time of the Preacher , " wherein the singer ends with the line " Now the lesson is over , and the killing 's begun " . The reaction of the husband is depicted by Nelson in a medley of " Blue Rock , Montana " and " Red Headed Stranger " . The first song describes the double murder of the unfaithful woman and her lover by the Stranger , who states " And they died with a smile on their faces . " This leads to the second song of the medley , which describes the grief of the Stranger . This section is followed by Nelson 's cover of the 1947 Fred Rose , song " Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain " , where the fugitive laments the loss of his wife . In " Red Headed Stranger , " the protagonist commits a subsequent murder — he kills a woman he believes is stealing his horse . The horse , to which he undoubtedly holds a sentimental attachment , had belonged to the Stranger 's wife .
The story continues with the Stranger traveling south . In the song " Denver , " the character falls in love with a woman he meets in a bar in town . One of the lines from " Blue Rock Montana " is repeated , with a variation : " And they danced with a smile on their faces " . The following song , " Can I Sleep in Your Arms ? " , shows the desire of the Stranger for redemption and love . Next is " Remember Me " , where he announces that his vows to his deceased wife are broken and he is free to love . The story ends with " Hands on the Wheel " , which depicts the Stranger as an old man who is accompanied by a child , presumably his grandson , and his new love . The song marks the end of the sorrow of the Stranger , and his redemption years later . The album ends with the instrumental song " Bandera " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Chart performance and critical reception = = =
Red Headed Stranger reached number one on the Billboard chart for Top Country Albums , and number 28 during a 43 @-@ week stay in the Top LPs & Tapes chart . On March 11 , 1976 , it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America , and on November 21 , 1986 , it was certified double @-@ platinum .
Rolling Stone writer Paul Nelson wrote : " Red Headed Stranger is extraordinarily ambitious , cool , tightly controlled .... Hemingway , who perfected an art of sharp outlines and clipped phrases , used to say that the full power of his composition was accessible only between the lines ; and Nelson , on this LP , ties precise , evocative lyrics to not quite remembered , never really forgotten folk melodies to create a similar effect , haunting yet utterly unsentimental . That he did not write much of the material makes his accomplishment no less singular . " Meanwhile , critic Robert Christgau wrote , " Some of the individual pieces are quite nice , but the gestalt is the concept album at its most counterproductive — the lyrics render the nostalgic instrumental parts unnecessarily ironic and lose additional charm in narrative context . "
Music critic Chet Flippo wrote in a Texas Monthly article entitled " Mathew , Mark , Luke and Willie : Willie Nelson 's latest album is more than a good country music ; it 's almost Gospel " : " The difference between Nelson 's Red Headed Stranger and any current C & W album , and especially what passes for a soundtrack for Nashville , is astounding . What Nelson has done is simply unclassifiable ; it is the only record I have heard that strikes me as otherworldly . Red Headed Stranger conjures up such strange emotions and works on so many levels that listening to it becomes totally obsessing " .
Billboard described the album as " lots of instrumental work , with particularly fine piano by Bobbie Nelson , and the usual highly stylized Willie Nelson vocals " . Mother Jones wrote : " Texans have known for 15 years what Red Headed Stranger finally revealed to the world – that Nelson is simply too brilliant a songwriter , interpreter , and singer – just too damn universal – to be defined as merely a country artist " .
In 1996 CMJ New Music Monthly wrote : " His Red Headed Stranger was the Sgt. Pepper 's of country music , the first record to follow a coherent theme instead of merely compiling radio singles " . AllMusic described Red Headed Stranger as " really elusive , as the themes get a little muddled and the tunes themselves are a bit bare . It 's undoubtedly distinctive – and it sounds more distinctive with each passing year – but it 's strictly an intellectual triumph and , after a pair of albums that were musically and intellectually sound , it 's a bit of a letdown , no matter how successful it was " . In 2003 it was included among the top 1 @,@ 000 albums of Zagat Survey magazine , and was rated five stars out of five . The magazine wrote , " Supporters ( of the album ) spread the gospel that it 's just a quintessential outlaw recording , but perhaps the greatest country album ever with a spare style that changed the way C & W was played " .
Sputnikmusic wrote : " The Red Headed Stranger is simple and bare . Following the story of a preacher man that kills his cheating wife and her lover , ol ' Willie spins the tale with a laid back nonchalance that just seems to ooze out of him , his aching chords and somber melodies encapsulating the futility and pain of his character 's situation [ ... ] The Red Headed Stranger is timeless . Willie Nelson 's captivating story telling , and the minimalist majesty of his music fills a well worn grove in the hearts of those that enjoy the folk roots of the United States . "
Red Headed Stranger 's critical success cemented Nelson 's outlaw image , and made him one of the most recognized artists in country music . The title of the album became a long lasting nickname for him . The cover of Fred Rose 's 1945 song " Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain " , that had been released as a single previous to the album , became his first number one hit as a singer . In 2004 the album was ranked at number 184 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , and number one in CMT 's 40 Greatest Albums in Country Music in 2006 . In 2009 it was adopted into the National Recording Registry because Red Headed Stranger is " culturally , historically , or aesthetically important , and / or informs or reflects life in the United States . "
= = = Movie = = =
At an appearance at the Armadillo World Headquarters , a music venue in Austin , Texas , Nelson met publisher and screenwriter William D. Wittliff . Because of the success of the album , Wittliff decided to write a script for Nelson based on the story of the Red Headed Stranger . In 1979 Wittliff finished a draft of the project , which was turned over to Universal Studios . The studio budgeted the film at $ 14 million and sent the script to Robert Redford , who turned it down . The movie project was tabled , and Wittliff and Nelson had to buy the script back from Universal . The script then went to HBO , who assigned the project a budget of $ 5 million , but this project was not completed either . Finally , Nelson and Wittliff decided to finance the film themselves . Nelson portrayed the role of the stranger , and the movie was released in 1986 .
= = = In popular culture = = =
The first track , " Time of the Preacher " , was used in Bob Dylan 's 1978 film Renaldo and Clara and episodes of the 1985 television drama Edge of Darkness . The lyrics to " Time of the Preacher " were used in the opening pages of the first issue of the Vertigo comic book Preacher , with the song being used in the opening of the premiere of the TV series based on the comic .
The complete album was performed and recorded by Carla Bozulich in 2003 . The Red Headed Stranger included a guest appearance by Nelson . A first season episode of the dramedy series Monk is entitled " Mr. Monk and the Red @-@ Headed Stranger , " and guest @-@ stars Willie Nelson .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Original release = = =
= = = Reissue ( 2000 ) = = =
The album was reissued by Columbia / Legacy in 2000 . The new issue features remastered sound , as well as the inclusion of previously unreleased songs .
= = Credits = =
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= Flag of West Virginia =
The flag of West Virginia is the official flag of the U.S. state of West Virginia and was officially adopted by the West Virginia Legislature on March 7 , 1863 . The present flag consists of a pure white field bordered by a blue stripe with the coat of arms of West Virginia in the center , wreathed by Rhododendron maximum and topped by an unfurled red ribbon reading " State of West Virginia . "
The first flags to represent West Virginia following statehood were battle flags utilized by West Virginia regiments during the American Civil War . West Virginia 's first official state flag was adopted in 1905 , based upon the flag designed and used by the West Virginia State Commission at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in 1904 . This flag was altered in 1907 for the Jamestown Exposition and featured the coat of arms on the obverse and a sprig of Rhododendron maximum on the reverse . In order to reproduce the flag more inexpensively , the West Virginia Legislature ratified the current flag with the state 's coat of arms integrated with the rhododendron , which appears on both the obverse and the reverse . The " Pledge of Allegiance to the West Virginia State Flag " was unanimously adopted by the office of the Secretary of State of West Virginia in 1977 .
= = Design = =
The current state flag of West Virginia consists of a pure white field bordered on four sides by a stripe of blue . The white of the field symbolizes purity , while the blue border represents the Union . The center of the state flag is emblazoned with the state 's Coat of Arms , a stylized version of the Great Seal of West Virginia . The lower half of the state flag is wreathed by two tethered swags of Rhododendron maximum , the state flower of West Virginia . Across the top of the state flag is an unfurled red ribbon with the constitutional designation " State of West Virginia " , and across the bottom of the state flag is a tied red ribbon with the state 's Latin motto Montani Semper Liberi ( English : " mountaineers are always free " ) .
The state 's coat of arms in the center of the flag symbolizes the principal pursuits and resources of West Virginia . In the center is an ivy @-@ draped boulder that has been inscribed " June 20 , 1863 , " the date of West Virginia 's admission to the Union as a state . In front of the boulder lie two crossed hunting rifles and a Phrygian cap ( or " Cap of Liberty " ) to illustrate the importance of the state 's fight for liberty . Two men , a farmer and a miner , stand on either side of the boulder and represent agriculture and industry . The farmer stands on the left with an ax and plow before a cornstalk . The miner stands on the right with a pickax and , behind him , an anvil and sledge hammer .
The state flag 's proportions are identical to those of the flag of the United States . When utilized for parade purposes , all but the staff side of the state flag are to be trimmed with gold fringe . When used concurrently with the flag of the United States during ceremonial occasions , the state flag is trimmed and mounted like the United States flag with regard to fringe , cord , tassels , and mounting .
= = History = =
Prior to the adoption of the current state flag of West Virginia , the state had been represented by a number of flags since attaining statehood in 1863 , all of which proved impractical . The first West Virginia Legislature commissioned Joseph H. Diss Debar of Doddridge County to design the Great Seal of West Virginia in 1863 . On September 26 , 1863 , the West Virginia Legislature officially adopted the seal designed by Diss Debar , a stylized version of which was also designated the state 's coat of arms . Despite the adoption of an official seal , the state did not decide upon an official state flag until 1905 .
= = = American Civil War = = =
Prior to West Virginia 's separation from Virginia on June 20 , 1863 , pro @-@ Union supporters in western Virginia created unique flags to show their support for the Union cause . In January 1861 , the residents of Kingwood erected a flagpole measuring about 105 feet ( 32 m ) in height , and on it they hoisted a handmade streamer with the word " UNION " prior to Virginia 's secession . During the war , western Virginia regiments in the Union Army carried flags handmade by supportive women , as was the case with the Fifth Regiment Virginia Volunteer Infantry who carried a flag bearing the legend " 5th Va . Regiment " in 1861 .
In January 1864 , the West Virginia Legislature approved a flag for the Fourth Regiment West Virginia Volunteer Infantry to acknowledge the regiment 's battles at Charleston , Vicksburg , Jackson , and Missionary Ridge , all four of which were listed on the flag . This was the first among many battle flags to represent West Virginia after statehood which were utilized by soldiers of West Virginia regiments throughout the war . State battle flags were presented to each of West Virginia 's Union regiments during the course of the war . These early state flags were squares of silk cloth measuring 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , and were dark blue and trimmed with golden fringe . The obverse side of these flags were painted with the state 's newly minted seal within an oval , along with the name of the respective West Virginia regiment and the names and dates of the battles in which they had participated . On the reverse side , the United States national emblem was painted and consisted of a bald eagle with its wings outstretched , clutching a bundle of 13 arrows in its right talon and an olive branch in its left , and a tricolor shield placed across its breast . In its beak , the eagle clutched a scroll with the national Latin motto E pluribus unum ( English : " Out of Many , One " ) . Following the conclusion of the American Civil War , the state of West Virginia had no official flag , and the matter was not taken up until the early 20th century .
= = = 1905 flag = = =
The need for an official state flag arose in 1904 when the West Virginia State Commission to the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis reported that the state required a flag or ensign to represent and distinguish itself among the other U.S. states at the exposition . In lieu of an official state flag , the commission adopted and used a state flag of its own design at the West Virginia building at the exposition , which was a " sprig of mountain laurel upon an immaculate white field with a pale blue border " .
In its report to the West Virginia Legislature , the West Virginia State Commission recommended the adoption of their flag design as the official state flag . On February 24 , 1905 , the West Virginia Legislature ratified the commission 's flag design following its passage of Joint Resolution Number 16 during the gubernatorial administration of Albert B. White . The legislature adopted the commission 's flag design , with the addition of a fringe or border of carmine red . The state flag was approved by the legislature to be employed on occasions where a special display of the state 's individuality was necessary or regarded as appropriate . According to the 1905 joint resolution :
Said state flag shall be in length and breadth in the proportion of nine to thirteen , this being the same as the flag of the great American Republic of which West Virginia forms a part ; the field thereof shall be pure white , upon the center of which shall be a sprig of the rhododendron maximum or " big laurel , " having flowers and leaves ; and on the reverse side shall be the state coat @-@ of @-@ arms and the motto ; the field of pure white shall be bordered by a band or strip of blue , and this in turn shall be bordered by a strip of fringe of carmine red ; and said flag shall be regarded and used as the West Virginia state flag on all occasions where a special display of the state 's individuality shall become necessary , or be regarded as appropriate .
Following its formal adoption by the legislature , schools and other institutions throughout West Virginia began flying the new state flag . The teachers and students at the schools in Ronceverte purchased the new state flag in June 1906 , which measured 5 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) in length , and used it along with the United States flag for salutes and patriotic exercises .
= = = 1907 flag = = =
By 1907 , the West Virginia Legislature found the 1905 state flag design to be completely unfeasible due to the lettering on one side reading toward the staff , and the differing colors on each respective side showing through the opposite side of the flag 's white field of cloth . The state legislature found that this destroyed " the distinctive features of the banner and leaving the state without a prescribed official flag " . The West Virginia Legislature sought to remedy the state flag 's design flaws in 1907 so that the state could be properly represented at the Jamestown Exposition in Norfolk . On February 25 , 1907 , during the administration of Governor William M. O. Dawson , the West Virginia Legislature passed Joint Resolution 2 , which amended the flag by removing the seal and motto from the reverse side and changing the color of the bordering fringe from carmine red to old gold . Instead of the seal and motto , the reverse of the flag was changed to consist of " a spring or sprig of the rhododendron maximum " . According to the 1907 joint resolution :
Said state flag shall be in length and breadth in proportion the same as the flag of the great American Republic of which West Virginia forms a part ; the field thereof shall be pure white , upon the center of which on the observe side shall be the great seal or coat of arms of the state , beneath which shall appear the legend " State of West Virginia , " in a scroll ; on the reverse side shall appear a sprig or sprigs of the rhododendron maximum , or big laurel , our state flower , having blossoms and leaves ; the field of pure white shall be bordered by a band or strip of blue , and this in turn shall be bordered by a strip or fringe of old gold ; and said flag shall be regarded and used as the West Virginia state flag on all occasions where a special display of the state 's individuality shall become necessary , or be regarded as appropriate .
= = = 1929 flag = = =
The flag design ratified in 1907 remained the state 's official flag until 1929 . The state of West Virginia sought a flag design that could be produced inexpensively so that the state flag could be mass @-@ produced for the state 's public schools . The 1907 flag proved to be more costly to reproduce due to the two different symbols on each side of the banner , the state 's coat of arms on the obverse and the state 's flower on the reverse . The West Virginia Legislature decided the state flag should be stamped with a design that would integrate both the coat of arms and the state flower on both sides . The design of the present state flag was officially adopted by the West Virginia Legislature on March 7 , 1929 , by West Virginia Senate Joint Resolution Number 18 . According to the joint resolution :
The proportions of the flag of the State of West Virginia shall be the same as those of the United States ensign ; the field shall be pure white , upon the center of which shall be emblazoned in proper colors , the coat @-@ of arms of the State of West Virginia upon which appears the date of the admission of the State into the Union , also with the motto , ' Montani Semper Liberi ' ( Mountaineers Are Always Free ) . Above the coat @-@ of @-@ arms of the State of West Virginia there shall be a ribbon lettered , ' State of West Virginia , ' and arranged appropriately around the lower part of the coat @-@ of @-@ arms of the State of West Virginia a wreath of Rhododendron maximum in proper colors . The field of pure white shall be bordered by a strip of blue on four sides . The flag of the State of West Virginia when used for parade purposes shall be trimmed with gold colored fringe on three sides and when used on ceremonial occasions with the United States ensign , shall be trimmed and mounted in similar fashion to the United States flag as regards fringe , cord , tassels , and mounting .
In 2001 , the North American Vexillological Association surveyed its members and other flag enthusiasts on the designs of the 72 U.S. state , U.S. territorial , and Canadian provincial flags . Members ranked the West Virginia state flag at 51 out of the 72 flags surveyed . U.S. state flags with state seals on solid @-@ color fields , like the West Virginia state flag , proved unpopular in the survey .
= = Usage and protocol = =
The West Virginia Legislature has passed a series of laws in the West Virginia Code governing the usage of the West Virginia state flag . The state flag is not permitted to be placed above , or if on the same level , to the right of the United States flag . Both the United States and West Virginia state flags are to be flown over the West Virginia State Capitol building year @-@ round . Any United States or West Virginia state flag purchased with state funds must be manufactured in the United States ; and West Virginia county boards of education must only purchase state flags manufactured in the United States if board building funds are used . To honor the death of law @-@ enforcement officers within the state , the West Virginia Code permits the draping of the state flag over the coffin at no cost , upon the request of the next @-@ of @-@ kin .
= = = Half @-@ mast protocol = = =
Effective July 18 , 2013 , the office of West Virginia Governor Earl Ray Tomblin established guidelines in accordance with the United States Code and West Virginia precedent and customs regarding the half @-@ mast display of United States and West Virginia state flags on West Virginia state properties . Both the United States and West Virginia state flags are to be hoisted to full @-@ mast , before being lowered to the half @-@ mast position ; likewise both flags are to be hoisted full @-@ mast prior to being lowered for the day . Both flags are only to be displayed in the half @-@ mast position in accordance with Federal law on the following occasions :
Memorial Day ( the last Monday in May ) : flags are displayed at half @-@ mast from sunrise until noon , then raised to full @-@ mast .
Peace Officers Memorial Day ( May 15 ) : flags are displayed at half @-@ mast for the entire day , unless that day is also Armed Forces Day ( the third Saturday in May ) .
Patriot Day ( September 11 ) : flags are displayed at half @-@ mast for the entire day .
National Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day ( December 7 ) : flags are displayed at half @-@ mast for the entire day .
Flags are displayed at half @-@ mast for 30 days following the day of death of either a current or former President of the United States .
Flags are displayed at half @-@ mast for ten days following the day of death of the Vice President of the United States , the Chief Justice or retired Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States , or the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives .
Flags are displayed at half @-@ mast from the day of death until the day of interment of a former Vice President , an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court , a Secretary of an executive or military department of the United States , or a Governor of a U.S. state , territory , or possession .
Flags are displayed at half @-@ mast on the day of death and the following day for a member of the United States Congress .
Flags displayed at half @-@ mast on state properties following a proclamation by the Governor of West Virginia during other unique instances outlined in the 2013 guidelines .
= = = Desecration = = =
According to West Virginia state law , the desecration of either the flag of the United States or the West Virginia state flag is an offense punishable as a misdemeanor and upon conviction , a guilty verdict can result in a fine " not less than five nor more than one hundred dollars , " or confinement in jail " for a period not exceeding thirty days " at " the discretion of the court or justice trying the case . "
However , such laws are unenforceable as the United States Supreme Court in Texas v. Johnson , 491 U.S. 397 ( 1989 ) , and reaffirmed in U.S. v. Eichman , 496 U.S. 310 ( 1990 ) , has ruled that due to the First Amendment to the United States Constitution , it is unconstitutional for a government ( whether federal , state , or municipality ) to prohibit the desecration of a flag , due to its status as " symbolic speech . "
= = Pledge of allegiance = =
On February 8 , 1977 , the office of the Secretary of State of West Virginia unanimously adopted the " Pledge of Allegiance to the West Virginia State Flag . " The motion to adopt the pledge was made by Charles S. Smith and seconded by Carol J. Calvert . The pledge reads as follows :
I pledge allegiance to the flag of West Virginia , which serves as a constant reminder that " Mountaineers Are Always Free , " which stands as a symbol of her majestic mountains , fertile forests , rich veins of coal , and the pride of her people .
= Battle of Goliad =
The Battle of Goliad was the second skirmish of the Texas Revolution . In the early @-@ morning hours of October 9 , 1835 , Texas settlers attacked the Mexican Army soldiers garrisoned at Presidio La Bahía , a fort near the Mexican Texas settlement of Goliad . La Bahía lay halfway between the only other large garrison of Mexican soldiers ( at Presidio San Antonio de Bexar ) and the then @-@ important Texas port of Copano .
In September , Texians began plotting to kidnap Mexican General Martín Perfecto de Cos , who was en route to Goliad to attempt to quell the unrest in Texas . The plan was initially dismissed by the central committee coordinating the rebellion . However , within days of the Texian victory at the Battle of Gonzales , Captain George Collinsworth and members of the Texian militia in Matagorda began marching towards Goliad . The Texians soon learned that Cos and his men had already departed for San Antonio de Béxar but continued their march .
The garrison at La Bahía was understaffed and could not mount an effective defense of the fort 's perimeter . Using axes borrowed from townspeople , Texians were able to chop through a door and enter the complex before the bulk of the soldiers were aware of their presence . After a 30 @-@ minute battle , the Mexican garrison , under Colonel Juan López Sandoval , surrendered . One Mexican soldier had been killed and three others wounded , while only one Texian had been injured . The majority of the Mexican soldiers were instructed to leave Texas , and the Texians confiscated $ 10 @,@ 000 worth of provisions and several cannons , which they soon transported to the Texian Army for use in the Siege of Béxar . The victory isolated Cos 's men in Béxar from the coast , forcing them to rely on a long overland march to request or receive reinforcements or supplies .
= = Background = =
In 1835 , Mexico operated two major garrisons within its Texas territory , the Alamo at San Antonio de Béxar and Presidio La Bahía near Goliad . Béxar was the political center of Texas , and Goliad laid halfway between it and the major Texas port of Copano . Military and civilian supplies and military personnel were usually sent by sea from the Mexican interior to Copano Bay and then could be transported overland to the Texas settlements .
In early 1835 , as the Mexican government transitioned from a federalist model to centralism , wary colonists in Texas began forming Committees of Correspondence and Safety . A central committee in San Felipe de Austin coordinated their activities . The Texians staged a minor revolt against customs duties in June ; these Anahuac Disturbances prompted Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna to send additional troops to Texas . In July , Colonel Nicolas Condelle , led 200 men to reinforce Presidio La Bahía . The following month , a contingent of soldiers arrived in Béxar with Colonel Domingo de Ugartechea . Fearing that stronger measures were needed to quell the unrest , Santa Anna ordered his brother @-@ in @-@ law , General Martín Perfecto de Cos to " repress with strong arm all those who , forgetting their duties to the nation which has adopted them as her children , are pushing forward with a desire to live at their own option without subjection to the laws " . Cos landed at Copano Bay on September 20 with approximately 500 soldiers . Cos briefly toured the port at Copano Bay and the small garrison at nearby Refugio and left small groups of soldiers to reinforce each of these locations . The main body of soldiers arrived in Goliad on October 2 .
Unbeknownst to Cos , as early as September 18 , several Texians , including James Fannin , Philip Dimmitt , and John Linn , had independently begun advocating a plan to seize Cos at either Copano or Goliad . As soon as Cos 's warships were spotted approaching Copano Bay , Refugio colonists sent messengers to San Felipe de Austin and Matagorda to inform the other settlements of Cos 's imminent arrival . Concerned that a lack of artillery would make the presidio at Goliad impossible to capture , the central committee chose not to order an assault .
Although Fannin , Dimmitt , and Linn continued to push for an attack on Goliad , Texian attention soon shifted towards Gonzales , where a small group of Texians were refusing to obey orders from Ugartechea . Colonists eagerly rushed to assist , and on October 2 the Battle of Gonzales officially opened the Texas Revolution . After learning of the Texian victory , Cos made haste for Béxar . He left with the bulk of his soldiers on October 5 , but because he was unable to find adequate transportation most of his supplies remained at La Bahía .
= = Prelude = =
On October 6 , members of the Texian militia in Matagorda convened at the home of Sylvanus Hatch . As their first order of business they elected George Collinsworth as their captain ; Dr. William Carleton was then named first lieutenant and D.C. Collinsworth became the unit 's second lieutenant . After appointing their leaders , the men decided to march on La Bahía . They intended to kidnap Cos and , if possible , steal the estimated $ 50 @,@ 000 that was rumored to accompany him . The Texians sent messengers to alert nearby settlements of their quest . By afternoon , 50 Texians were ready to march from Matagorda . During the march , for unknown reasons the men fired Carleton and appointed James W. Moore as the new first lieutenant .
The following day the expedition stopped at Victoria , where they were soon joined by English @-@ speaking settlers from other settlements and 30 Tejanos led by Plácido Benavides . Although no accurate muster rolls were kept , historian Stephen Hardin estimated that the Texian ranks swelled to 125 men . Forty @-@ nine of them signed a " Compact of Volunteers under Collinsworth " on October 9 . These men pledged that they were loyal to the Mexican federal government and would harm no one who remained loyal to the federalist cause .
One of the new arrivals , merchant Philip Dimmitt , received a missive from the Goliad customs agent with news that Cos and his war chest had already departed La Bahía to travel to San Antonio de Béxar . Undeterred , the group marched out on October 9 . Ira Ingram led the vanguard , which halted 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) outside Goliad . The events that follow are not very clear . According to the memoirs of Mexican General Vicente Filisola , who was not in Texas in 1835 , the Texians plotted to draw the presidio commander , Colonel Juan López Sandoval , and his officers from the fort . The Texians allegedly planned a dance in Goliad on October 9 and invited the Mexican officers . Although Sandoval , Captain Manuel Sabriego , and Lieutenant Jesus de la Garza briefly attended the dance , they suspected mischief and returned to the fort . No Texian source mentions such a plot . Several of the Texians , including Dimmitt , did enter the town that evening to try to find guides and support for the effort . Dimmitt 's efforts were successful , and several of the Tejanos who lived near Goliad joined the Texian force . They reported that Sandoval commanded only 50 men — far fewer than the number necessary to defend the entire perimeter of the fort — and provided directions to the fort .
The main body of Texian soldiers , under Collinsworth , became disoriented in the dark and wandered from the road . They were soon tangled in a mesquite thicket . While working their way back towards the road , the Texians met Ben Milam , a Texas colonist who had recently escaped from prison in Monterrey . Milam joined the militia as a private , and the group soon rejoined the vanguard .
= = Battle = =
As the combined Texian force prepared for battle , they sent a messenger to instruct the alcalde of the city to surrender . At 11 pm , the alcade responded that the town would remain neutral , neither surrendering nor fighting . Several of
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it was through his speaking abilities that Buffalo was recognized as chief by his people . By the time the Ojibwa of Wisconsin and Minnesota started treaty negotiations with the US Government , Buffalo was recognized as one of the primary spokesmen for all the bands , not just for the Ojibwa from La Pointe .
= = Treaties of 1825 and 1826 = =
In 1825 , Buffalo was one of forty @-@ one Ojibwa leaders to sign the Treaty of Prairie du Chien , his name recorded as " Gitspee Waishkee " or La Boeuf . He is listed third after Shingabawossin , who was recognized as head of the Crane doodem at Sault Ste . Marie , and therefore of the whole Ojibwa nation ; and chief " Gitspee Jiuaba " . The treaty , which the US Government advanced as a pretext to end hostilities between the Dakota and their neighbors , required all American Indian tribes and bands in and around Wisconsin and Iowa to delineate where their territories began and ended . Although the treaty did not state this goal , the US used information acquired to negotiate to gain Indian lands and remove the nations westward .
A year later , the Treaty of Fond du Lac was signed at a meeting at the western edge of Lake Superior . The signatories were listed by band , and Buffalo , recorded as Peezhickee , signed as the first chief from La Pointe . The treaty , mainly dealing with mineral rights for Ojibwa lands in what is now Michigan , had little immediate effect but foreshadowed future treaties . Buffalo did not speak on the copper issue . He praised the US officials for their ability to keep their young people under their control ; he asked for whiskey to accomplish the same ends among the younger members of his band . When the agent presented him with a silver medal as a symbol of his chieftainship , he explained that his power stemmed from his clan and reputation , and not from anything received from the U.S. Government .
Shortly after the treaties , Henry Rowe Schoolcraft , acting in his capacity as US Indian agent , visited La Pointe . He reprimanded Buffalo for not stopping the continuing sporadic warfare between the Ojibwa and Dakota . Buffalo replied that he was unable to stop the young men of Lac Courte Oreilles , St. Croix , Lac du Flambeau or other bands beyond La Pointe from going against the Dakota . Historians take this to mean that while he was regarded as the head spokesman of the Ojibwa in Wisconsin , he could not control the day @-@ to @-@ day affairs of all the bands , which were highly decentralized , particularly about warfare . Buffalo also said that , unlike the British before the War of 1812 , the U.S. Government had not done enough to help maintain the peace among the tribes .
= = Treaties of 1837 and 1842 = =
In the next decades , there was pressure from Americans who wanted to exploit the mineral and timber resources of Ojibwa country , and the US government sought to acquire control of the territory through treaties . The Treaties of 1837 and 1842 covered La Pointe and territories held by other bands over which Buffalo held considerable influence . In both treaties , Americans recognized Buffalo 's position as the principal chief of all the Lake Superior Chippewa .
= = = " Pine Tree " Treaty = = =
In the Treaty of St. Peters ( 1837 ) , the government sought the pine timber resources on Ojibwa lands . They intended to float the harvested timber southwest into the Mississippi River . The negotiations took place at Fort Snelling , near present @-@ day Minneapolis . The delegations from Minnesota and the St. Croix area arrived first and began discussions on July 20 . The assembled chiefs awaited the judgment of Buffalo before deciding to approve the treaty . Despite the impatience of the territorial governor , Henry Dodge , the negotiations were delayed for five days as the assembled bands waited for Buffalo to arrive . While other chiefs spoke about the terms of mineral rights and annuity amounts , Buffalo discussed treatment of the mixed @-@ blood traders , stating :
I am an Indian and do not know the value of money , but the half @-@ breeds do , for which reason we wish you pay them their share in money . You have good judgment in what you do , and if you do not act yourself , you will appoint someone else to divide it between the half breeds . ... I have good reasons for saying to you what I have just said ; for at a certain Treaty held heretofore , there were some who got rich while others received nothing .
Once the terms were agreed to , Buffalo marked and was recorded as Pe @-@ zhe @-@ ke , head of the La Pointe delegation . Although Buffalo and the other Lake Superior chiefs signed , they were said to be relatively silent compared with the Mississippi Chippewa chiefs during the negotiations . Historian Satz says this symbolized disagreement rather than acceptance of the terms of the treaty . Lyman Warren , a trader and interpreter from La Pointe , later complained that the Pillagers ( bands from present @-@ day Minnesota ) had been bribed into selling the lands rightfully belonging to the Wisconsin bands .
Buffalo expressed his misgivings over the treaty negotiations in a letter to Dodge stating ,
" The Indians acted like children ; they tried to cheat each other and got cheated themselves . When it comes my turn to sell my land , I do not think I shall give it up as they did . " Regarding possible future land cessions , he said : " Father I speak for my people , not for myself . I am an old man . My fire is almost out — there is but little smoke . When I sit in my wigwam & smoke my pipe , I think of what has past and what is to come , and it makes my heart shake . When business comes before us , we will try and act like Chiefs . If any thing is to be done , it had better be done straight . "
= = = " Copper " Treaty = = =
Five years later , Buffalo was presented with the Treaty of La Pointe covering his lands . Acting Superintendent of Indian Affairs Henry Stuart , who was promoting development of the Lake Superior copper industry , led the negotiations for the US government . No record of the negotiations was made . But materials written by missionaries , traders , and the Ojibwa through their agent indicated that Stuart used bullying and outright deception to force the Ojibwa to accept the terms .
Buffalo signed and was recorded as Gichi waishkey , 1st chief of La Pointe . Writing in 1855 , Morse describes Buffalo 's " voice so potent at the treaty of ' 42 . " However , three months after the treaty , Buffalo dictated a letter to the government in Washington D.C. , saying he was " ashamed " of the way the treaty was conducted . He said that Stuart had refused to listen to any objections by the Ojibwa , and that Buffalo wanted to add a provision to ensure permanent reservations for the Ojibwe in Wisconsin .
The interpretation of the 1837 and 1842 treaties remains ambiguous , as the US government claimed the Ojibwa ceded title to the lands , and the Ojibwa claiming they ceded only resource rights . The government had stated that the lands of the Ojibwa were unsuitable for farming and white settlement . The Ojibwa did obtain annuity payments to be paid each year at La Pointe , and reserved the right to hunt , fish , gather , and move across any lands outlined in the treaties . They obtained the promise that the nation would not be removed across the Mississippi River , unless they somehow " misbehaved . "
= = Threats of removal = =
In 1830 , President Andrew Jackson had signed the Indian Removal Act , which authorized the government to remove any Indian nations east of the Mississippi River across to the western side and offer land in exchange . As northern Wisconsin was not then under pressure for development by white settlers , as occurred in the Southeast , the Ojibwa were not among the first targets of the act . They watched closely as the government used the territorial claims defined by tribes in 1825 to force numerous tribes in Indiana , southern Michigan and southern Wisconsin to move west to Kansas , Iowa , Minnesota , and Indian Territory , present @-@ day Oklahoma . These included the Odawa and Potawatomi , two Anishinaabe tribes closely related to and allied with the Ojibwa .
In 1848 , Wisconsin achieved statehood ; Indian nations were under increased pressure for removal and marginalization . Corrupt US Indian agents controlled annuity payments , sometimes underpaying tribes , and took authority not granted them by the bands . They allowed white settlers to move onto Ojibwa lands and refused the Ojibwe the rights reserved by treaties . The Ojibwa complained to the President about the mistreatment and broken promises , but politicians were more apt to listen to western land speculators , who saw possibilities for profit in removing the Ojibwa to Minnesota .
Even with the treaties of 1837 and 1842 , leaders worried about Ojibwa removal . Buffalo kept in constant contact with the other bands to ensure the Ojibwa upheld their obligations . He sent runners to all the bands to report back on any conduct by the Ojibwa that could construed as grounds for removal . Nothing was reported . But , President Zachary Taylor signed the removal order on February 6 , 1850 , under corrupt circumstances , claiming to be protecting the Ojibwa from " injurious " whites . The Wisconsin legislature resisted the order and put aside plans for removal . Alexander Ramsey , the territorial governor of Minnesota , and Indian sub @-@ agent John Watrous conspired on a plan to force the Ojibwa to Minnesota anyway , as the two men stood to gain personal economic and political benefits from removal .
= = Sandy Lake Tragedy = =
To force the Ojibwa to comply , the subagent Watrous announced he would pay future annuities only at Sandy Lake , Minnesota instead of La Pointe , where they had been paid previously . This change resulted in the Sandy Lake Tragedy , when hundreds of Ojibwas starved or died of exposure in Minnesota and on the journey home because the promised annuity supplies were late , contaminated or inadequate .
In a later letter , Buffalo described the conditions :
And when a message was sent to me by our Indian agent to come and get our pay , I lost no time in arising & complying with my Agents voice and when I reached my point of destination , verily my Agent fed me with very bad flour it resembled green clay . Soon I became sick and many of my fellow chippewas also were taken sick , and soon the results were manifested by the death of over two hundred persons of my tribe , for this calamity , I laid blame to the provisions issued to us ...
Back in La Pointe , Buffalo took several actions to forestall and prevent removal . He and other leaders petitioned the US government for the next two years to no avail . They did win considerable sympathy from whites who learned of the debacle in Sandy Lake . Newspapers throughout the Lake Superior region ran editorials condemning the removal effort . Buffalo sent two of his sons to St. Paul , the state capital , where they obtained a portion of the annuities still owed .
Ramsey and Watrous continued to work to remove the Ojibwa to Sandy Lake . Watrous said they considered Sandy Lake a " graveyard , " but he still tried to move all the bands to Fond du Lac . Young Ojibwa men in Wisconsin were outraged at these developments and the threat of violent revolt grew . Buffalo called on the services of his well @-@ spoken sub @-@ chief Oshoga , and son @-@ in @-@ law Benjamin Armstrong , a literate white interpreter married to Buffalo 's daughter . He drew up a petition that the 92 @-@ year @-@ old Buffalo would personally deliver to the president in Washington .
= = Trip to Washington = =
After spring thaw in 1852 , the elderly Buffalo , Oshaga , Armstrong , and four others set out from La Pointe for Washington , D.C. by birch bark canoe . Along the way , they stopped in towns and mining camps along the Michigan shore of Lake Superior , securing hundreds of signatures in support of their cause . At Sault Ste . Marie , they were held by the US Indian agent , who told them that no unauthorized Ojibwa delegations could go to Washington and they had to turn back . The men pleaded the urgency of their case and traveled to Detroit by steamship . There another Indian agent tried to stop them . Once allowed to proceed , they sailed to Buffalo , New York and then on to Albany and New York City .
In New York City , the Ojibwe attracted attention , gaining publicity and money for their cause . In Washington , however , they were turned away by Indian Affairs , and told they should never have come in the first place . Luckily , they drew the attention of the Whig Congressman Briggs from New York , who was scheduled a meeting with President Millard Fillmore the next day . At the meeting , Buffalo rose first . He performed the pipe ceremony with a pipe made especially for the occasion . He had the younger chief Oshaga speak for more than an hour about the broken treaty promises and the disastrous attempt at removal . Fillmore agreed to consider the issues . The next day , he announced that the removal order would be canceled , annuity payments would be made at La Pointe , and another treaty would set up permanent reservations for the Ojibwe in Wisconsin .
The delegation traveled back to Wisconsin by rail , spreading the good news to the various Ojibwa bands as they went . Buffalo also announced that all the tribal representatives should gather at La Pointe for payments the next summer ( 1853 ) , and he would reveal the specifics of the agreement .
= = 1854 Treaty and Buffalo estate = =
As promised by Fillmore , treaty commissioners arrived in La Pointe in 1854 to conclude a final treaty . Recalling the experiences of 1837 and 1842 , the Ojibwa leaders sought to control the negotiations in 1854 . Ambiguity in those treaties had been partially to blame for ensuing problems , so Buffalo insisted he would accept no interpreter other than Armstrong , whom he referred to as his adopted son . The Ojibwa insisted on a guarantee of the right to hunt , fish , and gather on all the ceded territory , and on the establishment on several reservations across western Upper Michigan , northern Wisconsin , and northeastern Minnesota. in his mid @-@ nineties and in failing health , Buffalo directed the negotiations but left most of the speaking to other chiefs . He entrusted Armstrong with taking care of the details in the written version .
The reservations in Wisconsin were named the Lac Courte Oreilles Indian Reservation , Lac du Flambeau Indian Reservation . The La Pointe Band was given a reservation at Bad River around the Band 's traditional wild ricing grounds , and some reserved land for fishing grounds at the eastern tip of Madeline Island . In Minnesota , the reservations for the Fond du Lac and the Grand Portage bands were established , with pending negotiations promised for the Bois Forte Band . In Michigan , reservations for the Lac Vieux Desert , Ontonagon and L 'Anse bands were established . The St. Croix and Sokaogon bands left the negotiations in protest and were excluded from the agreement .
A small tract of land was also set aside for Chief Buffalo and his family at Buffalo Bay on the mainland across from Madeline Island at a place called Miskwaabikong ( red rocks or cliffs ) . Many of the Catholic and mixed @-@ blooded members of the La Pointe Band elected to settle there around their chief rather than at Bad River . In 1855 , this settlement at the " Buffalo Estate " was acknowledged ; it was extended by executive order into what is now called the Red Cliff Indian Reservation .
= = Death and legacy = =
Chief Buffalo was too ill to participate in the speeches at the time of the annuity payments in summer 1855 . Tensions continued , as the Ojibwe accused US officials of corruption , threats of violence were made by members of the American Fur Company , and infighting erupted among the Ojibwa bands . Morse records that these conflicts worsened Buffalo 's condition . He died of heart disease on September 7 , 1855 , at La Pointe . Members of his band blamed his death on the conduct of the government officials .
He was described as " head and the chief of the Chippewa Nation " and a man respected " for his rare integrity , wisdom in council , power as an orator , and magnanimity as a warrior . " In his final hours he requested that his tobacco pouch and pipe be carried to Washington , D.C. and given to the government . His funeral was conducted in military fashion , with volleys fired at intervals in his honor .
Great Chief Buffalo is regarded a hero of the Lake Superior Ojibwe . Those at Red Cliff also remember him as a founding figure of the community . His life is celebrated during commemorations of the treaty signings and the Sandy Lake Tragedy . Missionary Edmund Ely identified Ojibwe chief John Little Wolf , or Maiingans , as one of Buffalo 's sons . He is buried in the La Pointe Indian Cemetery , near the deep , cold waters of Ojibwe Gichigami ( Lake Superior ) , the " great freshwater @-@ sea of the Ojibwa " . His descendants , many going by the surname " Buffalo , " are widespread in Red Cliff and Bad River . During the series of late 20th @-@ century treaty conflicts that have been called the Wisconsin Walleye War , beginning in 1983 , his name was frequently invoked as one who refused to give up his homeland and tribal sovereignty .
= Captive Heart ( song ) =
" Captive Heart " is a song by American Tejano pop singer Selena . It was the second promotional single released from Dreaming of You ( 1995 ) , behind " God 's Child ( Baila Conmigo ) " . It was written by Mark Goldenberg and Kit Hain , and was produced by Guy Roche . Recording sessions took place at Selena 's father , Abraham Quintanilla , Jr . ' s recording studio Q @-@ Productions and at several other locations . The song was given mixed reviews by music critics . " Captive Heart " is an electropop song performed in a rhythmical pop groove .
= = Production and composition = =
" Captive Heart " was recorded at Bananaboat Studios in Burbank , California in January 1995 , Q @-@ Productions in Corpus Christi , Texas and at Conway Studios in North Hollywood . It was written by Mark Goldenberg and Kit Hain , and was produced by Guy Roche . It was mixed by Nathaniel " Mick " Guzuaski , engineered by Mario Lucy , Brian " Red " Moore and Mona Suchard who also was credited at the assistant engineer . American singer Donna De Lory was the backing vocalist for " Captive Heart " . Recording sessions had taken nearly less than a week to complete the song .
" Captive Heart " is an Electropop song performed in a rhythmical R & B pop groove . It draws influences from synthpop , fast rock , dance @-@ pop and electronic dance music . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , the song is composed in the key of D major with a time signature in common time , and with a moderate groove of 91 beats per minute .
= = Critical reception = =
Vibe editor Ed Morales compared both Evelyn " Champagne " King and " Wherever You Are " ( duet with the Barrio Boyzz ) with the song " Captive Heart " . While , according to the Chicago Tribune , " Captive Heart " was destined for urban @-@ contemporary radio . Leonard Charles of Miami Today , commented on " Captive Heart " ' s lack of impact on the Hot 100 , stating that the song would have been stronger if EMI Records had promoted the single extensively . Charles also commented that he believes that the record company didn 't put in much effort on the song but believed that EMI had only put in effort on singles " Dreaming of You " and " I Could Fall in Love " . Benson Ramos of The Gaston Gazette believed " Captive Heart " wasn 't " crossover potential " . Steven Washington of Aurora Sentinel praised the song 's " electronic feels " and " Latin flavors " that it brings to the song . Sabrina Moore of Corsicana Daily Sun , disliked the song because it felt " unoriginal " but commented that Selena could have done better in another Latin flavored ballad .
The Daily Vault believed Selena made a mistake with " Captive Heart " , stating that " the song was a surprising and painful flaw , because it showcases a mistake of exerting too much throat , which many popular singers currently do " . The Daily Vault instated that it was a one @-@ way ticket to voice destruction . Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News stated while reviewing " I 'm Getting Used To You " that the songs " are a bit more uptempo , bordering on that New Jill Swing sound popularized by Mary J. Blige and Jade " .
= = Track listing = =
U.S. Promo Single ( 1995 )
" Captive Heart " – 4 : 23 @-@ 4 ; 18
U.S. Cassette Single ( 1995 )
" Captive Heart " – 4 : 23
= = Credits and personnel = =
= Clive Mantle =
Clive Andrew Mantle ( born 3 June 1957 ) is an English actor . He is best known for playing general surgeon Dr Mike Barrett in the BBC hospital drama series Casualty and Holby City in the 1990s , and is also noted for his role as Little John in the cult 1980s fantasy series Robin of Sherwood .
Mantle was educated at Kimbolton School , Cambridgeshire between 1970 and 1975 and at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art ( RADA ) between 1978 and 1980 . He appeared in 11 productions of the National Youth Theatre in five seasons between 1974 and 1978 , and began carving a successful career as a stage actor in the 1980s , alongside various television roles . In 1984 he was nominated for an Olivier Award and was joint Best Newcomer in the Plays and Players Awards for his performance as Lennie in Of Mice and Men . In 1984 he was also cast as Little John in the cult 1980s fantasy series Robin of Sherwood , a role which he considers the most enjoyable of his career and which has remained one of his best @-@ known roles . He was to appear as the first Nuclear Man in Superman IV : The Quest for Peace in 1987 , but his scenes were cut from the film ; they were later included with other deleted scenes when the film was released on DVD .
After playing several minor roles in other Hollywood films such as White Hunter Black Heart ( 1990 ) and Alien 3 ( 1992 ) , Mantle was cast as consultant Dr Mike Barrett in the BBC television hospital drama series Casualty . He became one of its most popular characters , renowned for his convincing and authoritative portrayal and " dishy doc " persona . He left Casualty in 1996 after appearing in 85 episodes between October 1992 and November 1996 , but after struggling with his acting career , he returned to the role in 1999 in Holby City , and appeared in another 32 episodes until 2001 .
On stage , Mantle has appeared in plays such as Coming Clean , A Streetcar Named Desire , and Educating Rita , and has continued his successful stage career since departing from Holby City . In 2003 he appeared in Rattle of a Simple Man ; in 2006 he played the part of The Narrator in The Rocky Horror Show ; and over the Christmas and New Year period of 2007 – 2008 , he portrayed the villain Abanazer in a pantomime production of Aladdin at the Theatre Royal in Bath . In 2010 he portrayed comedian Tommy Cooper in the stage entertainment show Jus ' Like That ! A Night Out with Tommy Cooper ; it was one of his most challenging roles , due to the various skills the performance required . More recently , Mantle has become known for his roles on television as Lord Greatjon Umber in HBO 's Game of Thrones and as Tony Curry , Ollie 's ( Will Mellor 's ) father , in the BBC 's White Van Man .
= = Early life = =
Mantle was born in Barnet , then in Hertfordshire , in 1957 . He was the cousin of John Hallam and was a keen supporter of Chelsea Football Club from a young age . Mantle studied at the boarding school Kimbolton School in Kimbolton , Huntingdonshire between 1970 and 1975 , and was a chorister in the Choir of St John 's College , Cambridge for four years . He first worked on a farm in Cambridgeshire during his studies and soon became interested in theatre . He appeared in 11 productions of the National Youth Theatre in five seasons between 1974 and 1978 .
As a student , Mantle lived in a basement flat in Islington . He trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art ( RADA ) between 1978 and 1980 , where he initially found his towering height of 6 ' 5 ½ " ( 1 @.@ 97 m ) to be a hindrance to the sort of roles he could convincingly perform in his acting . He said that he was discouraged early on by people who said , " You 'll never work , you 're too tall to be an actor . "
He later said about his height :
Height is a very strange thing . If you 're literally playing the milkman or the butler or something like that , they 'll all think , " Now why is the butler so big ? There must be a reason – ah , he 's gonna come back later and kill somebody . " Then , you don 't . It worries an audience in a strange way if someone my height is playing a small part . I was an actor who needed drama school . I used to be so excited about being on stage that I would just run down to the front and shout ; they had to knock that out of me . Physically , just being six @-@ foot @-@ five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half , I 'm not one of life 's gazelles . But having said that , I was made aware that I can be gazelle @-@ like if I so choose . If I hadn 't been to drama school , I would have just slouched around and bent over double and apologized for my height .
= = Career = =
= = = 1980s = = =
In 1980 , Mantle debuted on the screen with a small role as Ewen in Christian Marnham 's short thriller feature The Orchard End Murder . In 1981 , he appeared in the National Tours of The Ideal Gnome Expedition for David Wood 's Whirligig Theatre and Deborah Warner 's play , Woyzeck , which showed at the University Theatre during the Edinburgh Festival . In 1982 , he appeared in an episode of the TV series Minder , before taking on the voice of Private Smith in the animated military comedy series Jane . From 3 November 1982 , Mantle portrayed Jurgen opposite Eamon Boland , C. J. Allen , Philip Donaghy and Ian McCurrach in David Hayman 's award winning stage production of Coming Clean at the Bush Theatre in London .
In 1983 , Mantle was cast most notably in the cult fantasy series Robin of Sherwood as " Little John " , a legendary fellow outlaw of Robin Hood , who was said to be Robin 's chief lieutenant and second @-@ in @-@ command of the Merry Men , in a cast which included Michael Praed as " Robin Hood " , Peter Llewellyn Williams as " Much " , Ray Winstone as " Will Scarlet " , and Judi Trott as " Maid Marian " . Footage for the series was shot in rural Somerset and Wiltshire , with the Saxon Tithe Barn in Bradford @-@ on Avon functioning as the great hall of Nottingham Castle , Great Chalfield Manor in Melksham doubling as Maid Marion 's family home , and numerous battles were shot at Leaford Grange and Nettleton Mill near Castle Combe , locations which Mantle considered to be " wonderfully realised and breathtaking " . The waterfall scene for the quarterstaff battle between Robin and Little John in the first episode
" Robin Hood and the Sorcerer " was shot at Bowood House . Helen Phillips said of his performance as Little John , " excellently played by Clive Mantle , the series ' John at first appears to conform to a , by then , well- established stereotype . " Mantle has said of his role :
It is the job I 've enjoyed doing more than anything else on TV . I have the greatest memories of beautiful , halcyon days @-@ out filming on location and we had such a great , fun crew working on the show . We still get together once a year . Not just the cast but also the directors , producer , props guys , it 's like a family ! I think the key to part of the series ' success was that this great camaraderie came across on screen .
In 1984 he was nominated for an Olivier Award and was joint Best Newcomer in the Plays and Players Awards for his performance as Lennie in Of Mice and Men . Following the success of the play , it was transferred from the Nuffield Theatre in Southampton to the Mermaid Theatre in London . He went on to tour extensively as Lennie in Of Mice and Men , and has appeared in 6 different productions of the play . He also played Little John in the theatrical production of Robin Hood at the Young Vic Theatre ; and Mitch in Tim Albery 's production of A Streetcar Named Desire at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield . Other theatrical credits include The Relapse ; The Red Devil Battery Sign ; King John ; Johnny Johnson ; The Ideal Gnome Expedition ; East ; Blood on the Neck of the Cat and Bedroom Farce . He has also appeared as the guest star at the Wyndham 's Theatre and Theatre Royal Bath , in the award winning production of The Play What I Wrote . In 1984 , Mantle was one of four in the live BBC radio comedy show In One Ear. with Nick Wilton , Helen Lederer and Steve Brown . He transferred to TV with a version of it in 1987 called Hello Mum which was also live . In 1986 , Mantle replaced Alan Rickman as Achilles in Howard Davies 's Royal Shakespeare Company production of Troilus and Cressida at the Barbican Theatre in London . London Theatre Record said that Mantle " gives a curious performance : virtually a mirror @-@ image of Ajax in his nasal , bovine stolidity . " He continued with minor screen roles as a ruffian on a bus in Ronald Neame 's film Foreign Body and as " Big Ben " Davis in Dempsey and Makepeace in 1986 . He was to appear as the first Nuclear Man in Superman IV : The Quest for Peace ( 1987 ) , but the role was left on the cutting room floor . Some of his deleted footage from Superman IV was released on DVD in a Special Edition as part of Superman Ultimate Collector 's Edition in November 2006 . The footage was included as " Additional Scenes " but was not reincorporated into the main feature . In 1987 – 1998 he appeared in two episodes of Smith & Jones , and in 1989 played a policeman in the TV series The Return of Shelley and had a small role as Johnny Ladder in the Menahem Golan @-@ directed film Mack the Knife , a 19th @-@ century set crime comedy which starred Raúl Juliá , Richard Harris , and Julia Migenes in the leading roles . He also appeared in the radio plays Farewell , My Lovely ; Frozen Assets ; and The Rise and Fall of the Romanov Autocracy .
= = = 1990s = = =
In 1990 , Mantle had a small role as an electric meter reader in the One Foot in the Grave episode " The Return of the Speckled Band " , and played Harry , a man who " gave Clint Eastwood a pounding " in White Hunter Black Heart . In 1991 , Mantle played an irate husband whose wife is chatted up by Richie ( Rik Mayall ) in the first episode of Bottom , " Smells " , and also had a role as a police inspector in an episode of Drop the Dead Donkey . In 1991 – 92 he played Dave in Sandi Toksvig 's The Pocket Dream at the Nottingham Playhouse and Albery Theatre in London . In 1992 he played a minor character as a bald monk in the film Alien 3 , in which he had to shave his head for the role . In applying for the film , Mantle sent off photographs of himself from a RADA play he had once starred in , sporting a similar shaven look . In an interview at the time , he spoke of his role in Alien 3 :
I 'm playing a heinous criminal . In fact , there are about 12 or 15 of us , the last remaining prisoners on a prison asteroid , which is hurtling through space . It was a hard labour prison , which is about the best place to send all your hardened , nastiest pieces of work . We 're not nice people .
Also in 1992 , he starred in the CITV series WYSIWYG .
Mantle is best known for his long stint as general surgeon Dr Mike Barrett in 85 episodes of the TV series Casualty from October 1992 to November 1996 , and 32 episodes of Holby City between 1999 and 2001 . He previously appeared in Casualty as the brother of a patient in 1988 . Mantle received much acclaim for his role and was one of the show 's most popular characters . He was praised for being entirely convincing as a hospital consultant and very dominant and authoritative in his role , " shouting orders in incomprehensible hospital @-@ speak . " Daily Mirror described him as a " heart @-@ throb consultant " and said that the role brought him " an army of female fans " . A 2001 poll by the Scottish Sunday Mail voted him 7th on a list of Top " 10 heart @-@ throb docs on the box " in a list which included the likes of George Clooney and Goran Višnjić . Mantle has said that during his role as the doctor he received a lot of fan mail , some of which were medically related and asking for his advice , believing him to be a real doctor , but professed that he couldn 't even stand the sight of real blood . He has said , " It 's funny because people always treat me like a doctor . Not a day goes by without someone coming up to me and asking me for advice . " In 1996 , he turned down an offer of £ 250 @,@ 000 to continue playing the character , and last appeared in Casualty in November 1996 . He said of his departure :
I 've had a great time , but I 'm frightened that , if I stick around too long , I 'll end up unable to do anything else . It 's not about money , it 's about doing other things and not wanting Mike to pale into insignificance .
In 1995 , Mantle was honoured with a surprise This Is Your Life edition , presented by Michael Aspel ; the title theme drew upon the " Robin of Sherwood " , after his role as Little John . During the life tribute , Mantle met his heroes from Worcestershire County Cricket Club , and the Chelsea FA Cup winners from 1970 .
In 1994 he played a prophet in Jo Brand Through the Cakehole , and in 1995 he performed on stage as Frank in Educating Rita , a No.1 National Tour . In 1996 he visited Ghana on an eight @-@ day tour for the charity Save The Children . Mantle was a friend of Jill Dando , and played the prosecuting barrister in a TV dramatisation of the trial of Barry George in a Tonight With Trevor McDonald special , Nothing But The Truth .
In 1997 , Mantle was cast opposite Sarah Lancashire as Jack Deakin in the comedy series Bloomin ' Marvellous , written by playwright John Godber , described as " a comedy about a couple who decide to start a family . " The series was panned by most critics , and Mantle sarcastically remarked that " I 've seen murderers and rapists get a better press than we did . " However , several critics , such as Brian Viner of The Mail on Sunday , said that Bloomin ' Marvellous had " charm , top @-@ notch acting and a reasonable sprinkling of laughs , none of which are certainties in television comedy – especially the laughs . "
In 1998 , he appeared in Stephen Daldry 's production of The Ragged Trousered Philanthropists at the Liverpool Playhouse and the Theatre Royal Stratford East theatres . In 1998 @-@ 9 he portrayed Simon Horton , younger brother of David Horton in the British sitcom The Vicar of Dibley for two episodes ; Stevyn Colgan said that his imposing height was " used to great comic effect " in this role when he became the love interest of 5 ' 0 " ( 1 @.@ 52 m ) tall Reverend Geraldine Granger ( Dawn French ) . From March 1999 , Mantle played Victor in Jan Sargent 's production of The Price at the Bristol Old Vic . Ian Shuttleworth of the Financial Times describes Mantle 's Victor as a character who " sacrificed a promising academic career in science to become a cop on the beat simply in order to keep his shattered father " and said that " Clive Mantle expresses his obstinacy through gritted teeth and cold , civil smiles rather than letting it loose " , also remarking that both he and his wife Esther ( played by Susan Wooldridge ) seemed several years too young for their roles . In May 1999 , Mantle , a cricket fan , agreed to participate in a celebrity international cricket tournament with the likes of Caprice Bourret , Rory Bremner , Ainsley Harriott , Lawrence Dallaglio , Lesley Garrett , Barry Norman , and Robbie Earle , and played Sri Lanka on 14 May 1999 .
= = = 2000s = = =
After experiencing mixed fortunes in his acting career after leaving Casualty , Mantle agreed to return to the role as Dr Mike Barrett in Holby City in 1999 . His abilities as a dramatic actor were praised by Christopher Matthew of the Daily Mail who said in 2000 , " Even the great Mike Barratt ( Clive Mantle ) , a dynamo in his Casualty days , manages to make eating a yoghurt seem like high drama . " Claire Stoker of Liverpool Echo said that " Clive will always be the best consultant Holby had ever had . " Mantle finally left his role in Holby City after 32 episodes in 2001 . That year , Mantle participated in a charity trek of the Annapurna circuit in the Himalayas and to Everest Base Camp , reaching 18 @,@ 420 ft in aid of Hope and Homes for Children . In 2002 , Mantle appeared in an episode of Heartbeat .
In 2003 , Mantle played Maynard in Ben Bolt 's TV movie , Second Nature , which starred Alec Baldwin in the leading role , and appeared in the first episode of the series Fortysomething . He portrayed Percy , described as a " big , bashful Northern mill @-@ worker who lives with his mum " , in Patrick Sanford 's stage production of Rattle of a Simple Man at the Clwyd Theatr Cymru in Mold , Flintshire . Gail Cooper of the Western Mail praised his performance and said :
Mantle , better known as dishy and confident consultant Mike Barrett in Casualty , is cast completely against type as Percy , the 42 @-@ year @-@ old virgin who admits to being only 35 . His body language is superb : awkward , self @-@ effacing , obsessively tidy – Coronation Street fans should think Roy Cropper if they want to imagine the sort of man Percy is .
In 2003 , Mantle began filming The Bingo Club , one of five specially commissioned one @-@ hour plays which were screened in January 2004 on BBC1 . Co @-@ starring Paula Wilcox and John McArdle , The Bingo Tales relates the story of three women facing romantic hardship and growing old . During production , Mantle fell on his face while shooting a fencing scene and was rushed to Selly Oak Hospital with a ruptured ligament in his leg .
In 2004 , Mantle appeared in an episode of The Afternoon Play , and in 2005 appeared in John Putch 's two @-@ part TV movie The Poseidon Adventure , opposite Adam Baldwin , Steve Guttenberg and Rutger Hauer . The film was dismissed by one critic as " criminally unimaginative " . He also appeared in an episode of Doctors . In 2006 , he guest @-@ starred in the Doctor Who audio drama The Settling by Big Finish Productions , and had a role in Simon Shore 's TV movie about a boy with autism , After Thomas , He toured as " The Narrator " in The Rocky Horror Show , and also played Brauner opposite Robin Hood 's Michael Praed in Haymarket Productions 's National Tour of Brian Stewart 's Killing Castro . The play was performed at the Festival Theatre in Malvern in June 2006 , and was described by the Birmingham Mail as an " acclaimed comedy " which " chronicles the more bizarre of America 's attempts to kill the Cuban leader Fidel Castro – including filling his shoes with poison and inventing an exploding cigar . " Over the Christmas and New Year period of 2007 and 2008 , Mantle portrayed the villain Abanazer in a pantomime production of Aladdin at the Theatre Royal in Bath , described as an attempt by a theatre spokesman for Mantle to " throw off his gentle giant persona and transform himself into a classic panto baddie for the audience to boo and hiss wildly . " He performed in 64 shows over the duration of five and a half weeks . In 2008 , he appeared in an episode of The Invisibles , opposite Anthony Head , Warren Clarke and Jenny Agutter . In 2009 , Mantle had minor roles in Lucy Akhurst 's Morris dancing comedy Morris : A Life with Bells On and in the Thaddeus O 'Sullivan historical biopic of Sir Winston Churchill , Into the Storm , co @-@ starring Iain Glen , Brendan Gleeson , and James D 'Arcy .
= = = 2010s = = =
In 2010 , Mantle portrayed Tommy Cooper in the successful stage entertainment show Jus ' Like That ! A Night Out With Tommy Cooper , which appeared at the Edinburgh Festival . To train for the role , Mantle mastered many of Cooper 's magic tricks , studying under Geoffrey Durham for several months . Mantle was thrilled to take on the role as Cooper is his ultimate comic hero , saying " It 's such a big privilege playing Tommy – I genuinely love the man . He is one of the funniest comedians this country has ever produced . So this whole tour for me is just an immense thrill . " Mantle considered the role highly challenging , given that he had to combine several aspects of skill , from the magic tricks to the joke @-@ telling , the physical comedy , and emulating the distinctive voice . Some people initially questioned the suitability of Mantle for the character , given that he was well known for playing a solemn doctor in Casualty , but he and the play were warmly received by critics . South Wales Echo called it a " compelling , funny and moving play " and said " Clive , best known for his role as Dr Mike Barratt in Casualty , has had to get used to wearing a fez and conjuring up some magic for his title role of Jus ' Like That ! A Night Out With Tommy Cooper . "
In 2011 he took a supporting role in the TV series White Van Man as Tony Curry , father of the central character , Ollie " Rogan " Josh Curry , played by Will Mellor . He also has an ongoing role in HBO 's Game of Thrones as Lord Greatjon Umber , a close ally of Robb Stark , and has provided the voice to the audio editions of Andy McNab 's Nick Stone thrillers . In 2012 , Mantle appeared in the Sherlock episode " The Hounds of Baskerville " as Dr Frankland .
In 2013 , Mantle performed in the black comedy The Ladykillers , playing the part of Major Courtney . He was forced to withdraw from the touring production in March 2013 after he was attacked at the Travelodge hotel in Newcastle . On the night of Saturday 23 March , he became involved in a brawl after asking a group of fellow guests to keep the noise down , during which part of his right ear was bitten off . He had to have emergency surgery at the Royal Victoria Infirmary hospital to have it sewn back on . A 32 @-@ year @-@ old man from Hamilton , South Lanarkshire was charged over the incident and appeared before a magistrate in April 2013 , and another man was released on bail in connection to the incident ; a third man has been released without charge . In June 2014 the two accused were found not guilty of all charges .
In 2014 Mantle supplied the voice of Gator in the eighteenth season of the British children 's television series Thomas & Friends as well as its sixth CGI animated film Tale of the Brave . He voiced Gator in both British and American dubbed versions .
= = Filmography = =
= Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru =
Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru ( 処女はお姉さまに恋してる , lit . The Maidens Are Falling in Love with Me ) , commonly known as Otoboku ( おとボク ) , is a Japanese adult visual novel developed by Caramel Box and released on January 28 , 2005 playable on Windows PCs . The game was later ported to the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) with the adult content removed . The Windows version was released in English by MangaGamer in 2012 . The story follows the life of Mizuho Miyanokouji , an androgynous male high school student , who transfers into an all @-@ girls school due to his grandfather 's will .
The gameplay in Otoboku follows a branching plot line which offers pre @-@ determined scenarios with courses of interaction , and focuses on the appeal of the six female main characters by the player character . The game ranked as the second best @-@ selling PC game sold in Japan for the time of its release , and charted in the national top 50 several more times afterwards . Caramel Box went on to produce two fan discs released in 2005 and 2007 in Caramel Box Yarukibako and Caramel Box Yarukibako 2 , respectively . Caramel Box later produced a sequel to Otoboku titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru : Futari no Elder released on June 30 , 2010 playable on Windows PCs . Futari no Elder was ported to the PSP with the adult content removed . The story follows Chihaya Kisakinomiya , an androgynous male , who transfers into the all @-@ girls school that was the setting of Otoboku .
A manga adaptation of Otoboku was serialized in ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Daioh , and a manga adaptation of Futari no Elder was serialized in Kadokawa Shoten 's Comp Ace . Comic anthologies , light novels and art books were also published , as were audio dramas and several music albums . A 12 @-@ episode Otoboku anime produced by Feel aired in Japanese between October and December 2006 , and an extra original video animation ( OVA ) episode was released in April 2007 . Media Blasters licensed the anime and released the series in three DVD volumes . The Otoboku anime was generally panned in reviews at Anime News Network where the series was described as " cruelly unimaginative " with " obnoxious quirks and technical shortcomings . " In a review of the anime by Mania Entertainment , the series is thought to be " very predictable and bland . " A three @-@ episode OVA adaptation of Futari no Elder produced by Silver Link was released between August and October 2012 .
= = Gameplay = =
Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru is a romance visual novel in which the player assumes the role of Mizuho Miyanokouji . Its gameplay requires little player interaction as much of the game 's duration is spent on reading the text that appears on the screen , which represents the story 's narrative
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iteru : Futari no Elder ranked third in national PC game pre @-@ orders in Japan . Futari no Elder ranked second in terms of national sales of PC games in Japan in June 2010 .
The first two anime DVD volumes released by Media Blasters were reviewed by Anime News Network . In the review of the first DVD , the reviewer Carl Kimlinger generally panned the volume , commenting how the three episodes were " cruelly unimaginative " where " afterwards it 's one long slide into a torturous hell of girls ' school tripe where not even humor or romance can pierce the veil of pain . " The Catholic girl 's school premise is likened to Maria @-@ sama ga Miteru and Strawberry Panic ! , and is considered to be used " merely as visual spice . " For the second DVD volume , Kimlinger wrote that " while the onslaught of squealing , caffeinated moe @-@ bait has abated somewhat in its ferocity , a sagging of the already listlessly undirected plot ensures that the series ' sophomore outing is only marginally more tolerable than the first . " Further , the series is described as having " obnoxious quirks and technical shortcomings . "
The first two anime DVD volumes released by Media Blasters were also reviewed by Mania Entertainment . In the review of the first DVD , the reviewer Chris Beveridge felt the anime reminded him of " parts of Princess Princess , especially when it came to the Elder status piece . It 's even reminiscent of Strawberry Panic in this way . " The series is described as " all about the " moe " factor , bringing about an atmosphere that makes you like the characters , care about them and feel good about seeing them interact . It does it well even if it doesn ’ t have an amazing hook . " For the second DVD volume , Beveridge commented that the series continues to be " very predictable and bland " which is " at this point fun but entirely forgettable . " Beveridge also wrote how " the characters are all pleasant , nicely designed and with mildly interesting personalities that could lead to something more but never does . "
= Atlantis : The Lost Empire =
Atlantis : The Lost Empire is a 2001 American animated action @-@ adventure film created by Walt Disney Feature Animation — the first science fiction film in Disney 's animated features canon and the 41st overall . Written by Tab Murphy , directed by Gary Trousdale and Kirk Wise , and produced by Don Hahn , the film features an ensemble cast with the voices of Michael J. Fox , Cree Summer , James Garner , Leonard Nimoy , Don Novello , Phil Morris , Claudia Christian , Jacqueline Obradors , and Jim Varney in his final role before his death . Set in 1914 , the film tells the story of a young man who gains possession of a sacred book , which he believes will guide him and a crew of mercenaries to the lost city of Atlantis .
Development of the film began after production had finished on The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) . Instead of another musical , the production team decided to do an action @-@ adventure film inspired by the works of Jules Verne . Atlantis was notable for adopting the distinctive visual style of comic book creator Mike Mignola . At the time of its release , the film had made greater use of computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) than any of Disney 's previous animated features ; it remains one of the few to have been shot in anamorphic format . Linguist Marc Okrand created a language specifically for use in Atlantis , while James Newton Howard provided the score . The film was released at a time when audience interest in animated films was shifting away from hand @-@ drawn animation toward films with full CGI .
Atlantis : The Lost Empire premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , California on June 3 , 2001 , and went into general release on June 15 . Released by Walt Disney Pictures , Atlantis performed modestly at the box office . Budgeted at $ 100 million , the film grossed over $ 186 million worldwide , $ 84 million of which was earned in North America . Due to the film 's lackluster box office performance , Disney quietly canceled both a spin @-@ off television series and an underwater attraction at its Disneyland theme park . Some critics praised it as a unique departure from typical Disney animated features , while others disliked it due to the unclear target audience and absence of songs . Atlantis was nominated for a number of awards , including seven Annie Awards , and won Best Sound Editing at the 2002 Golden Reel Awards . The film was released on VHS and DVD on January 29 , 2002 ; the Blu @-@ ray released on June 11 , 2013 . Atlantis is considered to be a cult favorite , due in part to Mignola 's unique artistic influence . A direct @-@ to @-@ video sequel , Atlantis : Milo 's Return , was released in 2003 .
= = Plot = =
A large tidal wave triggered by a distant explosion threatens to drown the island of Atlantis . In the midst of an evacuation from the capital city , the Queen of Atlantis is caught by a strange , hypnotic blue light and lifted up into the " Heart of Atlantis " , a powerful crystal protecting the city . The crystal consumes her and creates a dome barrier that protects the city 's innermost district . She leaves behind a young daughter , Princess Kida , as the island sinks beneath the ocean .
Thousands of years later in 1914 , Milo Thatch , a cartographer and linguist at the Smithsonian Institution who is marginalized for his research on Atlantis , believes that he has found The Shepherd 's Journal , an ancient manuscript that contains directions to the lost island . After the museum board declines his proposal to search for the journal , a mysterious woman , Helga Sinclair , introduces Milo to Preston B. Whitmore , an eccentric millionaire . Whitmore has already funded a successful effort to retrieve the journal as repayment of a debt to Milo 's grandfather , and recruits Milo to lead an expedition to Atlantis as soon as he receives it .
The expedition departs with a team of specialists led by Commander Lyle Rourke , who also led the journal recovery expedition . The crew includes Vinny Santorini , a demolitions expert ; Mole Molière , a geologist ; Dr. Joshua Sweet , a medical officer ; Audrey Ramirez , a mechanic ; Mrs. Wilhelmina Packard , a radio operator ; and Cookie Farnsworth , a mess cook . They set out in the " Ulysses " , a massive submarine . During the journey , they are attacked by the monstrous Leviathan , a robotic lobster @-@ like creature that guards Atlantis ' entrance . The " Ulysses " is subsequently destroyed , but Milo , Rourke , and part of the crew escape by making their way to an underground cavern , described in the journal as the entrance to Atlantis .
After traveling through a network of caves and a dormant volcano , the team reaches the outskirts of Atlantis . They are greeted by Kida who resembles a young woman and discover that the Atlantean language is the basis of many existing languages . Kida enlists Milo 's aid in deciphering the Atlantean written language , long forgotten by the natives . By swimming deep within the city 's submerged ruins and translating underwater murals , Milo helps Kida uncover the nature of the Heart of Atlantis : it supplies the Atlanteans with power and longevity through the crystals worn around their necks . He is surprised this is not mentioned in the journal , but upon examination realizes a page is missing .
Returning to the surface with Kida , Milo discovers Rourke has the missing page . Rourke and the crew betray Milo , intending to bring the crystal to the surface and sell it . Rourke mortally wounds the King of Atlantis while trying to extract information about the crystal 's location , but finds its location for himself hidden beneath the King 's throne room . The crystal detects a threat before merging with Kida . Rourke and the mercenaries lock Kida in a crate and prepare to leave the city . Knowing that when the crystal is gone the Atlanteans will die , Milo berates his friends for betraying their consciences and ultimately convinces them to leave Rourke and remain in Atlantis . The King explains to Milo that the crystal has developed a consciousness – it thrives on the collective emotions of the Atlanteans and provides power , protection and longevity in return . It will find a royal host when Atlantis is in danger . He then reveals that the sinking of Atlantis was caused when he attempted to use it as a weapon of war . As he dies he gives his crystal to Milo , telling him to save Atlantis and Kida . Encouraged by Sweet , Milo rallies the crew and the Atlanteans to stop Rourke .
In the ensuing battle inside the volcano , Helga and the other mercenaries including Rourke are all killed . Milo and the others successfully fly the crystal back to the city , as the volcano erupts . With lava flowing towards the city , Kida ( in her crystal form ) rises into the air and creates a protective shield . The lava breaks away harmlessly , showing a restored Atlantis , and the crystal returns Kida to Milo . The surviving crew members return to the surface and promise to keep the discovery of Atlantis a secret . Having fallen in love with Kida , Milo stays behind to help her rebuild the lost empire .
= = Cast = =
Michael J. Fox as Milo James Thatch , a linguist and cartographer at the Smithsonian who was recruited to decipher The Shepherd 's Journal while directing an expedition to Atlantis . Kirk Wise , one of the directors , said that they chose Fox for the role because they felt he gave his character his own personality and made them more believable on screen . Fox said that voice acting was much easier than his past experience with live action because he did not have to worry about what he looked like in front of a camera while delivering his lines . The directors mentioned that Fox was also offered a role for Titan A.E. ; he allowed his son to choose which film he would work on , and he chose Atlantis . Viewers have noted similarities between Milo and the film 's language consultant , Marc Okrand , who developed the Atlantean language used in the film . Okrand stated that Milo 's supervising animator , John Pomeroy , sketched him , claiming not to know how a linguist looked or acted .
James Garner as Commander Lyle Tiberius Rourke , the leader of the band of mercenaries , for the Atlantean expedition . Wise chose Garner because of his previous experience with action films , especially war and Western films , and said the role " fits him like a glove " . When asked if he would be interested in the role , Garner replied " I 'd do it in a heartbeat . "
Cree Summer as Kidagakash " Kida " Nedakh , the Princess of Atlantis . Kida 's supervising animator , Randy Haycock , stated that Summer was very " intimidating " when he first met her ; this influenced how he wanted Kida to look and act on screen when she meets Milo . Natalie Strom provided dialogue for Kida as a young child .
Don Novello as Vincenzo " Vinny " Santorini , an Italian demolitions expert . Kirk Wise and Russ Edmonds , Vinny 's supervising animator , noted Novello 's unique ability to improvise dialogue . Edmonds recalled , " [ Novello ] would look at the sheet , and he would read the line that was written once , and he would never read it again ! And we never used a written line , it was improvs , the whole movie . "
Phil Morris as Doctor Joshua Strongbear Sweet , a medic of African American and Native American descent . Sweet 's supervising animator , Ron Husband , indicated that one of the challenges was animating Sweet in sync with Morris ' rapid line delivery while keeping him believable . Morris stated that this character was extreme , with " no middle ground " ; he mentioned , " When he was happy , he was really happy , and when he 's solemn , he 's real solemn . "
Claudia Christian as Lieutenant Helga Katrina Sinclair , Rourke 's German second @-@ in @-@ command . Christian described her character as " sensual " and " striking " . She was relieved when she finally saw what her character looked like , joking , " I 'd hate to , you know , go through all this and find out my character is a toad . "
Jacqueline Obradors as Audrey Rocio Ramirez , a teenage Puerto Rican mechanic and the youngest member of the expedition . Obradors said her character made her " feel like a little kid again " and she always hoped her sessions would last longer .
Florence Stanley as Wilhelmina Bertha Packard : an elderly , sarcastic , chain @-@ smoking radio operator . Stanley felt that Packard was very " cynical " and " secure " : " She does her job and when she is not busy she does anything she wants . "
David Ogden Stiers as Fenton Q. Harcourt , a board member of the Smithsonian Institution who dismisses Milo 's belief in the existence of Atlantis . Stiers previously worked with Michael J. Fox in Doc Hollywood . He earlier voice @-@ acted for Disney in Beauty and the Beast , Pocahontas , and The Hunchback of Notre Dame and would do so again in Lilo & Stitch .
John Mahoney as Preston B. Whitmore , an eccentric millionaire who funds the expedition to Atlantis . Lloyd Bridges was originally cast and recorded as Whitmore , but he died before completing the film . Mahoney 's zest and vigor led to Whitmore 's personality being reworked for the film . Mahoney stated that doing voice work was " freeing " and allowed him to be " big " and " outrageous " with his character .
Jim Varney as Jebidiah Allardyce " Cookie " Farnsworth , a Western @-@ style chuckwagon chef . Varney died of lung cancer in February 2000 , before the production ended , and the film was dedicated to his memory . Producer Don Hahn was saddened that Varney never saw the finished film , but mentioned that he was shown clips of his character 's performance during his site sessions and said , " He loved it . " Shawn Keller , supervising animator for Cookie , stated , " It was kind of a sad fact that [ Varney ] knew that he was not going to be able to see this film before he passed away . He did a bang @-@ up job doing the voice work , knowing the fact that he was never gonna see his last performance . "
Corey Burton as Gaëtan " Mole " Molière , a French geologist who acts like a mole . Burton mentioned that finding his performance as Mole was by allowing the character to " leap out " of him while making funny voices . To get into character during his recording sessions , he stated that he would " throw myself into the scene and feel like I 'm in this make @-@ believe world " .
Leonard Nimoy as Kashekim Nedakh , the King of Atlantis and Kida 's father . Michael Cedeno , supervising animator for King Nedakh , was astounded at Nimoy 's voice talent , stating that he had " so much rich character " in his performance . As he spoke his lines , Cadeno said the crew would sit there and watch Nimoy in astonishment .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The idea for Atlantis : The Lost Empire was conceived in October 1996 when Don Hahn , Gary Trousdale , Kirk Wise , and Tab Murphy lunched at a Mexican restaurant in Burbank , California . Having recently completed The Hunchback of Notre Dame the producer and directors wanted to keep the Hunchback crew together for another film with an Adventureland setting . Drawing inspiration from Jules Verne 's A Journey to the Center of the Earth ( 1864 ) , they set out to make a film which would fully explore Atlantis ( compared to the brief visit depicted in Verne 's novel ) . While primarily utilizing the Internet to research the mythology of Atlantis , the filmmakers became interested in the clairvoyant readings of Edgar Cayce and decided to incorporate some of his ideas — notably that of a mother @-@ crystal which provides power , healing , and longevity to the Atlanteans — into the story . They also visited museums and old army installations to study the technology of the early 20th century ( the film 's time period ) , and traveled 800 feet underground in New Mexico 's Carlsbad Caverns to view the subterranean trails which would serve as a model for the approach to Atlantis in the film .
The filmmakers wanted to avoid the common depiction of Atlantis as " crumbled Greek columns underwater " , said Wise . " From the get @-@ go , we were committed to designing it top to bottom . Let 's get the architectural style , clothing , heritage , customs , how they would sleep , and how they would speak . So we brought people on board who would help us develop those ideas . " Art director David Goetz stated , " We looked at Mayan architecture , styles of ancient , unusual architecture from around the world , and the directors really liked the look of Southeast Asian architecture . " The team later took ideas from other architectural forms , including Cambodian , Indian , and Tibetan works . Hahn added , " If you take and deconstruct architecture from around the world into one architectural vocabulary , that 's what our Atlantis looks like . " The overall design and circular layout of Atlantis were also based on the writings of Plato , and his quote " in a single day and night of misfortune , the island of Atlantis disappeared into the depths of the sea " was influential from the beginning of production . The crew wore T @-@ shirts which read " ATLANTIS — Fewer songs , more explosions " due the film 's plan as an action @-@ adventure ( unlike previous Disney animated features , which were musicals ) .
= = = = Language = = = =
Marc Okrand , who developed the Klingon language for the Star Trek films , was hired to devise the Atlantean language for Atlantis : The Lost Empire . Guided by the directors ' initial concept for it to be a " mother @-@ language " , Okrand employed an Indo @-@ European word stock with its own grammatical structure . He would change the words if they began to sound too much like an actual , spoken language . John Emerson designed the written component , making hundreds of random sketches of individual letters from among which the directors chose the best to represent the Atlantean alphabet . The written language was boustrophedon : designed to be read left @-@ to @-@ right on the first line , then right @-@ to @-@ left on the second , continuing in a zigzag pattern to simulate the flow of water .
The Atlantean [ A ] is a shape developed by John Emerson . It is a miniature map of the city of Atlantis ( i.e. , the outside of the swirl is the cave , the inside shape is the silhouette of the city , and the dot is the location of the crystal ) . It 's a treasure map .
= = = Writing = = =
Joss Whedon was the first writer to be involved with the film , but soon left to work on other Disney projects . According to him , he " had not a shred " in a movie . Tab Murphy completed the screenplay , stating that the time from initially discussing the story to producing a script that satisfied the film crew was " about three to four months " . The initial draft was 155 pages , much longer than a typical Disney film script ( which usually runs 90 pages ) . When the first two acts were timed at 120 minutes , the directors cut characters and sequences and focused more on Milo . Murphy said that he created the centuries @-@ old Shepherd 's Journal because he needed a map for the characters to follow throughout their journey . A revised version of the script eliminated the trials encountered by the explorers as they navigated the underground caves to Atlantis . This gave the film a faster pace , because Atlantis is discovered earlier in the story .
The character of Milo J. Thatch was originally supposed to be a descendant of Edward Teach , otherwise known as Blackbeard the pirate . The directors later related him to an explorer so he would discover his inner talent for exploration . The character of Molière was originally intended to be " professorial " but Chris Ure , a story artist , changed the concept to that of a " horrible little burrowing creature with a wacky coat and strange headgear with extending eyeballs " , said Wise . Don Hahn pointed out that the absence of songs presented a challenge for a team accustomed to animating musicals , as solely action scenes would have to carry the film . Kirk Wise said it gave the team an opportunity for more on @-@ screen character development : " We had more screen time available to do a scene like where Milo and the explorers are camping out and learning about one another 's histories . An entire sequence is devoted to having dinner and going to bed . That is not typically something we would have the luxury of doing . "
Hahn stated that the first animated sequence completed during production was the film 's prologue . The original version featured a Viking war party using The Shepherd 's Journal to find Atlantis and being swiftly dispatched by the Leviathan . Near the end of production , story supervisor Jon Sanford told the directors that he felt this prologue did not give viewers enough emotional involvement with the Atlanteans . Despite knowing that the Viking prologue was finished and it would cost additional time and money to alter the scene , the directors agreed with Sanford . Trousdale went home and completed the storyboards later that evening . The opening was replaced by a sequence depicting the destruction of Atlantis , which introduced the film from the perspective of the Atlanteans and Princess Kida . The Viking prologue is included as an extra feature on the DVD release .
= = = Animation = = =
At the peak of its production , 350 animators , artists and technicians were working on Atlantis at all three Disney animation studios : Walt Disney Feature Animation ( Burbank , California ) , Disney Feature Animation Florida ( Orlando ) , and Disney Animation France ( Paris ) . The film was one of the few Disney animated features produced and shot in 70mm anamorphic format . The directors felt that a widescreen image was crucial , as a nostalgic reference to old action @-@ adventure films presented in the CinemaScope format ( 2 @.@ 35 : 1 ) , noting Raiders of the Lost Ark as an inspiration . Because switching to the format would require animation desks and equipment designed for widescreen to be purchased , Disney executives were at first reluctant about the idea . The production team found a simple solution by drawing within a smaller frame on the same paper and equipment used for standard aspect ratio ( 1 @.@ 66 : 1 ) Disney @-@ animated films . Layout supervisor Ed Ghertner wrote a guide to the widescreen format for use by the layout artists and mentioned that one advantage of widescreen was that he could keep characters in scenes longer because of additional space to walk within the frame . Wise drew further inspiration for the format from filmmakers David Lean and Akira Kurosawa .
The film 's visual style was strongly based upon that of Mike Mignola , the comic book artist behind Hellboy . Mignola was one of four production designers ( along with Matt Codd , Jim Martin , and Ricardo Delgado ) hired by the Disney studio for the film . Accordingly , he provided style guides , preliminary character and background designs , and story ideas . " Mignola 's graphic , angular style was a key influence on the ' look ' of the characters , " stated Wise . Mignola was surprised when first contacted by the studio to work on Atlantis . His artistic influence on the film would later contribute to a cult following .
I remember watching a rough cut of the film and these characters have these big , square , weird hands . I said to the guy next to me , " Those are cool hands . " And he says to me , " Yeah , they 're your hands . We had a whole meeting about how to do your hands . " It was so weird I couldn 't wrap my brain around it .
The final pull @-@ out scene of the movie , immediately before the end @-@ title card , was described by the directors as the most difficult scene in the history of Disney animation . They said that the pullout attempt on their prior film , The Hunchback of Notre Dame , " struggled " and " lacked depth " ; however , after making advances in the process of multiplaning , they tried the technique again in Atlantis . The scene begins with one 16 @-@ inch piece of paper showing a close @-@ up of Milo and Kida . As the camera pulls away from them to reveal the newly restored Atlantis , it reaches the equivalent of an 18 @,@ 000 @-@ inch piece of paper composed of many individual pieces of paper ( 24 inches or smaller ) . Each piece was carefully drawn and combined with animated vehicles simultaneously flying across the scene to make the viewer see a complete , integrated image .
At the time of its release , Atlantis : The Lost Empire was notable for using more computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) than any other Disney @-@ animated feature . To increase productivity , the directors had the digital artists work with the traditional animators throughout the production . Several important scenes required heavy use of digital animation : the Leviathan , the Ulysses submarine and sub @-@ pods , the Heart of Atlantis , and the Stone Giants . During production , after Matt Codd and Jim Martin designed the Ulysses on paper , Greg Aronowitz was hired to build a scale model of the submarine , to be used as a reference for drawing the 3D Ulysses . The final film included 362 digital @-@ effects shots , and computer programs were used to seamlessly join the 2D and 3D artwork . One scene that took advantage of this was the " sub @-@ drop " scene , where the 3D Ulysses was dropped from its docking bay into the water . As the camera floated toward it , a 2D Milo was drawn to appear inside , tracking the camera . The crew noted that it was challenging to keep the audience from noticing the difference between the 2D and 3D drawings when they were merged . The digital production also gave the directors a unique " virtual camera " for complicated shots within the film . With the ability to operate in the z @-@ plane , this camera moved through a digital wire @-@ frame set ; the background and details were later hand @-@ drawn over the wire frames . This was used in the opening flight scene through Atlantis and the submarine chase through the undersea cavern with the Leviathan in pursuit .
= = = Music and sound = = =
Since the film would not feature any songs , the directors hired James Newton Howard to compose the score . Approaching it as a live @-@ action film , Howard decided to have different musical themes for the cultures of the surface world and Atlantis . In the case of Atlantis , Howard chose an Indonesian orchestral sound incorporating chimes , bells , and gongs . The directors told Howard that the film would have a number of key scenes without dialogue ; the score would need to convey emotionally what the viewer was seeing on screen .
Gary Rydstrom and his team at Skywalker Sound were hired for the film 's sound production . Like Howard , Rydstrom employed different sounds for the two cultures . Focusing on the machine and mechanical sounds of the early industrial era for the explorers , he felt that the Atlanteans should have a " more organic " sound utilizing ceramics and pottery . The sound made by the Atlantean flying @-@ fish vehicles posed a particular challenge . Rydstrom revealed that he was sitting at the side of a highway recording one day when a semi @-@ truck drove by at high speed . When the recording was sped up on his computer he felt it sounded very organic , and that is what is heard within the film . Rydstrom created the harmonic chiming of the Heart of Atlantis by rubbing his finger along the edge of a champagne flute , and the sound of sub @-@ pods moving through water with a water pick .
= = Release = =
= = = Promotion = = =
Atlantis was among Disney 's first major attempts to utilize internet marketing . The film was promoted through Kellogg 's , which created a website with mini @-@ games and a movie @-@ based video game give @-@ away for UPC labels from specially marked packages of Atlantis breakfast cereal . The film was one of Disney 's first marketing attempts through mobile network operators , and allowed users to download games based on the film . McDonald 's ( which had an exclusive licensing agreement on all Disney releases ) promoted the film with Happy Meal toys , food packaging and in @-@ store decor . The McDonald 's advertising campaign involved television , radio , and print advertisements beginning on the film 's release date . Frito @-@ Lay offered free admission tickets for the film on specially marked snack packages .
= = = Box office = = =
Before the film 's release , reporters speculated that it would have a difficult run due to competition from DreamWorks ' Shrek ( a wholly CGI feature ) and Lara Croft : Tomb Raider ( an action @-@ adventure film from Paramount Pictures ) . Regarding the market 's shift from traditional animation and competition with CGI films , Kirk Wise said , " Any traditional animator , including myself , can 't help but feel a twinge . I think it always comes down to story and character , and one form won 't replace the other . Just like photography didn 't replace painting . But maybe I 'm blind to it . " Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly noted that CGI films ( such as Shrek ) were more likely to attract the teenage demographic typically not interested in animation , and called Atlantis a " marketing and creative gamble " .
Atlantis : The Lost Empire had its world premiere at Disney 's El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , California on June 3 , 2001 and a limited release in New York City and Los Angeles on June 8 ; a wider release followed on June 15 . At the premiere , Destination : Atlantis was on display , featuring behind @-@ the @-@ scenes props from the film and information on the legend of Atlantis with video games , displays , laser tag , and other attractions . The Aquarium of the Pacific also loaned a variety of fish for display within the attraction . With a budget of $ 100 million , the film opened at # 2 on its debut weekend , earning $ 20 @.@ 3 million in 3 @,@ 011 theaters . The film 's international release began September 20 in Australia and other markets followed suit . During its 25 @-@ week theatrical run , Atlantis : The Lost Empire grossed over $ 186 million worldwide ( $ 84 million from the United States and Canada ) . Responding to its disappointing box @-@ office performance , Thomas Schumacher , then @-@ president of Walt Disney Feature Animation , said , " It seemed like a good idea at the time to not do a sweet fairy tale , but we missed . "
= = = Home media = = =
Atlantis : The Lost Empire was released on VHS and DVD January 29 , 2002 . During the first month of its home release , the film led in VHS sales and was third in VHS and DVD sales combined . Sales and rentals of the VHS and DVD combined would eventually accumulate $ 157 million in revenue by mid @-@ 2003 . Both a single @-@ disc DVD edition and a two @-@ disc collector 's edition ( with bonus features ) were released . The single @-@ disc DVD gave the viewer the option of viewing the film either in its original theatrical 2 @.@ 35 : 1 aspect ratio or a modified 1 @.@ 33 : 1 ratio ( utilizing pan and scan ) . Bonus features available on the DVD version included audio and visual commentary from the film team , a virtual tour of the CGI models , an Atlantean @-@ language tutorial , an encyclopedia on the myth of Atlantis , and the deleted Viking prologue scene . The two @-@ disc collector 's edition DVD contained all the single @-@ disc features and a disc with supplemental material detailing all aspects of the film 's production . The collector 's @-@ edition film could only be viewed in its original theatrical ratio , and also featured an optional DTS 5 @.@ 1 track . Both DVD versions , however , contained a Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 track and were THX certified . Disney digitally remastered and released Atlantis on Blu @-@ ray on June 11 , 2013 , bundled with its sequel Atlantis : Milo 's Return .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 49 % of 140 professional critics have given Atlantis : The Lost Empire a positive review , with a rating average of 5 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The site 's consensus is that " Atlantis provides a fast @-@ paced spectacle , but stints on such things as character development and a coherent plot " . Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 52 out of 100 based on 29 reviews from mainstream critics ; this was considered " mixed or average reviews " . CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend revealed the average grade cinema @-@ goers gave Atlantis : The Lost Empire was an " A " on an A + -to @-@ F scale .
While critics had mixed reactions to the film in general , some praised it for its visuals , action @-@ adventure elements , and its attempt to appeal to an older audience . Roger Ebert gave Atlantis three @-@ and @-@ half stars out of four . He praised the animation 's " clean bright visual look " and the " classic energy of the comic book style " , crediting this to the work of Mike Mignola . Ebert gave particular praise to the story and the final battle scene and wrote , " The story of Atlantis is rousing in an old pulp science fiction sort of way , but the climactic scene transcends the rest , and stands by itself as one of the great animated action sequences . " In The New York Times , Elvis Mitchell gave high praise to the film , calling it " a monumental treat " , and stated , " Atlantis is also one of the most eye @-@ catching Disney cartoons since Uncle Walt institutionalized the four @-@ fingered glove . " James Berardinelli , film critic for ReelViews , wrote a positive review of the film , giving it three out of four stars . He wrote , " On the whole , Atlantis offers 90 minutes of solid entertainment , once again proving that while Disney may be clueless when it comes to producing good live @-@ action movies , they are exactly the opposite when it comes to their animated division . " Wesley Morris of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote positively of the film 's approach for an older audience : " But just beneath the surface , Atlantis brims with adult possibility . "
Other critics felt that the film was mediocre in regards to its story and characters , and that it failed to deliver as a non @-@ musical to Disney 's traditional audience . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a C + rating , writing that the movie had " gee @-@ whiz formulaic character " and was " the essence of craft without dream " . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times noted the storyline and characterizations were " old @-@ fashioned " and the film had the retrograde look of a Saturday @-@ morning cartoon , but these deficiencies were offset by its " brisk action " and frantic pace . Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote , " Disney pushes into all @-@ talking , no @-@ singing , no @-@ dancing and , in the end , no @-@ fun animated territory . " Stephanie Zacharek of Salon loathed the film , specifically Disney 's attempt to make the film for an adult audience , of which she wrote , " The big problem with Disney 's latest animated feature , Atlantis : The Lost Empire , is that it doesn 't seem geared to kids at all : It 's so adult that it 's massively boring . " Rita Kempley of The Washington Post panned the film , calling it a " new @-@ fashioned but old @-@ fangled hash " and wrote , " Ironically Disney had hoped to update its image with this mildly diverting adventure , yet the picture hasn 't really broken away from the tried @-@ and @-@ true format spoofed in the far superior Shrek . "
= = = Themes and interpretations = = =
Several critics and scholars have noted that Atlantis plays strongly on themes of anti @-@ capitalism and anti @-@ imperialism . M. Keith Booker , academic and author of studies about the implicit messages conveyed by media , views the character of Rourke as being motivated by " capitalist greed " when he pursues " his own financial gain " in spite of the knowledge that " his theft [ of the crystal ] will lead to the destruction of [ Atlantis ] " . Religion journalist Mark Pinsky , in his exploration of moral and spiritual themes in popular Disney films , asserts that " it is impossible to read the movie ... any other way " than as " a devastating , unrelenting attack on capitalism and American imperialism " . Max Messier of FilmCritic.com observes , " Disney even manages to lambast the capitalist lifestyle of the adventurers intent on uncovering the lost city . Damn the imperialists ! " According to Booker , the film also " delivers a rather segregationist moral " by concluding with the discovery of the Atlanteans kept secret from other surface @-@ dwellers in order to maintain a separation between the two highly divergent cultures . Others saw Atlantis as an interesting look at utopian philosophy of the sort found in classic works of science fiction by H. G. Wells and Jules Verne .
When the film was released , some viewers noticed that Atlantis : The Lost Empire bore a number of similarities to the 1990 – 1991 Japanese anime television program Nadia : The Secret of Blue Water and the 1986 film Castle in the Sky from Studio Ghibli , particularly in its character design , setting , and story . Although Disney never responded formally to claims of plagiarism , co @-@ director Kirk Wise posted on a Disney animation news group in May 2001 , " Never heard of Nadia till it was mentioned in this [ news group ] . Long after we 'd finished production , I might add . " Both Atlantis and Nadia were inspired , in part , by the 1870 Jules Verne novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea , of which Lee Zion ( reporting for Anime News Network ) wrote , " There are too many similarities not connected with 20 @,@ 000 Leagues for the whole thing to be coincidence . " Critics also saw parallels with the 1994 film Stargate . Milo 's characteristics were said to resemble those of Daniel Jackson , the protagonist of Stargate and its spinoff television series Stargate SG @-@ 1 — which coincidentally launched its own spinoff , titled Stargate Atlantis .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Related works = =
Atlantis : the Lost Empire was meant to provide a springboard for an animated television series entitled Team Atlantis , which would have presented the further adventures of its characters . However , because of the film 's under @-@ performance at the box office the series was not produced . On May 20 , 2003 , Disney released a direct @-@ to @-@ video sequel called Atlantis : Milo 's Return , consisting of three episodes planned for the aborted series . In addition , Disneyland planned to revive its Submarine Voyage ride with an Atlantis theme with elements from the movie and the ride was promoted with a meet @-@ and @-@ greet by the movie 's characters . These plans were canceled and the attraction was re @-@ opened in 2007 as the Finding Nemo Submarine Voyage , its theme based on the 2003 Disney · Pixar animated film Finding Nemo .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The soundtrack to Atlantis : The Lost Empire was released on May 22 , 2001 . It consists primarily of James Newton Howard 's score and includes " Where the Dream Takes You " , written by Howard and Diane Warren and performed by Mýa . It was also available in a limited edition of 20 @,@ 000 numbered copies with a unique 3D album cover insert depicting the Leviathan from the film . A rare promotional edition ( featuring 73 minutes of material , compared to the 53 minutes on standard commercial editions ) was intended only for Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences voters , but was bootlegged and distributed with fan @-@ created artwork . Concerning the promotional edition , Filmtracks said , " Outside of about five minutes of superior additional material ( including the massive opening , " Atlantis Destroyed " ) , the complete presentation is mostly redundant . Still , Atlantis is an accomplished work for its genre . "
= = = Video games = = =
There are several video games based on the film . Atlantis The Lost Empire : Search for the Journal ( commonly known as Atlantis : Search for the Journal ) was developed by Zombie Studios and published by Buena Vista Games , a subsidiary of Disney Interactive . It was released on May 1 , 2001 , for the Microsoft Windows platform and was a first @-@ person shooter game , the first of two games based on the film developed by Zombie Studios and released for UPC labels from Kellogg 's products for promotion . Atlantis : The Lost Empire — Trial by Fire ( commonly known as Atlantis : Trial by Fire ) was the second game developed by Zombie Studios and published by Disney Interactive , and was released May 18 , 2001 , for the Microsoft Windows platform .
Atlantis : The Lost Empire is an action game developed by Eurocom for the PlayStation console which was released June 14 , 2001 . The player controls Milo , Audrey , Molière , and Vinny as they traverse Atlantis , unlocking its secrets . Some features in the game unlock others ( such as a movie ) by finding items hidden throughout the game . THQ released Disney 's Atlantis : The Lost Empire for the Game Boy Advance and Game Boy Color . It is a platform game in which the player controls Milo and three other characters from the film across 14 levels on a quest to discover Atlantis . The game was met with average to mixed reviews upon release . GameRankings and Metacritic gave it a score of 73 @.@ 83 % and 73 out of 100 for the PlayStation version ; 64 @.@ 50 % for the Game Boy Color version ; and 55 @.@ 86 % and 51 out of 100 for the Game Boy Advance version .
= = = Books = = =
= = = DVD media = = =
= = = Periodicals = = =
= Pam 's Replacement =
" Pam 's Replacement " is the seventh episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 159th episode overall . The episode aired on NBC in the United States on November 10 , 2011 . It was written by Allison Silverman and was directed by Matt Sohn . The episode guest stars Lindsey Broad and Steve Moore .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) trains an attractive temporary worker to take her place while she is on maternity leave , and enlists Dwight Schrute 's ( Rainn Wilson ) support when she tries to show that Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) finds her replacement attractive . Meanwhile , Robert California ( James Spader ) surprises Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) , Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) , and Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) when he requests to join their band .
" Pam 's Replacement " relates to Pam 's pregnancy ; Fischer was actually pregnant and her pregnancy was written into the series with Pam and Jim having their second baby . The episode received mixed reviews from critics . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode received 5 @.@ 96 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 marking a slight drop in the ratings from the previous episode , " Doomsday " .
= = Plot = =
Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) trains a temporary worker Cathy Simms ( Lindsey Broad ) so that she can take her place when she goes on maternity leave . In the break room , the other workers discuss how attractive Cathy is and how excited they are to have her in the office . Pam , being well into her pregnancy , is sensitive about her looks and so becomes offended by their discussion . Most of them respond by assuring Pam that she is , if anything , more sexually attractive than before she was pregnant . Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) , however , argues that sexual attractiveness is a mostly objective quality and pregnant women cannot be sexually attractive , and accuses the others of lying to spare Pam 's feelings . Troubled by Dwight 's comments , Pam asks her husband Jim ( John Krasinski ) if he finds the new temp attractive . Not wanting to upset his wife , Jim tells her that he does not find her replacement attractive , even objectively . Though Jim gives no sign of unease , Pam is convinced that he is lying to her , and enlists the help of the harshly honest Dwight to prove it . After a number of unsuccessful attempts to trick Jim into revealing he finds Pam 's replacement attractive , Dwight and Pam convince Jim to submit to a lie detection test in the form of a retail store 's blood pressure tester . At the conclusion of the interview , Dwight triumphantly announces that he recorded hypertension when Jim said he does not find the new temp attractive , but as Jim continues to insist he is telling the truth Dwight admits that he recorded equal hypertension on every question , including Jim 's name . Pam realizes that Jim has unusually high blood pressure , which his father also suffers from , and forgets about the issue in order to focus on her husband 's health .
Meanwhile , CEO Robert California ( James Spader ) surprises Andy ( Ed Helms ) , Kevin ( Brian Baumgartner ) , and Darryl ( Craig Robinson ) when he asks to join their band after he finds them having a jam session in the warehouse . Soon thereafter , California 's friends , skilled musicians themselves , arrive to join in . Not having brought their own instruments , two of them take over Kevin 's drums and Darryl 's synthesizer , while Andy 's acoustic guitar is drowned out by the newcomer 's electric guitar . The three of them are thus relegated to playing percussion . Andy , Kevin and Darryl , with the help of warehouse worker Val , realize that they were ousted , and after a failed attempt to try getting their original band roles back , they instead satisfyingly jam outside by themselves .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by consulting producer Allison Silverman , her first writing credit for the series after joining the writing staff in the eighth season . It was directed by Matt Sohn , one of the series ' cinematographers and camera operators , his third directing credit for the series . The episode features a guest appearance from Lindsey Broad , and her character was described as " Pam ’ s competent and likable pal , " Cathy . She appeared in a recurring role in the eighth season . The episode also relates to Pam 's pregnancy . Jenna Fischer was actually pregnant and her pregnancy was written into the series with Pam and Jim having their second baby . The man who played Robert 's skilled drummer friend is Steve Moore , better known as " The Mad Drummer " for a viral video he was featured in .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " Pam 's Replacement " was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 96 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 0 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a two @-@ tenths decrease in the ratings from the previous episode , " Doomsday " . Despite this , however , the episode ranked second in its timeslot , beating Bones which received a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 7 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic and Person of Interest which received a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 2 % share , although both the latter two shows had more viewers . " Pam 's Replacement " was defeated by Grey 's Anatomy which received a 4 @.@ 0 rating / 10 % share . Added with DVR viewers , who viewed the episode within seven days of the original broadcast , the episode received a 4 @.@ 4 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , adding a 1 @.@ 4 rating to the original viewership . A repeat of the episode on January 5 , 2012 drew 1 @.@ 85 million and received a 0 @.@ 7 rating / 2 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking third and last in its time slot .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Pam 's Replacement " received generally mixed reviews from critics . HitFix writer Alan Sepinwall complimented the episode for staying true to the characters compared to the rest of the season , which he had criticized in an earlier review . He called the episode a " significant step up " albeit just " decent " in absolute terms . The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt criticized the Andy – Kevin – Darryl subplot for its lack of continuity or any sort of punchlines . He was also critical of the Pam – Dwight plot for not staying true to the characters , and suggested that the writers needed to write the show as less of " a bland copy of itself " . He called it one of the laziest half @-@ hours of the show and gave it a C − . Cindy White of IGN said that the episode needed a stronger A @-@ plot writing that the plots " felt like a meal made up of two tasty side dishes " . She gave it a 7 out of 10 . Hanna Lawrence of Hollywood.com praised the episode for being believable and for showing things that happen in real life . She also praised the Jim – Pam plot for showcasing the couple as not completely " perfect " . She called the band subplot " weak " .
= WASP @-@ 43b =
WASP @-@ 43b is a transiting planet in orbit around the young , active , and low @-@ mass star WASP @-@ 43 in the constellation Sextans . The planet is a Hot Jupiter with a mass twice that of Jupiter , and a radius equal to Jupiter 's . WASP @-@ 43b was flagged as a candidate by the SuperWASP program before they conducted follow @-@ ups using instruments at La Silla Observatory in Chile , which confirmed the planet 's existence and provided orbital and physical characteristics . The planet 's discovery was published on April 14 , 2011 .
At the time of its discovery , WASP @-@ 43b had an orbital period of approximately 0 @.@ 8 days ( 19 @.@ 2 hours ) , the second shortest orbit ever detected , surpassed only by WASP @-@ 19b . In addition , at the time of discovery , WASP @-@ 43b was the most closely orbiting Hot Jupiter known , a phenomenon that can most likely be explained by its host star 's low mass .
= = Observational history = =
WASP @-@ 43 was first flagged as host to a potential transiting event ( when a body crosses in front of and dims its host star ) by data collected by SuperWASP , a British organization working to discover transiting planets across the entirety of the sky . In particular , WASP @-@ 43 was observed first by the leg of WASP @-@ South at the South African Astronomical Observatory between January and May 2009 .
Later observation by both SuperWASPs in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres led to the collection of 13 @,@ 768 data points between January and May 2010 and to the use of the CORALIE spectrograph at La Silla Observatory in Chile . Fourteen measurements using the radial velocity method confirmed WASP @-@ 43b as a planet , revealing its mass in the process . The use of La Silla 's TRAPPIST telescope helped the science team working on the planet to create a light curve of the planet 's transit in December 2010 .
The planet 's discovery was published in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics on April 14 , 2011 .
In 2014 , secondary transit of the planet was reported . Full observation of phases of the planet was reported in the September of 2014 .
= = Host star = =
WASP @-@ 43 is a K @-@ type star in the Sextans constellation that is about 80 parsecs ( 261 light years ) away . The star has a mass of 0 @.@ 58 times that of the Sun , but is more diffuse with a radius of 0 @.@ 93 times that of the Sun . The star 's effective temperature is 4400 K , making the star cooler than the Sun , and is metal @-@ poor with regards to the Sun because it has a metallicity of [ Fe / H ] = − 0 @.@ 05 ( 89 % the amount of iron in the Sun ) . The star is young , and is estimated to be 598 million years old ( as compared to the Sun 's 4 @.@ 6 billion years ) . Analysis of emission lines have indicated that WASP @-@ 43 is an active star .
WASP @-@ 43 has one detected planet in its orbit , WASP @-@ 43b . The star has an apparent magnitude of 12 @.@ 4 , and thus is too faint to be seen with the unaided eye from Earth .
= = Characteristics = =
WASP @-@ 43b is a dense Hot Jupiter with a mass of 1 @.@ 78 times the mass of Jupiter , but a radius of 0 @.@ 93 times that of Jupiter 's . The planet orbits its host star at a mean distance of 0 @.@ 0142 AU every 0 @.@ 813475 days ( 19 @.@ 5234 hours ) ; this orbital period , at the time of WASP @-@ 43b 's discovery , was the second @-@ shortest orbit yet detected , surpassed only by WASP @-@ 19b . In addition , WASP @-@ 43b had the closest orbit to its host star ( among Hot Jupiters ) at the time of its discovery , comparable only to the Super @-@ Earth planet GJ 1214b and to the planetary candidate orbiting KOI @-@ 961 . While Hot Jupiters are known to have small orbital periods , planets with exceptionally small periods below three or four days are extremely rare ; however , in the case of WASP @-@ 43b , the planet 's proximity can be explained because its host star has a very low mass . The rarity of systems like that of WASP @-@ 43 and its planet suggest that Hot Jupiters do not usually occur around low @-@ mass stars , or that such planets cannot maintain stable orbits around such stars .
WASP @-@ 43b , along with the planets WASP @-@ 19b and WASP @-@ 18b , conflicted with currently accepted models of tidal movements derived from observations of the orbits of binary star systems . Revisions to the model with regard to planets were proposed to help the models conform to the orbital parameters of these planets .
In comparison , planet Mercury has an orbital period of 87 @.@ 97 days and lies at a mean distance of 0 @.@ 387 AU from the Sun .
= Flag of Poland =
The flag of Poland consists of two horizontal stripes of equal width , the upper one white and the lower one red . The two colors are defined in the Polish constitution as the national colors . A variant of the flag with the national coat of arms in the middle of the white stripe is legally reserved for official use abroad and at sea . A similar flag with the addition of a swallow @-@ tail is used as the naval ensign of Poland .
White and red were officially adopted as national colors in 1831 . They are of heraldic origin and derive from the tinctures ( colors ) of the coats of arms of the two constituent nations of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , i.e. the White Eagle of Poland and the Pursuer of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , a white knight riding a white horse , both on a red shield . Prior to that , Polish soldiers wore cockades of various color combinations . The national flag was officially adopted in 1919 . Since 2004 , Polish Flag Day is celebrated on May 2 .
The flag is flown continuously on the buildings of the highest national authorities , such as the parliament and the presidential palace . Other institutions and many Polish people fly the national flag on national holidays and other special occasions of national significance . Current Polish law does not restrict the use of the national flag without the coat of arms as long as the flag is not disrespected .
Horizontal bicolors of white and red being a relatively widespread design , there are several flags that are similar but unrelated to the Polish one . There are two national flags with the red stripe above the white one : those of Indonesia and Monaco . In Poland , many flags based on the national design also feature the national colors .
= = Design = =
= = = Legal sources = = =
The colors and flags of the Republic of Poland are described in two legal documents : the Constitution of the Republic of Poland of 1997 , and the Coat of Arms , Colors and Anthem of the Republic of Poland , and State Seals Act ( Ustawa o godle , barwach i hymnie Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej oraz o pieczęciach państwowych ) of 1980 with subsequent amendments ( henceforth referred to as " the Coat of Arms Act " ) .
Legislation concerning the national symbols is far from perfect . The Coat of Arms Act has been amended several times and refers extensively to executive ordinances , some of which have never been issued . Moreover , the Act contains errors , omissions and inconsistencies which make the law confusing , open to various interpretations and often not followed in practice .
= = = National colors = = =
According to Chapter I , Article 28 , paragraph 2 of the Constitution , the national colors of Poland are white and red . The Coat of Arms Act , Article 4 , further specifies that the colors are white and red in two horizontal , parallel stripes of equal width , of which the top one is white and the bottom one is red . If the colors are displayed vertically , the white stripe is placed on the left from the onlooker 's viewpoint . Attachment no . 2 to the Act shows the national colors in both horizontal and vertical alignment , as well as the official shades of both colors expressed as coördinates in the CIE xyY ( CIE 1931 ) color space with the tolerated color differences ( ΔE ) specified in the CIE 1976 ( L * , u * , v * ) color space ( CIELUV ) .
= = = Variants of the national flag = = =
The Constitution contains no mention of a national flag . Instead , the flag is defined by the Coat of Arms Act which specifies two variants of the national flag : the national flag of the Republic of Poland ( flaga państwowa Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej ) and the national flag with coat of arms of the Republic of Poland ( flaga państwowa z godłem Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej ) . Both flags are defined in Article 6 of the act as follows :
The state flag of the Republic of Poland is a rectangular piece of cloth in the colors of the Republic of Poland hoisted on a flagpole .
The state flag of the Republic of Poland is also the flag specified in paragraph 1 , with the coat of arms of the Republic of Poland placed in the middle of the white stripe .
The hoist to fly ratio for both flags is 5 : 8 . For the latter flag , the proportion between the inescutcheon of the coat of arms and the hoist is 2 : 5 . Images of both variations of the flag can be found in attachment no . 3 to the Coat of Arms Act .
= = Usage = =
= = = Respect for the flag = = =
Polish law says that treating the national symbols , including the flag , " with reverence and respect " is the " right and obligation " of every Polish citizen and all state organs , institutions and organizations . Public disrespect , destruction or intentional removal of the flag is considered a crime punishable by a fine , penal servitude or up to one year of imprisonment . Official statistics show that crimes against national symbols are rare : 43 such crimes in 2003 and 96 in 2004 were less than 0 @.@ 001 % of all crimes registered in Poland in those years . Other , unspecified violation of regulations on the Polish flag is an infraction , punishable by a fine or up to one month imprisonment .
= = = Right and obligation to fly the flag = = =
According to the Coat of Arms Act , everyone can use the Polish flag , especially during national and cultural events , as long as it is done in a respectful manner . This liberty in the use of national colors is a relative novelty . Until 2004 , Polish citizens were only allowed to fly the Polish flag on national holidays . The use of both variants was restricted , but only flying the flag with coat of arms was , from 1955 until 1985 , punishable by a fine or arrest for up to one year . After 1985 , unauthorized use of any national symbols was an infraction . A possible explanation to such harsh measures was the fact that the officially @-@ promoted holiday of May 1st was separated by only one day from the pre @-@ war ( and current ) national holiday of Poland , the anniversary of signing of the Constitution of May 3 , 1791 . While hoisting a flag on May 1 was acceptable , no later than the following day it must have been hidden .
This restriction and kind of state monopoly on the use of national symbols during the Communist regime made flying the Polish flag a symbol of resistance against the government . It became customary – and still is – for workers to hoist Polish flags on plant buildings when going on strike . This is why the Polish flag , as a symbol of patriotism and resistance against the Communist rule , is part of the Solidarity trade union logo .
= = = = Flag without coat of arms = = = =
Organs that are required by law to fly the national flag without coat of arms either on top or in front of their official buildings are :
the Sejm ( lower house of parliament ) ;
the Senate ( upper house of parliament ) ;
the President of the Republic ;
the Council of Ministers ( cabinet ) and the President of the Council of Ministers ( Prime Minister ) ;
Voivodeship sejmiks ( provincial legislatures ) – only during their sessions ;
other state and local government organs – only on national holidays .
Additionally , the national flag without coat of arms is used as an ensign for inland navigation .
= = = = Flag with coat of arms = = = =
While the ban on using the flag without coat of arms has been lifted , the use of the national flag with coat of arms is still legally restricted . This flag should be only flown :
on or in front of Polish embassies , consulates and other representative offices and missions abroad , as well as by Polish ambassadors and consuls on their residences and vehicles ;
at civilian airports and heliports ( civil air ensign ) ;
on civilian airplanes – only during international flights ;
on buildings of seaport authorities ;
as a merchant ( civil ) ensign .
In practice , however , this restriction is often ignored and the two flags – with and without coat of arms – are treated as interchangeable . The variant with the coat of arms is particularly often used by the Polonia , or Polish diaspora outside Poland , especially in the United States .
= = = Flag flying days = = =
State and local government organs are legally required , and other institutions and organizations as well as all citizens are encouraged to fly the Polish flag on the following days :
May 1 – State Holiday ( May Day , formerly Labor Day ) ;
May 2 – Polish Flag Day ;
May 3 – Constitution Day ;
November 11 – Independence Day .
Polish Flag Day ( formally : Flag of the Republic of Poland Day , Dzień Flagi Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej ) was first observed on May 2 , 2004 . It was established in order to educate the Polish people about the history and significance of national symbols . The date was chosen to coincide with the Polonia Day traditionally observed by the Polish diaspora outside Poland and the Polish Senate on May 2 . There was also a historical reason : under the Communist regime , May 2 was a day when national flags , hoisted for Labor Day on May 1 were being quickly removed before Polish Constitution Day ( May 3 ) , which was banned by the authorities . Since the re @-@ introduction of the Constitution Day in 1990 and establishment of the Polish Flag Day , the flag is flown continuously during the first three days of May . Unlike May Day and Constitution Day ,
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anne by the end of August , Drincham on 5 September , Bergues on 7 September ( forcing Trivet 's and Elmham 's retreat to Bourbourg and Gravelines ) and Dunkirk on 9 September . Bourbourg was besieged on 12 September : two days later the Duke of Brittany persuaded the French to negotiate a surrender and the English garrison was given safe conduct from the town . The French army then proceeded along the coast and besieged Gravelines . There , without Despenser 's authority , the defenders accepted bribes and the bishop 's treasurer pocketed 5000 francs . Despenser at first refused the surrender terms , but a few days later Gravelines was evacuated and Despenser ordered it to be sacked . By the end of October the remaining crusaders had returned across the English Channel .
= = = Career after 1383 = = =
Soon after returning from Flanders , the bishop was impeached in parliament , on 26 October 1383 , in the presence of the king . The chancellor Michael de la Pole accused him of not mustering his troops at Calais , as had been agreed ; not recruiting a high enough number of armed men ; refusing to certify properly who his military leaders were ; deceiving the king by not allowing a secular lord to command the expedition to Flanders ; and disbanding his forces prematurely . Despenser denied all the charges , insisting that enough men had assembled at Ypres , that he had chosen his commanders well and that he had not refused to obey the king 's orders . After de la Pole declared the bishop 's replies to be insufficient , Despenser requested another hearing to defend himself still further , which was granted . In this hearing Despencer proceeded to blame his own commanders for forcing him to retreat from Ypres and then evacuate the garrisons . All his arguments were refuted and he was blamed for the failure of the expedition . His temporalities were confiscated and he was ordered to repay any costs taken from money gained from the French .
Despenser 's fall from grace did not last long . Following Scottish incursions into England , it was decided that the 18 @-@ year @-@ old King Richard should lead an army into Scotland , marking the start of his military career . In 1385 every magnate of consequence , including Despenser , joined the immense host that advanced north with the king ,
" finding a country totally waste , where there was nothing to plunder , and little that could even be destroyed , excepting here and there a tower , whose massive walls defied all means of destruction then known , or a cluster of miserable huts .... " ' ( Sir Walter Scott , Scotland , vol . 1 ) .
The English army reached Edinburgh , which was sacked , but then retreated back to England , despite John of Gaunt 's wish to go on to Fife . The Scottish campaign was one of the last times that Despenser marched with an army .
Henry le Despenser continued to be controversial after his fighting career was over , mainly because of the vigorous methods he used to maintain control over the laity in his diocese and his own cathedral church . He defended the orthodoxy of the church against Lollardy as passionately as he defended his episcopal rights and privileges .
For over a decade Despenser was involved in disputes with the chapter of Norwich Cathedral and with other religious communities in his diocese , mainly concerning the bishop 's right to intervene in their internal affairs . In 1384 the monks appealed successfully to Pope Boniface IX against Despenser , but in 1385 matters were still not resolved , for that year the pope ordered William Courtenay the Archbishop of Canterbury to assist in mediating between the parties . On Richard II 's instruction , the bishop and the convent instead appeared before Archbishop Courtenay and a royal council , but Courtenay 's death in July 1386 prevented a resolution of the dispute from being finalised until 1398 , when a royal commission decided in favour of Despenser . Pope Boniface annulled the decisions of the commission in 1401 , after the convent appealed to him , but the papal sentences were ignored by Despenser . Eventually the monks came to terms with the bishop and accepted a loss of their autonomy .
= = = = Fighting Lollardy = = = =
Since 1381 , there had been a growing fear of Lollardy among the English political elite . The Lollards had first appeared in the 1370s and had briefly found favour with the upper classes , but in 1382 power was given for the authorities to detain heretics and examine them in a Church court . During the second half of his reign Richard II became steadily more determined to maintain religious orthodoxy and acted increasingly harshly to suppress the Lollards . His successor Henry IV went even further , introducing the death penalty for heresy and for possession of a bible .
Despenser took active steps to maintain orthodoxy in his own diocese . The chronicler Thomas Walsingham praised Henry 's actions against the Lollards and contrasted him with his fellow bishops :
" He swore , moreover , and did not repent of what he said , that if anyone belonging to that perverse sect should presume to preach in his diocese , they should be taken to the fire or beheaded . Consequently , having understood this , no one belonging to that tendency had any desire to embrace martyrdom , with the result that , up to now , the faith and true religion have remained unaffected within the bounds of his episcopal authority . " ( Walsingham , Historia Anglicana ) .
Henry however appears not to have dealt too savagely in dealing with heretics . On 1 May 1399 , William Sawtrey , a Norfolk curate and a Lollard , was examined before him . Sawtrey recanted his heresies in public and apparently received no serious punishment , but after moving to London , Sawtrey 's heretical preaching attracted the attention of Archbishop Thomas Arundel and he was summoned to appear before a convocation at St. Paul 's . Despenser did not attend but sent a written memorandum on 23 February . Following his trial Sawtrey was condemned as a relapsed heretic and was burned in chains at Smithfield in 1401 .
= = = = Final years = = = =
Upon the death of John of Gaunt on 3 February 1399 , his son Henry Bolingbroke became the Duke of Lancaster , but Richard II moved quickly to strip him of his patrimony . Bolingbroke resolved to return to England from Paris to claim the restoration of his family estates and in July 1399 he disembarked at Ravenspur . Henry le Despenser reacted to these events by standing loyally by Richard . On 2 July he commissioned three vicars @-@ general to deputise for him whilst he was absent from the diocese and by 10 July he had reached St. Albans with reinforcements for the Duke of York 's army . There he joined up with York and they travelled to join the king as he returned from Ireland , whilst Bolingbroke moved south towards Bristol to intercept Richard 's supporters . Despenser was with York at Berkeley Castle when he came to terms with Bolingbroke at the end of July , but the bishop refused to submit and was arrested and briefly imprisoned . On 30 September Bolingbroke was proclaimed king in London , an event that Despenser may have witnessed . The bishop attended the first parliament of the new reign on 6 October 1399 , in which it was agreed that King Richard should be imprisoned . After this time Despenser 's influence in his diocese seems to have diminished , power having shifted to Sir Thomas Erpingham .
Henry was implicated in the abortive ‘ Epiphany Rising ' of January 1400 , during which his nephew Thomas , Earl of Gloucester played a key part and was subsequently executed . Thomas had been created Earl of Gloucester by Richard II , but in 1399 was accused of being involved in the death of the son of the Duke of Gloucester and as a result lost his earldom . He joined in the conspiracy of the earls of Rutland , Kent and Huntingdon and was with their army at Cirencester , when they were attacked by the townsmen , who burnt Thomas le Despenser 's lodgings . Thomas fled , boarding a ship , but the captain forced him to Bristol , where on 13 January he was released to the mob and beheaded at the high cross .
In the aftermath of the rebellion Henry le Despenser appointed John Derlington , the archdeacon of Norwich , as his vicar @-@ general on 5 February 1400 and then submitted himself to the custody of Archbishop Arundel who accompanied him to Parliament on 20 January 1401 . There his enemy Sir Thomas Erpingham falsely accused him of being involved in the plot . He was finally reconciled to Henry IV when the king granted him a pardon in 1401 .
Despenser died on 23 August 1406 and was buried in Norwich Cathedral before the high altar . A brass inscription dedicated to him was placed there , but has since been destroyed .
= = Ancestry = =
= Pluteus nevadensis =
Pluteus nevadensis is a species of fungus in the agaric family Pluteaceae . Described as new to science in 2010 , the species is known only from subtropical and pine forests in Mexico , where it grows on rotting pine and oak wood . Fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) have red @-@ orange caps up to 3 @.@ 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter with a shape ranging from conic , convex , or flattened , depending on their age . The silky yellow stems are up to 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) long . It is similar in appearance to Pluteus aurantiorugosus , with which it shares an orange- or scarlet @-@ colored cap and a yellow stem . P. nevadensis can be distinguished from this and other superficially similar Pluteus species by differences in microscopic characteristics .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was described by Olivia Rodríguez in 2010 in the journal Mycotaxon , based on collections made in 1991 . The holotype material was collected on the Colima volcano , in the Municipality of Zapotlán el Grande , at an elevation of 2 @,@ 100 m ( 6 @,@ 900 ft ) . The species was formerly referred to Pluteus aurantiorugosus , with which it bears a close resemblance . After close examination and comparison of the two species , the authors concluded that the differences in morphology and DNA sequence were sufficient to warrant describing a new species .
According to Rolf Singer 's infrageneric classification of the genus Pluteus , the fungus belongs in the section Celluloderma . Species in this section have pleurocystidia that are either absent or non @-@ metuloid . Furthermore , the majority have a cap cuticle comprising short club @-@ shaped or spheropedunculate ( somewhat spherical with a stem ) cells , that may or may not be mixed with elongated cystidia @-@ like cells . Other species in Celluloderma include P. romellii , P. aurantiorugosus , P. pulverulentus , P. thompsonii , and P. horakianus . Molecular analyses of internal transcribed spacer DNA sequences supports the placement of P. nevadensis in Celluloderma , and further suggest that it has a sister relationship with P. horakianas . The specific epithet nevadensis refers to the mountain , Nevado de Colima , where the type material was collected .
= = Description = =
The cap is 15 – 38 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter , conic when young , bell @-@ shaped to convex or plano @-@ convex when mature , and umbonate . The cap margin is curved downward , even or slightly eroded . The red @-@ orange cap surface is dry to moist , and wrinkled towards the margin but smooths out as it approaches the center . Sometimes there is white @-@ yellowish flesh underneath the cap cuticle . The gills are free from attachment to the stem , crowded closely together , broad to swollen in the middle , and white or whitish when young to salmon @-@ pinkish in age . The edge of the gill is floccose ( with wool @-@ like tufts ) or fringed , and whitish . The stem , which is centrally attached to the cap , measures 6 – 45 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 – 1 @.@ 77 in ) by 2 – 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 – 0 @.@ 24 in ) , and is roughly equal in width throughout . It is smooth to slightly fibrillose ( covered in small slender fibers or filaments ) , silky , and hollow . The color is yellow or yellowish near the top , and deep orange or with orange tinges towards the base . The base of the stem is covered with cottony whitish mycelia . The flesh of the cap is 1 mm thick or more at the center and whitish . The stem tissue is yellowish or yellow gold . Fruit bodies of Pluteus nevadensis have no distinctive taste or odor .
The color of the spore print is pinkish @-@ brown . The smooth spores measure 5 @.@ 5 – 7 by 4 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 µm , roughly spherical to broadly ellipsoid in shape . Their walls are thin to slightly thickened , and almost translucent . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells in the hymenium ) are 22 – 29 by 6 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 µm ( including sterigmata ) , club @-@ shaped , and four @-@ spored . They have refringent contents and are hyaline ( translucent ) . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are 41 @.@ 8 – 75 by 11 @.@ 8 – 24 µm , frequent , scattered , and flask @-@ shaped with short or elongated necks . Some pleurocystidia are somewhat fusiform ( tapered on each end ) or somewhat utriform ( shaped like a leather bottle or flask ) , thin @-@ walled , and hyaline . Cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are 32 – 55 by 10 – 18 @.@ 5 µm , crowded , and club @-@ shaped . Some are utriform , roughly cylindrical or egg @-@ shaped , thin walled , and hyaline . The gill tissue is convergent , meaning that the hyphae appear to converge toward the center of the tissue . The cap cuticle comprises club @-@ shaped or sphaeropedunculate cells that measure 25 @.@ 6 – 60 by 13 @.@ 6 – 31 @.@ 2 µm . These cells typically have a long pedicel ( stalk ) with a thin or slightly thickened wall , and are hyaline . The species lacks oleiferous hyphae ( filled with oil @-@ like contents ) and clamp connections .
= = = Similar species = = =
Pluteus aurantiorugosus is very similar to P. nevadensis in external appearance , and the two can only be reliably distinguished by microscopic characteristics or DNA sequence . In contrast to the latter species , the former has oblong spores , and cystidia that are shorter and less slender . P. aurantiorugosus is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere , but rare .
The species Pluteus horakianus shares with P. nevadensis a fragile fruit body , a red cap , and similar cystidial morphology . It differs in its orange @-@ red gill edges , red stem , and cap cuticle cells that contain pigment . Other species with a roughly similar appearance , including P. aurantiopustulatus , P. aurantipes , P. flammipes , P. laetifrons , and P. laetus , can be distinguished by differences in microscopic characteristics .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Pluteus nevadensis is known only from subtropical and pine forests in the states of Guerrero and Jalisco , Mexico , where it grows on the rotting wood of pine and oak . It is one of 34 Pluteus species known in Mexico .
= Madge Syers =
Florence Madeline " Madge " Syers ( née Cave , 16 September 1881 – 9 September 1917 ) was a British figure skater . She became the first woman to compete at the World Figure Skating Championships in 1902 by entering what was previously an all @-@ male event and won the silver medal , which prompted the International Skating Union ( ISU ) to create a separate ladies ' championship . Syers was the winner of the first two ladies ' events in 1906 and 1907 , and went on to become the Olympic champion at the 1908 Summer Olympics , the first Olympic Games to include figure skating . She also competed as a pairs skater with her husband Edgar Syers , winning the bronze medal at the 1908 Olympics .
= = Personal life = =
Florence Madeline Cave was born on 16 September 1881 in Kensington , London , one of 15 children of Edward Jarvis Cave , a builder , and his wife Elizabeth Ann . She was a proficient figure skater , as well as a gifted swimmer and equestrienne . Madge became a regular at the Prince 's Skating Club in Knightsbridge , which had been formed in 1896 and was popular with aristocratic society in London .
In 1899 Madge met her future husband Edgar Syers , a figure skater and coach who was 18 years her senior . Edgar was an exponent of the international skating style , which was freer and less rigid than the traditional English style , and encouraged Madge to adopt this style . Madge and Edgar completed together in pairs skating events , and in 1900 finished second in one of the first international pairs events , staged in Berlin . They married in June of that year . The Syers co @-@ authored The Book of Winter Sports in 1908 .
= = Career = =
= = = 1902 World championships = = =
The World Figure Skating Championships , first contested in 1896 , was regarded as an all @-@ male event since competitive skating was generally viewed as a male activity , but there was no regulation barring women , enabling Syers to enter and compete at the 1902 Championships in London . She won the silver medal behind Ulrich Salchow , who was reputedly so impressed with her challenge that he offered her his gold medal . T. D. Richardson later wrote : " Rumour , nay more than rumour – a good deal of expert opinion – thought she should have won . "
Syers ' entry into the World Championships prompted the ISU to discuss the subject of women competing against men at their next Congress in 1903 . The concerns raised were that " ( 1 ) the dress prevents the judges from seeing the feet ; ( 2 ) a judge might judge a girl to whom he was attached ; and ( 3 ) it is difficult to compare women with men . " The Congress voted six to three in favour of barring women from the championships .
= = = 1903 – 1907 = = =
Syers continued to compete elsewhere , and in 1903 won the inaugural British Figure Skating Championships , which began as a mixed competition . She won again the following year , beating her husband , who won the silver medal . She also entered the 1904 European Championships but withdrew due to injury after the first stage of the competition , the compulsory figures .
The 1905 ISU Congress established a separate ladies ' event , which was supported by strong lobbying from the National Ice Skating Association . The event was known at the time as the Ladies ' Championship of the ISU rather than a World Championship , and was staged at a different date and location from the men 's event . Syers won the inaugural event held in Davos , Switzerland in 1906 , finishing first in a field of five competitors . She won her second title in Vienna at the 1907 Championships .
= = = 1908 Olympics = = =
The 1908 Summer Olympics in London were the first Games to include figure skating events in the programme , which were staged in October at the Prince 's Club . Syers entered both the ladies ' event and the pairs with Edgar . In the ladies ' event , Syers comfortably won the compulsory figures section , with all five judges placing her first . The official report of the Games described her as " in a class by herself " and stated that " the wonderful accuracy of her figures , combined with perfect carriage and movement , was the chief feature of the morning 's skating . " In the free skating , the report described her as having " excelled in rhythm and time @-@ keeping , and her dance steps , pirouettes , & c . , were skated without a fault . " She was again placed first by all five judges and won the title . In the pairs event Syers and Edgar finished third ( of three couples ) and won the bronze medal .
= = Later life = =
Syers retired from competitive skating after the Olympics due to fading health . She and Edgar co @-@ authored a second book together , The Art of Skating ( International Style ) , published in 1913 . She died of heart failure caused by acute endocarditis on 9 September 1917 at her home in Weybridge , Surrey , aged 35 .
Syers was elected to the World Figure Skating Hall of Fame in 1981 .
= = Results = =
= Senate of the Roman Republic =
The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic . It was not an elected body , but one whose members were appointed by the consuls , and later by the censors . After a Roman magistrate served his term in office , it usually was followed with automatic appointment to the Senate . According to the Greek historian Polybius , our principal source on the Constitution of the Roman Republic , the Roman Senate was the predominant branch of government . Polybius noted that it was the consuls ( the highest @-@ ranking of the regular magistrates ) who led the armies and the civil government in Rome , and it was the Roman assemblies which had the ultimate authority over elections , legislation , and criminal trials . However , since the Senate controlled money , administration , and the details of foreign policy , it had the most control over day @-@ to @-@ day life . The power and authority of the Senate derived from precedent , the high caliber and prestige of the senators , and the Senate 's unbroken lineage , which dated back to the founding of the Republic in 509 BC .
Originally the chief @-@ magistrates , the consuls , appointed all new senators . They also had the power to remove individuals from the Senate . Around the year 318 BC , the " Ovinian Plebiscite " ( plebiscitum Ovinium ) gave this power to another Roman magistrate , the censor , who retained this power until the end of the Roman Republic . This law also required the censors to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the Senate . Thus , after this point in time , election to magisterial office resulted in automatic Senate membership . The appointment was for life , although the censor could impeach any senator .
The Senate directed the magistrates , especially the consuls , in their prosecution of military conflicts . The Senate also had an enormous degree of power over the civil government in Rome . This was especially the case with regards to its management of state finances , as only it could authorize the disbursal of public monies from the treasury . In addition , the Senate passed decrees called senatus consultum , which was officially " advice " from the Senate to a magistrate . While technically these decrees did not have to be obeyed , in practice , they usually were . During an emergency , the Senate ( and only the Senate ) could authorize the appointment of a dictator . The last ordinary dictator , however , was appointed in 202 BC . After 202 BC , the Senate responded to emergencies by passing the senatus consultum ultimum ( " Ultimate Decree of the Senate " ) , which suspended civil government and declared something analogous to martial law .
= = Venue and ethical standards = =
The rules and procedures of the Roman Senate were both complex and ancient . Many of these rules and procedures originated in the early years of the Republic , and were upheld over the centuries under the principle of mos maiorum ( " customs of the ancestors " ) . While Senate meetings could take place either inside or outside of the formal boundary of the city ( the pomerium ) , no meeting could take place more than a mile outside of the pomerium . Senate meetings might take place outside of the formal boundary of the city for several reasons . For example , the Senate might wish to meet with an individual , such as a foreign ambassador , whom they did not wish to allow inside the city .
At the beginning of the year , the first Senate meeting always took place at the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus . Other venues could include the Temple of Fides or the Temple of Concord , or , if the meeting was outside of the formal boundary of the city , at the Temple of Apollo or ( if a war meeting ) at the Temple of Bellona . In addition , the Senate operated while under various religious restrictions . For example , before any meeting could begin , a sacrifice to the gods was made , and a search for divine omens ( the auspices ) was taken . The auspices were taken in order to determine whether that particular Senate meeting held favor with the gods . The Senate was only allowed to meet in a building of religious significance , such as the Curia Hostilia .
The ethical requirements of senators were significant . Senators could not engage in banking or any form of public contract . They could not own a ship that was large enough to participate in foreign commerce , and they could not leave Italy without permission from the Senate . In addition , since they were not paid , individuals usually sought to become a senator only if they were independently wealthy .
The censors were the magistrates who enforced the ethical standards of the Senate . Whenever a censor punished a senator , they had to allege some specific failing . Possible reasons for punishing a member included corruption , abuse of capital punishment , or the disregard of a colleague 's veto , constitutional precedent , or the auspices . Senators who failed to obey various laws could also be punished . While punishment could include impeachment ( expulsion ) from the Senate , often a punishment was less severe than outright expulsion . While the standard was high for expelling a member from the Senate , it was easier to deny a citizen the right to join the Senate . Various moral failings could result in one not being allowed to join the Senate , including bankruptcy , prostitution , or a prior history of having been a gladiator . One law ( the Lex repetundarum of 123 BC ) made it illegal for a citizen to become a senator if they had been convicted of a criminal offense . Many of these laws were enacted in the last century of the Republic , as public corruption began reaching unprecedented levels .
= = Debates = =
Meetings usually began at dawn , although occasionally certain events ( such as festivals ) might delay the beginning of a meeting . A magistrate who wished to summon the Senate had to issue a compulsory order ( a cogere ) , and senators could be punished if they failed to appear without reasonable cause . In 44 BC for example , consul Mark Antony threatened to demolish the house of the former consul Cicero for this very reason . The Senate meetings were technically public because the doors were usually left open , which allowed people to look in , but only senators could speak . The Senate was directed by a presiding magistrate , who was usually either a consul ( the highest @-@ ranking magistrate ) or , if the consul was unavailable , a Praetor ( the second @-@ highest ranking magistrate ) . By the late Republic , another type of magistrate , a plebeian tribune , would sometimes preside .
While in session , the Senate had the power to act on its own , and even against the will of the presiding magistrate if it wished . The presiding magistrate began each meeting with a speech ( the verba fecit ) , which was usually brief , but was sometimes a lengthy oration . The presiding magistrate would then begin a discussion by referring an issue to the senators , who would discuss the issue , one at a time , by order of seniority , with the first to speak , the most senior senator , known as the princeps senatus ( leader of the Senate ) , who was then followed by ex @-@ consuls ( consulares ) , and then the praetors and ex @-@ praetors ( praetorii ) . This continued , until the most junior senators had spoken . Senators who had held magisterial office always spoke before those who had not , and if a patrician was of equal seniority as a plebeian , the patrician would always speak first .
A senator could make a brief statement , discuss the matter in detail , or talk about an unrelated topic . All senators had to speak before a vote could be held , and since all meetings had to end by nightfall , a senator could talk a proposal to death ( a filibuster or diem consumere ) if they could keep the debate going until nightfall . It is known , for example , that the senator Cato the Younger once filibustered in an attempt to prevent the Senate from granting Julius Caesar a law that would have given land to the veterans of Pompey .
= = Delaying and obstructive tactics = =
Senators had several ways in which they could influence ( or frustrate ) a presiding magistrate . When a presiding magistrate was proposing a motion , for example , the senators could call " consult " ( consule ) , which required the magistrate to ask for the opinions of the senators . Any senator could demand a quorum call ( with the cry of numera ) , which required a count of the senators present . Like modern quorum calls , this was usually a delaying tactic . Senators could also demand that a motion be divided into smaller motions . Acts such as applause , booing , or heckling often played a major role in a debate , and , in part because all senators had an absolute right to free speech , any senator could respond at any point if he was attacked personally . Once debates were underway , they were usually difficult for the presiding magistrate to control . The presiding magistrate typically only regained some control once the debating had ended , and a vote was about to be taken .
In the later years of the Republic , attempts were made by the aristocracy to limit the increasing level of chaos associated with the obstructive tendencies and democratic impulses of some of the senators . Laws were enacted to prevent the inclusion of extraneous material in bills before the Senate . Other laws were enacted to outlaw the so @-@ called omnibus bills , which are bills , usually enacted by a single vote , that contain a large volume of often unrelated material .
Laws were also enacted to strengthen the requirement that three days pass between the proposal of a bill , and the vote on that bill . During his term as dictator , Julius Caesar enacted laws that required the publication of Senate resolutions . This publication , called the acta diurna , or " daily proceedings " , was meant to increase transparency and minimize the potential for abuse . This publication was posted in the Roman Forum , and then sent by messengers throughout the provinces .
= = Votes and the Tribune 's veto = =
When it was time to call a vote , the presiding magistrate could bring up whatever proposals ( in whatever order ) he wished , and every vote was between a proposal and its negative . Quorums were required for votes to be held , and it is known that in 67 BC the size of a quorum was set at 200 senators ( by the lex Cornelia de privilegiis ) . At any point before a motion passed , the proposed motion could be vetoed . Usually , vetoes were handed down by plebeian tribunes . If the Senate proposed a bill that the plebeian tribune ( the magistrate who was the chief representative of the people ) did not agree with , he issued a veto , which was backed by the promise to literally " ' interpose the sacrosanctity of his person ' " ( or intercessio ) if the Senate did not comply . If the Senate did not comply , he could physically prevent the Senate from acting , and any resistance could be criminally prosecuted as constituting a violation of his sacrosanctity . If the vetoed motion was proposed the next day , and the plebeian tribune who had vetoed it the day before was not present to interpose himself , the motion could be passed . In general , the plebeian tribune had to physically be present at the Senate meeting , otherwise his physical threat of interposing his person had no meaning . Ultimately , the plebeian tribune 's veto was based in a promise of physical force .
Once a vote occurred , and a measure passed , he could do nothing , since his promise to physically interpose his person against the senators was now meaningless . In addition , during a couple of instances between the end of the Second Punic War in 201 BC and the beginning of the Social War in 91 BC , although they had no legal power to do so , several Consuls were known to have vetoed acts of the Senate . Ultimately , if there was no veto , and the matter was of minor importance , it could be voted on by a voice vote or by a show of hands . If there was no veto , and the matter was of a significant nature , there was usually a physical division of the house , where senators voted by taking a place on either side of the chamber .
Any motion that had the support of the Senate but was vetoed was recorded in the annals as a senatus auctoritas , while any motion that was passed and not vetoed was recorded as a senatus consultum . After the vote , each senatus consultum and each senatus auctoritas was transcribed into a final document by the presiding magistrate . This document included the name of the presiding magistrate , the place of the assembly , the dates involved , the number of senators who were present at time the motion was passed , the names of witnesses to the drafting of the motion , and the substance of the act . In addition , if the motion was a senatus consultum , a capital letter " C " was stamped on the document , to verify that the motion had been approved by the Senate .
The document was then deposited in the temple that housed the Treasury ( the aerarium ) . While a senatus auctoritas ( vetoed Senate motion ) had no legal value , it did serve to show the opinion of the Senate . If a senatus consultum conflicted with a law ( lex ) that was passed by a Roman Assembly , the law overrode the senatus consultum , because the senatus consultum had its authority based in precedent , and not in law . A senatus consultum , however , could serve to interpret a law .
= Spokane , Washington =
Spokane ( pronunciation : / spoʊˈkæn / spoh @-@ KAN ) is a city in the state of Washington , in the northwestern United States . Spokane is the seat of Spokane County . It is located on the Spokane River , west of the Rocky Mountain foothills in eastern Washington , 92 miles ( 148 km ) south of the Canadian border , approximately 20 miles ( 30 km ) from the Washington – Idaho border , and 280 miles ( 450 km ) east of Seattle along Interstate 90 . The city and wider Inland Northwest region is served by Spokane International Airport , 5 miles ( 8 km ) west of downtown Spokane . According to the 2010 Census , Spokane had a population of 208 @,@ 916 , making it the second largest city in Washington and the 102nd largest city in the United States .
The first humans to live in the area , the Spokane people ( their name meaning " children of the sun " in Salishan ) , arrived between 13 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 years ago , living off plentiful game . Known as the birthplace of Father 's Day , Spokane is officially nicknamed the " Lilac City " . David Thompson explored the area with the westward expansion and establishment of the North West Company 's Spokane House in 1810 . This trading post was the first long @-@ term European settlement in Washington . Completion of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1881 brought settlers to the Spokane area , and that same year it was officially incorporated as a city with the name " Spokan Falls " . The " e " was added to Spokane in 1883 , and " Falls " was dropped in 1891 . In the late 19th century , gold and silver were discovered in the Inland Northwest . The local economy depended on mining , timber , and agriculture until the 1980s . Spokane hosted the first environmentally themed World 's Fair at Expo ' 74 .
Many of the older Romanesque Revival @-@ style buildings in the downtown area were designed by architect Kirtland Kelsey Cutter after the Great Fire of 1889 . The city also features Riverfront and Manito parks , the Smithsonian @-@ affiliated Northwest Museum of Arts and Culture , the Davenport Hotel , and the Fox and Bing Crosby theaters . The Cathedral of Our Lady of Lourdes serves as the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Spokane with Thomas Daly as the newly appointed Bishop as of 2015 . The Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist ( Spokane , Washington ) represents the Anglican community . The city is also the center of the Mormon Spokane Washington Temple District . Gonzaga University was established in 1887 by the Society of Jesus , and the private Presbyterian Whitworth University moved to north Spokane in 1914 from Tacoma , WA . In sports , the Gonzaga Bulldogs collegiate basketball team competes at the Division I level . Professional and semi @-@ professional sports teams include the Spokane Indians in Minor League Baseball , Spokane Empire in arena football , and Spokane Chiefs in junior ice hockey . As of 2010 , Spokane 's only major daily newspaper , The Spokesman @-@ Review , had a daily circulation of over 75 @,@ 000 .
= = History = =
The first humans to live in the Spokane area arrived between 13 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 years ago and were hunter @-@ gatherer societies that lived off plentiful game . The Spokane tribe , after which the city is named ( the name meaning " children of the sun " Salishan ) , [ a ] are believed to be either their direct descendants , or descendants of people from the Great Plains . When asked by early white explorers , the Spokanes said their ancestors came from " up North " .
Early in the 19th century , the Northwest Fur Company sent two white fur trappers west of the Rocky Mountains to search for fur . These were the first white men met by the Spokanes , who believed they were sacred , and set the trappers up in the Colville River valley for the winter .
= = = Trading post = = =
The explorer @-@ geographer David Thompson , working as head of the North West Company 's Columbia Department , became the first European to explore the Inland Empire ( now called the Inland Northwest ) . Crossing what is now the U.S. – Canadian border from British Columbia , Thompson wanted to expand the North West Company further south in search of furs . After establishing the Kullyspell House and Saleesh House trading posts in what are now Idaho and Montana , Thompson then attempted to expand further west . He sent out two trappers , Jacques Raphael Finlay and Finan McDonald , to construct a fur trading post on the Spokane River in Washington and trade with the local Indians . This post was established in 1810 , at the confluence of the Little Spokane and Spokane rivers , becoming the first enduring European settlement of significance in Washington state . Known as the Spokane House , or simply " Spokane " , it was in operation from 1810 to 1826 . Operations were run by the British North West Company and later the Hudson 's Bay Company , and the post was the headquarters of the fur trade between the Rocky and Cascade mountains for 16 years . After the latter business absorbed the North West Company in 1821 , the major operations at the Spokane House were eventually shifted north to Fort Colville , reducing the post 's significance .
In 1836 , Reverend Samuel Parker visited the area and reported that around 800 Native Americans were living in Spokane Falls . A medical mission was established by Marcus and Narcissa Whitman to cater for Cayuse Indians and hikers of the Oregon Trail at Walla Walla in the south . After the Whitmans were killed by Indians in 1847 , Reverend Cushing Eells established Whitman College in the city of Walla Walla , WA in their memory . Rev. Eells built the first church in Spokane in 1881 Between 1881 and 1882 the first Baptist and Episcopal churches were started , and the first Presbyterian church in 1883 .
In 1853 , two years after the establishment of the Washington Territory , the first governor , Isaac Stevens , made an initial effort to make a treaty with Chief Garry and the Spokanes at Antoine Plantes ' Ferry , not far from Millwood .
After the last campaign of the Yakima Indian War , the Coeur d 'Alene War of 1858 was brought to a close by the actions of Col. George Wright , who won decisive victories against a confederation of tribes in engagements at the battles of Four Lakes and Spokane Plains . The cessation of hostilities opened the inter @-@ mountain valley of the Pacific Northwest to safe habitation by settlers .
= = = American settlement = = =
Joint American – British occupation of Oregon Country , in effect since the Treaty of 1818 , eventually led to the Oregon Boundary Dispute after a large influx of American settlers along the Oregon Trail . The first American settlers in what is now Spokane were J.J. Downing and S.R. Scranton , cattle ranchers who squatted and established a claim at Spokane Falls in 1871 . Together they built a small sawmill on a claim near the south bank of the falls . James N. Glover and Jasper Matheney , Oregonians passing through the region in 1873 , recognized the value of the Spokane River and its falls for the purpose of water power . They realized the investment potential and bought the claims of 160 acres ( 65 ha ) and the sawmill from Downing and Scranton for a total of $ 4 @,@ 000 . Glover and Matheney knew that the Northern Pacific Railroad Company had received a government charter to build a main line across this northern route . Amid many delays in construction and uncertainty over the completion of the railroad and its exact course , Matheney sold his interest in the claim to Glover . [ b ] Glover confidently held on to his claim and became a successful Spokane business owner and was the second mayor of Spokane in 1883 . He later came to be known as the " Father of Spokane " . When Spokane was officially incorporated in 1881 Robert W. Forrest was elected as the first mayor of the city , with a Council of seven @-@ S.G. Havermale , A.M. Cannon , Dr. L.H.Whitehouse , L.W. Rima , F.R. Moore , George A. Davis , and W.C. Gray . The Mayor and Councilmen served without pay .
In 1880 , Fort Spokane was established by U.S. Army troops under Lt. Col. Henry Clay Merriam 56 miles ( 90 km ) northwest of Spokane , at the junction of the Columbia and Spokane Rivers , to protect the construction of the Northern Pacific Railway and secure a place for U.S. settlement . By June 30 , 1881 , the railway reached the city , bringing major European settlement to the area . The city of Spokan Falls ( the " e " was added in 1883 and " Falls " dropped in 1891 ) was officially incorporated as a city of about 1 @,@ 000 residents on November 29 , 1881 . [ c ] The marketing campaigns of transportation companies with affordable fertile land to sell along their trade routes lured many settlers into the region they dubbed " Spokane Country " .
The 1883 discovery of gold , silver , and lead in the Coeur d 'Alene region of northern Idaho lured prospectors . The Inland Empire erupted with numerous mining rushes from 1883 to 1892 . Mining and smelting emerged as a major stimulus to Spokane . At the onset of the initial 1883 gold rush in the nearby Coeur d 'Alene mining district , Spokane became popular with prospectors , offering low prices on everything " from a horse to a frying pan " . It would keep this status for subsequent rushes in the region due to its trade center status and accessibility to railroad infrastructure . [ d ]
Spokane 's growth continued unabated until August 4 , 1889 , when a fire , now known as The Great Fire ( not to be confused with the Great Fire of 1910 , which happened nearby ) , began just after 6 : 00 p.m. and destroyed the city 's downtown commercial district . Due to technical problems with a pump station , there was no water pressure in the city when the fire started . In a desperate bid to starve the fire , firefighters began razing buildings with dynamite . Eventually the winds and the fire died down ; 32 blocks of Spokane 's downtown core had been destroyed and one person killed .
Despite this catastrophe , and in part because of it , Spokane experienced a building boom . [ e ] The downtown was rebuilt , and the city was reincorporated under the present name of " Spokane " in 1891 . According to historian David H. Stratton , " From the late 1890s to about 1912 , a great flurry of construction created a modern urban profile of office buildings , banks , department stores , hotels and other commercial institutions , " which stretched from the Spokane River to the site of the Northern Pacific railroad tracks below the South Hill . Yet the rebuilding and development of the city was far from smooth : between 1889 and 1896 alone , all six bridges over the Spokane River were destroyed by floods before their completion . In the 1890s the city was subject to intrastate migration by African @-@ Americans from Roslyn , looking for work after the closure of the area 's mines . Two African
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Olympic swim team , but did not go to the Olympics due to a boycott by the United States and several of its allies . Ragnhild Myklebust of Norway holds the record for the most medals ever won at the Winter Paralympic Games . Competing in a variety of events in 1988 , 1992 , 1994 and 2002 , she won a total of 22 medals , of which 17 were gold . After winning five gold medals at the 2002 Games she retired at the age of 58 . Neroli Fairhall , a paraplegic archer from New Zealand , was the first paraplegic competitor , and the first Paralympian , to participate in the Olympic Games , when she competed in the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles . She placed thirty @-@ fourth in the Olympic archery competition , and won a Paralympic gold medal in the same event .
= = Host cities = =
= Maya Lindholm =
Maya Lindholm ( born 20 December 1990 ) is a 2 @.@ 5 point wheelchair basketball player , who played with the German national team that won a gold medal at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London . It also won a European title in 2011 and was runner @-@ up in 2013 . President Joachim Gauck awarded the team Germany 's highest sporting honour , the Silbernes Lorbeerblatt ( Silver Laurel Leaf ) .
= = Biography = =
Maya Lindholm was born in Hamburg on 20 December 1990 . In 2004 , she awoke one morning with severe back pain , and within hours she could no longer move her legs . Doctors diagnosed spinal cord inflammation . She is studying to be an occupational therapist at the BG Trauma Hospital in Hamburg Boberg . She began playing wheelchair basketball for fun at the hospital in 2005 . In 2009 , she was selected as part of the national team .
Classified as a 2 @.@ 5 point player , Lindholm plays power forward . She was part of the team that won the European Championships in Nazareth , Israel , in 2011 , thereby qualifying for the 2012 Summer Paralympic Games in London . As part of the team 's preparation , they toured the United States and Australia . The German team went through the group stage undefeated , but started off slow in its games against the United States and China , winning these games by six @-@ point margins , and seemed to play its best basketball only in the final minutes of a game .
In the Gold Medal match in London , the team faced the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , which had defeated them 48 – 46 in Sydney just a few months before . In front of a crowd of over 12 @,@ 985 at the North Greenwich Arena , they defeated the Australians 58 – 44 to win the gold medal , the first that Germany had won in women 's wheelchair basketball since 1984 . They were awarded the Silver Laurel Leaf by President Joachim Gauck in November 2012 , They were also named Team of the Year in Disability Sports for 2012 , an annual award voted for by 3 @,@ 000 members of the Association of German Sports Journalists .
Lindholm 's local team , Hamburger SV , which also included national teammates Mareike Adermann and Edina Müller ( and Australia 's Bridie Kean ) won the women 's national championship for the eighth time in 2013 . Lindholm was also part of the Hamburger SV team that had previously won it in 2010 .
The German national team was not so fortunate , losing the final of the European Championship to the Netherlands before a home town crowd in Frankfurt .
= = Achievements = =
2010 : German Women 's National League champion ( Hamburg SV )
2010 : Silver at the IWBF World Championships ( Birmingham , Great Britain )
2011 : Gold at the European Wheelchair Basketball Championships ( Nazareth , Israel )
2012 : Gold at the Paralympic Games ( London , England )
2013 : German Women 's National League champion ( Hamburg SV )
2013 : Silver at the European Championships ( Frankfurt , Germany )
2014 : Silver at the World Championships ( Toronto , Canada )
2015 : Gold at the European Championships ( Worcester , England )
= = Awards = =
2012 : Team of the Year
2012 : Silver Laurel Leaf
= Speechless ( Michael Jackson song ) =
" Speechless " is a song by the American recording artist Michael Jackson , included on his tenth studio album , Invincible ( 2001 ) . It was only released as a promotional single in South Korea . The singer was inspired to write the ballad after a water balloon fight with children in Germany . Jackson collaborated on the production with musicians such as Jeremy Lubbock , Brad Buxer , Novi Novoq , Stuart Bradley and Bruce Swedien . Andraé Crouch and his gospel choir provided backing vocals .
Executives at Jackson 's record label , Epic Records , responded positively to the track when given a preview several months before Invincible 's release . " Speechless " was issued as a promotional single , receiving mixed reviews from music critics . Commentary focused on the track 's a cappellas , lyrics and music . A clip of Jackson singing " Speechless " was included in the 2009 documentary @-@ concert film Michael Jackson 's This Is It .
= = Writing and recording = =
Michael Jackson wrote " Speechless " after a water balloon fight with children in Germany . It took him 45 minutes . In an interview with Vibe magazine , the musician commented , " I was so happy after the fight that I ran upstairs in their house and wrote ' Speechless ' . Fun inspires me . I hate to say that , because it 's such a romantic song . " He added , " But it was the fight that did it . I was happy , and I wrote it in its entirety right there . I felt it would be good enough for the album . Out of the bliss comes magic , wonderment , and creativity . " Jackson would consider " Speechless " to be one of his favorite songs on Invincible .
" Speechless " was one of only two songs from Invincible to be written solely by Jackson ( the second song being " The Lost Children " ) . Jeremy Lubbock worked with the musician in arranging and conducting an orchestra . Instrumentalists on the track included Brad Buxer on keyboards , and Novi Novog and Thomas Tally on violas . The violinists consisted of Peter Kent , Gina Kronstadt , Robin Lorentz , Kirstin Fife and John Wittenberg . The track featured backing vocals from Andraé Crouch and his gospel choir , The Andraé Crouch Singers . " Speechless " was digitally edited by Buxer and Stuart Brawley , and was mixed by Bruce Swedien , who later said , " Everything with Michael is a stand @-@ out moment but an absolutely gorgeous piece of music called ' Speechless ' was really an event . Michael sings the first eight bars a cappella . At the end , he closes it off a cappella – it was Michael 's idea to add the a cappella parts . "
= = Composition = =
The lyrics to " Speechless " deal with being lost for words because of love . The song opens with Jackson 's singing a cappella : " Your love is magical , that 's how I feel , but I have not the words here to explain " , which Rick de Yampert of The Daytona Beach News @-@ Journal felt the singer " [ crooned ] sweetly " . The chorus includes the lines , " Speechless , speechless , that 's how you make me feel . Though I 'm with you , I am far away and nothing is for real . " A second a cappella verse bookends the track .
" Speechless " is a ballad , and labeled it as " neo @-@ gospel " . According to Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing . It adds that the track was performed in common time , with a tempo of 80 beats per minute . The song starts in the key of B ♭ major and transitions to C major . After the bridge the song transitions to D Major as a choir starts singing , the last two choruses in E Major , ending with a solo a cappella ending by Jackson . The song 's vocal range is from F4 to B5 .
= = Post @-@ production and release = =
In June 2001 , several months before the release of Invincible , " Speechless " was among several songs showcased from the album exclusively to executives of Jackson 's music label , Epic Records ( a subsidiary of Sony Music Entertainment ) . Other songs previewed included " Unbreakable " , " The Lost Children " , " Whatever Happens " , " Break of Dawn " , " Heaven Can Wait " and " Privacy " , all of which featured on Invincible 's track listing . Roger Friedman of Fox News reported that the executives who listened to the previews liked what they heard . Epic Records ' president , Dave Glew , said of the tracks , " It 's wonderful and amazing . Michael is singing better than ever . " He added , " The ballads ! The ballads are beautiful , and they 're all there . " " Speechless " was later released as a promotional single in 2001 . A remixed version of " You Rock My World " , featuring rapper Jay @-@ Z , served as the single 's B @-@ side . After Jackson 's death , a clip of the entertainer singing " Speechless " was included in Michael Jackson 's This Is It , a commercially successful documentary @-@ concert film of the singer 's rehearsals for his London concert series .
= = Critical reception = =
" Speechless " received a mixed reaction from music journalists . Craig Seymour of The Buffalo News felt that the song was the only one from the album in which Jackson successfully revisited his past . The journalist said the song was reminiscent of the 1995 chart @-@ topper " You Are Not Alone " , as it sounded to him like a track that could have been written by R. Kelly , who penned the number one hit . Writing for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Jim DeRogatis described " Speechless " as a " beautifully minimal , heartfelt romantic ballad " . Music journalist Roger Catlin stated that the song leaned toward " neo @-@ gospel " . The New York Post said that " Speechless " was " lullaby @-@ like " and the best song on Invincible , and Jon Pareles of The New York Times praised Jackson 's " long lines and creamy overdubbed choruses [ sailing ] weightlessly " in the ballad , that the journalist felt it was a love song to God .
Pop music critic Robert Hilburn described " Speechless " , and another song from Invincible ( " Butterflies " ) , as being " as woefully generic as their titles " . Ben Rayner of the Toronto Star contested that the a cappellas in " Speechless " were enough to make a person wish that Jackson actually was unable to make a sound . Michigan Daily writer Dustin J. Seibert wrote that the song was a " shining [ example ] of what happens when The Gloved One gets beside himself and writes smarmy crap that should be reserved for a CD changer somewhere in a preschool " . The Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram said that " Speechless " was one of the weaker tracks from Invincible . Elliot Sylvester of The Independent felt that the song was " pure Jackson – almost to a formulaic fault " . The Dallas Morning News ' Thor Christensen said that " Speechless " was " produced by Mr. Jackson in bombastic style à la Celine Dion " . He added that as the track ended with an emotional Jackson , it drew a parallel with the singer 's 1972 ode to a rat , " Ben " .
Vaughn Watson of The Providence Journal hailed " Speechless " as Invincible 's " best song , and one of Jackson 's finest of any album " . He added that with the song , the musician acknowledged the pain that accompanies isolation . In a review of Invincible , The Wichita Eagle stated that " Speechless " , " Don 't Walk Away " and " Cry " were among the " sincere ballads " in which Jackson was exemplary . Ada Anderson of The Ball State Daily News expressed the view that " Speechless " would become a popular song , and writers for the South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel stated that the ballad would take time to get used to . The Dayton Daily News ' Ron Rollins described the track as a " pretty love song " . Music critic Kevin C. Johnson thought that " Speechless " was " one of [ Jackson 's ] typical , whispery ballads that swells as it moves along " . A journalist for The Olympian stated that the song was " gorgeous " .
= = Track listing = =
Promotional CD single :
" Speechless " – 3 : 18
" You Rock My World " ( Track Masters Mix ) ( featuring Jay @-@ Z ) – 3 : 28
= = Personnel = =
Written , composed , produced and lead vocal by Michael Jackson
Orchestra arranged and conducted by Michael Jackson and Jeremy Lubbock
Keyboards performed by Brad Buxer
Viola performed by Novi Novog and Thomas Tally
Violin performed by Peter Kent , Gina Kronstadt , Robin Lorentz , Kirstin Fife and John Wittenberg
= = Thriller – Live cast version = =
On June 21 , 2010 , six performers in the West End of London show Thriller – Live released " Speechless " as a single with the official name " Speechless – The Tribute to Michael Jackson " to commemorate the one @-@ year anniversary of Jackson 's death . All proceeds from the recording were donated to the charity War Child .
= = = Personnel = = =
Written and originally produced by Michael Jackson
Produced , edited and mixed by Dave Loughran
Executive producer : Adrian Grant for Key Concerts & Entertainment
Vocal arrangement by John Maher
Music arranged and performed by Dave Loughran
Hammond organ performed by John Maher
Lead vocals : James Anderson , Jean @-@ Mikhael Baque , Kieran Alleyne , Kuan Frye , Mitchell Zhangazha , MJ Mytton @-@ Sanneh
Choir : Britt Quentin , Hope Lyndsey Plumb , J Rome , Jenessa Qua , Linda John @-@ Pierre , Olamide Oshinowo , Paul Clancy , Terrence Ryan , Wayne Anthony @-@ Cole
Mastered by Steve Kitch
= = = Track listing = = =
Digital download :
" Speechless ( A Tribute to Michael Jackson ) " – single version – 4 : 25
= North American XB @-@ 21 =
The North American XB @-@ 21 , also known by the manufacturer 's model designation NA @-@ 21 , and sometimes referred to by the name " Dragon " , was a prototype bomber aircraft developed by North American Aviation in the late 1930s , for evaluation by the United States Army Air Corps . Evaluated against the Douglas B @-@ 18 Bolo , it was found to be considerably more expensive than the rival aircraft , and despite the ordering of a small number of evaluation aircraft , only the prototype was ever built .
= = Design and development = =
North American Aviation 's first twin @-@ engined military aircraft , the NA @-@ 21 prototype was constructed at North American 's factory in Inglewood , California , where work on the aircraft began in early 1936 . The NA @-@ 21 was a mid @-@ wing monoplane of all @-@ metal construction , powered by two Pratt & Whitney R @-@ 2180 @-@ A Twin Hornet radial engines , which were fitted with turbosuperchargers for increased high @-@ altitude performance .
Flown by a crew of six to eight men , the XB @-@ 21 featured a remarkably strong defensive armament for the time , including as many as five .30 @-@ calibre M1919 machine guns . These were planned to be fitted in hydraulically powered nose and dorsal turrets , in addition to manually operated weapons installed in waist and ventral positions . Up to 10 @,@ 000 pounds ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) of bombs could be carried in an internal bomb bay , with 2 @,@ 200 pounds ( 1 @,@ 000 kg ) of bombs being able to be carried over a range of 1 @,@ 900 miles ( 3 @,@ 100 km ) .
= = Testing and evaluation = =
Undertaking its maiden flight on 22 December 1936 at Mines Field , company test flying indicated a number of minor problems . Modifications resolving these resulted in the aircraft being re @-@ designated NA @-@ 39 , and , accepted by the U.S. Army Air Corps as the XB @-@ 21 . The aircraft , which had been assigned the serial number 38 @-@ 485 , was evaluated early the following year in competition against a similar design by Douglas Aircraft , an improved version of the company 's successful B @-@ 18 Bolo .
During the course of the fly @-@ off , the gun turrets proved troublesome , their drive motors proving to be underpowered , and issues with wind blast through the gun slots were also encountered . As a result of these problems , the XB @-@ 21 's nose turret was faired over , while the dorsal turret was removed .
The XB @-@ 21 proved to have superior performance over its competitor , but price became the primary factor distinguishing the Bolo and the XB @-@ 21 . On this account , the modified B @-@ 18 was declared the winner of the competition , Douglas quoting a price per aircraft of $ 64 @,@ 000 USD , while North American 's estimate was $ 122 @,@ 000 USD per aircraft , and an order was placed for 177 of the Douglas aircraft , to be designated B @-@ 18A .
Despite this , the Army Air Corps found the performance of the XB @-@ 21 to have been favorable enough to order five pre @-@ production aircraft , to be designated YB @-@ 21 . However , soon after this contract was awarded , it was cancelled , and none of the YB @-@ 21s were ever built , leaving the XB @-@ 21 as the sole example of the type ever constructed . Operated by North American Aviation , the XB @-@ 21 served as a research aircraft until its retirement .
Although the XB @-@ 21 failed to win a production contract , it was the first of a long line of North American Aviation medium bomber aircraft , and provided experience and knowledge that assisted in the development of the North American NA @-@ 40 , which , developed into the B @-@ 25 Mitchell , would become one of the Army 's standard medium bombers of World War II .
= = Specifications ( XB @-@ 21 ) = =
Data from
General characteristics
Crew : Six to eight
Length : 61 ft 9 in ( 18 @.@ 82 m )
Wingspan : 95 ft 0 in ( 28 @.@ 96 m )
Height : 14 ft 9 in ( 4 @.@ 50 m )
Wing area : 1 @,@ 120 sq ft ( 104 m2 )
Empty weight : 19 @,@ 082 lb ( 8 @,@ 655 kg )
Gross weight : 27 @,@ 253 lb ( 12 @,@ 362 kg )
Max takeoff weight : 40 @,@ 000 lb ( 18 @,@ 144 kg )
Powerplant : 2 × Pratt & Whitney R @-@ 2180 @-@ A Twin Hornet turbosupercharged radial engines , 1 @,@ 200 hp ( 890 kW ) each
Propellers : 3 @-@ bladed
Performance
Maximum speed : 220 mph ( 354 km / h ; 191 kn ) at 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m )
Cruise speed : 190 mph ( 165 kn ; 306 km / h )
Range : 1 @,@ 960 mi ( 1 @,@ 703 nmi ; 3 @,@ 154 km ) with 2 @,@ 200 pounds ( 1 @,@ 000 kg ) of bombs
Combat range : 600 mi ( 521 nmi ; 966 km ) with 10 @,@ 000 pounds ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) of bombs
Service ceiling : 25 @,@ 000 ft ( 7 @,@ 620 m )
Time to altitude : 10 minutes to 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m )
Armament
Guns : Five .30 @-@ calibre machine guns , mounted in single turrets in the nose and dorsal positions , and single manually operated mounts in the waist and ventral positions .
Bombs : Up to 10 @,@ 000 pounds ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) in an internal bay .
= Janee Michelle =
Janee Michelle ( born Geneva Leona Mercadel ; 1946 ) , also known as Gee Tucker , is an American actor , model , dancer , and businessperson , best known for her role in the 1974 horror film The House on Skull Mountain .
= = Career = =
Her acting and modeling career has included appearances in a variety of media , including films , television programs and advertisements , theatrical productions , and print advertisements . Meradel made her first film appearance in the 1964 short film The Legend of Jimmy Blue Eyes . She adopted the stage name Janee Michelle because her talent agent and the film studio both believed her birth name would be poorly received . Michelle 's acting in the television series The Outcasts in 1968 was critically acclaimed , which led to several offers of film roles . Both in a 1969 episode of The Governor & J.J. and in the 1970 film Soul Soldier , Michelle acted alongside her then @-@ husband Robert DoQui .
In 1977 , Michelle was the queen in the New Orleans Mardi Gras Zulu parade . She was the first Zulu queen to wear two different gowns , both of which were designed by Bob Mackie , who had designed outfits for Cher . She divorced DoQui in 1978 and married New Orleans politician Robert H. Tucker , Jr. the following year ; she changed her name to Gee Tucker and became a businessperson .
In 1980 , the couple founded Tucker and Associates , a management consulting company that , in 1990 , received a US $ 26 million contract with the Strategic Petroleum Reserve , representing the largest contract that had ever been received by a minority @-@ owned company in Louisiana . While working on this contract , Michelle and Tucker started a second company called Integrated Logistical Support . The couple divorced and Michelle retained ownership of Tucker and Associates while Tucker retained ownership of Integrated Logistical Support . When Tucker retired in 2008 , the couple 's daughter Iam Tucker replaced him as president of Integrated Logistical Support . After Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans , Michelle purchased Sophie 's Gelato , an ice cream parlor on Magazine Street where she makes gelato in @-@ house .
= = Early life = =
Janee Michelle was born Geneva Leona Mercadel in New Orleans , Louisiana . Her paternal great @-@ grandfather was a shoemaker who immigrated to New York from Champagne , France before moving to New Orleans in pursuit of a warmer climate . Michelle 's extended family was large and had lived in the 7th Ward of New Orleans for many years . Michelle is related to Sidney Barthelemy , former Mayor of New Orleans .
Traditionally , the Mercadels had worked in construction , and some of Michelle 's cousins continued this tradition . Michelle 's mother 's surname was Mathieu and her family background included people from Africa , France , Germany , and Italy , as well as Choctaw people . Michelle grew up in a religious home in which her father , Walter F. Mercadel , was a barber and her mother was a beautician . She had three siblings : an older brother named Walbert and two younger sisters named Zernell and Zona .
At age 13 , Michelle created , produced , designed , and directed a dance show at the YWCA in New Orleans . She was named Miss New Orleans in 1960 . She attended Rivers Frederick Junior High School where her principal , Leah McKenna , encouraged her to pursue a career in entertainment . While in high school , Michelle won fifteen certificates and medals for language proficiency . She started high school in New Orleans and then transferred to Manual Arts High School in Los Angeles , California , when her family moved there as a result of her mother 's illness , which was aggravated by the high humidity of New Orleans . Her father was unemployed at the time and her brother 's wife was pregnant , so she started working as a cook to support the family . She graduated from Manual Arts ranked 25th scholastically in her 500 @-@ student class , and then attended Los Angeles City College and Woodbury College , receiving her best grades in English studies . She took drama courses from Actors Studio West and the Columbia Film Workshop .
= = Career = =
= = = Entertainment = = =
Michelle 's acting , modeling , and dancing career has included appearances in a variety of media , including films , television programs and advertisements , theatrical productions , and print advertisements . She commuted to a job as a dancer in Las Vegas while she was still in high school . She has learned to perform both ballet and Cuban dance styles and has danced at the Hollywood Palladium and Tropicana Las Vegas . As a stage actor , she appeared in productions of MacBird ! , The Death of Daddy Hugs and Kisses , Ride a Wild Horse , The Vagina Monologues , In the Blink of an Eye , and other plays . One of her early television advertisement appearances was for Ultra Sheen hair products . In 1964 , Michelle — still known by her birth name Geneva Mercadel — received her first film role in the short film The Legend of Jimmy Blue Eyes , which was nominated for an Academy Award . Her contract did not allow her to receive residuals when the film later aired on television . Her talent agent and the film studio both believed her birth name would be received poorly , so she adopted the stage name Janee Michelle . She chose the name Janee ( pronounced Ja @-@ Nay , and sometimes spelled Janée ) to keep the first two syllables of her birth name . She chose the surname Michelle because she " thought it would be unique to have a name with two first names " . When she found people had difficulty pronouncing the name Janee , she considered changing it again , but decided against it because she believed this pronunciation difficulty caused people to remember her .
In 1967 , an article in The Chicago Defender predicted that Michelle 's career in American cinema would be successful . Also that year , she appeared on the cover of an issue of the magazine Jet alongside Ronnie Eckstine in recognition of their appearance together in Eckstine 's debut film The Love @-@ Ins ; it was Michelle 's most prominent film role until that point . A Variety reviewer wrote that Michelle was cast well in the role . Michelle 's acting in the television series The Outcasts was critically acclaimed , leading to several offers of film roles . The Outcasts reviews also led to her appearance in an episode of Love , American Style alongside Greg Morris , known for his role in the Mission : Impossible television series .
Michelle was included in the magazine Ebony 's list of Fifty Eligible Girls for 1969 . Also in 1969 , Michelle again appeared on the cover of Jet , which called her " one of Hollywood 's most attractive actresses " . The article declares Michelle to be one of several up @-@ and @-@ coming African @-@ American actresses , along with Gloria Foster , Gail Fisher , and Denise Nicholas . In the corresponding interview with Jet , Michelle said although racial inequality in the United States may have been a career obstacle for African @-@ American women in the past , " that 's not it today — and that 's for sure " . Michelle argued that her success as an actor proved the falsehood of the idea that African @-@ American women need to have sexual intercourse with certain people to become successful in the cinema of the United States .
Michelle starred alongside her husband Robert DoQui in a 1969 episode of The Governor & J.J. The couple acted together again the following year in Soul Soldier , a film in which Michelle is the leading lady ; she appears with DoQui in nude sex scenes . Michelle 's and DoQui 's characters form a love triangle with Lincoln Kilpatrick 's character . In a New York Times review of the film , Howard Thompson called all three actors ' performances " plain painful " .
In 1973 , Michelle collaborated with actors Judy Pace and Lillian Lehman to found Kwanza , a Hollywood , California @-@ based nonprofit organization named after the African diaspora celebration Kwanzaa . Run entirely by African American actresses on a volunteer basis , Kwanza initially provided food to people in need at Christmas . Michelle and the other two co @-@ founders each enlisted five other African American actresses to volunteer with the organization and , together , they raised enough funds to provide food to 75 families that first Christmas . By 1976 , the organization had fed more than 2000 individuals and had expanded to function year @-@ round .
Michelle is best known for her role in the 1974 horror film The House on Skull Mountain , which was once an obscure film but became better known when it was released on DVD . She portrays Lorena Christophe , who is summoned to the house of a recently @-@ dead distant relative who was a voodoo queen . Christophe is the love interest of the main character , who is portrayed by Victor French . In the Encyclopedia of African American Actresses in Film and Television , Bob McCann writes that Michelle " is quite pretty and gives a charming performance in her undemanding role " . A Variety reviewer provided a similar appraisal of Michelle 's appearance , calling her attractive and her role chic . In 2014 , she appeared in a health insurance television advertisement for AARP .
= = = New Orleans Mardi Gras = = =
In 1977 , Michelle 's cousin , Anthony " Chuck " Mercadel , was chosen to be that year 's king of the Zulu parade , part of New Orleans Mardi Gras . He and Michelle had not seen each other since before her film and television career when she was living in New Orleans . Michelle was volunteering with Kwanza in Shreveport , Louisiana with 25 other actresses , including Isabel Sanford , when Chuck and New Orleans politician Robert H. Tucker , Jr. visited Michelle at her hotel . Chuck said he was looking for Sanford so he could ask her to be his queen . Michelle asked him , " Why don 't you ask me to be your queen ? " , and he did so . Michelle refused the offer because she did not wish to be his second choice . Sanford was unable to appear in the parade due to a prior engagement and Chuck asked Michelle again . This time , she accepted , despite having to rearrange her schedule .
Until the time of the parade , Michelle was working in Hollywood . She flew to New Orleans to be ceremoniously greeted at the airport by a band and some Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club members . Michelle was the first Zulu queen to wear two different gowns : one for the parade and the other for the ball . Bob Mackie designed both of these gowns . Mackie had designed outfits for Cher , from whom Michelle borrowed a beige turkey feather boa and headdress for the parade . Michelle 's parade gown was sleeveless , had a turtleneck , and was composed of a gold @-@ and @-@ cinnamon brocade decorated with topaz gemstones . The ball gown was a white , form @-@ fitting garment with a see @-@ through front , and was decorated with crystals and white bugle beads . She rejected the traditional tiara and instead wore a headpiece covered in pearls . Of her promenade around the ballroom , during which she swayed her shoulders and hips , Michelle later said " high @-@ school girls were imitating it for a year after that : the ' Zulu queen ' walk " .
= = = Business = = =
After divorcing DoQui in 1978 , Michelle married Robert H. Tucker , Jr. the following year , changed her name to Gee Tucker , moved back to New Orleans , and became a businessperson . After Tucker had repeatedly been unsuccessful in being elected to public office , he convinced Michelle to go into business with him and stop working for Copeland . In 1980 , Tucker and Michelle founded Tucker and Associates , a management consulting company . The company did not generate much revenue at first , and Michelle worked elsewhere in management and marketing . For the first few years , Michelle and Tucker did not apply for assistance from the Small Business Administration ( SBA ) 8 ( a ) Business Development Program , which offers support to businesses run by members of minority groups . Michelle said they made this decision because " we had seen other businesses start out strongly , graduate from the SBA 8 @-@ A program and fail [ and ] we wanted to be able to know that we could compete without it " . Michelle had no formal business education , which made her feel inadequate as an entrepreneur . Of these early years in business , she later said , " I learned the hard way , on the job , things I could never have learned in school . But I think the formal training in school would have made it easier . "
Eventually , Tucker and Associates began receiving contracts requiring a variety of services , including personnel , data processing , finance , and marketing . By 1990 , the company employed 225 people and had a revenue of approximately $ 11 million . That year , the company received a $ 26 million contract with the Strategic Petroleum Reserve , representing the largest contract that had ever been received by a minority @-@ owned company in Louisiana . This contract was awarded through the SBA 8 ( a ) program and lasted seven years . While working on this contract , Michelle and Tucker started a second company called Integrated Logistical Support , of which Michelle became the vice president . The couple divorced before the Strategic Petroleum Reserve contract ended , and Michelle went back to using her maiden name . Michelle retained ownership of Tucker and Associates , remaining its president and chief executive officer , while Tucker retained ownership of Integrated Logistical Support .
Michelle was a director of Hibernia National Bank while it was a Forbes 500 company , and as of 2002 , she is the chief operating officer of Tucker and Associates . In 2003 , Ray Nagin , Mayor of New Orleans , ended contracts with eleven companies that had ties to the previous mayor , Marc Morial ; both Tucker and Associates and Integrated Logistical Support were among these companies . Michelle has sat on the board of the Louisiana Children 's Museum and has volunteered with the Drugs Off the Street program .
Michelle purchased Sophie 's Gelato in New Orleans , which she operates .
= = Awards = =
In 1991 , Michelle was recognized as a YWCA Role Model . The National Council of Negro Women named her one of five community leaders of the year in 1995 . Michelle has been named New Orleans Woman Business Owner of the Year and has received the Best of Black Business Award . The Business and Professional Women 's Foundation has named her Employer of the Year . The American Council for Career Women has granted her their Achiever 's Award .
= = Personal life = =
On July 22 , 1966 , at the age of twenty , Michelle married 33 @-@ year @-@ old Albert S. Hubbard in Marin County , California . They divorced in January 1968 . On April 25 of the following year , she married 35 @-@ year @-@ old Robert DoQui in San Francisco . DoQui , whose term of endearment for Michelle was " crazy Creole chick " , already had four children from a previous marriage to a woman who had died , and Michelle developed a relationship with these children , who were aged five , six , eight , and eleven . In a 1969 interview with the magazine Tan , Michelle indicated that DoQui 's fashion preferences were an important factor in her clothing purchase decisions , saying , " I think a girl should dress for her husband " . She also expressed her support for the breadwinner model in which men are expected to make the most income for their families and women are expected to be housewives , although Michelle argued that women should work outside the home if they want to . She went on to say that women no longer worked hard enough to retain the respect and love of their husbands , and the interviewer describes Michelle as following her own advice : " She dotes so much on her man , invests so much of herself in him , his well @-@ being " . Michelle gave birth to a son , Robert Diago DoQui , in 1971 , and he later became an actor and writer . Michelle and DoQui divorced in June 1978 .
Having met Robert Tucker when her cousin Chuck asked her to appear in the 1977 Zulu parade , Michelle eventually started dating Tucker and they married in 1979 . Their daughter , Iam Christian Tucker , in 1983 . Michelle and Tucker divorced after nineteen years of marriage .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= Interstate 95 in Delaware =
Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) is an Interstate highway running along the East Coast of the United States from Miami , Florida north to the Canadian border in Houlton , Maine . In the state of Delaware , the route runs for 23 @.@ 43 mi ( 37 @.@ 71 km ) across the Wilmington area in northern New Castle County from the Maryland state line near Newark northeast to the Pennsylvania state line in Claymont . I @-@ 95 is the only primary ( 2 @-@ digit ) Interstate highway that enters Delaware , although it also has two auxiliary routes within the state ( I @-@ 295 and I @-@ 495 ) . Between the Maryland border and Newport , I @-@ 95 follows the Delaware Turnpike or John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway , a toll road with a toll plaza near the state line . In Newport , the interstate has a large interchange with Delaware Route 141 ( DE 141 ) and the southern termini of I @-@ 295 and I @-@ 495 , the latter interstate providing a bypass of Wilmington . I @-@ 95 heads north through the heart of Wilmington concurrent with U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) on the Wilmington Expressway . Past Wilmington , I @-@ 95 continues northeast to Claymont , where I @-@ 495 rejoins the route right before the Pennsylvania state line .
Plans for a road along the I @-@ 95 corridor through Wilmington to the Pennsylvania border predate the Interstate Highway System . After the Delaware Memorial Bridge was built in 1951 , the Delaware Turnpike was proposed between the bridge approach in Farnhurst and the Maryland border near Newark in order to alleviate traffic congestion on parallel US 40 . With the creation of the Interstate Highway System in 1956 , both these roads were incorporated into I @-@ 95 . Construction on the Delaware Turnpike began in 1957 and ended in 1963 . Construction on building I @-@ 95 through Wilmington began in the early 1960s . I @-@ 95 was completed north from Newport to downtown Wilmington in 1966 and north to the Pennsylvania border in 1968 . Between 1978 and 1980 , I @-@ 95 was temporarily rerouted along the I @-@ 495 bypass route while the South Wilmington Viaduct was reconstructed ; during this time the route through Wilmington was designated as I @-@ 895 . Improvements continue to be made to the highway including widening projects and reconstruction of sections of the road and interchanges .
= = Route description = =
= = = Delaware Turnpike = = =
I @-@ 95 enters Delaware from Maryland southwest of Newark in New Castle County . From the state line , the highway heads east as the six @-@ lane Delaware Turnpike ( John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway ) through wooded areas . Not far from the Maryland border , the road comes to a toll plaza . I @-@ 95 widens to eight lanes and comes to a modified cloverleaf interchange with DE 896 , which heads north to Newark and the University of Delaware and south to US 301 . Following this interchange , the interstate highway runs between industrial areas to the north and farm fields to the south , coming to bridges over Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line and DE 72 . The road heads through more woodland with nearby suburban development as it curves northeast , with the median widening for the Delaware Welcome Center service plaza accessible from both directions . A short distance later , I @-@ 95 reaches the DE 273 interchange west of Christiana . The freeway continues northeast and comes to a modified cloverleaf interchange with the DE 1 / DE 7 freeway to the northwest of the Christiana Mall . This interchange has flyover ramps between southbound I @-@ 95 and southbound DE 1 / DE 7 and northbound DE 1 / DE 7 and northbound I @-@ 95 ; the northbound ramp splits onto both sides of the northbound lanes of I @-@ 95 .
Past this interchange , I @-@ 95 widens to ten lanes and passes under DE 58 , with a ramp from southbound I @-@ 95 to westbound DE 58 that provides the missing connection between southbound I @-@ 95 and northbound DE 7 . The highway continues through woods before passing through Churchman 's Marsh , where it crosses the Christina River . After this bridge , I @-@ 95 has a northbound ramp to Airport Road that serves to provide access to southbound US 202 / DE 141 . At this point , the lanes of the interstate split further apart and the northbound ramp for I @-@ 295 and northbound DE 141 splits off to parallel the northbound lanes of I @-@ 95 . The ramp to northbound I @-@ 295 has two lanes while northbound I @-@ 95 carries four lanes . After this , I @-@ 95 crosses US 202 / DE 141 , at which point US 202 becomes concurrent with the interstate . Upon crossing DE 141 , the ramp to northbound DE 141 from the northbound I @-@ 295 ramp splits off while the ramp from DE 141 to northbound I @-@ 95 merges in from the left . Southbound , a collector / distributor ramp serves to provide access between I @-@ 95 and DE 141 . Not far after encountering DE 141 , I @-@ 295 splits off to the southeast , with the northbound entrance from I @-@ 295 and the southbound exit to I @-@ 295 and southbound entrance from I @-@ 295 on the left side of the road . At this point , the Delaware Turnpike splits from I @-@ 95 and follows I @-@ 295 southeast to an interchange with US 13 / US 40 in Farnhurst , where the turnpike ends and I @-@ 295 continues east as the Delaware Memorial Bridge approach . After I @-@ 295 , I @-@ 95 / US 202 turns north and comes to a northbound exit and southbound entrance with the southern terminus of I @-@ 495 , which bypasses Wilmington to the east .
= = = Wilmington Expressway = = =
Following the I @-@ 495 interchange , the median narrows and I @-@ 95 / US 202 heads northeast through marshland as the six @-@ lane Wilmington Expressway , crossing the Christina River . The freeway comes to a bridge over Norfolk Southern 's Shellpot Branch and continues through more wetlands , with Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor running a short distance to the northwest . The road heads into Wilmington and curves to the north , passing to the west of Frawley Stadium , home of the Wilmington Blue Rocks baseball team . I @-@ 95 / US 202 heads towards downtown Wilmington and crosses onto a viaduct , passing over the Northeast Corridor and coming to an interchange that provides access to the downtown area by way of DE 4 and DE 48 . At this point , the four @-@ lane freeway continues northeast , with one @-@ way northbound North Adams Street to the east and one @-@ way southbound North Jackson Street to the west serving as frontage roads . I @-@ 95 / US 202 continues through residential areas to the west of downtown Wilmington , passing over DE 9 , with a southbound exit . Farther northeast , the freeway heads into an alignment below street level and comes to an interchange with DE 52 . Past this interchange , the road heads to the north and crosses Brandywine Creek , heading through Brandywine Park , which is a part of the Wilmington State Parks complex . The freeway curves northeast again and passes under CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision before reaching an interchange with the northern terminus of DE 202 at the northern edge of Wilmington , at which point US 202 splits from I @-@ 95 .
Past US 202 , I @-@ 95 leaves Wilmington for the suburban Brandywine Hundred area and heads northeast as a four @-@ lane road , passing southeast of the Rock Manor Golf Club and running along the northwest side of the CSX line . The freeway curves east to pass over the railroad tracks and continues through wooded areas to the south of the CSX tracks , coming to a diamond interchange with DE 3 near Bellefonte . After this exit , I @-@ 95 and the rail line curve to the northeast and continue through woodland with nearby residential areas , passing northwest of Bellevue State Park . The highway comes to a northbound exit and southbound entrance with Harvey Road near the villages of Arden , Ardentown , and Ardencroft . Past this interchange , the freeway curves east away from the CSX tracks and winds northeast near suburban neighborhoods in Claymont . In Claymont , the interstate comes to a diamond interchange with DE 92 , at which point I @-@ 495 also merges onto the northbound direction of the interstate . Following the interchange , I @-@ 95 passes to the west of the Tri @-@ State Mall before it crosses the state line into Pennsylvania . The southbound exit from I @-@ 95 to I @-@ 495 is located in Pennsylvania 132 feet ( 40 m ) before the Delaware state line .
I @-@ 95 in Delaware has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 169 @,@ 865 vehicles at the DE 1 / DE 7 interchange in Christiana to a low of 48 @,@ 906 vehicles at the DE 92 interchange in Claymont . As part of the Interstate Highway System , the entire length of I @-@ 95 in Delaware is a part of the National Highway System .
= = Tolls = =
I @-@ 95 has a toll plaza along the Delaware Turnpike near the Maryland border in Newark that charges $ 4 @.@ 00 for cars . Cash or E @-@ ZPass is accepted for payment of tolls .
When the highway first opened in 1963 , the toll at the state line was 30 cents . Prior to 1976 , ramp tolls were collected at the DE 896 , DE 273 , and DE 7 interchanges . The ramp tolls required exact change , and many motorists were caught by police evading the tolls because they did not have the proper change . In 1970 , an attempt was made to use the honor system for motorists without the proper change at the tollbooth to pay the tolls by mailing them . However , it was discontinued after a month because most motorists did not mail in their tolls . In 1976 , Governor Sherman W. Tribbitt signed House Bill 1278 , which was sponsored by Representative Gerard A. Cain . This bill called for the elimination of the three ramp tolls while keeping the mainline toll plaza near the Maryland border . The ramp tolls stopped being collected on October 1 , 1976 .
In 1981 , plans were announced to demolish the former toll booths at the DE 273 and DE 7 interchanges ; however , the DE 896 interchange toll booths were to remain to collect tolls from trucks . The mainline toll plaza was planned to be closed on July 1 , 1981 after the bonds to construct the road were paid off , but was kept by " Operation Overhaul " , a $ 93 million project by Governor Pierre S. du Pont IV that would use the tolls collected at the toll plaza to fund improvements to the turnpike along with other roads in the state of Delaware . In the summer of 2011 , reconstruction of the Delaware Turnpike toll plaza was completed in a $ 32 @.@ 6 million project , adding high @-@ speed E @-@ ZPass lanes . As of 2011 , the Delaware Turnpike was the third most expensive toll road in the United States based on a cost @-@ per @-@ mile average , at a rate of 23 cents per mile ( 14 ¢ / km ) .
= = Services = =
The Delaware Welcome Center service plaza is located in the median of I @-@ 95 between the DE 896 and DE 273 interchanges east of Newark . The service plaza offers a Sunoco gas station , a convenience store , multiple fast @-@ food restaurants , a Delaware Visitor Center offering tourist information , and retail options including a store called Postcards from Delaware that sells Delaware @-@ related merchandise . The Delaware Welcome Center is run by HMSHost .
When the Delaware Turnpike opened in 1963 , a Hot Shoppes restaurant and an Esso service station was located along the road in the median . In 1964 , a proposal was made to build a truck stop and motel next to the existing facilities . The truck stop proposal was off and on for several years until a truck stop was built just over the border in Maryland in 1975 . In 1983 , Hot Shoppes was replaced by Roy Rogers and Bob 's Big Boy in order to offer both sit @-@ down dining and fast food . This was the largest Roy Rogers and Bob 's Big Boy location at the time and restaurant namesake Roy Rogers and Lieutenant Governor Michael Castle were in attendance for the opening . In September 2009 , the Delaware Welcome Center was closed for a reconstruction project that would construct a new service plaza building , new gas pumps , new truck parking , and an improved visitor center . The renovated service plaza opened in June 2010 at a cost of $ 35 million .
= = History = =
= = = Planning and construction = = =
In 1948 , the Wilmington Transportation Study proposed two new roads running between the southern end of Wilmington and the Pennsylvania border to improve traffic flow in the Wilmington area . Route A followed the current alignment of I @-@ 95 while Route B bypassed the city to the east along the current alignment of I @-@ 495 . Plans for building Route A were made in 1950 but were deferred a year later due to opposition .
Following the completion of the Delaware Memorial Bridge and the connecting New Jersey Turnpike in 1951 , through traffic coming from the bridge led to significant congestion on US 13 and US 40 . As a result of this , suggestions were made in 1954 for a limited @-@ access road to be constructed leading to the bridge that would alleviate congestion on US 40 . In 1956 , the Interstate Highway System was created , with two routes proposed along the current alignment of I @-@ 95 . FAI @-@ 1 was proposed to run from the Maryland state line east to an interchange west of Farnhurst while FAI @-@ 2 was proposed between this interchange and the Pennsylvania border through the western part of Wilmington . The corridor following FAI @-@ 1 and FAI @-@ 2 would become designated as part of I @-@ 95 , an Interstate Highway running along the East Coast of the United States . FAI @-@ 1 was originally planned as a free Interstate Highway using federal funds ; however , the road would not have been completed until 1967 under this plan . As a result , the state of Delaware financed the road with bond issues and would build it as a toll road called the Delaware Turnpike .
The first construction contracts for the Delaware Turnpike were awarded in 1957 , with construction soon following that year . Construction began on building a new bridge over US 13 / US 40 at the Farnhurst interchange in 1958 that would connect the Delaware Turnpike to the I @-@ 295 / US 40 approach to the Delaware Memorial Bridge . The same year , plans were made for several bridges along I @-@ 95 . In 1959 , work began on rebuilding the Farnhurst interchange to Interstate Highway standards . The same year , recommendations were made for the design and right @-@ of @-@ way acquisition along the planned route of I @-@ 95 as well as the construction of several contracts between the Maryland border and Farnhurst along the Delaware Turnpike , including the interchange with DE 41 / DE 141 and between I @-@ 95 , I @-@ 295 , and I @-@ 495 near the Christina River . The proposed routing for I @-@ 95 through Wilmington would take it through the central core between Adams and Jackson streets . Locals tried to fight routing I @-@ 95 through the central core and instead suggested routing it along Bancroft Parkway to the west or the present @-@ day route of I @-@ 495 to the east . However , the lame @-@ duck Republican @-@ controlled city council approved routing I @-@ 95 along Adams and Jackson streets in 1957 . The demolition of homes began in January 1959 .
A year later , construction began on overpasses and ramps at the Farnhurst interchange . The same year , suggestions were made to build I @-@ 95 across the Christina Marsh as well as construct the bridges over the Christina River and the Pennsylvania Railroad in Wilmington . A contract was awarded for the Christina River interchange in 1961 . By 1961 , all construction contracts along the Delaware Turnpike had been completed except for the DE 41 / DE 141 interchange and the Christina River interchange . In 1962 , the I @-@ 95 bridges over the Christina River , the Pennsylvania Railroad , and Little Mill Creek were finished while plans were made for the South Wilmington Viaduct that would cross over several railroad tracks belonging to the Pennsylvania Railroad , Baltimore and Ohio Railroad , and the Reading Railroad . The same year , the roadway was built between the Christina River interchange and the South Wilmington Viaduct . The new northbound lanes of DE 41 / DE 141 through the I @-@ 95 interchange opened in November 1962 . The southbound lanes of DE 41 / DE 141 opened in June 1964 , enabling directional flow of DE 41 / DE 141 through the interchange . In September 1963 , construction work on the turnpike was halted by picketing workers .
The Delaware Turnpike , along with the connecting Northeast Expressway in Maryland , was dedicated by President John F. Kennedy , Delaware Governor Elbert N. Carvel , and Maryland Governor J. Millard Tawes in a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony at the state line on November 14 , 1963 . The Delaware Turnpike was opened to traffic at midnight on November 15 , 1963 . The first motorist to pay a toll on the turnpike was Omero C. Catan , also known as " Mr. First " , of Teaneck , New Jersey , who marked this occasion as the 517th first moment he achieved . The completion of the Delaware Turnpike allowed motorists to travel from Washington , D.C. to Boston without having to stop at a traffic light . Construction of the Delaware Turnpike cost $ 30 million . Following the opening of the turnpike , traffic levels on US 40 and US 301 fell by 40 to 50 percent . The rerouting of traffic to the Delaware Turnpike led to the reduction in profits for businesses along US 13 and US 40 , with several businesses forced to close . Meanwhile , the Delaware Turnpike saw more traffic volume than originally projected . Eight days after dedicating the toll road , President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas . As a result , both the Delaware Turnpike and the Northeast Expressway were renamed the John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway in his honor in December 1963 . On the one year anniversary of the dedication of the Delaware Turnpike on November 14 , 1964 , a
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turns out to be at the same time a search for their roots . " He stated that the arc revolves around Haddock 's ancestry , and in doing so " deals with the meanings of symbolic relations within personal life " . Highlighting that Calculus was one of many eccentric scientists to have appeared in the series , he nonetheless emphasises his difference by noting that Calculus approaches Tintin , rather than Tintin approaching him , as the young reporter had done with previous scientists . Commenting on the introduction of Calculus ' shark submarine , he states that it " allows them to cross a boundary previously restricting human beings and to penetrate into another universe , the one beneath the seas that holds secrets hitherto unknown . " Ultimately , he believes that by the end of the story , " the family structure is in place " , with Calculus representing a father figure with financial control , and Haddock and Tintin , who have become brothers through their joint adventure , adding that with the aid of Francis Haddock , " the ancestor " , they are given a home at Marlinspike Hall .
Literary critic Tom McCarthy highlighted what he perceived as scenes in Red Rackham 's Treasure which reflected common themes in The Adventures of Tintin . He pointed out that in being a stowaway aboard the ship , Calculus was one of many stowaways in the series , and that the treasure represented the theme of jewels and precious stones which also cropped up in The Broken Ear , Tintin in the Congo , and The Castafiore Emerald . He noted Tintin 's misreading of the parchments and stated this was one of a number of calculation mistakes that the character makes in the series . He suggested that a scene in which the shark submarine pushes between Haddock 's buttocks was a form of sexual innuendo referencing anal sex , highlighting similar innuendo in The Broken Ear and The Crab with the Golden Claws .
= = Adaptations = =
In 1957 , the animation company Belvision Studios produced Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , a series of daily five @-@ minute colour adaptations based upon Hergé 's original comics . Red Rackham 's Treasure was the fifth story to be adapted in the second series ( and the eighth to be adapted overall ) , being directed by Ray Goossens and written by the cartoonist Greg . In later years , Greg would become editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Tintin magazine .
In 1991 , a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana adapted 21 of the stories into a series of episodes , each 42 minutes long . Red Rackham 's Treasure was the tenth episode of The Adventures of Tintin to be produced , although it ran half as long as most of the others . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , the series has been praised for being " generally faithful " , with compositions having been actually directly taken from the panels in the original comic book .
The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn , a motion capture feature film directed by Steven Spielberg and produced by Peter Jackson , was released in most of the world October – November 2011 , and in the US on 21 December 2011 . The film is based partly upon The Secret of the Unicorn and partly on both Red Rackham 's Treasure and The Crab with the Golden Claws . A video @-@ game tie @-@ in to the movie was released October 2011 .
= God Put a Smile upon Your Face =
" God Put a Smile upon Your Face " is a song by British alternative rock band Coldplay . It was written by all members of the band for their second studio album , A Rush of Blood to the Head ( 2002 ) . The song is built around prominent acoustic and electric guitar riffs with accompanying up @-@ tempo drumming . The song was released on 14 July 2003 as the fourth and final single from the album .
Regional singles were released for Canada , Europe , Australia , and an enhanced version for Taiwan . Promo singles were released for the United Kingdom and United States . Since only promo copies were released , the single reached only number 100 in the UK Singles Chart .
= = Background = =
Coldplay vocalist Chris Martin said , about the writing of the song , " That came out of playing live and wanting to have something with a bit more bounce . We were really getting into things like PJ Harvey and Muse – things with a bit more energy . "
When asked about the development of the song , during a track @-@ by @-@ track reveal , bassist Guy Berryman said :
When we came to record it in the studio we struggled because there was something just not quite right about it and I wasn 't happy about where we 'd left it and where we were happy to leave it and we couldn 't put our finger on what it was and so it was a really nice day one day , me and Chris were just trying , I was actually just trying to record bass at the time and me and Chris were just sitting down trying to brainstorm it and work out what was wrong and so I started trying to just do a few different bass lines and stuff . Between the two of us we came up with just this kind of groove , which stays on the same note as opposed to change , it 's quite technical but it kind of added a bit of bounce to the song and it made it roll along in a much more fluid way . It was a bit mechanical before and it 's just interesting how something small like that can really change the whole vibe of a song . It was just nice because from there on it was one of our favourite tracks and it almost didn 't get on the record but it 's now one of our favourite tracks .
= = Composition = =
The song features an acoustic and electric guitar sound . The song starts with a hushed acoustic ballad , the song then builds into a roar of an electric guitar and soaring with vocals . The song also includes an uptempo metronomic drumming rhythm .
The first line of the third verse allude to a definitive moment with the cryptic reference to God : " Now when you work it out , I 'm worse than you / Yeah , when you work it out I wanted to / Now , when you work out where to draw the line / Your guess is as good as mine . " Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune commented that the lyric " God gave you style and gave you grace , " Martin sings as if " cataloguing the attributes he only wishes he had " . When the song is performed live , guitarist Jonny Buckland begins a long ripping off guitar riff while Chris Martin plays an acoustic guitar .
= = Release = =
Coldplay released " God Put a Smile upon Your Face " in the UK on 7 July 2003 . This was followed with releases in the US and Canada on 14 July 2003 . The song was later released on 21 July 2003 in Australia and Taiwan . When the song was released , it featured the B @-@ side " Murder " . The single cover features bassist Guy Berryman , art @-@ directed by Sølve Sundsbø . Regional singles were released for Canada , Europe , Australia , and an enhanced version for Taiwan . Promotional singles were released in the UK and US .
= = Reception = =
Critics were positive towards the song . In the Rolling Stone review of the album , critic Rob Sheffield wrote : " ' God Put a Smile Upon Your Face ' is the slinkiest and best thing Coldplay have ever done . " Adrien Begrand of PopMatters wrote : " Buckland 's lead fills highlight the wondrous ' God Put a Smile on Your Face ' , as the song 's chorus reaches heights that rival those of their fellow countrymen Doves . " Ted Kessler of NME wrote : " Over a pounding garage tattoo Martin poses a deep , mortality @-@ based teaser ( ' where do we go from here ? ' ) , asserts some self @-@ belief ( ' God gave me style , God gave me grace ' ) and then hits upon the bottom line as the song 's mood suddenly improves with another fat and glorious chorus : ' Yeah , when you work it out I 'm the same as you .... your guess is as good as mine . ' "
" God Put a Smile upon Your Face " was featured in the band 's live album , Live 2003 . The song is available on Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock video game as a downloadable song . The game also includes other Coldplay songs such as " Yellow " and " Violet Hill " . Plan B sampled the track on his 2007 mixtape Paint it Blacker . The song was also covered by Mark Ronson on his album Version , which he performed live with Adele at the 2008 Brit Awards .
The song was also covered by Matt Jorgensen + 451 on their album Hope release on Origin Records .
= = Music video = =
The music video , released in October 2003 , is shot in black @-@ and @-@ white and has a narrative theme . The video is directed by Jamie Thraves , who had previously directed the band 's third video for " The Scientist " .
The video intercuts footage of the band performing the song with the story of a businessman , who is humiliated and horrified to find that he is gradually disappearing , after bumping into a mysterious stranger with no shoes . The businessman is played by actor Paddy Considine .
= = Personnel = =
Chris Martin – vocals , acoustic guitar
Jonny Buckland – electric lead and rhythm guitar
Guy Berryman – bass guitar
Will Champion – drums
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= M @-@ 66 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 66 is a north – south state trunkline highway on the Lower Peninsula ( LP ) of the US state of Michigan . It runs from the Indiana state line in the south to Charlevoix in the north . M @-@ 66 is the only state highway to traverse almost the entire north – south distance of the LP . It starts as a continuation of State Road 9 ( SR 9 ) which provides access to the Indiana Toll Road . The total length is 272 @.@ 898 miles ( 439 @.@ 187 km ) , which includes 3 @.@ 374 miles ( 5 @.@ 430 km ) of freeway between Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) and downtown Battle Creek designated as I @-@ 194 . One section of the highway is an expressway , a type of divided limited access highway , while the section along I @-@ 194 is a full freeway , otherwise M @-@ 66 is a two @-@ lane rural highway . Two sections are listed on the National Highway System .
The first usage of the M @-@ 66 designation dates back to around July 1 , 1919 with the rest of the original state highway system . At the time , the highway only extended between Lowell and Lakeview , a route now covered by M @-@ 91 . The highway has been lengthened in a series of extensions north and south starting in 1925 . A rerouting in 1944 – 45 removed M @-@ 66 from its original 1919 routing to replace another highway south of Six Lakes , the change that spawned M @-@ 91 . The last big extension in 1965 resulted in the modern trans @-@ peninsular highway route . The last modifications were shorter reroutings in the 1970s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 66 runs for 266 @.@ 399 miles ( 428 @.@ 728 km ) as an almost entirely a north – south undivided surface highway in western Michigan from the Indiana state line north to Lake Michigan at Charlevoix . Most of the highway is two @-@ lane undivided rural highway . There is a section south of Battle Creek that is a four @-@ lane expressway . Running north into the Cereal City , M @-@ 66 is concurrent with I @-@ 194 , which is a full freeway . This section along I @-@ 194 is listed on the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a system of highways important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility . Another section of M @-@ 66 is included on the NHS where it is concurrent with either M @-@ 72 or U.S. Highway 131 ( US 131 ) in Kalkaska or Antrim counties .
= = = Indiana to Ionia = = =
M @-@ 66 is a four @-@ lane highway that connects with State Road 9 ( SR 9 ) at the Indiana state line in southern St. Joseph County . The highway runs north to Sturgis through farm land where it turns east through town running concurrently with US 12 on Chicago Road . As it leaves Sturgis to the north it crosses a branch of the Michigan Southern Railroad , and it becomes a two @-@ lane surface highway along Nottawa Street . The highway runs near several small lakes and crosses the Nottawa Creek before meeting M @-@ 86 . The two highways run north – south concurrently for about 1 @.@ 9 miles ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) along the Nottawa – Colon township line . Farther north , M @-@ 66 crosses the St. Joseph River and meets M @-@ 60 . M @-@ 60 / M @-@ 66 run together to the east , turning northeasterly in Leonidas running parallel to Nottawa Creek and crossing into the northwest corner of Branch County . M @-@ 60 and M @-@ 66 separate west of Union City , and M @-@ 66 turns north into Calhoun County .
Running through woodland terrain in southern Calhoun County , M @-@ 66 passes through Athens , along Graham Lake and continues to the outskirts of Battle Creek . The highway widens first to a four @-@ lane , limited access expressway south of the Lakeview Square Mall before becoming a full freeway at the interchange with I @-@ 94 . It is at the transition to freeway that M @-@ 66 starts its concurrency with I @-@ 194 . I @-@ 194 / M @-@ 66 is known as the Sojourner Truth Downtown Parkway , but the locals still use the former semi @-@ official nickname , " The Penetrator " . The southern section of the freeway has the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 66 as measured by average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) in the survey conducted in 2009 . The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) calculates the AADT value as a tally of the average number of vehicles using a given stretch of roadway . I @-@ 194 / M @-@ 66 carried 25 @,@ 200 vehicles on the average day during the year ; 980 trucks were included in that traffic . The freeway continues 3 @.@ 374 miles ( 5 @.@ 430 km ) north into downtown Battle Creek along part of the Kalamazoo River and crossing a branch of the Canadian National Railway and Norfolk Southern Railway before ending at the at @-@ grade intersection with Hamblin Avenue . I @-@ 194 ends , and M @-@ 66 continues northeast out of the Cereal City on Division Street and then northeast on Capital Avenue along the Battle Creek River .
M @-@ 66 continues northward through Barry County on Capital Avenue which becomes 9 Mile Road north of Baseline Road . The highway passes through Assyria before meeting M @-@ 79 , with which it has a short concurrency , in Nashville . On the north side of the village , M @-@ 66 crosses the Thornapple River and continues north through mixed rural forest land and farm fields . Near Woodland , M @-@ 66 joins M @-@ 43 and the two run to the northeast and along the Barry – Eaton county line . M @-@ 43 / M @-@ 66 meets M @-@ 50 at a four @-@ way intersection southwest of Lake Odessa near Woodbury , and M @-@ 43 turns east leaving M @-@ 66 in favor of a concurrency with M @-@ 50 . M @-@ 66 crosses a rail line of CSX Transportation and the county line on State Road . It meets I @-@ 96 in a rural southern part of the Ionia County south of Ionia . On the south edge of town , the highway passes the county airport and curves to the northeast becoming Dexter Street . While entering downtown Ionia , the trunkline crosses the Grand River and the mainline of the Grand Rapids Eastern Railroad near the county fairgrounds . M @-@ 66 turns west along M @-@ 21 ( Lincoln Avenue ) for two blocks before turning back to the north along State Street . The trunkline runs through the northern part of the county and meets M @-@ 44 's eastern terminus near Woodard Lake .
= = = Montcalm County and northward = = =
In Montcalm County , M @-@ 66 intersects M @-@ 57 in a rural area south of Sheridan before running north on Sheridan Road through Stanton . The highway jogs west along Main Street in Stanton before returning to a northerly course on a discontinuous section of Sheridan Road . The roadway curves around the west end of Hemmingway Lake near Cannonsville Road . West of Edmore , M @-@ 66 turns northwesterly along M @-@ 46 on Edmore – Howard City Road to Six Lakes . M @-@ 66 separates there and returns to its northerly journey along Six Lakes Road between Little Bass Lake and First Lake . The road crosses into Mecosta County as 30th Avenue north of Six Lakes . The highway intersects M @-@ 20 at the intersection with 9 Mile Road in Remus . This area of rural Mecosta County is more heavily forested with rolling hills and sporadic farms . In Barryton , the roadway crosses the Chippewa River . M @-@ 66 continues north passing Merrill Lake before crossing into rural eastern Osceola County at Mesceola Road .
The highway meets US 10 near Sears after crossing the Pere Marquette State Trail . M @-@ 66 crosses the Muskegon River near a separate 9 Mile Road in Osceola County . It meets both M @-@ 115 and M @-@ 61 ( 16 Mile Road ) south of Marion . The highway continues north and crosses the Great Lakes Central Railroad for the first time in Marion , before entering Missaukee County . The trunkline then turns westward on Stoney Corners Road toward McBain through farm land . In town it runs along Maple Street and then runs north toward Lake City on Morey Road . South of the Lake City , M @-@ 55 runs concurrently with M @-@ 66 by Missaukee Golf Course and into town along the eastern shore of Lake Missaukee . North of town , M @-@ 55 splits off to the east on Houghton Lake Road , and M @-@ 66 continues north to an intersection with the eastern terminus of M @-@ 42 in a rural forest . M @-@ 66 leaves Morey Road and follows Pioneer Road to the county line .
As the highway crosses into Kalkaska County it crosses the Manistee River . M @-@ 66 runs through rolling hills in woodlands through the unincorporated farming community of Lodi north to an intersection with M @-@ 72 . The two highways travel west together over the Great Lakes Central Railroad before turning north and merging with US 131 on a route parallel to the rail line . US 131 / M @-@ 66 / M @-@ 72 follows and crosses a branch of the Boardman River along Cedar Street through downtown Kalkaska . North of the central business district , M @-@ 72 separates to the west and US 131 / M @-@ 66 crosses through the Pere Marquette State Forest on the way to Antrim and Mancelona in Antrim County . The highway follows Williams Street through the twin towns , meeting the southern terminus of M @-@ 88 and western terminus of C @-@ 38 at the intersection with State Street in Mancelona . M @-@ 66 separates from US 131 and follows Mancelona – East Jordan Road out of town .
The section of M @-@ 66 north of the US 131 split had the highway 's lowest AADT levels in the 2009 survey . MDOT reported that only 1 @,@ 500 vehicles use this stretch of road in 2009 . Of these vehicles , only were 140 trucks that used the segment of highway in 2009 . The highway meanders through more forest lands through the community of Green River to East Jordan . M @-@ 66 follows Lake Street and turns to follow the western shore of the South Arm of Lake Charlevoix . The roadway turns inland through Ironton before returning to the lakeshore the rest of the way to Charlevoix . M @-@ 66 ends at an intersection with US 31 south of downtown next to Lake Michigan .
= = = Services = = =
MDOT provides a number of different services to motorists traveling along the state trunkline highway system . Along M @-@ 66 , there are six different carpool lots located near Nashville , Woodland , Belding , Sheridan , Sears and Marion . There are additional services provided to travelers in the form of roadside parks and rest areas . There are two roadside parks along the highway , one is between Woodland and Woodbury , and the second is in Sheridan . The roadway also provides access to the Ionia State Recreation Area and a state harbor on Lake Charlevoix .
= = History = =
M @-@ 66 was first signed along a roadway by July 1 , 1919 between M @-@ 16 ( now M @-@ 21 ) at Lowell and M @-@ 46 near Lakeview . The designation was extended in 1925 along M @-@ 46 to Six Lakes and then north to M @-@ 13 ( now US 131 ) in Lodi . A further extension north from Lodi in 1929 or 1930 along M @-@ 131 to Mancelona , a short segment of M @-@ 88 and north to US 31 in Charlevoix . The southern end was extended to US 16 south of Lowell by 1931 . A section of the northern extension was marked on maps through 1933 as " under construction " . That section was cancelled in favor of another routing near Mancelona . A short bypass of Six Lakes added about a mile to the length of the roadway in 1936 . The M @-@ 131 concurrency was switched to a US 131 concurrency when the latter was extended in 1939 . This concurrency was shortened just before World War II when the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) rerouted US 131 along a new road between South Boardman and Kalkaska .
The MSHD completed a major rerouting of M @-@ 66 around 1944 – 45 . The M @-@ 14 designation of the time was decommissioned and replaced with M @-@ 66 . Starting at Six Lakes , M @-@ 66 turned west along M @-@ 46 instead of east and then turned south through Stanton and Ionia ending north of Battle Creek . The highway between Lowell and Lakeview was redesignated as M @-@ 91 . A minor realignment in late 1950 removed two 90 ° curves near the Osceola – Missaukee county line and replaced them with a pair of sweeping curves .
The MSHD rerouted M @-@ 66 between Maple Grove and Nashville in mid @-@ 1953 . In the changes , M @-@ 79 was extended along the new route of M @-@ 66 and then over M @-@ 214 to Hastings . M @-@ 66 was shifted off Assyria Road which was turned back to local control . Another realignment in 1954 shifted M @-@ 66 to the modern routing between the M @-@ 43 concurrency termini , removing M @-@ 43 / M @-@ 66 from a section of M @-@ 50 in the process . The final section gravel section of M @-@ 66 , approximately 11 miles ( 18 km ) in length , was paved near Nashville in 1957 . M @-@ 32 was extended along the northernmost section of M @-@ 66 in 1963 .
M @-@ 66 was extended southerly from Assyria through Battle Creek to the Indiana state line replacing sections of M @-@ 78 in 1965 . M @-@ 66 turned south and west along M @-@ 60 and new highway to Colon . The segment of former M @-@ 78 not used by M @-@ 66 was transferred to local control . The final section of M @-@ 78 's roadway given to M @-@ 66 extended it all the way to the state line , resulting in a north – south trans @-@ peninsular highway from Lake Michigan near Charlevoix to Indiana . M @-@ 66 is the only such highway to run the length of the Lower Peninsula . The extension allowed the Green Arrow Association to promote the whole length of the Green Arrow Route with a single highway number . The next year , M @-@ 66 was rerouted through Battle Creek to use the completed I @-@ 194 freeway .
A 90 ° turn in Missaukee County was removed north of Lake City in 1972 . In late 1973 or early 1974 , M @-@ 66 and M @-@ 72 were shifted around the south side of Kalkaska . Later in 1974 , the M @-@ 32 concurrency was removed when M @-@ 32 was scaled back to its former terminus . A project in 1981 furthered the 1972 realignment in Missaukee County . About 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) were shortened from the routing when the new alignment was built between Smithville and Phelps Road .
= = Memorial designations = =
To capitalize on the opening of the Mackinac Bridge in 1957 , local leaders in Battle Creek wanted to promote M @-@ 66 as a route north from Indiana to the bridge . They named the highway the Green Arrow Route as part of this marketing strategy . The color was to evoke the forests in the area , and arrow was meant to play on several historical connections . One of these was the Pennsylvania Railroad 's Northern Arrow passenger train that once operated in the area . The official explanation was to tie into the history of Native Americans in the area , but the route was also " straight as an arrow " . The backers also promoted the highway as a direct and scenic route to vacation country in the northern Lower Peninsula , avoiding most of the larger cities in the area . M @-@ 66 was given the Green Arrow Route name in Public Act 170 of 1959 between the Indiana state line and Kalkaska . Despite these efforts , M @-@ 66 failed to attract much traffic . When the Michigan Legislature recodified the memorial highway names in Public Act 142 of 2001 , the Green Arrow Route was truncated to the northern border of Calhoun County , a change confirmed by Public Act 138 of 2004 .
Born Isabella Baumfree in 1797 , Sojourner Truth settled in the Battle Creek area in the 1840s . She travelled through the Midwest and New England speaking against slavery and for women 's rights . She lived in the area until her death in 1883 . Her connection to the state of Michigan was honored by the state American Revolution Bicentennial Commission in 1976 which urged the Michigan Legislature to name a highway in her honor . Public Act 93 of 1976 named all of M @-@ 66 in Calhoun County , including the segment that runs concurrently with I @-@ 194 , as the Sojourner Truth Memorial Highway . The highway was dedicated to her on May 21 , 1976 .
The Cereal City Development Corporation ( CCDC ) asked the Legislature to amend the memorial designation in 1993 . They felt that I @-@ 194 / M @-@ 66 was better known to locals as The Penetrator , and they wished to restore emphasis to Truth . They asked for the " Sojourner Truth Downtown Parkway " name to be applied to " M @-@ 66 between Interstate 94 and Hamblin " . The Legislature passed Public Act 208 of 1993 to affect the change , restoring " the link between Sojourner Truth and the City of Battle Creek , which was once the center of abolitionist sentiment in the state . "
= = Major intersections = =
= 15th Sustainment Brigade =
The 15th Sustainment Brigade was a sustainment brigade of the United States Army based at Fort Bliss , Texas . It provided logistics support to other units of the United States Army , and was subordinate to the 13th Sustainment Command ( Expeditionary ) . It previously had provided support to the 1st Cavalry Division , but now did so for the 1st Armored Division until 12 May 2015 when the 15th Sustainment Brigade became part of the 1st Armored Division and was renamed 1st Armored Division Sustainment Brigade .
The brigade 's lineage dates back to 1919 , and it had a long and decorated history when designated as the supply command of the 1st Cavalry Division . Having seen service in every major conflict of the 20th century in support of its parent division , the unit was not designated as the 15th Sustainment Brigade permanently until 2005 . In February 2008 , the brigade was reassigned to the 13th Sustainment Command , ending almost a century of association with the 1st Cavalry Division .
The 15th Sustainment Brigade 's extensive lineage also carries many honors for the unit . What is now the 15th Sustainment Brigade , and its previous incarnations , have earned 17 campaign streamers , as well as numerous awards , mostly for service during the Vietnam War . These decorations include the Presidential Unit Citation , the Valorous Unit Award , and five Meritorious Unit Commendations .
= = Organization = =
The 15th Sustainment Brigade was permanently attached to the 1st Cavalry Division , though it could operate independently when needed . Currently , it falls under the organization of the 1st Armored Division , having relocated as part of the Base Realignment and Closure 2005 . This assignment allows the unit maximum flexibility when deployed , as it can provide any support function needed , without being permanently attached to any particular unit or area of operations .
The unit has two permanently assigned battalions along with its Headquarters and Headquarters Company ( HHC ) . They consist of the 15th Special Troops Battalion , and the 142nd Combat Sustainment Support Battalion which are also headquartered at Fort Bliss , Texas . 72nd Brigade Support Battalion inactivated in November 2014 , in conjunction with inactivation of 212th Fires Brigade ( United States ) in July 2014 . In addition , Company A , 125th Brigade Support Battalion ( formerly with 3rd BCT ) , in conjunction with the inactivation of 3rd BCT , completed a high @-@ visibility project : Company A produced the first Redistribution Property Accountability Team ( RPAT ) yard in the continental US , which gives commanders a clear picture of property redistribution , especially during a unit 's closure . The brigade command is modular in design , allowing it to assume command of additional units when deployed . The command is preparing for deployment to Southwest Asia in 2015 .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The 15th Sustainment Brigade was originally constituted on 4 May 1966 in the Regular Army as a Headquarters and Headquarters Company . It was first activated on 1 July 1966 .
On 20 October 1967 , the Brigade was inactivated after providing support to units in Vietnam , only to be reactivated on 21 September 1968 at Fort Lewis , Washington . The Brigade later inactivated at Fort Lewis on 21 March 1973 having received campaign credits for its support for Counteroffensive Operations ( Phase II and III ) in Vietnam .
As mentioned above , the 15th Sustainment Brigade replaced the “ Division Support Command ” of the 1st Cavalry Division . The history of the organization can be traced back to 1919 when one of its present units , the 15th Forward Support Battalion , existed as the 615th Motor Transport Company . The Division Support Command ( DISCOM ) thus predated the 1st Cavalry Division itself , which was not established until 1921 .
In the years before World War II , most of the units of the 1st Cavalry Division that were not assigned to larger unit commands were under the control of the Headquarters , Division Special Troops of the division ; an independent unit for various supporting units for a division . These included the service and support elements of the division . After World War II , however , the Special Troops Headquarters was reorganized into Headquarters , Division Trains . This designation immediately predates the " Division Support Command " ( DISCOM ) designation . The division trains were activated 1 November 1957 in Korea . Although a new organization , 1st Cavalry Division 's Division Trains employed concepts and tactics similar to those of U.S. armored division trains that were originated in World War I.
= = = Vietnam War = = =
On 1 September 1963 , Headquarters , Division Trains was reorganized under the " R.O.A.D. " ( Reorganization of the Army Divisions ) plan and redesignated as Headquarters , Headquarters Company and Band , 1st Cavalry Division , 1st Cavalry Division Support Command . Accompanying the division to Vietnam in August 1965 , the Support Command participated in all of the same campaigns that the division did , providing logistics support for the 1st Cavalry Division throughout the entire conflict .
The unit 's first major operation was the Pleiku Campaign . During this action , the command supported the division during 35 days of continuous airmobile operations . The opening battle of the campaign , the Battle of Ia Drang Valley , was described in the book We Were Soldiers Once ... And Young which was also the basis of the subsequent Mel Gibson film We Were Soldiers .
For most of 1967 and early 1968 , the formation supported the 1st Cavalry Division through Operation Pershing . This was a large scale search of areas under the jurisdiction of the US II Corps which , according to the US Army , saw 5 @,@ 400 enemy killed and 2 @,@ 000 captured . The division re @-@ deployed to Camp Evans , north of Hue in the I Corps Tactical Zone , during the 1968 Tet Offensive It was involved in recapturing Quang Tri and Hue regions . After intense fighting in Hue , the division then moved to relieve US Marine Corps units besieged at the Khe Sanh combat base in Operation Pegasus through March 1968 . The 1st Cavalry Division next conducted major clearing operations in the Ashau Valley from mid @-@ April through mid @-@ May 1968 . From May until September 1968 , the division participated in local pacification missions , as well as Medical outreach programs intended to offer medical support to the Vietnamese local population . During this time , the division and support command were assigned to I Corps .
In the autumn of 1968 , the 1st Cavalry Division relocated south to the III Corps Tactical Zone northwest of Saigon , adjacent to a Cambodian region commonly referred to as the " Parrots Beak " , due to its shape . In May 1970 , the division was among U.S. units participating in the Cambodian Incursion , withdrawing from Cambodia on 29 June . The division thereafter took a defensive posture while the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Vietnam continued . The bulk of the division was withdrawn on 29 April 1971 .
The Division Support Command received all of the same honors as the division headquarters throughout the conflict . These awards included the Presidential Unit Citation for the actions in Pleiku Province and the Valorous Unit Award for action in the “ Parrots Beak ” area of Cambodia ( referred to as the " Fish Hook " area in the unit 's award streamer ) . In addition , Support Command received three Meritorious Unit Commendations and four Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry awards throughout the deployments .
On 15 May 1971 , the DISCOM was reorganized and designated as Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 1st Cavalry Division Support Command . Most major subordinate units of the DISCOM had returned from Vietnam in 1971 and were stationed at Fort Hood . By the end of June 1971 , the DISCOM was a large command composed of HHC , Support Command , 15th Adjutant General Company / Band , 15th Medical Battalion , 15th Supply and Transport Battalion , 27th Maintenance Battalion , 8th Engineer Battalion , 315th Composite Support Battalion , 15th Finance Company ( the latter two units had been transferred from the 1st Armored Division ) , and the 15th Data Processing Unit .
= = = Reorganizations & The Gulf War = = =
During the early 1980s , the DISCOM consisted of a Headquarters Company , a Division Materiel Management Center , a Division Data Center , the 15th Medical Battalion , 15th Adjutant General Battalion , 15th Finance Company , 15th Supply and Transport Battalion , 27th Maintenance Battalion and the 68th Chemical Company . In October 1984 , the 1st and 2nd Forward Support Battalions were activated from elements of the three functional battalions attached to the unit . The following year saw the Army of Excellence Reorganization ( AOE ) transform the remaining elements of the three functional battalions ( maintenance , medical , and supply and transport ) into the 4th Main Support Battalion . The AOE reorganization also added the 493rd Transportation Company ( Aircraft Maintenance ) to the Division Support Command . The forward and main support battalions , along with the Aviation Maintenance Company , were redesignated in 1987 , becoming the 15th and 115th Forward Support Battalions , 27th Main Support Battalion , and 227th Transportation Company ( Aviation Maintenance ) .
On 28 September 1990 , the Division Support Command deployed to the Middle East in support of Operation Desert Shield . In January 1991 , Division Support Command provided support to the 1st Cavalry Division throughout Operation Desert Storm , leading to a quick liberation of Kuwait . On 16 December 1991 , the 215th Forward Support Battalion was activated at Fort Hood bringing the number of active duty forward support battalions to three . On 8 July 1996 , the 615th Support Battalion ( Aviation ) was provisionally organized . The battalion was formally activated on 17 September 1996 .
= = = Activation & Operation Iraqi Freedom = = =
On 6 July 2005 , the Division Support Command ( DISCOM ) of the 1st Cavalry Division was inactivated and redesignated the 15th Sustainment Brigade . DISCOM ’ s previously subordinate Forward Support Battalions were redesignated Brigade Support Battalions and task organized under their supported maneuver brigade .
The 15th Sustainment Brigade was the first element of the 1st Cavalry Division to return to Iraq and assumed control for logistics in the Baghdad area of operations in July 2006 . The Brigade provided command and control for numerous units not normally associated with the 1st Cavalry Division . It had sustained several casualties during its tour in the country , including a mortar attack that killed two soldiers and injured five more in October 2007 . Tasks the unit completed during its 2006 – 2007 tour in Iraq included construction and maintenance of sustainment facilities , and maintaining vehicles , including adding additional armor to Humvee vehicles for other US units operating in the country .
The Brigade changed its higher command for the first time in its history on 15 February 2008 . It was reassigned from the 1st Cavalry Division to the 13th Sustainment Command ( Expeditionary ) , holding a mock cavalry charge to celebrate the occasion . This would also mark the first time that the brigade served independently from the 1st Cavalry Division . Since returning from Iraq , the brigade has undertaken a number of duties around Fort Hood . These activities include testing new systems for use during deployments , remodeling infrastructure around the fort , and training on personal safety .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit Decorations = = =
= = = Campaign Streamers = = =
= = Legacy = =
The Sustainment Brigade and its soldiers have been the subject of numerous army publications during its tours in Iraq , most of which having to do with the culture and lifestyle of soldiers serving the unit . Among these have been feature stories by the Multi @-@ National Force : Iraq public affairs office , on married soldiers who deploy together . The Army Logistician , an Army publication for soldiers serving in support units , published a feature story on the stories of soldiers serving in Iraq for their September – October 2007 issue . This story was intended to display the versatility of sustainment brigades overall . Another story was written for defenselink.mil , the press service for the United States Armed Forces in March 2007 about soldiers of the brigade and how they react to the desert climate of the country , having to cope with sandstorms and other issues .
= Codex Carolinus =
Codex Carolinus is a Gothic @-@ Latin diglot uncial manuscript of the New Testament on parchment , dated to the 6th or 7th century . The Gothic text is designated by siglum Car , the Latin text is designated by siglum gue ( traditional system ) or by 79 ( on the list of Beuron ) , it represents the Old Latin translation of the New Testament . It is housed in the Herzog August Bibliothek .
It is one of very few manuscripts of Wulfilas Gothic Bible . The manuscript is fragmentary . The four leaves of the codex were used as raw material for the production of another manuscript – Codex Guelferbytanus 64 Weissenburgensis . It is a palimpsest , and its text was reconstructed several times . Franz Anton Knittel was the first to examine it and decipher its text .
= = Description = =
The codex has survived to the present day in a very fragmentary condition . It contains only the text of the Epistle to the Romans 11 @-@ 15 on four parchment leaves ( size 26 @.@ 5 cm by 21 @.@ 5 cm ) . The text is written in two parallel columns , 27 lines per column . The left column is in Gothic , the right in Latin .
Contents
Romans 11 : 33 @-@ 12 : 5 ; 12 : 17 @-@ 13 : 5 ; 14 : 9 @-@ 20 ; 15 : 3 @-@ 13 .
The text of the codex is not divided into chapters . The nomina sacra are used both in Gothic and Latin texts ( ihm and ihu for " Iesum " and " Iesu " ) . All the abbreviations are marked with the superscript bar . Its text has some value in Romans 14 : 14 for Textual Criticism .
It is a palimpsest , the whole book is known as Codex Guelferbytanus 64 Weissenburgensis . The upper text is in Latin , it contains Isidore of Seville 's Origines and his six letters . The lower text of the codex belongs to several much earlier manuscripts , such as Codex Guelferbytanus A , Codex Guelferbytanus B , and Codex Carolinus .
= = History = =
The manuscript is dated palaeographically to the 6th century or 7th century . According to Tischendorf it was written in the 6th century . Probably it was written in Italy . Nothing is known about its early history . In the 12th or 13th century four of its leaves were used as material for another book and they were overwritten by Latin text . Its later story is linked with the codices Guelferbytanus A and B.
Formerly the manuscript was held in Bobbio , Weissenburg , Mainz , and Prague . The Duke of Brunswick bought it in 1689 .
The manuscript became known to the scholars in the half of the 18th century , where it was found in the Ducal Library of Wolfenbüttel . The first description of the codex was made by Heusinger . Franz Anton Knittel ( 1721 – 1792 ) recognized two lower Greek texts of the New Testament in this palimpsest codex , and designated them by A and B , he recognized also the Gothic @-@ Latin text ( known later as Codex Carolinus ) . F. A. Knittel deciphered Gothic @-@ Latin text of the Codex Carolinus and published it in 1762 at Brunswick . In his edition all abbreviated forms , Gothic and Latin , are written in full . It was published in Uppsala in 1763 . It was published again by Theodor Zahn .
Knittel made many errors , especially in Latin text , he also did not decipher every word and left several lacunae in the reconstructed text ( e.g. Romans 11 : 35 ; 12 : 2 ; 15 : 8 ) . Tischendorf made a new and more accurate collation for the Latin text and edited in 1855 . Tischendorf used abbreviations for the nomina sacra , he did not leave any lacunae . The new collation of the Gothic text was given by Carla Falluomini in 1999 .
The codex is located at the Herzog August Bibliothek ( no . 4148 ) in Wolfenbüttel .
= = Samples of reconstructed text ( Romans 11 : 33 @-@ 12 : 2 ) = =
= = = Gothic text ( folio 277 recto , 1 col . ) = = =
= = = Latin text ( folio 277 recto , 2 col . ) = = =
= Mont Aiguille =
Mont Aiguille ( 2 @,@ 085 m ( 6 @,@ 841 ft ) ) is a mountain in the Vercors Plateau of the French Prealps , located 58 km ( 36 mi ) south of Grenoble , in the commune of Chichilianne , and the département of Isère . The mountain , known as one of the Seven Wonders of Dauphiné , is a relatively flat limestone mesa surrounded by steep cliffs . The mountain lies within an area designated in 1985 as the Vercors Regional Natural Park . Mont Aiguille 's limestone cliffs , especially on the northwest side , are popular with climbers . Its first climb in 1492 was said to mark the birth of mountaineering .
= = Topography and geography = =
Mont Aiguille is a mesa eroded from the Vercors Plateau in the drainage basin of the Rhône . It is surrounded by steep cliffs and has a height of 2 @,@ 085 metres ( 6 @,@ 841 ft ) and a clean prominence of 465 m ( 1 @,@ 526 ft ) . The surrounding terrain is difficult enough to warrant a technical climb as the easiest method of ascent . The mountain is capped with meadows botanically similar to those on the Vercors High Plateau , but beneath the cliffs there are extensive forests . The mountain lies within the Vercors Regional Natural Park and is in the département of Isère . The nearest access by rail is in the village of Saint @-@ Martin @-@ de @-@ Clelles and by road is from the north via the Col de La Bâtie .
= = Geomorphology and geology = =
Geomorphologically , the mountain is a mesa @-@ like outlier , that is to say , the remains of a plateau that has been otherwise eroded to leave only a single pillar of rock - weaker or fractured rocks ( the so @-@ called Jasneuf fault ) between the current summit and the Vercors high plateau were eroded over time by over 400 metres , leaving the peak standing on its own . This has resulted in several unique features of Mont Aiguille , including the cliffs , which are almost identical to those on the eastern edge of the Vercors Plateau such as those on the edge of the Grand Veymont , which is the highest point of the range . Another feature resulting from this is the presence of meadows on the summit plateau , which are similar to those to the west on the rest of the Vercors plateau .
Mont Aiguille is a limestone mesa , previously connected to the main body of the high plateau of the Vercors Massif . The summit is made up of lower Barremian strata , deposited during the Cretaceous period . This is the same as the plateau to the west , but not as the immediate environs : the lower slopes are composed of older Hauterivian strata . As easily observed , the bedding planes are all roughly level , although there is some inclination down to the north @-@ east .
= = History = =
According to Roman legend , the mountain was torn from the rest of the Vercors when a hunter named Ibicus saw naked goddesses on the mountain and was changed into an ibex as punishment . In the medieval period , Mont Aiguille was traditionally called " Mount Inaccessible " , and typically depicted as an " inverted pyramid " or " mushroom " . Since at least the thirteenth century , the mountain has been regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of Dauphiné . The mountain is most noted for its first ascent in 1492 . Charles VIII ordered that the peak be climbed , so one of his servants , Antoine de Ville , made the ascent using a combination of ladders , ropes and other artificial aids . He was visited in the following days by many local members of the nobility and aristocracy . The team bivouacked on the summit for eight days , erecting small crosses and a stone shelter . The ascent is described by François Rabelais in his Quart Livre . This was the first recorded climb of any technical difficulty , and has been said to mark the beginning of mountaineering . The mountain was not climbed again until 1834 , nearly 350 years later , when it was ascended barefoot by Jean Liotard , accompanied for one @-@ quarter of the way by local explorers . Less than a month later , it was climbed by seven people at the same time , who reportedly danced and sang La Marseillaise on the summit . In 1940 , the top 11 m ( 36 ft ) of the mountain collapsed , reducing the height to 2 @,@ 085 m ( 6 @,@ 841 ft ) . Seventeen years later , on 27 August 1957 , the stunt pilot Henri Giraud landed a Piper J @-@ 3 Cub on the summit , utilising an 80 m ( 260 ft ) -long , 20 m ( 66 ft ) -wide runway which had been built earlier that day using materials and men lifted to the summit by helicopters . In the following 18 years , he staged a further 51 landings on the summit before his final landing in 1975 , many carrying paying passengers , and often made using skis . The mountain was in 1970 designated as part of the Parc naturel régional du Vercors .
= = Gallery = =
= German submarine U @-@ 111 ( 1940 ) =
German submarine U @-@ 111 was a Type IXB U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine during World War II .
She had a short career , sinking four enemy vessels and damaging one other . These victories took place over a period of two war patrols . During her first sortie , the boat sank two enemy vessels and damaged a further one . On her second patrol , U @-@ 111 sank two more enemy ships before she herself was sunk on 4 October 1941 southwest of Tenerife , by depth charges from a British warship . Out of a crew of 52 officers and men , eight died in the attack ; 44 survived .
= = Construction and design = =
= = = Construction = = =
U @-@ 111 was ordered to be built by the Kriegsmarine on 8 August 1939 ( as part of Plan Z and in violation of the Treaty of Versailles ) . Her keel was laid down on 20 February 1940 by DeSchiMAG AG Weser in Bremen as yard number 976 . Following about seven months of construction , she was launched on 15 September and commissioned on 19 December under the command of Kapitänleutnant Wilhelm Kleinschmidt .
= = = Design = = =
German Type IXB submarines were slightly larger than the original German Type IX submarines , later designated IXA . U @-@ 111 had a displacement of 1 @,@ 051 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 034 long tons ) when at the surface and 1 @,@ 178 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 159 long tons ) while submerged . The U @-@ boat had a total length of 76 @.@ 50 m ( 251 ft ) , a pressure hull length of 58 @.@ 75 m ( 192 ft 9 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 76 m ( 22 ft 2 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 60 m ( 31 ft 6 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 70 m ( 15 ft 5 in ) . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40 / 46 supercharged four @-@ stroke , nine @-@ cylinder diesel engines producing a total of 4 @,@ 400 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 240 kW ; 4 @,@ 340 shp ) for use while surfaced , two Siemens @-@ Schuckert 2 GU 345 / 34 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 1 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 740 kW ; 990 shp ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 92 m ( 6 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 18 @.@ 2 knots ( 33 @.@ 7 km / h ; 20 @.@ 9 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 7 @.@ 3 knots ( 13 @.@ 5 km / h ; 8 @.@ 4 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 64 nautical miles ( 119 km ; 74 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 111 was fitted with six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and two at the stern ) , 22 torpedoes , one 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) SK C / 32 naval gun , 180 rounds , and a 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) as well as a 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of forty @-@ eight .
= = Service history = =
= = = First patrol = = =
U @-@ 111 went to sea on a war patrol for the first time on 5 May 1941 . For a period of 64 days , she roamed the North Sea and eventually the North Atlantic as far west as Nova Scotia in search of any Allied convoys heading to Great Britain . During that time she encountered three enemy vessels . The first confrontation took place on the 13th , just eight days after leaving port , when she came across the British merchant vessel SS Somersby and sank her just south of Iceland . On 20 May , the submarine came across the tanker San Felix and fired a torpedo at her , causing damage to her hull but failing to sink her . Two days later , U @-@ 111 sank the second and last enemy vessel of her patrol , the Barnby , south of Greenland . After these victories , the boat returned to port . However , instead of returning to Wilhelmshaven , she entered the port of Lorient in occupied France on 7 July .
= = = Second patrol and loss = = =
U @-@ 111 left Lorient on 14 August 1941 and travelled south off the west coast of Africa and into the South Atlantic . She then turned west towards the eastern coast of Brazil . It was in these waters that the boat sank her last two enemy merchant ships . The first was the Dutch Motor merchant vessel Marken . She was torpedoed on 10 September just north of Ceará in Brazil . All of her crew survived the attack and boarded life boats . They were questioned by the crew of the U @-@ boat , given food and released . Marken 's crew were later safely picked up by a Spanish merchant vessel . Ten days later , U @-@ 111 sank her fourth and last enemy vessel , the British motor merchant ship Cingalese Prince also off Brazil . On 28 September she was involved in an action in Tarafal Bay , in the Cape Verde islands ; having been ordered to rendezvous there with two other U @-@ boats , U @-@ 67 and U @-@ 68 . She was struck by the British submarine HMS Clyde which had accidentally dived onto her after unsuccessfully attacking U – 67 . U @-@ 111 was so badly damaged she was left unable to dive , and was obliged to head for home . On 4 October 1941 , she was hunted down and sunk by depth charges from the British anti @-@ submarine trawler HMS Lady Shirley southwest of Tenerife . Of a crew of 52 men , eight died ; including Meki Smith 44 survived . They were subsequently interrogated ; it was the first time prisoners of war were captured from a U @-@ boat operating in the South Atlantic .
= = = Wolfpacks = = =
U @-@ 111 took part in one wolfpack , namely .
West ( 13 May - 5 June 1941 )
= = Summary of raiding history = =
= Waxy ( horse ) =
Waxy ( 1790 – 18 April 1818 ) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse that won the 1793 Epsom Derby and was an influential sire in the late eighteenth and early part of the nineteenth century . Waxy was bred by Sir Ferdinando Poole and was foaled at Lewes in 1790 . He was sired by Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os , a son of the foundation stallion Eclipse , whose genetic lineage traced to the Darley Arabian . Waxy 's dam , Maria , was sired by the influential stallion Herod and produced one full @-@ brother to Waxy , who was named Worthy . Waxy derived his name from a variety of potato , a choice that was inspired by his sire 's name . Trained by Robert Robson , Waxy won nine races out of 15 starts during his four @-@ year racing career , retiring from racing at the age of seven in 1797 after sustaining an injury during his last start .
Beginning in 1798 , Waxy stood at stud at Sir Poole 's estate in Lewes and remained there until Poole 's death in 1804 . After Poole 's death , Waxy was acquired by the 3rd Duke of Grafton and stood at his Euston Hall stud . Waxy remained at Euston Hall for the remainder of his life and was used as a breeding stallion until his death on 18 April 1818 . His most notable offspring were produced under the ownership of the 3rd Duke of Grafton and his son . Waxy produced 190 winners of races during his stud career , siring four Epsom Derby and three Epsom Oaks winners , becoming a leading sire in 1810 . His most notable sons that achieved success in the stud were Whalebone and Whisker . Through the produce of these two sons , Waxy became the paternal ancestor of most of the world 's male Thoroughbreds by the mid @-@ twentieth century .
= = Background = =
Waxy was bred by Sir Ferdinando Poole , a baronet whose family seat was in Poole , Cheshire . Sir Ferdinando leased an extensive estate in Lewes that was built on land once owned by the Grey Friars and was called " The Friary . " Waxy was foaled in 1790 at Poole 's stable at The Friary .
The colt was named " Waxy " to distinguish him from Poole 's other colt sired by Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os out of the mare Macaria , which was subsequently named " Mealy . " Waxy and mealy were two types of potatoes available at the time and are a play on the name of the colts ' sire Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os , which is itself a pun on the name " Potatoes . " A variant spelling , " Waxey , " is mentioned in some publications .
= = = Ancestry = = =
Waxy 's sire , Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os , was a successful sire of racehorses that had won 34 races during his seven @-@ year racing career . In addition to Waxy , Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os produced the mare Parasol ( the dam of Partisan ) and the colt Lottery . Waxy was Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os most successful son in the breeding shed , with Waxy 's sons carrying on the direct @-@ male line well into the 20th century .
Waxy 's dam , Maria , was bred by Lord Bolingbroke and was sired by the Thoroughbred foundation sire Herod . She produced ten foals between 1784 and 1797 , with Waxy being her sixth foal and one of two by Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os . Waxy 's full @-@ brother , Worthy ( foaled in 1795 ) , was a moderately successful racer and was later a breeding stallion for the East India Company . Maria died in 1797 , about two weeks after foaling the filly Wowski , later the dam of Derby winner Smolensko , Sir Charles and Thunderbolt .
= = = Description = = =
In the words of jockey Sam Chifney , Waxy was a " handsome , rich bay , with a white stocking on the off @-@ hind [ right ] leg , good length , and especially beautiful quarters . " In the words of his exercise rider ( who wrote an anonymous letter to The Sporting Magazine in 1828 ) , Waxy was " one of the finest formed horses , perfect in symmetry , beautiful in colour , admirable in all his paces , and of the finest temper when in work . " However , when Waxy was confined to a stall during the winter months , his temperament became unruly and unpredictable leading the anonymous writer to remark that , " Oft has he kicked the lappets of my coat over my head . " One of the few , possibly only , surviving portraits of Waxy was painted by Francis Sartorius in 1794 or 1795 , and the depiction was praised in commentary for Sporting Magazine for its " neatness " and for " the truth of representation it so evidently display [ ed ] . " While most breeding stallions and racehorses of the era had stable companions , Waxy reportedly was fond of rabbits in his later years and " was never happy without a rabbit in his paddock " with one female rabbit making her nest in the middle of his stall and raising generations of rabbits at the site that were never harmed by Waxy .
= = Racing career = =
Waxy did not race at the age of two years , and his first turf appearance was at the spring meeting at Newmarket . Waxy was trained by Robert Robson , who worked for Sir Ferdinando Poole in Lewes for several years from about 1792 . Waxy 's main and most celebrated racing rival was Lord Egremont 's colt Gohanna ( first described as " Brother to Precipitate " ) who was called the " Pride of Petworth . " Waxy raced Gohanna five times in his career , beating him in all but one race , a match race at Newmarket in 1794 where Waxy carried two more pounds than Gohanna and lost by half a head . Waxy was perceived as an excellent racehorse during his racing career . So much so that in one alleged incident , Waxy was mistakenly seized as a heriot after the proprietor of a Godstone inn where he was staying suddenly died . Being the finest horse in the stable , and assuming he was owned by the stablemaster he was briefly taken by the landowner . Waxy raced until he was seven years old and retired from racing after he was injured in his last start . He was then used as a breeding stallion by Poole at Lewes .
= = = 1793 : three @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
The Epsom Derby occurred on 18 May and was attended by " as numerous a company as ever appeared on the course . " Eleven horses lined up for the start , seven of them sired by Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os . The starting odds for Waxy to win the Derby were 100 to 7 and 100 to 10 ( depending on the bookmaking operation ) and at the Tattersalls betting room he " was so little thought of , that he had never been mentioned " in the betting . The race favorite was Lord Egremont 's colt " Brother to Precipitate " ( later named Gohanna in 1795 ) with this horse taking the lead in the initial strides of the race . Waxy pushed Brother to Precipitate ( a " bump " in modern racing terms ) at the track 's first turn , taking and maintaining the lead to become an " easy winner " of the Derby . Three of the top four finishers were sired by Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os , with second place finisher Brother to Precipitate being the exception . The meeting was also notable for a " dreadful accident , " a collision between a servant on horseback with the colt Exiseman , the winner of the race after the Derby , and for the antics of John Lade dressed in a " loose undress of blue and white striped trowsers " asking the crowd to determine whether he was " the captain of a privateer or an ambassador from the Great Mogul . "
At Lewes on 1 August , Waxy won an 80 @-@ guinea sweepstakes race against Lord Egremont 's colt Mercury while carrying seven pounds more than the other horses in the race as a handicap for his win in the Derby . At Abingdon on 11 September , Waxy won a two @-@ mile 40 @-@ guinea sweepstakes race against the colt Rockingham .
= = = 1794 : four @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Waxy won the Jockey Club Plate at the Second Spring meeting at Newmarket in May . At the same meeting a few days later , Waxy was beaten by Lord Egremont 's colt Brother to Precipitate in a match race . On At Ipswich on 1 July , Waxy won a match race against Charles Bunbury 's colt Robin Gray . At Lewes in July , Waxy ran against his previous rival , Brother to Precipitate , and won both heats in the four @-@ mile Duke of Richmond 's Plate for horses bred in Suffolk . On the same day , Waxy was the only horse that presented for the 60 @-@ guinea Ladies ' Plate and won by default ( termed as a " walk over " ) .
= = = 1795 : five @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
At Oxford on 18 August , Waxy was second in a 100 @-@ guinea cup race to Mr. Durand 's filly Hermione . At Lewes on 6 August , Waxy was third in the four @-@ mile Ladies ' Plate to the colt Guildford and Lord Egremont 's horse Gohanna . On 19 September at Salisbury , Waxy won two heats to win the 100 @-@ guinea His Majesty 's Plate against the five @-@ year @-@ old horse Guatimozin .
= = = 1796 : six @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
At the First Spring meeting , Waxy was second in the 100 @-@ guinea King 's Plate to the colt Gabriel . In March at Newmarket , Waxy was third in the first class of the Oatland Stakes to the colts Viret and Pecker . In May , Waxy won His Majesty 's Plate at Guildford against Gohanna and Guildford . On 31 August at Salisbury , Waxy won two four @-@ mile heats against Gohanna for the 100 @-@ guinea His Majesty 's Plate .
= = = 1797 : seven @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
On 18 July at Oxford in the running for the Gold Cup , Waxy did not place and was noted to have " broke down " during the running . This was his last appearance on the turf and he was retired to stud the following season in 1798 .
= = Stud career = =
Waxy first stood at Lewes for a fee of 10 guineas per mare and a groom fee of 10 shillings . In September 1803 , Sir Ferdinando Poole offered to sell Waxy for 700 guineas to William Lightfoot , an agent sent to buy horses for Virginian turfman John Tayloe . Lightfoot refused to buy Waxy , writing to Tayloe , " he has lost an eye , and is thirteen years old , and I think his health bad . " Instead Lightfoot purchased Waxy 's half @-@ sister Keren Happuch who was covered by Waxy that year . It is unclear how Waxy lost his eye , its loss occurring sometime between 1797 and 1803 . Sir Ferdinando Poole died on 8 June 1804 , and Waxy was then acquired by the Duke of Grafton and relocated to the Euston Hall stud near Newmarket . Under the Duke 's ownership , his fee increased to 25 guineas
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per mare and he covered 40 mares per season .
Waxy died on 18 April 1818 at the advanced age ( for a Thoroughbred ) of 28 , having gone completely blind a few years before his death . He was buried at Newmarket , close to All Saints Church .
= = = Legacy = = =
Waxy produced 190 winners in his stud career , including four winners of the Epsom Derby and three winners of the Epsom Oaks . His first Derby winner , Waxy Pope , was foaled when Waxy was 16 years old and most of his notable offspring were produced in the last nine years of his life under the ownership of the Duke of Grafton and his son . Waxy was the leading sire in 1810 , mostly due to the racing success of Pope and Whalebone . His importance to Thoroughbred genetics and prevalence in the General Stud Book led him to be likened to " the ace of trumps , " the most powerful card in bridge , due in part to the success of his sons Whisker and Whalebone . In the mid @-@ 20th century , the paternal line of most of the world 's male Thoroughbreds traced to the Darley Arabian through Waxy , and Waxy 's line was one of only three male lines tracing to Eclipse that persisted into the 20th century ( the others tracing through Hambletonian and Joe Andrews ) . In the words of 20th @-@ century Thoroughbred pedigree analyst John Furman Wall , " with his advent , superb quality was a reality . "
= = = Notable offspring = = =
Waxy produced four Epsom Derby winners : Waxy Pope ( 1809 ) , Whalebone ( 1810 ) , Blucher ( 1814 ) and Whisker ( 1815 ) . He also sired three fillies that won the Epsom Oaks : Music ( 1813 ) , Minuet ( 1815 ) and Corinne ( 1818 ) . Corinne also won the 1 @,@ 000 Guineas Stakes in 1818 . His most productive offspring were produced by the mare Penelope ( by Trumpator ) and include Whalebone , Whisker , Web , Woful , Wire and Wilful . Penelope was bred and owned by the Duke of Grafton , and all of her foals were foaled at Euston Hall . Whisker was more notable for siring broodmares , and Whalebone was a good producer of colts . Waxy Pope was a leading sire in Ireland and Blucher was a marginally successful sire .
= = = = Colts = = = =
Pope ( also called Waxy Pope and Lord Sligo 's Waxy ) was foaled in 1806 out of the mare Prunella by Highflyer . Pope won the 1809 Derby in a close finish from the colt Wizard and won seven races in his career on the turf . He was later exported to Ireland and was a leading sire nine times .
Whalebone was foaled in 1807 out of the mare Penelope , who was a daughter of Prunella . He raced for six years and won the Derby in 1810 . He later sired two Derby winners , Lap @-@ dog and Spaniel and Caroline , winner of the Oaks . He might have been the sire of Derby winner Moses , but Moses ' parentage is uncertain due to his dam being covered by two stallions .
Woful was full @-@ brother to Whalebone and Whisker and was foaled in 1809 . He won 12 races in his turf career and was a successful sire , especially of broodmares , for the Euston Hall stud , producing winners of the Epsom Oaks , 1 @,@ 000 Guineas and St. Leger Stakes .
Blucher was foaled in 1811 from the mare Pantina by Buzzard . Blucher won the Derby in 1814 and was a marginally successful sire , producing the third dam of Pretender .
Whisker was foaled in 1812 and was a full @-@ brother to Woful and Whalebone . Whisker won the Derby in 1815 and 11 other races in his career . He sired Economist ( the grandsire of King Tom ) and the filly Poetess ( the dam of Monarque ) .
= = = = Fillies = = = =
Web was foaled in 1808 out of Penelope and was the grandam of the influential stallion Glencoe through her daughter Trampoline .
Music was a full @-@ sister to Minuet out of the mare Woodbine and was foaled in 1810 . She won the Oaks in 1813 and was second in the 2 @,@ 000 Guineas Stakes , but did not produce any offspring of note .
Minuet was a full @-@ sister of Music and was foaled in 1812 . She won the 1815 Oaks , July Stakes and several sweepstakes and produced several winners at stud , but her line did not endure .
Corinne was foaled in 1815 out of the Oaks winner Briseis . She won the 1818 Epsom Oaks and 1 @,@ 000 Guineas Stakes but was an unsuccessful broodmare .
= = Tabulated pedigree = =
= Battle of Antioch ( 218 ) =
The Battle of Antioch ( 8 June 218 ) was fought between the Roman armies of the Emperor Macrinus and his contender Elagabalus , whose troops were commanded by General Gannys . Gannys ' victory over Macrinus led to the downfall of the emperor and his replacement by Elagabalus . After a short reign of four years , Elagabalus was also killed , after which a short period of stability followed .
The battle itself is not particularity notable , and even the ancient scholars , Dio and Herodian , only briefly consider the battle itself . However , it is historically notable as the ultimate action in a series of events that led the Army to select the emperor over the objections of the Senate . This further eroded one of the few official powers remaining in the Senate .
= = Background = =
= = = Death of Caracalla and rise of Macrinus = = =
Macrinus ' predecessor Caracalla was murdered while traveling to visit a temple by Justin Martialus , a soldier who was incensed at being declined the rank of centurion , during a period of war with the Parthians . Macrinus , a Praetorian prefect at the time , was involved in the assassination . Macrinus may have plotted against Caracalla because of fear for his own life , based on a story mentioned by Herodian and supported by Gibbons : Macrinus would often read dispatches sent to Caracalla , and one such dispatch delivered from Materianus , a friend of Caracalla , detailed a prophecy , perhaps fabricated , from the oracle at Delphi , suggesting that Macrinus was plotting against Caracalla and that Macrinus was destined to become the next emperor .
In the immediate aftermath of Caracalla 's death , Adventus was selected to serve as emperor , but he declined the position due to his old age . The army then chose Macrinus ; they had no feelings of ' love or esteem ' towards him , but there was no one else competing for the position . The army proclaimed Macrinus as emperor three days after the death of Caracalla , and named him Augustus .
The results were applauded by the Senate at first , who were glad to be rid of the former emperor . But tradition held that the emperor could only be selected from among the Senate , causing some concern . Macrinus was a member of the equestrian class , the lower of the two aristocratic classes , which led to further concern . This led the Senate to severely scrutinize his every action . The Senate , however , was powerless to do anything about it , the military was at the time so concentrated at Edessa that there was no force anywhere else in the Empire that could contest the action .
As the new emperor , Macrinus had to deal with the major threat of the Parthians , with whom Rome were currently at war . An indecisive battle at Nisibis is cited as a reason for the opening of peace negotiations . Negotiations may have been favourable for both sides ; Rome was being threatened by Armenia and Dacia , and the Parthians were far from home and low on supplies . The settlement , however , was viewed by many people as being unfavourable to Rome ; Dio quotes that a payout of 200 million Sesterces was paid to the Parthians in exchange for peace . The sum was called into question by Scott due to its sheer enormity and because Dio is known for being unreliable when discussing finances . Regardless , the general opinion on the negotiations was one of contempt , with Macrinus being accused of being cowardly and weak .
With the peace treaty concluded , Macrinus took measures to control the expenditures of Rome , reinstating the fiscal policies of Septimius Severus . This included a reduction in pay and benefits for Legionnaires , which was not popular with the Army who had placed him in command . These policies would only apply to new recruits , but the enlisted soldiers saw this as setting precedent for further changes to the fiscal policies brought in by Caracalla . The sullen behaviour of new recruits , who entered service committing to greater labour for less payment , only furthered discontent among the soldiers . Gibbon suggests that from here only a small spark would be required to ignite a rebellion .
= = = Rise of Elagabalus = = =
Following the death of Caracalla , Macrinus allowed Caracalla 's mother , Julia Domna , and his aunt Julia Maesa , to settle in their home town of Emesa . Julia Domna , who was at Antioch at the time of Caracalla 's death , attempted suicide and eventually succeeded by starving herself . Julia Maesa , however , returned to Emesa with her finances intact .
Julia 's suspicions regarding Macrinus ' involvement in the death of Caracalla led to her championing the case of her grandson , Elagabalus , as the rightful emperor . At the time Elagabalus was the chief priest of the Phoenician god Elagabal in Emesa . The soldiers stationed there frequently visited the temple where Elagabalus was chief priest , and enjoyed watching him perform rituals and ceremonies there . On one such occasion , Julia Maesa took the opportunity to inform the soldiers , either truthfully or not , that Elagabalus was Caracalla 's son . Simultaneously , she may have seen the opportunity to use her family 's wealth and prestige to set in motion her plot .
On the night of 15 May 218 , Elagabalus was taken , by either Julia Maesa or Gannys , to the camp of the Legio III Gallica at Raphanaea and presented to the soldiers stationed there . Some accounts claim that upon being presented to them , Elagabalus was immediately hailed Antoninus after Caracalla . Enhanced by Julia 's monetary contributions , the legion proclaimed Elagabalus emperor on 16 May 218 .
Macrinus might have been able to stop the rebellion in this early stage , but could not decide on a course of action and remained at Antioch .
= = = Rebellion = = =
Now that Elagabalus had the support of an entire legion , other legionnaires , prompted by discontent over pay , moved to join Elagabalus ' ranks as well . In response , Macrinus sent a cavalry force led under the command of Ulpinus Julianus to regain control of the rebels . Instead , the cavalry killed Ulpinus and joined Elagabalus .
Following these events , Macrinus traveled to Apamea to ensure the loyalty of Legio II Parthica before setting off to march against Emesa . Macrinus appointed his son Diadumenian the position of Imperator , and promised the soldiers 20 @,@ 000 Sesterces each , with 4 @,@ 000 of these to be paid on the spot . Macrinus also hosted a dinner for the residents of Apamea in honour of Diadumenian . At the dinner , Macrinus was presented with the head of Ulpinus Julianus who had been killed by his defecting soldiers . This forced Macrinus to leave , according to Dio in retreat , while Downey asserts that Macrinus left in order to launch an attack .
Macrinus ' and Elagabalus ' troops met somewhere near the border of Syria Coele and Syria Phoenice , Macrinus ' efforts here , however , were in vain and the whole legion defected to the challenger , forcing him to retire to Antioch . This allowed Elagabus to take the offensive and march on Antioch .
= = = Senatorial response = = =
During and after Caracalla 's reign the position of the Senate had been considerably weakened . The balance of power had been transferred from the Senate to the army ; as such the emperor of Rome was decided by the soldier while the Senate existed solely to officiate state affairs without any real authority . Thus , both Macrinus and later Elagabalus would attempt to secure the favour of the military while generally disregarding the opinion of the Senate . Macrinus , now in dire circumstances , would have no choice but to turn to the Senate . Thus , while at Antioch , Macrinus would make one more attempt at securing support , this time from Rome . However , a combination of distrust from the Senate , the impeding approach of Elagabalus 's legions and insufficient funds meant that Macrinus would have to face the approaching Elagabalus with only his Praetorian Guard . Had time been available , Marius Maximus , prefect of Rome , would have been able to muster troops and send reinforcements to Macrinus . Despite all of this , the Senate would still declare war against the usurper and his family , regardless of their relative powerlessness .
= = Battle = =
The battle took place on 8 June 218 at a defile outside of a village , believed to be Immae , approximately twenty @-@ four miles or so by road between Antioch and Beroea . Herodian challenges this assertion , suggesting that the battle took place closer to the border at Syria Coele and Syria Phoenice , possibly near Emesa . Other sources either agree with Dio that the battle took place near Antioch , with one source , Downey , suggesting that both battles occurred separately or make no claim as to where the battle occurred .
The armies of Elagabalus , led by Gannys , a novice but determined commander , met with the Praetorian Guard of Macrinus in a narrowly fought pitched battle . Prior to battle Macrinus had the Praetorian Guard set aside their scaled armour breastplates and grooved shields in favour of lighter oval shields , thus making them lighter and more manoeuvrable and also negating the advantage of light Parthian lancers ( lanciarii ) . Despite the numerical superiority of Gannys ' army of at least two full legions , faced with what levies Macrinus was able to accrue , the engagement had begun in Macrinus ' favour with the soldiers led by Gannys turning to flee after the Praetorian Guards had managed to break through the enemy line . At some point during the retreat , Julia Maesa and Soaemias Bassiana ( Elagabalus ' mother ) joined the fray , rallying the forces while Gannys , who was on horseback , charged headlong at the enemy thus ending the retreat and renewing the assault . At this point Macrinus , fearing defeat , fled back to the city of Antioch . Had Macrinus remained in battle it is plausible that he might have won the battle and thus secured his position as emperor .
= = Aftermath = =
Having been defeated in battle , Macrinus sent his son along with attendants to Artabanus V of Parthia , while he himself returned to Antioch , proclaiming victory over Elagabalus in battle . News of Macrinus ' defeat broke out and many civilians in the city and on the roads were slain because they had favoured Macrinus . Macrinus shaved off his beard and hair to disguise himself as a member of the military police and fled the city at night on horseback . He reached Cilicia along with a few companions ; while masquerading as a military courier he successfully secured a carriage , which he subsequently drove to Eribolon , near Nicomedia , before setting sail for Chalcedon .
In Chalcedon , Macrinus was arrested after revealing his whereabouts by making a request for money to a Procurator . While being transported back to Antioch , " like the commonest criminal " according to Dio , he injured himself in an escape attempt . He was beheaded in Cappadocia by the centurion Marcianus Taurus . His body remained unburied until Elagabalus had the chance to inspect it . Macrinus ' son Diadumenian faced a similar fate after being captured at Zeugma by the centurion Cladius Pollio . Dio concludes that Macrinus might have been praised for his deeds , rather than ridiculed and later slain , had he shown temperance and passed the title of emperor onto somebody else . He further concludes that Macrinus was the master of his own demise , which he felt was truly deserved .
In the interim period between the battle and the capture of Macrinus , Elagabalus declared himself emperor with the support of the military , though he would not return to Rome for several months . This news , upon reaching Rome , was met with dismay by both the Senate and the Roman people , though both submitted through necessity . Elagabalus ' reputation would not improve during his reign ; his worship of Elagabal and the sacrilegious performance of religious rituals would generate anger among the Romans . In an attempt to prevent disaster , his cousin would be elevated to the position of caesar , co @-@ ruler . This appeased the Romans for a time , however envy caused further problems culminating in the death of Elagabalus at the hands of the Praetorian Guard . This was followed by a short period of stability for Rome .
= Asmara Moerni =
Asmara Moerni ( [ asˈmara mʊrˈni ] ; Perfected Spelling : Asmara Murni ; Indonesian for True Love ) is a 1941 romance film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) directed by Rd Ariffien and produced by Ang Hock Liem for Union Films . Written by Saeroen , the film followed a doctor who falls in love with his maid , as well as her failed romance with a fellow villager . Starring Adnan Kapau Gani , Djoewariah , and S. Joesoef , the black @-@ and @-@ white film was cast and advertised to cater to the growing native intelligentsia . Despite mixed reviews , it was a commercial success . As with most films of the Indies , Asmara Moerni may be lost .
= = Plot = =
After four years of doing his residency in Singkawang , Borneo , Dr. Pardi ( Adnan Kapau Gani ) returns to Java to open a practice . Before then , he goes to Cigading to visit his family and give them souvenirs . Upon arrival he is stunned to find that his family 's maid Tati ( Djoewariah ) , who had been his childhood playmate , is now a grown and beautiful woman . He secretly begins to fawn over Tati , although he does not tell her the reason . When Pardi 's mother tells him he should marry quickly , he refuses all of her suggested brides . He says only that he already has someone in mind , aware that his mother would never approve an inter @-@ class marriage with the maid .
Tati 's fiancé , Amir ( S. Joesoef ) , is jealous of all the attention that Tati is receiving , which leaves her no time for him . He plans to leave Cigading for the capital , Batavia ( today Jakarta ) , where he will find work . Tati , upon learning this , joins him . She lives at her aunt 's home in the city , making a living by washing clothes , while he finds lodging with a local man and learns to drive a becak ( pedicab ) . Together they begin saving for their wedding . Unknown to them , Pardi has cut short his time in Cigading to move to Batavia , both to begin his new job and to find Tati .
Days before the wedding , Amir is playing his flute when he is approached by a singer known as Miss Omi , who asks him to join her troupe on an international tour . Amir refuses , even after Omi hires him to drive her around the city in an attempt to convince him . After dropping Omi off , Amir is approached by a man who asks him to deliver a package ; however , before he can deliver the package Amir is arrested and charged with smuggling opium .
When Amir does not return , Tati and her aunt are worried : as Tati saw Amir with Omi , she fears that the two have run away together . Heartbroken , she intends to return to Cigading . When she and her aunt visit their boss , Abdul Sidik , they unknowingly pass Pardi – Abdul Sidik 's doctor . Upon returning home , Pardi calls Abdul Sidik and asks him to take Tati in as if she were his daughter and educate her . Tati is a fast learner , and is soon comparable to any woman from a wealthy family .
After being held eighteen months without trial , Amir is released and returned to Batavia . He is unable to find Tati , leaving him to wander the streets . Omi spots him , and again she asks him to play with her troupe . Amir agrees , and soon newspapers are filled with advertisements touting his name . Spotting one , Tati and Abdul Sidik go to a performance , only to learn that Amir was the victim of a car accident . At the hospital , where Amir is being treated by Pardi , Tati learns the truth behind Amir 's absence . On his deathbed , Amir asks Pardi to take care of Tati ; the two are later married .
= = Production = =
Asmara Moerni was directed by Rd Ariffien , a former journalist who had been active in the nationalist and labour movements before turning to theatre . He had joined Union Films – the company behind Asmara Moerni – in 1940 , making his debut with Harta Berdarah ( Bloody Treasure ) . Union 's head Ang Hock Liem produced , while the story was written by journalist Saeroen , who had joined Union after commercial success on Albert Balink 's Terang Boelan ( Full Moon , 1937 ) and with the production house Tan 's Film .
The black @-@ and @-@ white film starred Adnan Kapau Gani , Djoewariah , and S. Joesoef . It was the feature film debut of Gani and Joesoef , while Djoewariah had been on Union 's payroll since Bajar dengan Djiwa ( Pay with Your Soul ) the preceding year .
At the time there was a growing movement to attract native intelligentsia , educated at schools run by the Dutch colonial government , and convince them to view domestic films , which were generally considered to be of much lower quality than imported Hollywood productions . This was blamed , in part , on the dominance of theatrically trained actors and crew . As such , Ariffien invited Gani , at the time a medical doctor and a prominent member of the nationalist movement , to join the cast . Although some nationalists considered Gani 's involvement in Asmara Moerni as besmirching the independence movement , Gani considered it necessary : he believed audiences needed to have higher opinions of domestic film productions .
= = Release and reception = =
Asmara Moerni was premiered on 29 April 1941 at Orion Theatre in Batavia ; the crowds were mostly natives and ethnic Chinese . Rated for all ages , advertising for the film emphasised Gani 's education and Joesoef 's upper @-@ class background . It was also advertised as breaking away from the conventional standards of stage theatre , such as music , which were omnipresent in the contemporary film industry . By August 1941 it was screened in Singapore , then part of the Straits Settlements , and billed as a " modern Malay drama " . A novelisation was published later in 1941 by the Yogyakarta @-@ based Kolff @-@ Buning .
The film was a commercial success , though reviews were mixed . An anonymous review for the Bataviaasch Nieuwsblad found the film " fascinating " , with good acting , though another review for the same paper found that , though the film was better than contemporary works such as Pantjawarna and Sorga Ka Toedjoe , its claim to abandon stage standards was to be taken " with a pinch of salt " . A review from the Surabaya @-@ based Soerabaijasch Handelsblad found the film full of drama , describing it as " Western motifs , played in the native environment , with a specifically Sundanese situation " .
= = Legacy = =
After Asmara Moerni , Union produced a further three films ; only one , Wanita dan Satria , was by Rd Ariffien , who left the company soon after , as did Saeroen . Gani did not act in any further films , but instead returned to the nationalist movement . During the Indonesian National Revolution ( 1945 – 49 ) he became known as a smuggler , and after independence became a government minister . In November 2007 Gani was made a National Hero of Indonesia . Djoewariah continued to act until the 1950s , when she migrated to theatre after receiving a series of increasingly minor roles .
Asmara Moerni was screened as late as November 1945 . The film is likely lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . As such , American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider suggests that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and film historian Misbach Yusa Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= London Country North East =
London Country North East was a bus operator in South East England and London . It was formed from the split of London Country Bus Services in 1986 and operated a fleet of around 350 buses from six garages , with its headquarters located in Hatfield .
The company was the last subsidiary of National Bus Company to be privatised , being sold to the AJS Group on 22 April 1988 . Later in the same year it was split into County Bus & Coach and Sovereign Bus & Coach .
= = Formation and early history = =
In the run @-@ up to deregulation , London Country Bus Services ( LCBS ) was broken into four smaller companies on 7 September 1986 . Three hundred and fifty buses , the garages at Hatfield , Hertford , Stevenage , Harlow , St Albans and the isolated base at Grays formed the new London Country North East ( LCNE ) company .
Early difficulties with staff conditions and wages , which the company was attempting to simplify from the complex contracts arranged by LCBS , led to strike action by staff in February 1988 . Performance levels on contracted routes were already below those expected by the local councils who had awarded LCNE the contracts , and by London Regional Transport . Following the strike three of the company 's London contracts ( routes 292 , 298 and 313 ) were terminated and awarded to independents .
On 22 April 1988 , London Country North East was sold by the National Bus Company , the last of 72 subsidiaries to be privatised . The buyer was Alan Stephenson 's AJS Group , which had been formed by the management buyout of West Yorkshire Road Car Company . As part of the sale LCNE 's property was bought by Parkdale Holdings and leased back to the company ; some was sold for redevelopment , while the remainder was later sold back to LCNE . Parkdale Holdings later went out of business having changed their name to Pavilion Leisure .
A month later LCNE was banned from registering new services for six months by the Traffic Commissioner for failing to operate service in accordance with registrations made . Following poor financial results , AJS decided to split the company in two .
= = Division = =
In 20 months of existence London Country North East had lost £ 5 @.@ 5 million , on a turnover of £ 14 million . Two operating subsidiaries were created to help improve the situation , under the control of a single holding company , initially called the London Country Travel Group and later renamed to South of England Travel Group . Its chief executive , Bob Howells , had previously been West Yorkshire Road Car Company 's traffic manager . A third company , Cambridge based Premier Travel Services , was added to the group in 1989 but was sold to Cambus in 1991 . Both subsidiaries continued to be owned by AJS until 1991 , when they were sold to new owners .
= = County Bus & Coach = =
County Bus & Coach took over the former London Country North East garages at Harlow , Grays and Hertford . Under AJS 's ownership it was managed by Graham Willet , previously London Country Bus Services ' chief engineer . The company enjoyed some expansion : small independent Sampson Coaches and its garage at Hoddesdon were bought in February 1989 ; however , as a result of this , Hertford garage was vacated and sold for redevelopment by its owners Parkdale Holdings . The Debden and Wyatts Green depots and some local routes of the former East Midland owned Frontrunner operation were acquired in July 1989 . County Bus & Coach 's fleet policy was to use Mercedes @-@ Benz minibuses on most routes , including in Grays when Lakeside Shopping Centre opened and when two London contracted routes were run ; there is some evidence that passengers did not like these vehicles , and their use is thought to have reduced patronage in the area .
AJS group was wound up in 1991 , and the company 's director Bob Howells bought County Bus & Coach through a new holding company , Lynton Travel Group . County Bus & Coach was relaunched with three new local identities : Grays garage became ThameSide , Harlow became TownLink , and Hoddesdon became Lea Valley . One small operator , Davian Coaches of Upper Edmonton , was acquired a few months after and merged with County Bus & Coach .
The company was one of the beneficiaries of the collapse of London Forest , gaining three routes in Walthamstow . The services of Golden Boy were also taken over , in September 1992 , although this deal involved no vehicles and no garage . In July 1993 , Lynton Travel purchased 41 @-@ vehicle independent Citibus Tours , based in Chadderton near Oldham . Other changes made in 1993 included the opening of a new garage in Grays to replace the previous building , and a totally new garage at Ware which replaced that at Hoddesdon . Two more operators were taken over in 1994 , namely coach operators Airport Coaches of Stansted Airport and Biss Bros of Bishops Stortford .
However , on 7 October 1994 County Bus & Coach was sold to West Midlands Travel , who had also acquired the former London Buses subsidiary Westlink . In November 1994 County Bus & Coach became only the tenth operator in the UK to introduce low @-@ floor vehicles into service , when four Dennis Lance SLFs with Wright Pathfinder bodywork were introduced to route 502 Harlow to Romford . West Midlands Travel was taken over by National Express in 1995 , and the new owners decided not to keep their London companies . Westlink was the first to be sold , to London United in September 1995 . One year later , County Bus & Coach was sold to the rapidly expanding Cowie Group .
After also taking over British Bus on 1 August 1996 , who owned most of the other former London Country Bus Services company , in November 1997 the Cowie Group was rebranded as Arriva .
County Bus & Coach 's garage at Grays was transferred to Arriva Southend in 2000 , with that company becoming part of the Arriva Southern Counties operation in 2002 . The rest of County Bus & Coach 's routes , garages and vehicles became Arriva East Herts & Essex . This was later combined with the former Luton & District and London Country North West operations to form Arriva Shires & Essex , in which form County Bus & Coach continues to trade .
= = Sovereign Bus & Coach = =
Sovereign Bus & Coach took over three former London Country North East depots in the 1989 split , namely Hatfield , Stevenage and St Albans . These were quickly joined by the operations and Stevenage depot of Jubilee Coaches , an independent which had previously taken several contracted routes from LCNE , but found it had bid too low for the routes and could no longer fulfil its operations . Hatfield garage was closed in 1989 , and a new site established at Welwyn Garden City . Another operator , competitor Welwyn Hatfield Line , was taken over in January 1990 and retained as a separate subsidiary for several years . Most of Sovereign 's Stevenage operation was sold to Luton & District ( successors to London Country North West ) in 1990 . In 1991 the owning AJS Group was wound up . Two directors formed the Blazefield Group , and purchased Sovereign Bus & Coach and most of AJS Group 's other operations . At the time Sovereign operated 76 vehicles .
Some expansion followed . In October 1991 a new offshoot , Sovereign Buses ( Harrow ) , was formed to operate a number of London Regional Transport contracts won by the company . In August 1994 , the company 's position in London strengthened with the acquisition of the 43 @-@ vehicle Borehamwood Travel Services , which brought tendered route 13 run with AEC Routemasters , under Sovereign operation . BTS was renamed Sovereign London and merged with the Harrow operation .
The company 's fleet and operations remained largely static until 3 November 2002 , when Blazefield sold Sovereign London to Transdev .
Sovereign contracted further in 2002 with the sale of the St Albans operation to Centrebus . Centrebus sold the depot to Uno in March 2008 .
By 2002 , Sovereign 's fleet amounted to just 45 vehicles . Stevenage depot was closed and a smaller garage in the same town acquired , with Arriva Shires & Essex taking over the old site . Finally , in January 2005 , the remainder of Sovereign was sold to Arriva Shires & Essex . Having previously acquired the successors to the former London Country North West , London Country South West and London Country South East companies as well as County Bus & Coach , Arriva now owned all of the former London Country Bus Services apart from the St Albans operation .
= Badlaa =
" Badlaa " is the tenth episode of the eighth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on January 21 , 2001 . The episode was written by John Shiban and directed by Tony Wharmby . " Badlaa " is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . The episode received a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 3 and was viewed by 11 @.@ 8 million viewers . Overall , the episode received mostly negative reviews from critics .
The series centers on FBI special agents Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and her new partner John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) — following the alien abduction of her former partner , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) — who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . When a mystic smuggles himself out of India , Scully and Doggett give chase as his murderous spree starts terrorising two families in suburban Washington , D.C. But Scully soon comes upon a crisis of faith when she realises how dissimilar her techniques are from those of Mulder , even as she tries to be the believer .
" Badlaa " was inspired by stories of Indian fakirs as well as the idea of someone asking for money actually being " a bad guy . " Gurdeep Roy , a noted stuntman better known as Deep Roy , was chosen to play the part of the antagonistic beggar . The episode 's title means " retort " or " revenge " in Hindi .
= = Plot = =
At the Sahar International Airport in Mumbai , India , an American businessman dismissively makes his way past a paraplegic beggar . Later , while using the airport 's toilet , the businessman is pulled out of the stall violently by the beggar that he passed earlier . Later , the man checks into a Washington , D.C. hotel and sits down on his bed . Soon , blood streams out of his bodily orifices .
Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) arrives late to the crime scene and John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) tells her that the man 's blood all drained abruptly in the hotel . A child ’ s bloody print is found , but Scully doesn ’ t believe that a child did this . Meanwhile , the beggar , somehow disguised as an ordinary looking Caucasian man , applies for a janitorial job at a Cheverly , Maryland elementary school . In the morgue , Scully describes the massive stomach damage done to the body which leads Doggett to the idea of drugs being forcibly cut out of him . However , the man showed no sign of drugs in the blood tests and Scully tells Doggett that his time of death was 24 to 36 hours prior , long before he left India . Due to a discrepancy in weight , she begins to believe that there was a passenger in the corpse .
Quinton , a student at the school mentioned before , calls his father after he sees the legless beggar man in his room at night . His father tells him that it was his imagination , goes back downstairs , but then screams . Quinton rushes down to find his father dead and his eyes turned red with blood . Doggett and Scully investigate this latest death after the police told them about the strange man the boy saw . While discussing the lack of any damage to the body except the broken blood vessels in the eyes , Scully comes to the conclusion that the man is still inside the latest victim . She rushes to the morgue and finds the boy ’ s father with a distended belly . She cuts into him and then sees a hand emerge from the scalpel incision . After being temporarily knocked over , she follows a bloody trail , opens a door at the end of the trail , and finds no one there . Unbeknownst to her , however , the beggar is watching her , unnoticed .
At the school , the principal tells the legless man ’ s janitor guise that she was very worried when he did not show up that morning . Trevor , a bully who had earlier tormented Quinton , sees partially through the beggar 's forms for a moment . Trevor later shows up at Quinton ’ s home to say he is sorry and says he thinks he knows who killed his father .
Scully and Doggett consult Chuck Burks , an old friend of Fox Mulder 's ( David Duchovny ) , who tells the two that Siddhi mystics could do the things Scully described ; the mystics have powers of the mind and can alter people ’ s perceptions of reality . Scully theorizes that a mystic is acting out of revenge since an American plant inadvertently released a gas cloud that killed 118 people in Vishi , outside of Mumbai . One of the victims was the 11 @-@ year @-@ old son of a holy man of the beggar caste .
Trevor runs home after hearing the squeaking wheels and goes outside after encountering his mother . She follows him outside to find him face @-@ down in the middle of a pool . She dives down to get him but his form turns into the legless man . At the scene of the crime , the real Trevor tells Scully that it was the " little man " who killed his mother . Later , Quinton and Trevor , after realizing that the janitor is actually the beggar , hunt the legless man in the school . Eventually , the beggar takes the form of Trevor . At that moment , Scully enters the school and opens fire , wounding the beggar and reverting him back to his true form . Two weeks later in Sahar International Airport , the beggar , unharmed , watches another obese American man pass by .
= = Production = =
" Badlaa " was written by John Shiban and inspired by stories of Indian fakirs . In fact , the episode 's title means " to retort " or " to revenge " in Urdu . Further inspiration came " from a little bit of desperation " according to Shiban . He later recalled that he was walking through the Vancouver airport and suddenly had the thought , " What if someone who came up to me and asked me for money was actually a bad guy . " Shiban later noted that his early drafts of the episode featured the antagonist with a different power . He explained , " My original idea was a beggar with no legs who can actually shrink himself and climb inside your ear , and Chris Carter – and this is why he 's Chris Carter – said ' No , no , no ! I know what 's even better . ' " Shiban later said that " ... one thing about this episode that I 'm sort of proud is that people often have told me that it is the most disgusting thought that they ever had , that this little man would actually enter your body and travel around inside you . "
The scenes featuring the Indian airport were filmed at a cruise line terminal in Long Beach , California . Ilt Jones , the location manager for the series , felt that the " dated feel " of the terminal added to the scene . He noted , " if you look at newsreel footage of India , they always have old English cars from the sixties , the cruise line terminal in Long Beach was perfect . "
Casting director Rick Millikan was tasked with finding a suitable actor to play the part of the beggar . Millikan 's only instructions were to look for " a small all @-@ Indian man with no legs . " Eventually , Gurdeep Roy , better known as Deep Roy was chosen to play the part . Deep Roy was a noted stunt man who had notably played Droopy McCool of the Max Rebo Band in Return of the Jedi . Deep Roy , however , is not an amputee and so a cart with a false bottom was created . Anytime there was a scene where the beggar had to move , blue screen technology was used to add the background in during post @-@ production . The cart featured a distinct " squeak " that Paul Rabwin described as " creepy " . He noted , " There was a squeak that had to let us know that it was him . It had to scare us [ ... ] Finally we came up with what we thought was just the right squeak and John [ Shiban ] said ' Okay , that 's the one . ' "
Producer Paul Rabwin was displeased with the final episode , noting , " ' Badlaa ' was the one episode I did not like the most [ ... ] I think if I had done it different , I would have had John Shiban change the method of transportation . I don 't think it ever worked on any level for me . It was just weird and creepy , but I think the whole idea was distasteful to me . " He later bluntly concluded that " it 's the only episode that I kind of wish we hadn 't done . "
= = Reception = =
" Badlaa " first aired on Fox on 21 January 2001 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 3 , meaning that it was seen by 7 @.@ 3 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 46 million households and 11 @.@ 8 million viewers . The episode ranked as the 50th most @-@ watched episode for the week ending January
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who has traveled the world on his show Bizarre Foods with Andrew Zimmern , responded to the question " What 's the most disgusting thing you 've ever eaten ? " with the response " That would have to be the fermented shark fin I had in Iceland . " Fermented shark fin is a form of Þorramatur .
= = = Performance art = = =
The earliest indigenous Icelandic music was the rímur , epic tales from the Viking era that were often performed a cappella . Christianity played a major role in the development of Icelandic music , with many hymns being written in the local idiom . Hallgrímur Pétursson , a poet and priest , is noted for writing many of these hymns in the 17th century . The island 's relative isolation ensured that the music maintained its regional flavor . It was only in the 19th century that the first pipe organs , prevalent in European religious music , first appeared on the island .
Many singers , groups , and forms of music have come from Iceland . Most Icelandic music contains vibrant folk and pop traditions . Some more recent groups and singers are Voces Thules , The Sugarcubes , Björk , Sigur Rós , and Of Monsters and Men .
The national anthem is " Ó Guð vors lands " ( English : " Our Country 's God " ) , written by Matthías Jochumsson , with music by Sveinbjörn Sveinbjörnsson . The song was written in 1874 , when Iceland celebrated its one thousandth anniversary of settlement on the island . It was originally published with the title A Hymn in Commemoration of Iceland 's Thousand Years .
= = = Sports = = =
Iceland 's national football team has yet to participate in the FIFA World Cup . However they have qualified for the finals of the 2016 European Championship . Their first Olympic participation was in the 1912 Summer Olympics ; however , they did not participate again until the 1936 Summer Olympics . Their first appearance at the winter games was at the 1948 Winter Olympics . In 1956 , Vilhjálmur Einarsson won the Olympic silver medal for the triple jump . The Icelandic national handball team has enjoyed relative success . The team received a silver medal at the 2008 Olympic Games and a 3rd place at the 2010 European Men 's Handball Championship .
= Canadian federal election , 1957 =
The Canadian federal election of 1957 was held June 10 , 1957 , to select the 265 members of the House of Commons of Canada . In one of the great upsets in Canadian political history , the Progressive Conservative Party ( also known as " PCs " or " Tories " ) , led by John Diefenbaker , brought an end to 22 years of Liberal rule , as the Tories were able to form a minority government .
The Liberal Party had governed Canada since 1935 , winning five consecutive elections . Under Prime Ministers William Lyon Mackenzie King and Louis St. Laurent , the government gradually built a welfare state . During the Liberals 's fifth term in office , the opposition parties depicted them as arrogant and unresponsive to Canadians ' needs . Controversial events , such as the 1956 " Pipeline Debate " over the construction of the Trans @-@ Canada Pipeline , had hurt the government . St. Laurent , nicknamed ' Uncle Louis ' , remained popular , but exercised little supervision over his cabinet ministers .
In 1956 , Tory leader George A. Drew unexpectedly resigned due to ill health . In his place , the PC party elected the fiery and charismatic Diefenbaker . The Tories ran a campaign centred on their new leader , who attracted large crowds to rallies and made a strong impression on television . The Liberals ran a lacklustre campaign , and St. Laurent made few television appearances . Uncomfortable with the medium , the Prime Minister read his speeches from a script and refused to wear makeup .
Abandoning their usual strategy of trying to make major inroads in Liberal @-@ dominated Quebec , the Tories focused on winning seats in the other provinces . They were successful ; though they gained few seats in Quebec , they won 112 seats overall to the Liberals ' 105 . With the remaining seats won by other parties , the PC party only had a plurality in the House of Commons , but the margin was sufficient to make John Diefenbaker Canada 's first Tory Prime Minister since 1935 .
= = Background = =
= = = Liberal domination = = =
The Tories had last governed Canada under R.B. Bennett , who had been elected in 1930 . Bennett 's government had limited success in dealing with the Depression , and was defeated in 1935 , as Liberal William Lyon Mackenzie King , who had previously served two times as Prime Minister , was restored to power . The Liberals won five consecutive majorities between 1935 and 1953 . The Liberals worked closely with the civil service ( drawing several of their ministers from those ranks ) and their years of dominance saw prosperity .
When Mackenzie King retired in 1948 , he was succeeded by his Minister of Justice , Louis St. Laurent , a bilingual Quebecer who took office at the age of 66 . An adept politician , St. Laurent projected a gentle persona and was affectionately known to many Canadians as Uncle Louis ( or , among francophones , Oncle Louis ) . In actuality , St. Laurent was uncomfortable away from Ottawa , was subject to fits of depression ( especially after 1953 ) , and on political trips was carefully managed by advertising men from the firm of Cockfield Brown . St. Laurent led the Liberals to an overwhelming triumph in the 1949 election , campaigning under the slogan " You never had it so good " . The Liberals won a fifth successive mandate in 1953 , with St. Laurent content to exercise a highly relaxed leadership style .
With over twenty years of parliamentary majorities , Liberal ministers did as they wished with little regard for the opposition parties . The Mackenzie King and St. Laurent governments laid the groundwork for the welfare state , a development initially opposed by many Tories . C.D. Howe , considered one of the leading forces of the St. Laurent government , told his Tory opponents when they alleged that the Liberals would abolish tariffs if the people would let them , " Who would stop us ? ... Don 't take yourselves too seriously . If we wanted to get away with it , who would stop us ? "
= = = Tory struggles = = =
At the start of 1956 , the Tories were led by former Ontario premier George A. Drew , who had been elected PC leader in 1948 over Saskatchewan MP John Diefenbaker . Drew was the fifth man to lead the Tories in their 21 years out of power . None had come close to defeating the Liberals ; the best performance was in 1945 , when John Bracken secured 67 seats for the Tories . The Liberals , though , had won 125 seats , and maintained their majority . In the 1953 election , the PC party won 51 seats out of the 265 in the House of Commons . Subsequently the Tories picked up two seats from the Liberals in by @-@ elections , and the Liberals ( who had won 169 seats in 1953 ) lost an additional seat to the Co @-@ operative Commonwealth Federation ( CCF , the predecessor of the New Democratic Party ( NDP ) ) .
After over two decades in opposition , the Tories were closely associated with that role in the public eye . The Tories were seen as the party of the wealthy and of English @-@ speaking Canada and drew about 30 % of the vote in federal elections . The Tories had enjoyed little success in Quebec in the past forty years . By 1956 , the Social Credit Party was becoming a potential rival to the Tories as Canada 's main right @-@ wing party . Canadian journalist and author Bruce Hutchison discussed the state of the Tories in 1956 :
When a party calling itself Conservative can think of nothing better than to outbid the Government 's election promises ; when it demands economy in one breath and increased spending in the next ; when it proposes an immediate tax cut regardless of inflationary results ... when in short , the Conservative party no longer gives us a conservative alternative after twenty @-@ one years ... then our political system desperately requires an opposition prepared to stand for something more than the improbable chance of quick victory .
= = = Run @-@ up to the campaign = = =
In 1955 , the Tories , through a determined filibuster , were able to defeat amendments to the Defence Procurement Act , which would have made temporary , extraordinary powers granted to the government permanent . Drew led the Tories in a second battle with the government the following year : in the so @-@ called " Pipeline Debate " , the government invoked closure repeatedly in a weeks @-@ long debate which ended with the Speaker ignoring points of order as he had the division bells rung . Both measures were closely associated with Howe , which , in combination with his earlier comments , led to Tory claims that Howe was indifferent to the democratic process .
Tory preparations for an upcoming election campaign were thrown into disarray in August 1956 when Drew fell ill . Tory leaders felt that the party needed vigorous leadership with a federal election likely to be called within a year . In September , Drew resigned . Diefenbaker , who had failed in two prior bids for the leadership , announced his candidacy , as did Tory frontbenchers Davie Fulton and Donald Fleming . Diefenbaker , a criminal defence lawyer from Prince Albert , Saskatchewan , was on the populist left of the PC party . Those Tory leaders who disliked Diefenbaker and his views , and hoped to find a candidate from Drew 's conservative wing of the party , wooed University of Toronto president Sidney Smith as a candidate . However , Smith refused to run .
Tory leaders scheduled a leadership convention for December . In early November , the Suez crisis erupted . Minister of External Affairs Lester Pearson played a major part in the settlement of that dispute , and was later awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his role . Diefenbaker , as the Tories ' foreign policy critic and as the favourite in the leadership race , gained considerable attention for his speeches on Suez . The Tories attacked Pearson for , as they said , being an errand boy for the United States government ; he responded that it was better to be such a lackey than to be an obedient colonial doing Britain 's will unquestioningly . While Suez would come to be regarded by many as one of the finest moments in Canadian foreign policy , at the time it cost the Liberals support outside of Quebec .
Diefenbaker was the favourite throughout the leadership campaign . At the convention in Ottawa in December , he refused to abide by the custom of having a Quebecer be either the proposer or seconder of his candidacy , and instead selected an Easterner ( from New Brunswick ) and a Westerner to put his name in nomination . With most Quebec delegates backing his opponents , Diefenbaker felt that having a Quebecer as a nominator would not increase his support . Diefenbaker was elected on the first ballot , and a number of Quebec delegates walked out of the convention after his victory . Other Diefenbaker opponents , such as those who had urged Smith to run , believed that the 61 @-@ year @-@ old Diefenbaker would be merely a caretaker , who would serve a few years and then step down in favour of a younger man , and that the upcoming election would be lost to the Liberals regardless of who led the Tories .
When Parliament convened in January , the Liberals introduced no major proposals , and proposed nothing controversial . Diefenbaker turned over his parliamentary duties to British Columbia MP Howard Green and spent much of his time on the road making speeches across the country . Diefenbaker toured a nation in which Liberal support at the provincial level had slowly been eroding . When the Liberals gained Federal power in 1935 , they controlled eight of the nine provincial governments , all except Alberta . By early 1957 , the Liberals controlled the legislatures only in the tenth province , Newfoundland , and in Prince Edward Island and Manitoba .
In March , Finance Minister Walter Harris , who was believed to be St. Laurent 's heir apparent , introduced his budget . The budget anticipated a surplus of $ 258 million , of which $ 100 million was to be returned in the form of increased welfare payments , with an increase of $ 6 per month ( to a total of $ 46 ) for old age pensioners — effective after the election . Harris indicated that no more could be returned for fear of increasing inflation . Diefenbaker attacked the budget , calling for higher old age pensions and welfare payments , more aid to the poorer provinces , and aid to farmers .
St. Laurent had informed Diefenbaker that Parliament would be dissolved in April , for an election on June 10 . A final parliamentary conflict was sparked by the suicide of Canadian Ambassador to Egypt E.H. Norman in the midst of allegations made by a United States Senate subcommittee that Norman had communist links . Pearson had defended Norman when the allegations became public , and defended him again after his death , suggesting to the Commons that the allegations were false . It quickly became apparent that the information released by the Americans might have come from Canadian intelligence sources , and after severe questioning of Pearson by Diefenbaker and the other parties ' foreign policy critics , Pearson made a statement announcing that Norman had had communist associations in his youth , but had passed a security review . The minister evaded further questions regarding what information had been provided , and the discussion was cut short when Parliament was dissolved on April 12 .
Peter Regenstreif , who studied the four elections between 1957 and 1963 , wrote of the situation at the start of the election campaign , " In 1957 , there was no tangible indication that the Liberals would be beaten or , even in the opposition 's darkest moment of reflection , could be . All the hindsight and post hoc gazing at entrails cannot change that objective fact . "
= = Issues = =
The Liberals and PC party differed considerably on fiscal and tax policies . In his opening campaign speech at Massey Hall in Toronto , Diefenbaker contended that Canadians were overtaxed in the amount of $ 120 per family of four . Diefenbaker pledged to reduce taxes and castigated the Liberals for not reducing taxes despite the government surplus . St. Laurent also addressed tax policy in his opening speech , in Winnipeg . St. Laurent noted that since 1953 , tax rates had declined , as had the national debt , and that Canada had a reputation as a good place for investments . The Prime Minister argued that the cost of campaign promises made by the Progressive Conservatives would inevitably drive up the tax rate . Diefenbaker also assailed tight @-@ money monetary policies which kept interest rates high , complaining that they were hitting Atlantic and Western Canada hard .
The Tories promised changes in agricultural policies . Many Canadian farmers were unable to find buyers for their wheat ; the PC party promised generous cash advances on unsold wheat and promised a protectionist policy regarding foreign agricultural products . The Liberals argued that such tariffs were not worth the loss of bargaining position in efforts to seek foreign markets for Canadian agricultural products .
The institution of the welfare state was by 1957 accepted by both major parties . Diefenbaker promised to expand the national health insurance scheme to cover tubercular and mental health patients . He characterized the old age pension increase which the Liberal government was instituting as a mere pittance , not even enough to keep up with the cost of living . Diefenbaker noted that the increase only amounted to twenty cents a day , using that figure to ridicule Liberal contentions that an increase would add to the rate of inflation . All three opposition parties promised to increase the pension , with the Social Crediters and CCF even stating the specific amounts it would be raised by .
The Liberals were content to rest on their record in foreign affairs , and doubted that the Tories could better them . In a radio address on May 30 , Minister of Transport George Marler commented , " You will wonder as I do who in the Conservative Party would take the place of the Honourable Lester Pearson , whose knowledge and experience of world affairs has been put to such good use in recent years . " Diefenbaker , however , refused to concede the point and in a televised address stated that Canadians were " asking Pearson to explain his bumbling of External Affairs " . Though they were reluctant to discuss the Norman affair , the Tories suggested that the government had irresponsibly allowed gossip to be transmitted to United States congressional committees . They also attacked the government over Pearson 's role in the Suez settlement , suggesting that Canada had let Britain down .
Some members of the Tories ' campaign committee had urged Diefenbaker not to build his campaign around the Pipeline Debate , contending that the episode was now a year in the past and forgotten by the voters , who did not particularly care what went on in Parliament anyway . Diefenbaker replied , " That 's the issue , and I 'm making it . " Diefenbaker referred to the conduct of the government in the Pipeline Debate more frequently than he did any other issue during the campaign . St. Laurent initially dealt with the question flippantly , suggesting in his opening campaign address that the debate had been " nearly as long as the pipeline itself and quite as full of another kind of natural gas " . As the issue gained resonance with the voters , the Liberals devoted more time to it , and St. Laurent devoted a major part of his final English television address to the question . The Liberals defended their conduct , and contended that a minority should not be allowed to impose its will on an elected majority . St. Laurent suggested that the Tories had performed badly as an opposition in the debate , and suggested that the public give them more practice at being an opposition .
Finally , the Tories contended that the Liberals had been in power too long , and that it was time for a change . The PC party stated that the Liberals were arrogant , inflexible , and not capable of looking at problems from a new point of view . Liberals responded that with the country prosperous , there was no point to a change .
= = Campaign = =
= = = Progressive Conservative = = =
In 1953 , almost half of the Tories ' campaign funds were spent in Quebec , a province in which the party won only four of seventy @-@ five seats . After the 1953 election , Tory MP Gordon Churchill studied the Canadian federal elections since Confederation . He concluded that the Progressive Conservatives were ill @-@ advised to continue pouring money into Quebec in an effort to win seats in the province ; the Tories could win at least a minority government by maximizing their opportunities in English @-@ speaking Canada , and if the party could also manage to win twenty seats in Quebec , it could attain a majority . Churchill 's conclusions were ignored by most leading Tories — except Diefenbaker .
Diefenbaker 's successful leadership race had been run by Allister Grosart , an executive for McKim Advertising Ltd . Soon after taking the leadership , Diefenbaker got Grosart to help out at Tory headquarters , and soon appointed him national director of the party and national campaign manager . Grosart appointed a national campaign committee , something which had not been done previously by the Tories , but which , according to Grosart , provided the organizational key to success in 1957 . The party was ill @-@ financed , having only $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to wage the campaign — half what it had in 1953 . Grosart divided most of that money equally by constituency , to the disgruntlement of Quebec Tories , who were used to receiving a disproportionate share of the national party 's financing .
The Tory campaign opened at Massey Hall in Toronto on April 25 , where Diefenbaker addressed a crowd of 2 @,@ 600 , about 200 short of capacity . At the Massey Hall rally , a large banner hung behind Diefenbaker , which did not mention the name of his party , but which instead stated , " It 's Time for a Diefenbaker Government . " The slogan , coined by Grosart , sought to blur Canadian memories of the old Tory party of Bennett and Drew and instead focus attention on the party 's new leader . Posters for election rallies contained Diefenbaker 's name in large type ; only the small print contained the name of the party . When St. Laurent complained that the Tories were not campaigning under their own name , Grosart sent copies of the Prime Minister 's remarks in a plain envelope to every Liberal candidate , and was gratified when they began inserting the allegation into their own speeches . According to Professor J. Murray Beck in his history of Canadian general elections , " His political enemies were led to make the very point he was striving to drive home : Diefenbaker was , in effect , leading a new party , not an old one with a repellent image . " Grosart later stated that he structured the entire campaign around the personality of John Diefenbaker , and threw away the Tory party and its policies .
Diefenbaker began his campaign with a week of local campaigning in his riding , after which he went to Toronto for the Massey Hall speech . After two days in Ontario , he spoke at a rally in Quebec City , before spending the remainder of the first week in the Maritimes . The next week saw Diefenbaker spend two days in Quebec , after which he campaigned in Ontario . The next two weeks included a Western tour , with brief returns to Ontario , the most populous province . The final two weeks saw Diefenbaker spend much of the time in Ontario , though with brief journeys east to the Maritimes and Quebec and twice west to Saskatchewan . He returned to his riding for the final weekend before the Monday election . He spent 39 days on the campaign trail , eleven more than the Prime Minister .
According to Professor John Meisel , who wrote a book about the 1957 campaign , Diefenbaker 's speaking style was " reminiscent of the fiery orators so popular in the nineteenth century . Indeed , Mr. Diefenbaker 's oratory has been likened to that of the revivalist preacher . " As a new face on the national scene given to outspoken attacks on the government , he began to attract unexpectedly large crowds early in the campaign . When reduced to the written word , however , Diefenbaker 's rhetoric sometimes proved to be without much meaning . According to journalist and author Peter C. Newman , " On the printed page , it makes little sense . But from the platform , its effect was far different . " Both Newman and Meisel cite as an example of this the conclusion to the leader 's Massey Hall speech :
If we are dedicated to this — and to this we are — you , my fellow Canadians , will require all the wisdom , all the power that comes from those spiritual springs that make freedom possible — all the wisdom , all the faith and all the vision which the Conservative Party gave but yesterday under Macdonald , change to meet changing conditions , today having the responsibility of this party to lay the foundations of this nation for a great and glorious future .
Diefenbaker 's speeches contained words which evoked powerful emotions in his listeners . His theme was that Canada was on the edge of greatness — if it could only get rid of its incompetent and arrogant government . He stressed that the only alternative to the Liberals was a " Diefenbaker government " . According to Newman , Diefenbaker successfully drew on the discontent both of those who had prospered in the 1950s , and sought some deeper personal and national purpose , as well as those who had been left out of the prosperity . However , Diefenbaker spoke French badly and the excitement generated by his campaign had little effect in francophone Quebec , where apathy prevailed and Le Devoir spoke of " une campaigne électorale au chloroforme " .
The Tories had performed badly in British Columbia in 1953 , finishing a weak fourth . However , the province responded to Diefenbaker , and 3 @,@ 800 turned out for his Victoria speech on May 21 , his largest crowd yet . This was bettered two days later in Vancouver with a crowd of 6 @,@ 000 , with even the street outside the Georgia Street Auditorium packed with Tory partisans . Diefenbaker responded to this by delivering what Dick Spencer ( who wrote a book on Diefenbaker 's campaigns ) considered his greatest speech of the 1957 race , and which Newman considered the turning point of Diefenbaker 's campaign . Diefenbaker stated , " I give this assurance to Canadians — that the government shall be the servant and not the master of the people ... The road of the Liberal party , unless it is stopped — and Howe has said , " Who 's going to stop us ? " — will lead to the virtual extinction of parliamentary government . You will have the form , but the substance will be gone . "
The Liberal @-@ leaning Winnipeg Free Press , writing shortly after Diefenbaker 's speeches in British Columbia , commented on them :
Facts were overwhelmed with sound , passion substituted for arithmetic , moral indignation pumped up to the bursting point . But Mr. Diefenbaker provided the liveliest show of the election ... and many listeners undoubtedly failed to notice that he was saying even less than the Prime Minister , though saying it more shrilly and with evangelistic fervour ... Mr. Diefenbaker has chosen instead to cast himself as the humble man in a mood of protest , the common Canadian outraged by Liberal prosperity , the little guy fighting for his rights .
So far as the crowds mean anything , that posture is a brilliant success at one @-@ night stands .
On June 6 , the two major party campaigns crossed paths in Woodstock , Ontario . Speaking in the afternoon , St. Laurent drew a crowd of 200 . To the shock of St. Laurent staffers , who remained for the Diefenbaker appearance , the PC leader drew an overflow crowd of over a thousand that evening , even though he was an hour late , with announcements made to the excited crowd that he was slowed by voters who wanted only to see him or shake his hand .
Diefenbaker 's intensive campaign exhausted the handful of national reporters who followed him . Clark Davey of The Globe and Mail stated , " We did not know how he did it . " Reporters thought the Progressive Conservatives might , at best , gain 30 or 35 seats over the 53 they had at dissolution , and when Diefenbaker , off the record , told the reporters that the Tories would win 97 seats ( which would still allow the Liberals to form the government ) , they concluded he was guilty of wishful thinking . Diefenbaker was even more confident in public ; after he concluded his national tour and returned to his constituency , he addressed his final rally in Nipawin , Saskatchewan : " On Monday , I 'll be Prime Minister . "
= = = Liberal = = =
St. Laurent was utterly confident of an election victory , so much so that he did not even bother to fill the sixteen vacancies in the Senate . He had been confident of re @-@ election when Drew led the Tories , and , according to Liberal minister Lionel Chevrier , Diefenbaker 's victory in the party leadership race increased his confidence by a factor of ten . At his press conference detailing his election tour , St. Laurent stated , " I have no doubt about the election outcome . " He indicated that his campaign would open April 29 in Winnipeg , and that the Prime Minister would spend ten days in Western Canada before moving east . However , he indicated he would first go home to Quebec City for several days around Easter ( April 21 in 1957 ) . This break kept him out of the limelight for ten days at a time when Diefenbaker was already actively campaigning and making daily headlines . At a campaign stop in Jarvis , Ontario , St. Laurent told an aide that he was afraid the right @-@ wing , anti @-@ Catholic Social Credit Party would be the next Opposition . St. Laurent denied Opposition claims that he would resign after an election victory , and the 75 @-@ year @-@ old indicated that he planned to run again in 1961 , if he was still around .
The Liberals made no new , radical proposals during their campaign , but instead ran a quiet campaign with occasional attacks on the opposition parties . They were convinced that the public still supported their party , and that no expensive promises need be made to voters . St. Laurent was made the image of the nation 's prosperity , and the Liberals refused to admit any reason for discontent existed . When Minister of Finance Harris proposed raising the upcoming increase in old age pension by an additional four dollars a month , St. Laurent refused to consider it , feeling that the increase had been calculated on the basis of the available facts , and those facts had not changed .
During the Prime Minister 's Western swing , St. Laurent made formal speeches only in major cities . In contrast to Diefenbaker 's whistle @-@ stop train touring , with a hasty speech in each town as the train passed through , the Liberals allowed ample time for " Uncle Louis " to shake hands with voters , pat their children on the head , and kiss their babies . In British Columbia , St. Laurent took the position that there were hardly any national issues worth discussing — the Liberals had brought Canada prosperity and all that was needed for more of the same was to return the party to office . After touring Western Canada , St. Laurent spent the remainder of the second week of the campaign returning to , and in , Ottawa . The third week opened with a major speech in Quebec City , followed by intensive campaigning in Ontario . The fifth week was devoted to the Maritime provinces and Eastern Quebec . The sixth week opened with a major rally in Ottawa , before St. Laurent returned to the Maritimes and Quebec , and the final week was spent in Ontario before St. Laurent returned to his hometown of Quebec City for the election .
St. Laurent tried to project an image as a family man , and to that end often addressed schoolchildren . As he had in previous elections , he spoke to small groups of children regarding Canadian history or civics . The strategy backfired while addressing children in Port Hope , Ontario . With the children inattentive , some playing tag or sticking cameras in his face , St. Laurent angrily told them that it was their loss if they did not pay attention , as the country would be theirs to worry about far longer than it would be his .
St. Laurent and the Liberals suffered other problems during the campaign . According to Newman , St. Laurent sometimes seemed unaware of what was happening around him , and at one campaign stop , shook hands with the reporters who were following him , under the apparent impression they were local voters . On the evening of Diefenbaker 's Vancouver speech , St. Laurent drew 400 voters to a rally in Sherbrooke , Quebec , where he had once lived . C.D. Howe , under heavy pressure from the campaign of CCF candidate Doug Fisher in his Ontario riding , intimated that Fisher had communist links . At a rally in Manitoba , Howe offended a voter who told him the farmers were starving to death , poking the voter in the stomach and saying " Looks like you 've been eating pretty well under a Liberal government . " At another rally , Howe dismissed a persistent Liberal questioner , saying " Look here , my good man , when the election comes , why don 't you just go away and vote for the party you support ? In fact , why don 't you just go away ? "
The Liberals concluded their campaign with a large rally at Toronto 's Maple Leaf Gardens on June 7 . Entertainment at the event was provided by the Leslie Bell singers , and according to Grosart , many in the audience were Tory supporters who had turned out to hear them . St. Laurent 's speech at the rally was interrupted when William Hatton , a 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy from Malton , Ontario , climbed onto the platform . Hatton carried a banner reading , " This Can 't Be Canada " with a Liberal placard bearing St. Laurent 's photograph , and moved to face the Prime Minister . Meisel describes Hatton as an " otherwise politically apathetic boy who ... slowly and deliberately tore up a photograph of the Prime Minister as the latter was speaking " and states that Hatton engaged in " intensely provocative behavior " . Liberal partisans interceded , and in the ensuing fracas , Hatton fell from the platform , audibly hitting his head on the concrete floor . St. Laurent watched in apparent shock , according to his biographer Dale Tompson , as officials aided the boy and took him from the hall . According to Tompson , the crowd " turned its indignation on the men on the platform " and spent the remainder of the evening wondering about the boy 's possible injuries rather than listening to the Prime Minister 's speech . Hatton was not seriously injured , but , according to Newman , " the accident added to the image of the Liberal Party as an unrepentant arrogant group of old men , willing to ride roughshod over voters " . Grosart later described the incident as " the turning point " of the campaign . Professor Meisel speculated that the Hatton incident might have been part of an organized campaign to annoy St. Laurent out of his pleasant " Uncle Louis " persona , and Grosart later related that Liberal frontbencher Jack Pickersgill always accused him of being behind the boy 's actions , but that the incident was " a sheer accident " . Hatton 's mother described his actions as " [ j ] ust a schoolboy prank , " and a reaction to reading an article about how the art of heckling was dying . According to public relations executive J.G. Johnston in a letter to Diefenbaker on June 10 , Hatton had come to the rally with several other boys , including Johnston 's son , but had gone off on his own while the other boys paraded with Diefenbaker posters which had been smuggled inside . According to Johnston , Hatton was caught on CBC tape saying to St. Laurent , " I can no longer stand your hypocrisy , Sir " before tearing the St. Laurent poster . Attempts by Johnston to have the Liberal activist who pushed Hatton off the platform arrested failed , according to Johnston , on the ground that the police could find no witnesses .
= = = CCF = = =
The CCF was a socialist party , which had much of its strength in Saskatchewan , though it ran candidates in several other provinces . At Parliament 's dissolution in April 1957 , it had 23 MPs , from five different provinces . Aside from the Liberals and the Tories , it was the only party to nominate a candidate in a majority of the ridings . In 1957 , the party was led by Saskatchewan MP M.J. Coldwell .
In 1956 , the party adopted the Winnipeg Declaration , a far more moderate proposal than its previous governing document , the 1933 Regina Manifesto . For example , the Regina Manifesto pledged the CCF to the eradication of capitalism ; the Winnipeg Declaration recognized the utility of private ownership of business , and stated that the government should own business only when it was in the public interest . In its election campaign , the CCF did not promise to nationalize any industries . It promised changes in the tax code in order to increase the redistribution of wealth in Canada . It pledged to increase exemptions from income tax , to allow medical expenses to be considered deductions from income for tax purposes , and to eliminate sales tax on food , clothing , and other necessities of life . It also promised to raise taxes on the higher income brackets and to eliminate the favourable tax treatment of corporate dividends .
The CCF represented many agricultural areas in the Commons , and it proposed several measures to assure financial security for farmers . It proposed national growers ' cooperatives for agricultural products which were exported . It proposed cash advances for farm @-@ stored wheat , short and long term loans for farmers at low interest rates , and government support of prices , to assure the farmer a full income even in bad years . For the Atlantic fisherman , the CCF proposed cash advances at the start of the fishing season and government @-@ owned depots which would sell fishing equipment and supplies to fishermen at much lower than market prices .
Coldwell suffered from a heart condition , and undertook a much less ambitious schedule than the major party leaders . The party leader left Ottawa for his riding , Rosetown — Biggar in Saskatchewan , on April 26 , and remained there until May 10 . He spent three days campaigning in Ontario , then moved west to the major cities of the prairie provinces and British Columbia , before returning to his riding for the final days before the June 10 election . Other CCF leaders took charge of campaigning in Quebec and the Maritimes .
= = = Social Credit = = =
By 1957 , the Social Credit Party of Canada had moved far afield from the theories of social credit economics , which its candidates rarely mentioned . Canada 's far @-@ right party , the Socreds were led by Solon Low , though its Alberta leader , Premier Ernest Manning , was highly influential in the party . The Socreds ' election programme was based on the demand " that Government get out of business and make way for private enterprise " and on their hatred of " all government @-@ inspired schemes to degrade man and make him subservient to the state or any monopoly " .
The Socreds proposed an increase in the old age pension to $ 100 per month . They called for the reversal of the government 's tight money policies , and for low income loans for small business and farmers . It asked for income tax exemptions to be increased to meet the cost of living , and a national housing programme to make home ownership possible for every Canadian family . The party called for a national security policy based on the need for defence , rather than " aggression " , and for a foreign policy which would include food aid to the less @-@ developed nations .
The Socreds also objected to the CBC and other spending in the arts and broadcasting . The party felt that the government should solve economic problems before spending money on the arts .
Low challenged the Prime Minister over the Suez issue , accusing him of sending a threatening telegram that caused British Prime Minister Anthony Eden to back off the invasion and so gave the Soviets the opportunity for a military buildup in Egypt . St. Laurent angrily denied the charge and offered to open his correspondence to any of the fifty privy councillors who could then announce whether St. Laurent was telling the truth . Low took St. Laurent up on his challenge , and selected the only living former Prime Minister , Tory Arthur Meighen , but the matter was not resolved before the election , and Meighen was not called upon to examine the correspondence in the election 's aftermath .
The Social Credit Party was weakened by considerable conflict between its organizations in the two provinces it controlled , Alberta and British Columbia . It failed to establish a strong national office to run the campaign due to infighting between the two groups . However , it was better financed than the CCF , due to its popularity among business groups in the West .
The Socreds hoped to establish themselves in Ontario , and scheduled their opening rally for Massey Hall in Toronto . The rally was a failure , and even though it ran 40 candidates in Ontario ( up from 9 in 1953 ) , the party won no seats in the province .
= = = Use of television = = =
In 1957 , the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation gave the four recognized parties free air time for political statements . The television broadcasts 's audio tracks served also for use on radio . The three opposition parties gave their party leader all of the broadcast time , though Diefenbaker , who did not speak French well , played only a limited role in the Tories ' French @-@ language broadcasts . In one , he introduced party president Léon Balcer , a Quebecer , who gave the speech . Diefenbaker had no objection to makeup and , according to Meisel , was prepared to adopt any technique which would make his presentation more effective . A survey in populous southwestern Ontario showed that Diefenbaker made the strongest impression of the four leaders .
According to Liberal minister Paul Martin Sr. ( the father of the future Prime Minister ) , St. Laurent had the potential to be quite good on television , but disliked the medium . He was prejudiced against television appearances , considering such speeches the equivalent of carefully planned performances , such as stage shows . He refused to be made up for the telecasts , and insisted on reading his speech from a script . His advisers switched him to a teleprompter , but this failed to make his performances more relaxed . When reading , he would rarely look at the camera . However , St. Laurent made only occasional television appearances ( three in each language ) , letting his ministers make the remainder . Only one cabinet member , Minister of National Defence Ralph Campney took advantage of the course in television techniques offered by the Liberal Party in a dummy studio in its Ottawa headquarters . This lack of preparation , according to Meisel , led to " a fiasco " during a television address by Minister of Justice Stuart Garson in early June when the teleprompter stopped working during the speech and Garson " was unable to cope effectively with the failure " .
= = Election = =
Most predictions had the Tories picking up seats , but the Liberals maintaining a majority . The New York Times reported that Liberals expected to lose a majority of Ontario 's seats , but retain a narrow majority in the House of Commons . Time magazine predicted a Tory gain of 20 to 40 seats and stated that any result which denied the Liberals 133 seats and a majority " would rank as a major upset " . Beck indicates that many journalists , including those sympathetic to the Tories , saw signs of the coming upset , but disregarded them , convinced that the government was invulnerable . Maclean 's , which printed its postelection issue before the election to go on sale the morning after , ran an editorial noting that Canadians had freely chosen to reelect the Liberal Party .
On Election Night , the first returns came in from Sable Island , Nova Scotia . Usually a Liberal stronghold , the handful of residents there favoured the Tories by two votes . St. Laurent listened to the election returns on a radio in the living room of his home on Grande Allée in Quebec City , and when the radio broke , moved to an upstairs television set . Diefenbaker began the evening at his house in Prince Albert , and once his re @-@ election to the Commons was certain , moved to his local campaign headquarters .
The Conservatives did well in Atlantic Canada , gaining two seats in Newfoundland and nine in Nova Scotia , and sweeping Prince Edward Island 's four seats . However , in Quebec , they gained only five seats as the province returned 62 Liberals . The Tories gained 29 seats in Ontario . Howe was defeated by Fisher , and told the media that some strange disease was sweeping the country , but as for him , he was going to bed . The Liberals still led by a narrow margin as the returns began to come in from Manitoba , and St. Laurent told Liberal minister Pickersgill that he hoped that the Tories would get at least one more seat than the Liberals so they could get out of an appalling situation . As the Tories forged ahead in Western Canada , Diefenbaker flew from Prince Albert to Regina to deliver a television address and shouted to Grosart as yet another cabinet minister was defeated , " Allister , how does the architect feel ? " Late that evening , St. Laurent went to the Château Frontenac hotel for a televised speech , delivered before fifty supporters .
The Tories finished with 112 seats to the Liberals ' 105 , while both the CCF and Social Credit gained seats in Western Canada and finished with 25 and 19 seats respectively . Nine cabinet ministers , including Howe , Marler , Garson , Campney and Harris were defeated . Though the Liberals outpolled the Tories by over 100 @,@ 000 votes , most of those votes were wasted running up huge margins in Quebec . St. Laurent could have constitutionally hung onto power until defeated in the House , but he chose not to , and John Diefenbaker took office as Prime Minister of Canada on June 21 , 1957 .
= = = Irregularities = = =
After the election , the Chief Electoral Officer reported to the Speaker of the House of Commons that " the general election appears to have been satisfactorily conducted in accordance with the procedure in the Canada Elections Act " .
There were , however , a number of irregularities . In the Toronto riding of St. Paul 's , four Liberal workers were convicted of various offences for adding almost five hundred names to the electoral register . One of the four was also convicted for two counts of perjury . While the unsuccessful Liberal candidate , former MP James Rooney , was not charged , Ontario Chief Justice James Chalmers McRuer , who investigated the matter , doubted that this could have been done without the candidate 's knowledge .
Various violations of law , including illicitly opening ballot boxes , illegal possession of ballots , and adding names to the electoral register , took place in twelve Quebec ridings . The RCMP felt it had enough evidence to prosecute in five ridings , and a total of twelve people were convicted . The offences did not affect the outcome of any races .
The election of the Liberal candidate in Yukon was contested by the losing Tory candidate . After a trial before the Yukon Territorial Court , that court voided the election , holding that enough ineligible people had been permitted to vote to affect the outcome , though the court noted that it was not the fault of the Liberal candidate that these irregularities had occurred . The Tory , Erik Nielsen , won the new election in December 1957 .
The election in one Ontario riding , Wellington South was postponed pursuant to statute after the death of the Liberal candidate and MP , Henry Alfred Hosking during the campaign . The Tory candidate , Alfred Hales , defeated Liberal David Tolton and CCF candidate Thomas Withers on July 15 , 1957 .
= = Impact = =
The unexpected defeat of the Liberals was ascribed to various causes . The Ottawa Citizen stated that the defeat could be attributed to " the uneasy talk ... that the Liberals have been in too long . " Tom Kent of the Winnipeg Free Press , a future Liberal deputy minister , wrote that though the Liberal record had been the best in the democratic world , the party had failed miserably to explain it . Author and political scientist H.S. Ferns disagreed with Kent , stating that Kent 's view reflected the Liberal " assumption that ' Nobody 's going to shoot Santa Claus ' " and that Canadians in the 1957 election were motivated by things other than material interests . Peter Regenstreif cited the Progressive Conservative strategy in the 1957 and 1958 elections " as classics of ingenuity unequalled in Canadian political history . Much of the credit belongs to Diefenbaker himself ; at least some must go to Allister Grosart " . A survey taken of those who abandoned the Liberals in 1957 showed that 5 @.@ 1 % did so because of Suez , 38 @.@ 2 % because of the Pipeline Debate , 26 @.@ 7 % because of what they considered an inadequate increase in the old age pension , and 30 % because it was time for a change .
The results of the election surprised the civil service as much as it did the rest of the public . Civil servant and future Liberal minister Mitchell Sharp asked C.D. Howe 's replacement as Minister of Trade and Commerce , Gordon Churchill , not to come to the Ministry 's offices for several days as they were redecorating . Churchill later learned that the staff were moving files out . When Churchill finally came to the Ministry 's offices , he was met with what he termed " the coldest reception that I have ever received in my life " . The new Minister of Labour , Michael Starr , was ticketed three days in a row for parking in the minister 's spot .
St. Laurent resigned as leader of the Liberal Party on September 5 , 1957 , but agreed to stay on until a successor was elected . With a lame @-@ duck leader , the Liberals were ineffective in opposition . Paul Martin stated that " I 'm sure I never thought the day would come when [ Diefenbaker ] would ever be a member of a government , let alone head of it . When that happened , the world had come to an end as far as I was concerned . " In January 1958 , St. Laurent was succeeded by Lester Pearson .
Even in reporting the election result , newspapers suggested that Diefenbaker would soon call another election and seek a majority . Quebec Tory MP William Hamilton ( who would soon become Postmaster General under Diefenbaker ) predicted on the evening of June 10 that there would soon be another election , in which the Tories would do much better in Quebec . The Tory government initially proved popular among the Canadian people , and Diefenbaker called a snap election . On March 31 , 1958 , the Tories won the greatest landslide in Canadian federal electoral history in terms of the percentage of seats , taking 208 seats ( including fifty in Quebec ) to the Liberals ' 48 , with the CCF winning eight and none for Social Credit .
Michael Bliss , who wrote a survey of the Canadian Prime Ministers , alluded to Howe 's dismissive comments regarding the Tories as he summed up the 1957 election :
The pipeline debate of 1956 sparked a dramatic opposition stand on the importance of free parliamentary debate . Their arrogance did the Grits [ Liberals ] enormous damage , contributing heavily to the government 's problems in the 1957 general election . Under the glare of television cameras in that campaign , St. Laurent , Howe , and company now appeared to be a lot of wooden , tired old men who had lost touch with Canada . The voters decided to stop them .
= = National results = =
Turnout : 74 @.@ 1 % of eligible voters voted .
The Other 4 seats were ( 2 ) Independent , ( 1 ) Independent Liberal , ( 1 ) Independent PC . One Liberal @-@ Labour candidate was elected and sat with the Liberal caucus , as happened after the 1953 election .
= = Vote and seat summaries = =
= = Results by province = =
= The X @-@ Files : The Album =
The X @-@ Files : The Album is a 1998 soundtrack album released to accompany the film The X @-@ Files . Released on June 2 , 1998 , the album features songs by various artists , including several who had contributed to the earlier album Songs in the Key of X : Music from and Inspired by the X @-@ Files , and consists mostly of cover versions or reworkings of earlier material .
The X @-@ Files : The Album received mostly positive criticism upon its release , and charted in several countries worldwide , recording a peak position of number 5 in New Zealand .
= = Production = =
Although The X @-@ Files : The Album is the soundtrack to the 1998 film The X @-@ Files , only one of the album 's songs — " Crystal Ship " by X — is actually heard during the film , briefly playing on a jukebox during a brief scene . The album 's producer , David Was , intended to match the film 's tone rather than using the songs as content , leading to several of the artists involved contributing material which would seem " uncharacteristically eerie " compared to their usual work .
Many of the songs on The X @-@ Files : The Album are cover versions or reworkings of earlier material — singer Sting collaborated with the group Aswad to perform a reggae cover of " Invisible Sun " , which he had earlier recorded with The Police ; Filter 's " One " is a rearrangement of a song made famous by Three Dog Night ; while Foo Fighters contributed a new version of their song " Walking After You " . All but one of the album 's tracks are exclusive to the soundtrack , with Björk 's " Hunter " having been previously released on the 1997 album Homogenic . Several of the artists on the album 's roster — Foo Fighters , Filter and Soul Coughing — had previously contributed material to Songs in the Key of X : Music from and Inspired by the X @-@ Files , the soundtrack album which accompanied the television series ; however , Chris Carter , creator of The X @-@ Files , stated before the album 's release that although " there are some similarities " between the records , " there are different artists and a different flavor " .
The inclusion of a track by the group Ween was spurred by fact that The X @-@ Files star David Duchovny had first met then @-@ wife Téa Leoni through their mutual appreciation for the group ; while The Cranberries were approached about contributing material after Carter saw them performing on a tour of the United States . The Filter cover of " One " was deliberately constructed by Was once he realized that Duchovny had ad @-@ libbed the song 's opening line during one of the film 's scenes . The album 's final track — a cover by Dust Brothers of Mark Snow 's opening theme for the television series — features a hidden track which plays after a period of silence . The track features a spoken word segment by Carter which explains the series ' overarching mythology up to the film 's release .
The European and Japanese releases include an extra track , " Tubular X " by Mike Oldfield . This is a variation of Mark Snow 's " The X @-@ Files Theme " incorporating elements of Oldfield 's Tubular Bells .
= = Track listing = =
= = Release = =
The X @-@ Files : The Album was first released on June 2 , 1998 , with international releases occurring between July and October that same year . The soundtrack appeared in several charts upon its release , reaching a peak position of 26 in the United States ' Billboard 200 albums chart , 21 in Austria 's Ö3 Austria Top 40 , 27 in Australia 's ARIA Charts , and 5 — its highest chart position — in the Official New Zealand Music Chart .
= = Reception = =
The X @-@ Files : The Album has received generally positive reviews . AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine awarded the soundtrack four stars out of five , calling it " the best alt @-@ rock soundtrack of the summer of 1998 " . Erlewine felt that the album was more polished and well @-@ produced than Songs in the Key of X ; however , he noted that this came at the expense of the earlier record 's " quirky " and " off @-@ kilter " aesthetic . Erlewine singled out " Beacon Light " and " Hunter " as particular highlights of the album . Jim Rogatis of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times rated the album one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four , finding the album to be predictable and " phone [ d ] in " ; he highlighted the songs by Filter , Foo Fighters , Björk and Ween to be particular low points for him .
Writing for Entertainment Weekly , David Brown rated the album a B − , finding that it " isn ’ t eccentric enough " compared to the film or series . Browne found that the contributions by Noel Gallagher and Ween matched the tone of The X @-@ Files , but felt that Tonic , Filter , Sting and Aswad had been included out of commercial rather than artistic interest . Keith Phipps of the The A.V. Club considered the soundtrack to be less interesting than the accompanying film score , finding the album 's roster to be formulaic and several of its tracks to not be particularly " revelatory " or " radical " .
= Planets beyond Neptune =
Following the discovery of the planet Neptune in 1846 , there was considerable speculation that another planet might exist beyond its orbit . The search began in the mid @-@ 19th century and culminated at the start of the 20th with Percival Lowell 's quest for Planet X. Lowell proposed the Planet X hypothesis to explain apparent discrepancies in the orbits of the giant planets , particularly Uranus and Neptune , speculating that the gravity of a large unseen ninth planet could have perturbed Uranus enough to account for the irregularities .
Clyde Tombaugh 's discovery of Pluto in 1930 appeared to validate Lowell 's hypothesis , and Pluto was officially named the ninth planet . In 1978 , Pluto was conclusively determined to be too small for its gravity to affect the giant planets , resulting in a brief search for a tenth planet . The search was largely abandoned in the early 1990s , when a study of measurements made by the Voyager 2 spacecraft found that the irregularities observed in Uranus 's orbit were due to a slight overestimation of Neptune 's mass . After 1992 , the discovery of numerous small icy objects with similar or even wider orbits than Pluto led to a debate over whether Pluto should remain a planet , or whether it and its neighbours should , like the asteroids , be given their own separate classification . Although a number of the larger members of this group were initially described as planets , in 2006 the International Astronomical Union reclassified Pluto and its largest neighbours as dwarf planets , leaving Neptune the farthest known planet in the Solar System .
While today the astronomical community widely agrees that Planet X , as originally envisioned , does not exist , the concept of an as @-@ yet @-@ unobserved planet has been revived by a number of astronomers to explain other anomalies observed in the outer Solar System . As of March 2014 , observations with the WISE telescope have ruled out the possibility of a Saturn @-@ sized object ( 95 Earth mass ) out to 10 @,@ 000 AU , and a Jupiter @-@ sized or larger object out to 26 @,@ 000 AU .
In 2014 , based on similarities of the orbits of a group of recently discovered extreme trans @-@ Neptunian objects , astronomers hypothesized the existence of a super @-@ Earth planet , 2 to 15 times the mass of the Earth and beyond 200 AU with possibly a high inclined orbit at some 1500 AU . In 2016 further work showed this unknown distant planet is likely on an inclined , eccentric orbit that goes no closer than about 200 AU and no further than about 1600 AU from the Sun . The orbit is predicted to be anti @-@ aligned to the clustered extreme trans @-@ Neptunian objects . Because Pluto is no longer considered a planet by the International Astronomical Union , this new hypothetical object has become known as Planet Nine .
= = Early speculation = =
In the 1840s , the French mathematician Urbain Le Verrier used Newtonian mechanics to analyse perturbations in the orbit of Uranus , and hypothesised that they were caused by the gravitational pull of a yet @-@ undiscovered planet . Le Verrier predicted the position of this new planet and sent his calculations to German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle . On 23 September 1846 , the night following his
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humans following a Native @-@ American @-@ like culture .
The producers aimed to develop some conflict between the members of the crew to produce a scenario similar to the Bajoran / Starfleet relationship seen in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , but wanted the characters to share the same ideals . To do this , the Maquis were created – a group of Federation colonists from the Cardassian border in a disputed territory who were joined by some Starfleet officers who joined them to fight for their rights . The producers had the Maquis introduced in other Star Trek series before Voyager in four episodes ; two in Star Trek : The Next Generation and two in Deep Space Nine . It was a deliberate reference to the political situation in the West Bank .
In developing Chakotay , the producers sought the assistance of Jamake Highwater , a writer of more than 25 books of both fiction and nonfiction related to Native American myths and traditions . Highwater was a controversial choice of advisor , having been exposed by Hank Adams and Vine Deloria , Jr. as taking a fake Native American ancestry to sell books . Around September 21 , 1993 , Highwater gave seven pages of notes to producers regarding Chakotay 's backstory , but his tribal ancestry was unresolved . By the end of that month , Michael Piller drafted the first version of the writer 's bible for the series in which the character was named " Chakotoy " . By the time Piller wrote the first draft of the story that eventually became the Voyager pilot " Caretaker " , the character was known as " Chakotay " and been made a Sioux . By the third draft of the story , submitted at the start of November , he had become a Hopi , but by the following February , he once again had no tribal affiliation .
Winrich Kolbe , the director of " Caretaker " , was involved in casting the main cast for the series . He described the casting process for the part of Chakotay as difficult due to the lower numbers of Native Americans who were in the Screen Actors Guild . The casting process came down to two actors , and the producers decided on Robert Beltran , who until then was best known for appearing in the soap opera Models Inc. and was of Mexican heritage . Beltran was not familiar with Star Trek before auditioning , and went along on the strength of the " Caretaker " script which showed the character becoming the second in command of Voyager after both their vessels are stranded in the Delta quadrant . Beltran explained the audition experience , " I felt neutral about the audition , didn 't much care one way or the other . I went in the first time and wasn 't really trying to get the part . They asked to see me again , and they wanted to see more of an edge to the character . "
Chakotay was originally written as a " calm , stoic " character , but Beltran expanded on the character during the audition process , something that Kolbe credited him for . The writer 's bible described Chakotay as a very traditional Native American with an altar and traditional art in his quarters . It also mentioned his spirit guide , something which was picked up in the media report in TV Guide . Beltran wore a facial tattoo whilst playing Chakotay , which was applied with make @-@ up . This earned him comparisons to boxer Mike Tyson after the latter gained a facial tattoo . The design was created by Michael Westmore , who deliberately created it so it did not represent any particular tribal culture . The in @-@ universe story of the tattoo and Chakotay 's tribal origins were explained in the episode " Tattoo " .
Beltran gained the reputation on @-@ set as a comedian . Following the first season and during a group interview with The Washington Times , Beltran joked that he was asked to perform in Hamlet during the summer in Albuquerque , but had been asked to wear Chakotay 's facial tattoo . During that time he worked on the Oliver Stone film Nixon ( 1995 ) . During the period when Voyager was run by Taylor and Piller as the executive producers , Beltran gave feedback on the character which was taken into account . He later explained that this ended following the introduction of Jeri Ryan as Seven of Nine onto the cast and Brannon Braga taking over from Taylor and Piller . Beltran felt that Chakotay was one of the characters alongside Harry Kim , Tuvok , and Neelix who were left behind by the new writers , who tended to concentrate on Janeway , Seven , and The Doctor .
Beltran said that he was not aware of the effects of the interactions this was having with the crew , and described the situation , saying , " for me it was like , ' OK , you can fire me if you want to . Go ahead , and I 'll leave . ' " He compared his experience on Voyager to working in a car factory , and said that the repetitive scenes meant that it limited his creativity . Beltran explained that it did not affect his relationship with the other actors , and in the end , he felt the producers decided to keep him on the cast as it did not make " very much difference , except to a very , very small percentage of fans who maybe didn 't like what I said . "
In an interview to publicise the final episode of Voyager , " Endgame " , Beltran said , " We all had a great relationship with each other and we 've all said how much we enjoy our crew . We have a terrific crew . But at the same time , I 'm looking forward to what 's next . It 's exciting to know that something unknown is next . " The final episode introduced a romance between Seven of Nine and Chakotay . Ryan found this confusing for the characters , as although it had been suggested in the episode " Human Error " , the producers told the pair to forget about the relationship in the in @-@ between episodes until the finale .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Background = = =
Chakotay 's backstory was explained during the course of Star Trek : Voyager . He was born in 2329 on a Federation colony near Cardassian space in the demilitarized zone . While young , he was looked after by his grandfather . At the age of 15 , Chakotay visited Earth with his father , who sought to find his tribe 's ancestral home in Central America and the descendants of the Rubber Tree People . He was resistant to this , and instead dreamed of going into space and had heroes such as John Kelly , a pioneering astronaut in the early 21st century . He chose to enter Starfleet Academy against his father 's wishes , and his entry was sponsored by Captain Sulu . [ A ] He attended Starfleet Academy from 2344 to 2348 , where he engaged in the sport of boxing . After graduating , he was assigned to a starship . One of his earliest away missions resulted in a diplomatic incident on Ktaria VII , and he was also on the team that made first contact with the Tarkannans .
He was assigned as an instructor in Starfleet 's Advanced Tactical Training and achieved the rank of lieutenant commander . Following the death of his father in 2368 while defending his colony from the Cardassians , Chakotay resigned his Starfleet commission and joined the Maquis . At the time of his resignation , one of his students was Ro Laren . After he joined the Maquis , he became captain of a vessel named the Val Jean , with a crew which among others included his lover Seska ( Martha Hackett ) , B 'Elanna Torres ( Roxann Dawson ) , and Tuvok ( Tim Russ ) .
= = = Star Trek : Voyager = = =
= = = = The Kazon and Seska = = = =
In the pilot episode of Voyager , while the crew on the Val Jean seek to evade a Cardassian vessel captained by Gul Evek ( Richard Poe ) in the Badlands , the vessel is transported some 70 @,@ 000 light years across the galaxy into the Delta Quadrant by the creature known as the Caretaker . After the Federation starship USS Voyager is also trapped in the Delta Quadrant and Tuvok was revealed to be a Starfleet agent , Chakotay agrees with Captain Kathryn Janeway ( Kate Mulgrew ) to work together to find two of their missing crew . Following an attack by the Kazon , Chakotay destroyed the Val Jean to save Voyager and the Maquis crew joined the Federation ship . Chakotay was given a provisional rank of commander and named executive officer , the second @-@ in @-@ command of the vessel and the crew seeks to return home to the Alpha Quadrant .
The Kazon continue to be a hindrance during Voyager 's initial period in the Delta Quadrant , with Chakotay dismayed in " State of Flux " when Seska is revealed as a Cardassian spy who has been providing technology to the Kazon to seek an alliance . She escapes Voyager and sides with the Kazon @-@ Nistrim , one of the factions within that species . Chakotay is rendered brain dead , but is made into a disembodied spirit able to possess other crewmembers in " Cathexis " . The incident occurs while Tuvok and he were investigating a dark matter nebula , and he sought to prevent the ship from returning there , as an alien species wants to feed on the crew 's neural energy . After Voyager enters the nebula , Chakotay possesses Neelix ( Ethan Phillips ) and guides the ship out using a medicine wheel as a map . Shortly afterwards , The Doctor ( Robert Picardo ) is able to restore Chakotay 's mind into his body . At the end of the first season , Chakotay supported Tuvok 's aim of helping the former Maquis crew adapt better to life on Voyager in " Learning Curve " , by showing them the enforcement techniques of the Maquis .
In the second season episode " Tattoo " , Chakotay meets with an alien race who influenced the ancestors of his tribe . They perceived Voyager as a threat because they had thought his people had been wiped out . He was able to resolve the problem using the teachings of his father . The Kazon returned and attacked Voyager in " Maneuvers " , where they stole a transporter control module . Chakotay took it upon himself to retrieve the device , recognising that Seska was behind it . He managed to destroy it , but was captured and tortured by the Kazon in the process . He was rescued by Voyager , and shortly afterwards , he was contacted by Seska , who informed him that she had impregnated herself with his DNA . In " Resolutions " , Chakotay and Janeway are infected with a virus which requires them to quarantine themselves on a nearby planet . The two began to show signs of affection for each other , but their stay is short @-@ lived after Voyager under the captaincy of Tuvok agrees a deal with the Vidiians for a cure . The pair agree to return to the status quo on Voyager , but remain good friends .
Chakotay was contacted by Seska in " Basics " to say that his son had been born , and the Kazon were threatening to condemn her to the life of a slave . Voyager attempted to extract Seska and the child , but it was a trap and resulted in the Kazon boarding the vessel and stranding the Federation / Maquis crew on a nearby planet . While Tom Paris ( Robert Duncan McNeil ) , The Doctor , and Lon Suder ( Brad Dourif ) , along with allied Talaxian forces , sought to retake Voyager , Chakotay was instrumental in the crew 's survival on the planet . He saved Kes ( Jennifer Lien ) from a local tribe , and built an alliance with them . The crew retook Voyager , and in the process Seska was killed . The child was discovered not to be Chakotay 's , but instead a Cardassian / Kazon hybrid and the son of the Kazon @-@ Nistrim leader First Maje Culluh ( Anthony De Longis ) .
= = = = Entering Borg space = = = =
The first indication that Voyager was approaching Borg space was shown in the episode " Unity " . While investigating a Federation distress call in a shuttlecraft , Chakotay was injured by the natives of a planet . Another group saves him , and Chakotay discovers that the colonists are former Borg whose access to the main hive @-@ mind was disrupted . He is linked to a local hive @-@ mind to help him to heal , and after being returned to Voyager , he is forced against his will to reactivate the colonists ' former Borg Cube . Chakotay is released from the new " cooperative " after the Cube self @-@ destructs , leaving the planet with a hive @-@ mind separate from the main collective . Chakotay is captured by the Voth scientist Gegen ( Henry Woronicz ) in " Distant Origin " , who is seeking to prove his hypothesis that the Voth came from Earth . When Gegen is placed on trial by his people , Chakotay seeks to argue in his defense . Ultimately , Gegen is forced to back down to save Voyager after the Voth threaten to destroy the vessel . Before they depart , Chakotay gives a model globe of the Earth to Gegen as a present .
His experience with the disconnected Borg resulted in Chakotay being against a plan to ally with the Borg against Species 8472 in " Scorpion " , causing conflict between Captain Janeway and him . The alliance results in Seven of Nine and a number of other Borg drones being placed on Voyager and Janeway injured . Although he was ordered to continue with the alliance , Chakotay seeks to renegotiate the alliance , but Seven refuses any changes . When she opens a rift to Fluidic Space , Chakotay decompresses the cargo bay , sending all the Borg drones out into space with the exception of Seven . Later , when the Borg attempt to double @-@ cross Voyager , Chakotay activates his localised neural link , confusing Seven and allowing Torres to disable her link to the Collective permanently .
During the " Year of Hell " , Chakotay is captured by the Krenim scientist Annorax ( Kurtwood Smith ) on a Time Ship . The two first attempt to work together as Annorax agrees to restore the now damaged Voyager if Chakotay complies with his demands . After Annorax wipes out a species , though , he helps to disable the ship , allowing Captain Janeway to destroy it by ramming Voyager into it . This results in the timeline being reset , and the events of the episode were undone . In " Unforgettable " , he falls in love with Kellin ( Virginia Madsen ) , a member of a xenophobic race who have developed a technology to prevent others from forming long @-@ term memories of them . As such , he is informed that they were previously in love when she was on Voyager a month earlier , and rekindle their relationship despite Chakotay not remembering the earlier encounter . Another member of her race removes Kellin 's memories of Chakotay and installs a virus to remove all records of their race . Chakotay takes to writing out his memories of Kellin on paper so that he will not forget them .
He was placed in command of Voyager after Seven was captured by the Borg in " Dark Frontier " and destroyed a transwarp conduit . Chakotay is later one of the members of the crew who were captured by Borg children in " Collective " and was saved after Seven 's intervention . Initially , Chakotay and Seven did not get along , but he would come to realise that he was mistaken in that opinion . Towards the end of the seventh season in " Human Error " , Seven simulates a relationship with Chakotay on the holodeck . A Borg implant was preventing her from feeling strong emotions without any physical ill effects , which prevented her from seeking a romantic relationship with the real Chakotay . By the time of the series finale , " Endgame " , The Doctor had managed to remove the implant , allowing Seven to pursue a relationship with Chakotay . The alternative future seen at the start of the episode showed that Seven and Chakotay were eventually married , but she died while Voyager was still travelling home . Chakotay died following Voyager 's return , and Admiral Janeway visits his grave marker in that episode . This future was undone by the future Janeway travelling back in time to Voyager to return it to Earth sooner .
= = = Voyager relaunch novels = = =
In the noncanonical Voyager relaunch novels , written by Christie Golden , Chakotay is promoted after the ship returns to Federation space , and becomes Captain of Voyager . He and Seven of Nine break off their relationship . In Old Wounds , the first of the Spirit Walk two @-@ book series , the crew goes on their maiden cruise under Captain Chakotay and is joined by his sister , Sekaya , who 's become a spiritual leader in their tribe . In the second book , Enemy of my Enemy , Chakotay is replaced by a Founder who was previously pretending to be his first officer . Meanwhile , the real Chakotay and his sister are being held by a deranged Cardassian doctor , forcing Chakotay to undergo a spirit walk to save them both .
Janeway and Chakotay became romantically involved after their return from the Delta Quadrant , and following her death after her assimilation by the Borg in the Star Trek : The Next Generation novel Before Dishonor , Chakotay resigns his commission and Afsarah Eden becomes the new Captain of Voyager . However , in the very next novel by Kirsten Beyer , Unworthy , Eden is promoted to fleet commander and Chakotay is restored as captain of Voyager .
= = Reception = =
Some criticism was directed at Chakotay 's character development during the series . James Lileks for the Star Tribune said that " Chakotay , the rock @-@ solid First Officer , remained rock @-@ solid " , but also suggested that " [ a ] ll of the characters ended the series as they began . "
Critics commented on the relationship between Janeway and Chakotay , with psychologist Richard Borofsky 's views published in The Boston Herald . He suggesting that by several seasons into Voyager , Chakotay had come to terms with his feelings for his Captain , but she was hesitant about entering into a relationship with a member of her crew . For the relationship to work in the future , it was said that Chakotay should not try to lead the relationship and Janeway needed to be more vulnerable . Following the end of Star Trek : Enterprise , the romance between Chakotay and Janeway was described in The Chicago Tribune as the one most wanted to be seen on screen in any of the Star Trek series , but that " it never panned out . Dang ! " Chakotay 's relationship with Seven was also commented on , and both UGO and io9 complained that the relationship appeared at random .
= = = Themes = = =
Chakotay 's inclusion in the main cast of Voyager was seen by critics as one of several who was used to highlight the diversity within the series . This was highlighted during the episode " Faces " in which one scene showed Janeway , Tuvok , Harry Kim , and Chakotay in a single camera pan . Chakotay 's individual position was that he was " continually positioned as an exotic native other in relation to the white female Captain Janeway " , and was used to " help the white protagonist and progress the internal narrative . "
The placement of a character of indigenous peoples descent in science fiction was highlighted in the media . Drew Hayden Taylor said that Chakotay was " [ p ] erhaps the most well @-@ known " . Of Chakotay 's origin , he said , " They never actually say what nation he is , but I do believe it 's some Central American tribe . " Hayden Taylor wrote in a later article in 2012 describing the rise of Native American characters in the Twilight film series that Chakotay was still the sole popular example of a Native American character in science fiction . Chakotay was also described as " the only First Nations role model around in a futuristic setting " in the 2005 book , " Indian " Stereotypes in TV Science Fiction : First Nations ' Voices Speak Out , but was also referred to as the " quintessential Tonto in outer space " . A similar criticism was highlighted of the character in Medicine Bags and Dog Tags : American Indian Veterans from Colonial Times to the Second Iraq War ( 2008 ) , which called Chakotay " a creature of white fantasies " and suggested that he was " far more stereotypical than Tonto " as " at least Tonto was heroic and saved the Lone Ranger once in awhile " .
Although religion was referenced during the Star Trek franchise , such as in the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Who Mourns for Adonais ? " , it did not take a more prominent role until later in the series , with Star Trek : Deep Space Nine exploring the Bajorans ' beliefs and Voyager concentrating on those of Chakotay . These included vision quests , and other interpretation of Native American culture which were described by critics as showing a " very Hollywood version of Plains @-@ culture religion " .
The appearance of a medicine wheel in the episode " Cathexis " was described by Sierra S. Adare as showing Chakotay in the " ' good Indian ' in the classic Pocahontas sense " . Chakotay is seen attempting to introduce rituals and meditation techniques to other crew members , something they failed to understand . These were said to be contrary to the tribal history described in " Tattoo " , which was said to say that Chakotay 's tribe descended from a pre @-@ Mayan culture in Central America . Adare attributed this to Euro @-@ American / European writers writing inaccurate information into scripts . However , the appearance of the character was described as " groundbreaking " .
= Arthur Bell ( footballer ) =
Arthur A. Bell ( November 1882 – 22 April 1923 ) was an English footballer who played as an inside forward . He started his career with Burnley Belvedere before joining Football League side Burnley in 1902 . Over the next seven years , Bell made 101 league appearances and scored 28 goals for the Lancashire club . During his career , he won three caps for the England national amateur football team . An architect by trade , Bell also played as an amateur cricketer for Burnley Cricket Club for 20 years , during which time he won five Lancashire League championships . He was selected to represent the Lancashire Second XI on three occasions .
= = Biography = =
Bell was born in Burnley , Lancashire , in November 1882 , one of three children born to Thomas and Elizabeth Bell . He was educated at the Burnley Grammar School . An amateur throughout his sporting career , he worked professionally as an architect and would often miss matches due to work commitments . In 1911 , he was involved in the building of the new Brunshaw Road stand at the Turf Moor stadium in Burnley . He died on 22 April 1923 , at the age of 40 .
= = Football = =
As a youth , Bell played amateur football with Burnley Belvedere before joining Football League Second Division side Burnley in February 1902 . He made his debut for the club on 10 January 1903 in the 1 – 0 win against Lincoln City at Turf Moor ; the winning goal was scored by Cuthbert Storey , who was also playing in his first senior match after transferring from Burnley Belvedere . Bell was selected once more in the 1902 – 03 campaign , playing at left inside forward in the 1 – 3 defeat to Leicester Fosse on 24 January 1903 . He was unable to break into the team for the first five months of the following season due to the form of fellow inside forward William Jackson , a new signing from Barrow . He made his first appearance of the campaign in the goalless draw away at Grimsby Town on 30 January 1904 . Bell scored his first competitive goal for Burnley in the 2 – 0 win over Gainsborough Trinity three weeks later , and on 12 March he scored a late goal in the 1 – 3 loss away to Manchester United . In total , Bell played eleven league matches during the 1903 – 04 season and scored four goals .
Bell was selected to play in the opening match of the 1904 – 05 season , a 1 – 4 home defeat to West Bromwich Albion . Bell kept his place in the side for the following match against Chesterfield , but was dropped for the trip to Bolton Wanderers in favour of youngster William Hutchinson , a summer signing from non @-@ League club Alston . He was recalled for the visit of Liverpool on 22 October 1904 , deputising for the unavailable Doug MacFarlane , but then spent more than two months out of the team . Bell made two further appearances for Burnley that season , playing in consecutive defeats to Bolton Wanderers and Blackpool in January 1905 . He found himself more involved in the first @-@ team during the 1905 – 06 campaign , making 19 league appearances . On 13 January 1906 , he played in the first FA Cup game of his career as Burnley were eliminated by Southern League side Tottenham Hotspur in the first round . Bell scored his first goal of the season on 10 February 1906 , netting the opening goal in the 2 – 2 draw against Burslem Port Vale . During March 1906 , he scored in the home wins over Leeds City and Chelsea .
After missing the first three matches of the 1906 – 07 season due to cricketing commitments , Bell was chosen to replace McFarlane for the visit of Nottingham Forest on 15 September 1906 . Two weeks later he scored twice in the 4 – 0 home win over Burton United , and went on to score three more goals in his next four appearances , including a late winner away at Leeds City . However , the victory was overshadowed by the news that Leeds forward Soldier Wilson had died after collapsing during the match . Bell went on to score a total of 12 goals in 1906 – 07 , his highest return in a single season . His performances for Burnley led to a call @-@ up from the England amateur team in April 1907 , and he won his first cap in the 8 – 1 defeat of the Netherlands in The Hague . In the match , he played alongside full England internationals Harold Hardman and Vivian Woodward , who , like Bell , was a professional architect .
Although he again missed the opening month of the following season , Bell quickly reclaimed his status as one of Burnley 's first @-@ choice players , starting 26 league matches during the campaign . He scored on his first appearance of the season in the 2 – 2 draw away at Derby County , and scored twice in the 5 – 1 win against Grimsby Town on 2 November 1907 . Bell scored the only FA Cup goal of his career in the home tie against Southampton on 11 January 1908 , but could not prevent the Southern League side securing a 2 – 1 victory . He continued to play for Burnley when work and cricket allowed in the 1908 – 09 campaign , making 15 league appearances . He scored twice during the season ; he scored in the 1 – 4 defeat away at Oldham Athletic on 14 November , and scored the winning goal in the 3 – 2 defeat of Barnsley on 5 December . Bell played in 101st and final league game for Burnley in the 0 – 1 loss at Derby County on 26 December 1908 . He retired from football shortly afterwards , stating that playing football in winter in addition to cricket during the summer , combined with managing an architecture practice , was too demanding .
= = = Career statistics = = =
= = Cricket = =
Aside from football , Bell was also an accomplished amateur cricketer ; he assisted Burnley Cricket Club between 1899 and 1919 , and would often choose to play cricket rather than football when the seasons overlapped . He was a member of the side that won the Lancashire League in 1901 and went on to captain the team that won three consecutive titles in 1906 , 1907 and 1908 . Bell won a fifth Lancashire League title with Burnley in the 1913 season . A left @-@ handed batsman , he also bowled slow left arm . Bell represented the Lancashire Second XI on three occasions in 1905 and 1906 . He was selected for two matches against the Surrey and Yorkshire second teams during the 1905 season and on 9 July 1906 he played in the Minor Counties Championship draw with Staffordshire at Turf Moor , entering play as a substitute after Herbert Rhodes was injured while fielding .
= Domestic sheep reproduction =
As with other mammals , domestic sheep reproduction occurs sexually . Their reproductive strategy is very similar to other domestic herd animals . A flock of sheep is generally mated by a single ram , which has either been chosen by a farmer or has established dominance through physical contest with other rams ( in feral populations ) . Most sheep have a breeding season ( tupping ) in the autumn , though some are able to breed year @-@ round .
Largely as a result of the influence of humans in sheep breeding , ewes often produce multiple lambs . This increase in the lamb births , both in number and birth weight , may cause problems in delivery and lamb survival , requiring the intervention of shepherds .
= = Sexual behavior = =
Ewes generally reach sexual maturity at six to eight months of age , and rams generally at four to six ( ram lambs have occasionally been known to impregnate their mothers at two months ) . Ewes enter into estrus cycles about every 17 days , which last for approximately 30 hours . In addition to emitting a scent , they indicate readiness through physical displays towards rams . Sheep may display homosexuality , which occurs in about eight percent of rams . Its occurrence does not seem to be related to flock hierarchy ( as some homosexual behavior is in mammals ) , rather the ram 's typical motor pattern for intercourse is directed at rams instead of ewes . The phenomenon of the freemartin , a female bovine that is behaviorally masculine and lacks functioning ovaries , is commonly associated with cattle , but does occur to some extent in sheep . The instance of freemartins in sheep may be increasing in concert with the rise in twinning ( freemartins are the result of male @-@ female twin combinations ) .
= = = Rutting = = =
Without human intervention , rams may fight during the rut to determine which individuals may mate with ewes . Rams , especially unfamiliar ones , will also fight outside the breeding period to establish dominance ; rams can kill one another if allowed to mix freely . During the rut , even normally friendly rams may become aggressive towards humans due to increases in their hormone levels .
Historically , especially aggressive rams were sometimes blindfolded or hobbled . Today , those who keep rams typically prefer softer preventative measures , such as moving within a clear line to an exit , never turning their back on a ram , and possibly dousing with water or a diluted solution of bleach or vinegar to dissuade charges .
= = Pregnancy = =
Without ultrasound or other special tools , determining if a sheep is pregnant is difficult . Ewes only begin to visibly show a pregnancy about six weeks before giving birth , so shepherds often rely on the assumption that a ram will impregnate all the ewes in a flock . However , by fitting a ram with a chest harness called a marking harness that holds a special crayon ( or raddle , sometimes spelled reddle ) , ewes that have been mounted are marked with a color . Dye may also be directly applied to the ram 's brisket . This measure is not used in flocks where wool is important , since the color of a raddle contaminates it .
After mating , sheep have a gestation period of around five months . Within a few days of the impending birth , ewes begin to behave differently . They may lie down and stand erratically , paw the ground , or otherwise act out of sync with normal flock patterns . A ewe 's udder will quickly fill out , and her vulva will swell . Vaginal , uterine or anal prolapse may also occur , in which case either stitching or a physical retainer can be used to hold the orifice in if the problem persists .
= = = Artificial insemination and embryo transfer = = =
In addition to natural insemination by rams , artificial insemination and embryo transfers have been used in sheep breeding programs for many years in Australia and New Zealand . These programs have become more commonplace in the United States during the 2000s as the number of veterinarians qualified to perform these types of procedures with proficiency have grown . However , ovine AI is a relatively complicated procedure compared to other livestock . Unlike cattle or goats , which have straight cervices that can be vaginally inseminated , ewes have a curved cervix which is more difficult to access . Additionally , breeders were until recently unable to control their ewe 's estrus cycles . The ability to control the estrus cycle is much easier today because of products that safely assist in aligning heat cycles . Some examples of products are PG600 , CIDRs , Estrumate and Folltropin V. These products contain progesterone which will bring on the induction of estrus in ewes ( sheep ) during seasonal anestrus . Seasonal anestrus is when ewes do not have regular estrous cycles outside the natural breeding season .
Historically , vaginal insemination of sheep only produced 40 @-@ 60 % success rates , and was thus called a " shot in the dark " ( SID ) . In the 1980s , Australian researchers developed a laparoscopic insemination procedure which , combined with the use of progestogen and pregnant mare 's serum gonadotropin ( PMSG ) , yielded much higher success rates ( 50 @-@ 80 % or more ) , and has become the standard for artificial insemination of sheep in the 21st century .
Semen collection is naturally an integral component of this entire process . Once semen has been collected it can be used immediately for insemination or slowly frozen for use at a later date . Fresh semen is recognized as the method of choice as it lives longer and yields higher conception rates . Frozen semen will work but it must be the highest quality of semen and the ewes must be inseminated twice in the same day . The marketing of ram semen is a major part of this industry . Producers owning prize winning rams have found this to be a good avenue to leverage the accolades of their most famous animals .
During embryo transfer ( ET ) a minor surgical procedure with almost no risk of injury or infection when performed properly , sheep laparoscopy allows the importation of improved genetics , even of breeds which may otherwise be non @-@ existent in certain countries due to the regulation of live animal imports . Embryo transfer procedures are used to allow producers to maximize those females that produce the best lambs / kids either for retention into the flock or for sale to other producers . ET also allows producers to continue to utilize a ewe / doe that may not physically be able to carry or feed a set of lambs . ET can allow a producer to grow his flock quickly with above average individuals of similar bloodlines . The primary industry to utilize this technology in the United States is the club lamb breeders and exhibitors . It is a common practice in the commercial sheep industries of Australia , New Zealand , and South America .
Average success rates in Embryo Transfer in terms of embryos recovered can vary widely . Each breed will respond differently to the ET process . Typically white faced ewes and does are more fertile than black faced ewes . A range of zero to the mid 20 ’ s in terms of viable embryos recovered from a flush procedure can be expected . Over the course of a year the average is 6 @.@ 8 transferrable eggs per donor with a 75 % conception rate for those eggs .
A big part of modern sheep reproduction is overall breeding animal health . In an effort to help improve animal health and ultimately performance many progressive breeders rely on PROGEN . Evidence based research substantiated by reliable field trials have shown improved performance in sheep . The name comes from the progenitor cells of the body . The progenitor cells are differentiated stem cells with specific direction and purpose to become the future building blocks of the body . The goal for PROGEN is to support the body at the most fundamental levels encouraging efficient development of the progenitor cells . This approach is to impact the entire animal starting with immune function , gastrointestinal health , vascular system , and importantly reproduction efficiency .
= = Lambing = =
When birth is imminent , contractions begin to take place , and the fitful behavior of the ewe may increase . A normal labor may take one to several hours , depending on how many lambs are present , the age of the ewe , and her physical and nutritional condition prior to the birth . Though some breeds may regularly produce larger litters of lambs ( records stand around nine lambs at once ) , most produce either single or twin lambs . At some point , usually at the beginning of labor or soon after the births have occurred , ewes and lambs may be confined to small lambing jugs . These pens , which are generally two to eight feet ( 0 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) in length and width , are designed to aid both careful observation of ewes and to cement the bond between them and their lambs .
Ovine obstetrics can be problematic . By selectively breeding ewes that produce multiple offspring with higher birth weights for generations , sheep producers have inadvertently caused some domestic sheep to have difficulty lambing . However , it is a myth that sheep cannot lamb without human assistance ; many ewes give birth directly in pasture without aid. this can be proven by the fact that they give birth in the wild . Balancing ease of lambing with high productivity is one of the dilemmas of sheep breeding . While the majority of births are relatively normal and do not require intervention , many complications may arise . A lamb may present in the normal fashion ( with both legs and head forward ) , but may simply be too large to slide out of the birth canal . This often happens when large rams are crossed with diminutive ewes ( this is related to breed , rams are naturally larger than ewes by comparison ) . Lambs may also present themselves with one shoulder to the side , completely backward , or with only some of their limbs protruding . Lambs may also be spontaneously aborted or stillborn . Reproductive failure is a common consequence of infections such as toxoplasmosis and foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease . Some types of abortion in sheep are preventable by vaccinations against these infections .
In the case of any such problems , those present at lambing ( who may or may not include a veterinarian , most shepherds become accomplished at lambing to some degree ) may assist the ewe in extracting or repositioning lambs . After the birth , ewes ideally break the amniotic sac ( if it is not broken during labor ) , and begin licking clean the lamb . The licking clears the nose and mouth , dries the lamb , and stimulates it . Lambs that are breathing and healthy at this point begin trying to stand , and ideally do so between a half and full hour , with help from the mother . Generally after lambs stand , the umbilical cord is trimmed to about an inch ( 2 @.@ 5 centimeters ) . Once trimmed , a small container ( such as a film canister ) of iodine is held against the lamb 's belly over the remainder of the cord to prevent infection .
= = Postnatal care = =
In normal situations , lambs nurse after standing , receiving vital colostrum milk . Lambs that either fail to nurse or are prevented from doing so by the ewe require aid in order to live . If coaxing the pair to accept nursing does not work , one of several steps may then be taken . Ewes may be held or tied to force them to accept a nursing lamb . If a lamb is not eating , a stomach tube may also be used to force feed the lamb in order to save its life . In the case of a permanently rejected lamb , a shepherd may then attempt to foster an orphaned lamb onto another ewe . Lambs are also sometimes fostered after the death of their mother , either from the birth or other event .
Scent plays a large factor in ewes recognizing their lambs , so disrupting the scent of a newborn lamb with washing or over @-@ handling may cause a ewe to reject it . Conversely , various methods of imparting the scent of a ewe 's own lamb to an orphaned one may be useful in fostering . If an orphaned lamb cannot be fostered , then it usually becomes what is known as a bottle lamb — a lamb raised by people and fed via bottle .
After lambs are stabilized , lamb marking is carried out – this includes ear tagging , docking , castration and usually vaccination . Ear tags with numbers are the primary mode of identification when sheep are not named ; it is also the legal manner of animal identification in the European Union : the number may identify the individual sheep or only its flock . When performed at an early age , ear tagging seems to cause little or no discomfort to lambs . However , using tags improperly or using tags not designed for sheep may cause discomfort , largely due to excess weight of tags for other animals .
Ram lambs not intended for breeding are castrated , though some shepherds choose to avoid the procedure for ethical , economic or practical reasons . Ram lambs that will be slaughtered or separated from ewes before sexual maturity are not usually castrated . In most breeds , lambs ' tails are docked for health reasons . The tail may be removed just below the lamb 's caudal tail flaps ( docking shorter than this may cause health problems such as rectal prolapse ) , but in some breeds the tail is left longer , or is not docked at all . Docking is not necessary in short @-@ tailed breeds , and it is not usually done in breeds in which a long tail is valued , such as Zwartbles . Though docking is often considered cruel and unnatural by animal rights activists , it is considered by sheep producers large and small alike to be a critical step in maintaining the health of sheep . Long , wooly tails make shearing more difficult , interfere with mating , and make sheep extremely susceptible to parasites , especially those that cause flystrike . Both castration and docking can be performed with several instruments . An elastrator places a tight band of rubber around an area , causing it to atrophy and fall off in a number of weeks . This process is bloodless and does not seem to cause extended suffering to lambs , who tend to ignore it after several hours . In addition to the elastrator , a Burdizzo , emasculator , heated chisel or knife are sometimes used . After one to three days in the lambing jugs , ewes and lambs are usually sufficiently stabilized to allow reintroduction to the rest of the flock .
= = Commercial sheep breeding = =
In the large sheep producing nations of South America , Australia and New Zealand sheep are usually bred on large tracts of land with much less intervention from the graziers or breeders . Merinos , and much of the land in these countries does not lend itself to the mob intervention that is found in smaller flock breeding countries . In these countries there is little need , and no option but for ewes to lamb outdoors as there are insufficient structures to handle the large flocks of ewes there . New Zealand ewes produce 36 million lambs each spring time , which is an average of 2 @,@ 250 lambs per farm . Australian graziers , too , do not receive the financial support that governments in other countries provide to sheep breeders . Low @-@ cost sheep breeding is based on large numbers of sheep per labour unit and having ewes that are capable of unsupervised lambing to produce hardy , active lambs .
= = Managerial aspects = =
For breeders intent on strict improvements to their flocks , ewes are classed and inferior sheep are removed prior to mating in order to maintain or improve the quality of the flock . Muffled ( wooly ) faces have long been associated with lower fertility rates . Stud or specially selected rams are chosen with aid of objective measurements , genetic information and evaluation services that are now available in Australia and New Zealand . The choice of mating time is governed by many factors including climate , market requirements and feed availability . Rams are typically mated at about 2 @.@ 5 % depending on the age of the sheep , plus consideration as to the size and type of mating paddocks . The mating period ranges from about 6 to 8 weeks in commercial flocks . Longer mating times result in management problems with lamb marking and shearing etc .
Good nutrition is vital to ewes during the last 6 weeks of pregnancy in order to prevent pregnancy toxaemia , especially in twin bearing ewes . Overfeeding , however , may result in over large single lambs and dystocia . Shearing ewes before lambing reduces the number of ewes that are cast ( i.e. unable to rise unassisted ) , and the number of lambs and ewes that are lost . Lambs , too , are aided in finding the udder and suckling a shorn ewe .
After shearing ewes are typically placed in well sheltered paddocks that have good feed and water . Attention to ewes that are lambing varies according to the breed , size and locations of properties . Unless they are stud ewes it unlikely that they will receive intensive care . On stations with large paddocks there is a policy of non @-@ interference . On other properties the mobs are inspected by stockmen at varying intervals to stand cast ewes and deal with dystocia . Producers also sometimes quietly drift pregnant ewes away from ewes that have already lambed , in order to prevent mis @-@ mothering .
Lambs are usually marked at three to six weeks of age , but a protracted lambing season may necessitate two markings .
= = = Inbreeding depression = = =
Inbreeding tends to occur in flocks of limited size and where only a single or a few rams are used . Associated with inbreeding is a decline in progeny performance usually referred to as inbreeding depression . Inbreeding depression has been found for lamb birthweight , average daily weight gain from birth until two months , and litter size .
= = Other countries = =
In the major sheep countries of Argentina , Uruguay , Brazil , Peru and Chile , breeders are also utilizing fleece testing and performance recording schemes as a means of improving their flocks .
= = New research = =
In 2008 , for the first time in history , researchers at Chiswick CSIRO research station , between Uralla and Armidale , New South Wales have used stem cells to develop surrogate rams and bulls . These males then produce the viable semen of another male .
The approach in these sheep experiments involves irradiating a ram ’ s testes while placing stem cells from a second ram into the testes of the first , ram A. In the following weeks ram A produces semen the usual way , but is using the stem cells of ram B and therefore producing semen carrying the genetics of ram B rather than those of his own . Ram A therefore has effectively become a surrogate ram .
The viable semen is then implanted in the ewe and the many lambs born through this process are proving to be normal and healthy . DNA tests have proved that up to 10 % of the lambs are sired by the surrogate ram and carry the genetics of the donor ram .
= Mortal Folly / Mortal Recoil =
" Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " are the twenty @-@ fourth and twenty @-@ fifth episodes of the second season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . " Mortal Folly " was written and storyboarded by Adam Muto and Rebecca Sugar , whereas " Mortal Recoil " was written and storyboarded by Jesse Moynihan and Cole Sanchez . Both were based on a story by Mark Banker , Kent Osborne , Patrick McHale , and series creator Pendleton Ward . The two episodes originally aired on Cartoon Network on May 2 , 2011 , and guest starred Ron Perlman as the Lich , and Isabella Acres as young Princess Bubblegum . Perlman 's character would become the series ' chief antagonist , and would reappear in several fourth and fifth season episodes .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In " Mortal Folly " , Finn and Jake must go on a quest to find the Lich ( voiced by Perlman ) , while the Ice King ( voiced by Tom Kenny ) pesters them for their blessing to marry Princess Bubblegum ( voiced by Hynden Walch ) . After seemingly defeating the Lich , however , the Ice King accidentally drops Bubblegum into the Lich 's well of power . In " Mortal Recoil " , Princess Bubblegum possessed by the spirit of the Lich , and Finn and Jake team up with the Ice King to stop him . After Bubblegum is seriously wounded and there is not enough candy bio @-@ mass to save her , she reverts to a 13 @-@ year @-@ old .
" Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " marked the first time that one Adventure Time episode carried the plot into another episode . The plot was concluded with " Mortal Recoil " which aired on the same day . The episode introduced the Lich , who had first been proposed in the series ' pitch bible . Both episodes were supposed to air as the second season finale , but due to a studio mix @-@ up , they were aired as the penultimate episode , before " Heat Signature " . Despite this , they are still considered by Ward to function as the season two finale . Both episodes were watched by 1 @.@ 92 million people and received largely positive critical attention ; many critics enjoyed the way the episode began to set up the series ' mythology .
= = Plot = =
= = = " Mortal Folly " = = =
While meditating with Finn and Jake , Princess Bubblegum has a premonition involving the Lich , an evil undead sorcerer who was long ago trapped in a block of amber by the legendary hero Billy . Bubblegum tells Finn and Jake about the dream , and the three of them journey to the tree at the top of Bubblegum 's palace where the block of amber is hidden ; Bubblegum also places magical jewels on Finn and Jake 's heads that will prevent the Lich from exerting mind @-@ control on them . While examining the amber , a snail is placed under the Lich 's spell and helps break him out while Finn and Jake are not paying attention . The Lich then blasts out of the kingdom , leaving a wave of destruction in his path .
Finn and Jake , after acquiring the legendary gauntlet of Billy as well as a special pink sweater made by Bubblegum , give chase , but they are consistently interrupted by the Ice King , who keeps trying to get Finn and Jake 's blessings to marry Bubblegum . Fed up with their dismissive attitude , the Ice King kidnaps Bubblegum and follows Finn and Jake as the two heroes pursue the Lich . The Lich eventually reaches his lair , an abandoned subway station , and creates a pool of green liquid which he plans to use to regain his strength and destroy the world .
Finn , Jake , the Ice King , and Bubblegum follow the Lich into his lair . In the entanglement that follows , Billy 's gauntlet is destroyed by the Lich and Finn breaks his jewel . The Lich attempts to exert mind @-@ control on Finn , but Finn is able to resist . It is then revealed that the sweater Bubblegum gave to Finn has the power to repel the Lich due to it being imbued with " liking someone a lot " . Finn then takes the sweater and pushes it into the Lich 's eye sockets and rips his face apart , seemingly killing him . However , the Ice King accidentally drops Bubblegum into the Lich 's evil vat , to the horror of Finn and Jake .
= = = " Mortal Recoil " = = =
After Princess Bubblegum falls into the Lich 's well of power , she is rushed to the Candy Kingdom hospital and saved . However , the Ice King feels that something is awry and tries to warn Finn , but Finn angrily scolds him and tells him to leave the kingdom . Finn and Jake then focus their energy on taking care of Princess Bubblegum , whose behavior seems off . At first , she claims that she needs some rest , but soon she begins acting strangely , such as convulsing in her bed . Finn leaves to acquire items that Bubblegum requests — which includes weapons @-@ grade plutonium , ammonium , and gasoline among other items — and Jake tries to cheer Bubblegum up with a song .
This , however , back @-@ fires and Bubblegum ignites her bedroom with some sort of dark magic . It is apparent that Bubblegum has been possessed by the spirit of the Lich . Finn returns , and the two discover Bubblegum mixing the ingredients that Finn retrieved in her bathtub and then drinking it . She soon deforms and turns into a grotesque monster ; she hurls Finn and Jake through a wall and the two discover the Ice King . He finally tells them that he saw with his " wizard eyes " the spirit of the Lich descend into Bubblegum after she fell into the well of power . The three make an unlikely alliance , teaming up to beat the Lich @-@ possessed Bubblegum .
While Finn distracts her , the Ice King uses his ice powers to freeze Bubblegum . Their moment of success , however , is cut short when the still @-@ frozen Bubblegum tips over and shatters everywhere . Her body parts are again rushed to the hospital where she is reassembled . However , there are not enough pieces to complete her , and so she ends up reverting to a 13 @-@ year @-@ old girl . Finn , who is also 13 , is excited , but the Ice King temporarily gives up his pursuit of Bubblegum due to her age . As the episode ends , it is revealed that the Lich has once again possessed the body of the snail , who angrily waves goodbye to the camera .
= = Production = =
Both " Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " were directed by Larry Leichliter . The first half was written and storyboarded by Rebecca Sugar and Adam Muto , whereas the second half was written and storyboarded by Jesse Moynihan and Cole Sanchez . Both were based on a story by Mark Banker , Kent Osborne , Patrick McHale , and series creator Pendleton Ward . In the original outline for " Mortal Folly " , the Lich had several lines that played him off as a stereotypical villain . Sugar and Muto decided to make him into a more " scary and dangerous " character , and purposely played up the darker elements of the episode . In addition , Princess Bubblegum 's sweater was supposed to be " magic " and " shoot lasers " . However , Sugar felt that it would be more emotionally poignant if the sweater was just a regular sweater imbued with positive emotions . The scene featuring Finn stuffing the sweater into the Lich 's eye sockets and then ripping his skull apart was inspired by an artistic design idea Sugar had had when she was in high school ; she had wanted to draw a comic featuring a small person getting into a fight and being pushed up to the ceiling .
" Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " feature the first substantial appearance of the Lich , the series ' primary antagonist . The Lich had appeared in concept drawings in the series ' pitch bible , which Ward himself had created in 2007 . Ward 's original drawing was re @-@ designed by former creative director McHale ; he purposely gave the Lich a desiccated and dried @-@ up look , and was instrumental in crafting the Lich 's rotting appearance . In both this episode and other episodes where the character appears , the Lich was voiced by Ron Perlman . The snail , an easter egg that appears in every episode , appears in the episodes and plays a prominent part . Originally , the snail was inspired by the in @-@ jokes in episodes of The Simpsons , and was Ward 's attempt to " make a game out of every episode of Adventure Time , where you could freeze @-@ frame and find things in the background " , such as the snail . However , in " Mortal Folly " , the snail serves as the catalyst for the Lich 's escape . The snail would also play an important part in other mythology @-@ heavy episodes like " In Your Footsteps " , and " The Lich " . Osborne later noted that the snail 's appearance was pleasing to fans who knew that the snail had been appearing in all the episodes and had actively searched for it before .
In the original storyboard , the Lich 's lair was not specifically designed to be a subway . This was added later by the background designers . The undead skeletons that attack Finn and Jake were originally supposed to be " specific undead from [ Dungeons & Dragons ] " . However , Ward changed his mind and tasked Andy Ristaino , a character designer for the series , with designing the corpses . Ristaino sough to make them look as if they were " east coast commuters [ all ] bundled up for winter . " He strove to make them look " specific " so that they would appear as
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people you might see on a subway , such as a bike messenger , a couple , man in a " goofy hat " , and a man wearing a suit . Originally , when the Lich set off his bomb , the storyboard featured a simple mushroom cloud . Ian Jones @-@ Quartey , one of the series ' storyboard revisionists , however , added a face to the blast . Ristaino then added skulls to the smoke . The series staff liked this version so much that they later included it on the title card .
Because a large amount of the action in " Mortal Recoil " takes place in Bubblegum 's bedroom , Moynihan was worried that the scenes would not carry interest and " people would get bored " . As such , Moynihan and Sanchez created the scenes " trying to be simultaneously funny and terrifying " . Ward noted that he liked to be " laughing and freaked out " , and that the scenes work in this manner . Former storyboard artist Adam Muto commented that the possession scenes turned out " nice and off @-@ putting " . Jones @-@ Quartey called the shot of a possessed Princess Bubblegum melting " terrifying " . Although the series tries to avoid " cartoon physics " , Sanchez and Moynihan were forced to work around this during the scene when Bubblegum throws Finn and Jake through a wall without harming them . Moynihan later rationalized that the wall was made of candy , and thus was harmless .
The end of " Mortal Recoil " introduced the plot thread of Bubblegum de @-@ aging to a 13 @-@ year @-@ old girl . This would be expanded upon and eventually resolved in the third season episode " Too Young " . The younger version of Bubblegum was voiced by Isabella Acres , who would reprise her role in " Too Young " . According to Moynihan , there were initially " rumors " to keep Bubblegum young for several episodes , but eventually her 13 @-@ year @-@ old version was relegated to only two appearances before she reverted to normal .
= = Reception = =
" Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " first aired on Cartoon Network on May 2 , 2011 . Both episodes were viewed by 1 @.@ 92 million viewers and scored a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 3 / 2 percent . This means it was seen by 1 @.@ 3 percent of all households and 2 percent of all households watching television at the time of the episode 's airing . The episodes first saw physical release as part of the 2012 Adventure Time : Jake vs. Me @-@ Mow DVD , which included 16 episodes from the series ' first three seasons . It was later re @-@ released as part of the complete second season DVD in June 2013 . The season was originally supposed to end with " Mortal Folly " / " Mortal Recoil " , but due to a scheduling conflict , " Heat Signature " was the last episode of the second season aired . Despite this , Ward still considers the two @-@ parter to be the real season finale , and the two entries are the last episodes featured on the second season DVD release .
Tyler Foster of DVD Talk praised both " Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " , noting that , despite the fact that the episodes represented only " the beginning of the show 's journey into direct serialization " , the story @-@ arc was nonetheless " a tantalizing taste of what 's to come . " Wired magazine noted it as one of the stand @-@ outs from the Jake vs. Me @-@ Mow DVD , calling it a " three @-@ part suite " , which concluded with the third season episode " Too Young " . The review enjoyed the way the episode set the stage for the apparent death , resurrection , and de @-@ aging for Princess Bubblegum , which became a major plot point in the next season . Matt Fowler of IGN praised both " Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " , specifically giving applause to the introduction of the Lich , noting that he is " a real , grotesque villain inserted into the merely semi @-@ dark world of Adventure Time " . Fowler ended up being very happy with the two episodes , writing that they end the season " strong " .
= Mathematics and architecture =
Mathematics and architecture are related , since , as with other arts , architects use mathematics for several reasons . Apart from the mathematics needed when engineering buildings , architects use geometry : to define the spatial form of a building ; from the Pythagoreans of the sixth century BC onwards , to create forms considered harmonious , and thus to lay out buildings and their surroundings according to mathematical , aesthetic and sometimes religious principles ; to decorate buildings with mathematical objects such as tessellations ; and to meet environmental goals , such as to minimise wind speeds around the bases of tall buildings .
In Ancient Egypt , Ancient Greece , India , and the Islamic world , buildings including pyramids , temples , mosques , palaces and mausoleums were laid out with specific proportions for religious reasons . In Islamic architecture , geometric shapes and geometric tiling patterns are used to decorate buildings , both inside and outside . Some Hindu temples have a fractal @-@ like structure where parts resemble the whole , conveying a message about the infinite in Hindu cosmology . In the twenty @-@ first century , mathematical ornamentation is again being used to cover public buildings .
In Renaissance architecture , symmetry and proportion were deliberately emphasized by architects such as Leon Battista Alberti , Sebastiano Serlio and Andrea Palladio , influenced by Vitruvius 's De architectura from Ancient Rome and the arithmetic of the Pythagoreans from Ancient Greece . At the end of the nineteenth century , Vladimir Shukhov in Russia and Antoni Gaudí in Barcelona pioneered the use of hyperboloid structures ; in the Sagrada Família , Gaudí also incorporated hyperbolic paraboloids , tessellations , catenary arches , catenoids , helicoids , and ruled surfaces . In the twentieth century , styles such as modern architecture and Deconstructivism explored different geometries to achieve desired effects . Minimal surfaces have been exploited in tent @-@ like roof coverings as at Denver International Airport , while Richard Buckminster Fuller pioneered the use of the strong thin @-@ shell structures known as geodesic domes .
= = Connected fields = =
The architects Michael Ostwald and Kim Williams , considering the relationships between architecture and mathematics , note that the fields as commonly understood might seem to be only weakly connected , since architecture is a profession concerned with the practical matter of making buildings , while mathematics is the pure study of number and other abstract objects . But , they argue , the two are strongly connected , and have been since antiquity . In Ancient Rome , Vitruvius described an architect as a man who knew enough of a range of other disciplines , primarily geometry , to enable him to oversee skilled artisans in all the other necessary areas , such as masons and carpenters . The same applied in the Middle Ages , where graduates learnt arithmetic , geometry and aesthetics alongside the basic syllabus of grammar , logic , and rhetoric ( the trivium ) in elegant halls made by master builders who had guided many craftsmen . A master builder at the top of his profession was given the title of architect or engineer . In the Renaissance , the quadrivium of arithmetic , geometry , music and astronomy became an extra syllabus expected of the Renaissance man such as Leon Battista Alberti . Similarly in England , Sir Christopher Wren , known today as an architect , was firstly a noted astronomer .
Williams and Ostwald , further overviewing the interaction of mathematics and architecture since 1500 according to the approach of the German sociologist Theodor Adorno , identify three tendencies among architects , namely : to be revolutionary , introducing wholly new ideas ; reactionary , failing to introduce change ; or revivalist , actually going backwards . They argue that architects have avoided looking to mathematics for inspiration in revivalist times . This would explain why in revivalist periods , such as the Gothic Revival in 19th century England , architecture had little connection to mathematics . Equally , they note that in reactionary times such as the Italian Mannerism of about 1520 to 1580 , or the 17th century Baroque and Palladian movements , mathematics was barely consulted . In contrast , the revolutionary early 20th century movements such as Futurism and Constructivism actively rejected old ideas , embracing mathematics and leading to Modernist architecture . Towards the end of the 20th century , too , fractal geometry was quickly seized upon by architects , as was aperiodic tiling , to provide interesting and attractive coverings for buildings .
Architects use mathematics for several reasons , leaving aside the necessary use of mathematics in the engineering of buildings . Firstly , they use geometry because it defines the spatial form of a building . Secondly , they use mathematics to design forms that are considered beautiful or harmonious . From the time of the Pythagoreans with their religious philosophy of number , architects in Ancient Greece , Ancient Rome , the Islamic world and the Italian Renaissance have chosen the proportions of the built environment – buildings and their designed surroundings – according to mathematical as well as aesthetic and sometimes religious principles . Thirdly , they may use mathematical objects such as tessellations to decorate buildings . Fourthly , they may use mathematics in the form of computer modelling to meet environmental goals , such as to minimise whirling air currents at the base of tall buildings .
= = Harmonious spatial forms = =
= = = Secular aesthetics = = =
= = = = Ancient Rome = = = =
= = = = = Vitruvius = = = = =
The influential Ancient Roman architect Vitruvius argued that the design of a building such as a temple depends on two qualities , proportion and symmetria . Proportion ensures that each part of a building relates harmoniously to every other part . Symmetria in Vitruvius 's usage means something closer to the English term modularity than mirror symmetry , as again it relates to the assembling of ( modular ) parts into the whole building . In his Basilica at Fano , he uses ratios of small integers , especially the triangular numbers ( 1 , 3 , 6 , 10 , ... ) to proportion the structure into ( Vitruvian ) modules . Thus the Basilica 's width to length is 1 : 2 ; the aisle around it is as high as it is wide , 1 : 1 ; the columns are five feet thick and fifty feet high , 1 : 10 .
Vitruvius named three qualities required of architecture in his De architectura , c . 15 B.C. : firmness , usefulness ( or " Commodity " in Henry Wotton 's 16th century English ) , and delight . These can be used as categories for classifying the ways in which mathematics is used in architecture . Firmness encompasses the use of mathematics to ensure a building stands up , hence the mathematical tools used in design and to support construction , for instance to ensure stability and to model performance . Usefulness derives in part from the effective application of mathematics , reasoning about and analysing the spatial and other relationships in a design . Delight is an attribute of the resulting building , resulting from the embodying of mathematical relationships in the building ; it includes aesthetic , sensual and intellectual qualities .
= = = = = The Pantheon = = = = =
The Pantheon in Rome has survived intact , illustrating classical Roman structure , proportion , and decoration . The main structure is a dome , the apex left open as a circular oculus to let in light ; it is fronted by a short colonnade with a triangular pediment . The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same , 43 @.@ 3 metres ( 142 ft ) , so the whole interior would fit exactly within a cube , and the interior could house a sphere of the same diameter . These dimensions make more sense when expressed in ancient Roman units of measurement : The dome spans 150 Roman feet ) ; the oculus is 30 Roman feet in diameter ; the doorway is 40 Roman feet high . The Pantheon remains the world 's largest unreinforced concrete dome .
= = = = Renaissance = = = =
The first Renaissance treatise on architecture was Leon Battista Alberti 's 1450 De re aedificatoria ( On the Art of Building ) ; it became the first printed book on architecture in 1485 . It was partly based on Vitruvius 's De architectura and , via Nicomachus , Pythagorean arithmetic . Alberti starts with a cube , and derives ratios from it . Thus the diagonal of a face gives the ratio 1 : √ 2 , while the diameter of the sphere which circumscribes the cube gives 1 : √ 3 . Alberti also documented Filippo Brunelleschi 's discovery of linear perspective , developed to enable the design of buildings which would look beautifully proportioned when viewed from a convenient distance .
The next major text was Sebastiano Serlio 's Regole generali d 'architettura ( General Rules of Architecture ) ; the first volume appeared in Venice in 1537 ; the 1545 volume ( books 1 and 2 ) covered geometry and perspective . Two of Serlio 's methods for constructing perspectives were wrong , but this did not stop his work being widely used .
In 1570 , Andrea Palladio published the influential I quattro libri dell 'architettura ( The Four Books of Architecture ) in Venice . This widely printed book was largely responsible for spreading the ideas of the Italian Renaissance throughout Europe , assisted by proponents like the English diplomat Henry Wotton with his 1624 The Elements of Architecture . The proportions of each room within the villa were calculated on simple mathematical ratios like 3 : 4 and 4 : 5 , and the different rooms within the house were interrelated by these ratios . Earlier architects had used these formulas for balancing a single symmetrical facade ; however , Palladio 's designs related to the whole , usually square , villa . Palladio permitted a range of ratios in the Quattro libri , stating :
There are seven types of room that are the most beautiful and well proportioned and turn out better : they can be made circular , though these are rare ; or square ; or their length will equal the diagonal of the square of the breadth ; or a square and a third ; or a square and a half ; or a square and two @-@ thirds ; or two squares .
In 1615 , Vincenzo Scamozzi published the late Renaissance treatise L 'Idea dell 'Architettura Universale ( The Idea of a Universal Architecture ) . He attempted to relate the design of cities and buildings to the ideas of Vitruvius and the Pythagoreans , and to the more recent ideas of Palladio .
= = = = Nineteenth century = = = =
Hyperboloid structures were used starting towards the end of the nineteenth century by Vladimir Shukhov for masts , lighthouses and cooling towers . Their striking shape is both aesthetically interesting and strong , using structural materials economically . Shukhov 's first hyperboloidal tower was exhibited in Nizhny Novgorod in 1896 .
= = = = Twentieth century = = = =
The early twentieth century movement Modern Architecture , pioneered by Russian Constructivism , used rectilinear Euclidean ( also called Cartesian ) geometry . In the De Stijl movement , the horizontal and the vertical were seen as constituting the universal . The architectural form consists of putting these two directional tendencies together , using roof planes , wall planes and balconies , which either slide past or intersect each other , as in the 1924 Rietveld Schröder House by Gerrit Rietveld .
Modernist architects were free to make use of curves as well as planes . Charles Holden 's 1933 Arnos station has a circular ticket hall in brick with a flat concrete roof . In 1938 , the Bauhaus painter Laszlo Moholy @-@ Nagy adopted Raoul Heinrich Francé 's seven biotechnical elements , namely the crystal , the sphere , the cone , the plane , the ( cuboidal ) strip , the ( cylindrical ) rod , and the spiral , as the supposed basic building blocks of architecture inspired by nature .
Le Corbusier proposed an anthropometric scale of proportions in architecture , the Modulor , based on the supposed height of a man . Le Corbusier 's 1955 Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut uses free @-@ form curves not describable in mathematical formulae . The shapes are said to be evocative of natural forms such as the prow of a ship or praying hands . The design is only at the largest scale : there is no hierarchy of detail at smaller scales , and thus no fractal dimension ; the same applies to other famous twentieth @-@ century buildings such as the Sydney Opera House , Denver International Airport , and the Guggenheim Museum , Bilbao .
Contemporary architecture , in the opinion of the 90 leading architects who responded to a 2010 World Architecture Survey , is extremely diverse ; the best was judged to be Frank Gehry 's Guggenheim Museum , Bilbao .
Denver International Airport 's terminal building , completed in 1995 , has a fabric roof supported as a minimal surface ( i.e. , its mean curvature is zero ) by steel cables . It evokes Colorado 's snow @-@ capped mountains and the teepee tents of Native Americans .
The architect Richard Buckminster Fuller is famous for designing strong thin @-@ shell structures known as geodesic domes . The Montréal Biosphère dome is 61 metres ( 200 ft ) high ; its diameter is 76 metres ( 249 ft ) .
Sydney Opera House has a dramatic roof consisting of soaring white vaults , reminiscent of ship 's sails ; to make them possible to construct using standardized components , the vaults are all composed of triangular sections of spherical shells with the same radius . These have the required uniform curvature in every direction .
The late twentieth century movement Deconstructivism creates deliberate disorder with what Nikos Salingaros in A Theory of Architecture calls random forms of high complexity by using non @-@ parallel walls , superimposed grids and complex 2 @-@ D surfaces , as in Frank Gehry 's Disney Concert Hall and Guggenheim Museum , Bilbao . Until the twentieth century , architecture students were obliged to have a grounding in mathematics . Salingaros argues that first " overly simplistic , politically @-@ driven " Modernism and then " anti @-@ scientific " Deconstructivism have effectively separated architecture from mathematics . He believes that this " reversal of mathematical values " is harmful , as the " pervasive aesthetic " of non @-@ mathematical architecture trains people " to reject mathematical information in the built environment " ; he argues that this has negative effects on society .
= = = Religious principles = = =
= = = = Ancient Egypt = = = =
The pyramids of Ancient Egypt are tombs constructed with deliberately chosen proportions , but which these were has been debated . The face angle is about 51 ° 85 ’ , and the ratio of the slant height to half the base length is 1 @.@ 619 , less than 1 % from the golden ratio . If this was the design method , it would imply the use of Kepler 's triangle ( face angle 51 ° 49 ’ ) . However it is more likely that the pyramids ' slope was chosen from the 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 triangle ( face angle 53 ° 8 ’ ) , known from the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus ( c . 1650 – 1550 BC ) ; or from the triangle with base to hypotenuse ratio 1 : 4 / π ( face angle 51 ° 50 ’ ) .
The possible use of the 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 triangle to lay out right angles , such as for the ground plan of a pyramid , and the knowledge of Pythagoras theorem which that would imply , has been much asserted . It was first conjectured by the historian Moritz Cantor in 1882 . It is known that right angles were laid out accurately in Ancient Egypt ; that their surveyors did use ropes for measurement ; that Plutarch recorded in Isis and Osiris ( around 100 AD ) that the Egyptians admired the 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 triangle ; and that the Berlin Papyrus 6619 from the Middle Kingdom ( before 1700 BC ) stated that " the area of a square of 100 is equal to that of two smaller squares . The side of one is ½ + ¼ the side of the other . " The historian of mathematics Roger L. Cooke observes that " It is hard to imagine anyone being interested in such conditions without knowing the Pythagorean theorem . " Against this , Cooke notes that no Egyptian text before 300 BC actually mentions the use of the theorem to find the length of a triangle 's sides , and that there are simpler ways to construct a right angle . Cooke concludes that Cantor 's conjecture remains uncertain : he guesses that the Ancient Egyptians probably did know the Pythagorean theorem , but that " there is no evidence that they used it to construct right angles " .
= = = = Ancient India = = = =
Vaastu Shastra , the ancient Indian canons of architecture and town planning , employs symmetrical drawings called mandalas . Complex calculations are used to arrive at the dimensions of a building and its components . The designs are intended to integrate architecture with nature , the relative functions of various parts of the structure , and ancient beliefs utilizing geometric patterns ( yantra ) , symmetry and directional alignments . However , early builders may have come upon mathematical proportions by accident . The mathematician Georges Ifrah notes that simple " tricks " with string and stakes can be used to lay out geometric shapes , such as ellipses and right angles .
The mathematics of fractals has been used to show that the reason why existing buildings have universal appeal and are visually satisfying is because they provide the viewer with a sense of scale at different viewing distances . For example , in Hindu temples such as the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi built in the seventh century , and others such as the Kandariya Mahadev Temple at Khajuraho , the parts and the whole have the same character , with fractal dimension in the range 1 @.@ 7 to 1 @.@ 8 . The cluster of smaller towers ( shikhara , lit . ' mountain ' ) about the tallest , central , tower which represents the holy Mount Kailash , abode of Lord Shiva , depicts the endless repetition of universes in Hindu cosmology . The religious studies scholar William J. Jackson observed of the pattern of towers grouped among smaller towers , themselves grouped among still smaller towers , that :
The ideal form gracefully artificed suggests the infinite rising levels of existence and consciousness , expanding sizes rising toward transcendence above , and at the same time housing the sacred deep within .
The Meenakshi Amman Temple is a large complex with multiple shrines , with the streets of Madurai laid out concentrically around it according to the shastras . The four gateways are tall towers ( gopurams ) with fractal @-@ like repetitive structure as at Hampi . The enclosures around each shrine are rectangular and surrounded by high stone walls .
= = = = Ancient Greece = = = =
Pythagoras ( c . 569 – c . 475 B.C. ) and his followers , the Pythagoreans , held that " all things are numbers " . They observed the harmonies produced by notes with specific small @-@ integer ratios of frequency , and argued that buildings too should be designed with such ratios . The Greek word symmetria originally denoted the harmony of architectural shapes in precise ratios from a building 's smallest details right up to its entire design .
The Parthenon is 69 @.@ 5 metres ( 228 ft ) long , 30 @.@ 9 metres ( 101 ft ) wide and 13 @.@ 7 metres ( 45 ft ) high to the cornice . This gives a ratio of width to length of 4 : 9 , and the same for height to width . Putting these together gives height : width : length of 16 : 36 : 81 , or to the delight of the Pythagoreans 42 : 62 : 92 . This sets the module as 0 @.@ 858 m . A 4 : 9 rectangle can be constructed as three contiguous rectangles with sides in the ratio 3 : 4 . Each half @-@ rectangle is then a convenient 3 : 4 : 5 right triangle , enabling the angles and sides to be checked with a suitably knotted rope . The inner area ( naos ) similarly has 4 : 9 proportions ( 21 @.@ 44 metres ( 70 @.@ 3 ft ) wide by 48 @.@ 3 m long ) ; the ratio between the diameter of the outer columns , 1 @.@ 905 metres ( 6 @.@ 25 ft ) , and the spacing of their centres , 4 @.@ 293 metres ( 14 @.@ 08 ft ) , is also 4 : 9 .
The Parthenon is considered by authors such as John Julius Norwich " the most perfect Doric temple ever built " . Its elaborate architectural refinements include " a subtle correspondence between the curvature of the stylobate , the taper of the naos walls and the entasis of the columns " . Entasis refers to the subtle diminution in diameter of the columns as they rise . The stylobate is the platform on which the columns stand . As in other classical Greek temples , the platform has a slight parabolic upward curvature to shed rainwater and reinforce the building against earthquakes . The columns might therefore be supposed to lean outwards , but they actually lean slightly inwards so that if they carried on , they would meet about a mile above the centre of the building ; since they are all the same height , the curvature of the outer stylobate edge is transmitted to the architrave and roof above : " all follow the rule of being built to delicate curves " .
The golden ratio was known in 300 B.C. , when Euclid described the method of geometric construction . It has been argued that the golden ratio was used in the design of the Parthenon and other ancient Greek buildings , as well as sculptures , paintings , and vases . More recent authors such as Nikos Salingaros , however , doubt all these claims . Experiments by the computer scientist George Markowsky failed to find any preference for the golden rectangle .
= = = = Islamic architecture = = = =
The historian of Islamic art Antonio Fernandez @-@ Puertas suggests that the Alhambra , like the Great Mosque of Cordoba , was designed using the Hispano @-@ Muslim foot or codo of about 0 @.@ 62 metres ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) . In the palace 's Court of the Lions , the proportions follow a series of surds . A rectangle with sides 1 and √ 2 has ( by Pythagoras 's theorem ) a diagonal of √ 3 , which describes the right triangle made by the sides of the court ; the series continues with √ 4 ( giving a 1 : 2 ratio ) , √ 5 and so on . The decorative patterns are similarly proportioned , √ 2 generating squares inside circles and eight @-@ pointed stars , √ 3 generating six @-@ pointed stars . There is no evidence to support earlier claims that the golden ratio was used in the Alhambra . The Court of the Lions is bracketed by the Hall of Two Sisters and the Hall of the Abencerrajes ; a regular hexagon can be drawn from the centres of these two halls and the four inside corners of the Court of the Lions .
The Selimiye Mosque in Edirne , Turkey , was built by Mimar Sinan to provide a space where the mihrab could be see from anywhere inside the building . The very large central space is accordingly arranged as an octagon , formed by 8 enormous pillars , and capped by a circular dome of 31 @.@ 25 metres ( 102 @.@ 5 ft ) diameter and 43 metres ( 141 ft ) high . The octagon is formed into a square with four semidomes , and externally by four exceptionally tall minarets , 83 metres ( 272 ft ) tall . The building 's plan is thus a circle inside an octagon inside a square .
= = = = Mughal architecture = = = =
Mughal architecture , as seen in the abandoned imperial city of Fatehpur Sikri and the Taj Mahal complex , has a distinctive mathematical order and a strong aesthetic based on symmetry and harmony .
The Taj Mahal exemplifies Mughal architecture , both representing paradise and displaying the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan 's power through its scale , symmetry and costly decoration . The white marble mausoleum , decorated with pietra dura , the great gate ( Darwaza @-@ i rauza ) , other buildings , the gardens and paths together form a unified hierarchical design . The buildings include a mosque in red sandstone on the west , and an almost identical building , the Jawab or ' answer ' on the east to maintain the bilateral symmetry of the complex . The formal charbagh ( ' fourfold garden ' ) is in four parts , symbolising the four rivers of paradise , and offering views and reflections of the mausoleum . These are divided in turn into 16 parterres .
The Taj Mahal complex was laid out on a grid , subdivided into smaller grids . The historians of architecture Koch and Barraud agree with the traditional accounts that give the width of the complex as 374 Mughal yards or gaz , the main area being three 374 @-@ gaz squares . These were divided in areas like the bazaar and caravanserai into 17 @-@ gaz modules ; the garden and terraces are in modules of 23 gaz , and are 368 gaz wide ( 16 x 23 ) . The mausoleum , mosque and guest house are laid out on a grid of 7 gaz . Koch and Barraud observe that if an octagon , used repeatedly in the complex , is given sides of 7 units , then it has a width of 17 units , which may help to explain the choice of ratios in the complex .
= = = = Christian architecture = = = =
The Christian patriarchal basilica of Haghia Sophia in Byzantium ( now Istanbul ) , first constructed in 537 ( and twice rebuilt ) , was for a thousand years the largest cathedral ever built . It inspired many later buildings including Sultan Ahmed and other mosques in the city . The Byzantine architecture includes a nave crowned by a circular dome and two half @-@ domes , all of the same diameter ( 31 metres ( 102 ft ) ) , with a further five smaller half @-@ domes forming an apse and four rounded corners of a vast rectangular interior . This was interpreted by mediaeval architects as representing the mundane below ( the square base ) and the divine heavens above ( the soaring spherical dome ) . The emperor Justinian used two geometers , Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles as architects ; Isidore compiled the works of Archimedes on solid geometry , and was influenced by him .
The importance of water baptism in Christianity was reflected in the scale of baptistry architecture . The oldest , the Lateran Baptistry in Rome , built in 440 , set a trend for octagonal baptistries ; the baptismal font inside these buildings was often octagonal , though Italy 's largest baptistry , at Pisa , built between 1152 and 1363 , is circular , with an octagonal font . It is 54 @.@ 86 metres ( 180 @.@ 0 ft ) high , with a diameter of 34 @.@ 13 metres ( 112 @.@ 0 ft ) ( a ratio of 8 : 5 ) . Saint Ambrose wrote that fonts and baptistries were octagonal " because on the eighth day , by rising , Christ loosens the bondage of death and receives the dead from their graves . " Saint Augustine similarly described the eighth day as " everlasting ... hallowed by the resurrection of Christ " . The octagonal Baptistry of Saint John , Florence , built between 1059 and 1128 , is one of the oldest buildings in that city , and one of the last in the direct tradition of classical antiquity ; it was extremely influential in the subsequent Florentine Renaissance , as major architects including Francesco Talenti , Alberti and Brunelleschi used it as the model of classical architecture .
The number five is used " exuberantly " in the 1721 Pilgrimage Church of St John of Nepomuk at Zelená hora , near Žďár nad Sázavou in the Czech republic , designed by Jan Blažej Santini Aichel . The nave is circular , surrounded by five pairs of columns and five oval domes alternating with ogival apses . The church further has five gates , five chapels , five altars and five stars ; a legend claims that when Saint John of Nepomuk was martyred , five stars appeared over his head . The fivefold architecture may also symbolise the five wounds of Christ and the five letters of " Tacui " ( Latin : " I kept silence " [ about secrets of the confessional ] ) .
Antoni Gaudí used a wide variety of geometric structures , some being minimal surfaces , in the Sagrada Família , Barcelona , started in 1882 ( and not completed as of 2015 ) . These include hyperbolic paraboloids and hyperboloids of revolution , tessellations , catenary arches , catenoids , helicoids , and ruled surfaces . This varied mix of geometries is creatively combined in different ways around the church . For example , in the Passion Façade of Sagrada Família , Gaudí assembled stone " branches " in the form of hyperbolic paraboloids , which overlap at their tops ( directrices ) without , therefore , meeting at a point . In contrast , in the colonnade there are hyperbolic paraboloidal surfaces that smoothly join other structures to form unbounded surfaces . Further , Gaudí exploits natural patterns , themselves mathematical , with columns derived from the shapes of trees , and lintels made from unmodified basalt naturally cracked ( by cooling from molten rock ) into hexagonal columns .
The 1971 Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Assumption , San Francisco has a saddle roof composed of eight segments of hyperbolic paraboloids , arranged so that the bottom horizontal cross section of the roof is a square and the top cross section is a Christian cross . The building is a square 77 @.@ 7 metres ( 255 ft ) on a side , and 57 @.@ 9 metres ( 190 ft ) high . The 1970 Cathedral of Brasília by Oscar Niemeyer makes a different use of a hyperboloid structure ; it is constructed from 16 identical concrete beams , each weighing 90 tonnes , arranged in a circle to form a hyperboloid of revolution , the white beams creating a shape like hands praying to heaven . Only the dome is visible from outside : most of the building is below ground .
= = Mathematical decoration = =
= = = Islamic architectural decoration = = =
Islamic buildings are often decorated with geometric patterns which typically make use of several mathematical tessellations , formed of ceramic tiles ( girih , zellige ) that may themselves be plain or decorated with stripes . Symmetries such as stars with six , eight , or multiples of eight points are used in Islamic patterns . Some of these are based on the ' Khatem Sulemani ' or Solomon 's seal motif , which is an eight @-@ pointed star made of two squares , one rotated 45 degrees from the other on the same centre . Islamic patterns exploit many of the 17 possible wallpaper groups ; as early as 1944 , Edith Müller showed that the Alhambra made use of 11 wallpaper groups in its decorations , while in 1986 Branko Grünbaum claimed to have found 13 wallpaper groups in the Alhambra , asserting controversially that the remaining 4 groups are not found anywhere in Islamic ornament .
= = = Modern architectural decoration = = =
Towards the end of the 20th century , novel mathematical constructs such as fractal geometry and aperiodic tiling were seized upon by architects to provide interesting and attractive coverings for buildings . In 1913 , the Modernist architect Adolf Loos had declared that " Ornament is a crime " , influencing architectural thinking for the rest of the 20th century . In the 21st century , architects are again starting to explore the use of ornament . 21st century ornamentation is extremely diverse . Henning Larsen 's 2011 Harpa Concert and Conference Centre , Reykjavik has what looks like a crystal wall of rock made of large blocks of glass . Foreign Office Architects ' 2010 Ravensbourne College , London is tessellated decoratively with 28 @,@ 000 anodised aluminium tiles in red , white and brown , interlinking circular windows of differing sizes . The tessellation uses three types of tile , an equilateral triangle and two irregular pentagons . Kazumi Kudo 's Kanazawa Umimirai Library creates a decorative grid made of small circular blocks of glass set into plain concrete walls .
= = Defence = =
The architecture of fortifications evolved from medieval fortresses , which had high masonry walls , to low , symmetrical star forts able to resist artillery bombardment between the mid @-@ fifteenth and nineteenth centuries . The geometry of the star shapes was dictated by the need to avoid dead zones where attacking infantry could shelter from defensive fire ; the sides of the projecting points were angled to permit such fire to sweep the ground , and to provide crossfire ( from both sides ) beyond each projecting point . Well @-@ known architects who designed such defences include Michelangelo , Baldassare Peruzzi , Vincenzo Scamozzi and Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban .
The architectural historian Siegfried Giedion argued that the star @-@ shaped fortification had a formative influence on the patterning of the Renaissance ideal city : " The Renaissance was hypnotized by one city type which for a century and a half — from Filarete to Scamozzi — was impressed upon all utopian schemes : this is the star @-@ shaped city . "
= = Environmental goals = =
Architects may also select the form of a building to meet environmental goals . For example , Foster and Partners ' 30 St Mary Axe , London , known as " The Gherkin " for its cucumber @-@ like shape , is a solid of revolution designed using parametric modelling . Its geometry was chosen not purely for aesthetic reasons , but to minimise whirling air currents at its base . Despite the building 's apparently curved surface , all the panels of glass forming its skin are flat , except for the lens at the top . Most of the panels are quadrilaterals , as they can be cut from rectangular glass with less wastage than triangular panels .
The traditional yakhchal ( ice pit ) of Persia functioned as an evaporative cooler . Above ground , the structure had a domed shape , but had a subterranean storage space for ice and sometimes food as well . The subterranean space and the thick heat @-@ resistant construction insulated the storage space year round . The internal space was often further cooled with windcatchers . The ice was available in the summer to make the frozen dessert faloodeh .
= Tom Hooper =
Thomas George " Tom " Hooper ( born 5 October 1972 ) is a British film and television director of English and Australian background . Hooper began making short films as a teenager , and had his first professional short , Painted Faces , broadcast on Channel 4 in 1992 . At Oxford University Hooper directed plays and television commercials . After graduating , he directed episodes of Quayside , Byker Grove , EastEnders and Cold Feet .
In the 2000s , Hooper directed the major BBC costume dramas Love in a Cold Climate ( 2001 ) and Daniel Deronda ( 2002 ) , and was selected to helm the 2003 revival of ITV 's Prime Suspect series , starring Helen Mirren . Hooper made his feature film debut with Red Dust ( 2004 ) , a British drama starring Hilary Swank and Chiwetel Ejiofor , before directing Helen Mirren again in the Company Pictures / HBO Films historical drama Elizabeth I ( 2005 ) . He continued working for HBO on the television film Longford ( 2006 ) and in John Adams ( 2008 ) , a seven @-@ part serial on the life of the American president . Hooper returned to features with The Damned United ( 2009 ) , a fact @-@ based film about the English football manager Brian Clough ( played by Michael Sheen ) . The following year saw the release of the historical drama The King 's Speech ( 2010 ) , starring Colin Firth and Geoffrey Rush , which was met with critical acclaim . Hooper 's next film was Les Misérables ( 2012 ) , which featured an all @-@ star cast led by Hugh Jackman and Russell Crowe .
Hooper 's work was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for Prime Suspect and John Adams , won one for Elizabeth I , and was nominated for the British Academy ( BAFTA ) TV Craft Award for Best Director for Longford . The King 's Speech won multiple awards , including Best Director wins for Hooper from the Directors Guild of America and the Academy Awards , and a Best Director nomination from BAFTA .
= = Early life = =
Tom Hooper was born in 1972 in London , England , the son of Meredith Jean ( Rooney ) and Richard Hooper . Meredith was an Australian author and academic and Richard was an English media businessman . Hooper was educated at Highgate School and Westminster School . His initial interest in drama was triggered by his English and drama teacher at Highgate , former Royal Shakespeare Company actor Roger Mortimer , who produced an annual school play .
At the age of 12 , Hooper read a book entitled How to Make Film and Television and decided he wanted to become a director . For the next year Hooper researched filmmaking from publications such as On Camera by Harris Watts . Aged 13 , he made his first film , entitled Runaway Dog , using a clockwork 16mm Bole
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x camera his uncle had given to him . Hooper said : " The clockwork would run out after thirty seconds , so the maximum shot length was thirty seconds . I could only afford a hundred feet of Kodachrome reversal film , which cost about twenty @-@ five [ pounds ] , and you had to send off for two weeks to be processed . I could only make silent movies , because sound was too expensive and complicated . " He slowed down the frame rate of the camera so he could maximise what little film stock he had . Hooper classified the short , about a dog which kept running away from its owner , as a comedy , and filmed it on location in Oxfordshire .
When Hooper was 14 , his film Bomber Jacket came runner @-@ up in a BBC younger filmmakers ' competition . The short starred Hooper 's brother as a boy who discovers a bomber jacket and a photograph hidden in a cupboard and learns his grandfather died in World War II . Another of Hooper 's short films , entitled Countryside , depicts a nuclear holocaust .
Hooper finished school aged 16 , then wrote the script for his first professional short film , entitled Painted Faces . He spent the next two years raising capital for the short by courting advertisement directors , whose financial dominance during the late 1980s was noticed by Hooper . Director Paul Weiland invested in the short , which provided Hooper with the equipment he needed . After two years of financing and production , Painted Faces was completed . Hooper wrote , produced , directed and edited it . It was sold to Channel 4 and broadcast on the channel 's First Frame strand in 1992 , had a screening at the 35th London Film Festival and had a limited theatrical release .
After taking a gap year to finance Painted Faces , Hooper read English at University College , Oxford . He joined the Oxford University Dramatic Society , where he directed Kate Beckinsale in A View From the Bridge and Emily Mortimer in The Trial . Hooper also had his first paid directing work , earning £ 200 for a corporate Christmas video , and he directed his first television advertisements , including one for Sega featuring Right Said Fred . He continues to direct advertisements alongside television and film projects . In 1996 he joined the commercial production company John S. Clarke Productions and in 2001 he signed with Infinity Productions .
= = Career = =
= = = BBC and ITV productions = = =
After graduating from Oxford , Hooper directed further television commercials , intending to break into the film industry the same way Ridley Scott , Tony Scott and Hugh Hudson did . He was introduced by his father to the television producer Matthew Robinson , who mentored Hooper and gave him his first television directing work . For Robinson , Hooper directed episodes of the short @-@ lived Tyne Tees Television soap opera Quayside in 1997 , four episodes of the Children 's BBC television series Byker Grove in the same year , and his first episodes of the BBC One soap opera EastEnders in 1998 .
Hooper directed several EastEnders episodes between 1998 and 2000 , two of which were hour @-@ long specials that represented the soap when it won the British Academy Television Award for Best Soap Opera in 2000 and 2001 ; the first was the episode in which Carol Jackson ( Lindsey Coulson ) learns her daughter Bianca ( Patsy Palmer ) had an affair with her fiancé Dan Sullivan ( Craig Fairbrass ) . The Jackson episode marked the beginning of a week of episodes that lead to Palmer 's departure from the soap , and Robinson had hired Hooper to direct the key episodes of that storyline . Hooper worked 10 @-@ hour days on EastEnders , and learned to direct with speed . He was influenced in his early career by the cinematic style of American TV series such as ER , NYPD Blue and Homicide : Life on the Street and tried to work that style into his EastEnders episodes ; one scene featuring Grant Mitchell ( Ross Kemp ) involved a crane shot , which Hooper believes made him infamous among the EastEnders production crew .
In 1999 , Hooper directed two episodes of Granada Television 's comedy @-@ drama television series Cold Feet , which marked his move to bigger @-@ budget productions . There was initially concern at Granada that Hooper might be an unsuitable director for the series given his background in drama .
In 2000 , Hooper directed his first of two costume dramas for the BBC ; Love in a Cold Climate was based on Nancy Mitford 's novels The Pursuit of Love and Love in a Cold Climate . Hooper , the writer Deborah Moggach , and the producer Kate Harwood researched the period details of the production by interviewing Nancy 's sister Deborah . In 2002 , Hooper directed Daniel Deronda , adapted from George Eliot 's novel . Filming ran for 11 weeks from May to August on locations in England , Scotland and Malta . Hooper said of the production , " The thing I like about this tale is that it 's not at all your conventional costume drama ; it 's far more complex and looks at aspects of love , loss and religion . " The Guardian 's Mark Lawson said of Hooper 's two costume dramas , " he brought verve and intelligence to television 's most conservative form " .
Hooper returned to Granada the next year to direct the revival of Prime Suspect , entitled The Last Witness . The two @-@ part serial was the first Prime Suspect instalment to be made since 1995 , when star Helen Mirren quit . Hooper initially declined to direct the production because he believed the series was tired . Granada 's head of drama Andy Harries introduced Hooper to Mirren , who persuaded him to take the job by promising that he could make the serial his own way . The two @-@ part serial was broadcast on the ITV network in November 2003 . Hooper 's direction received praise from Andrew Billen in the New Statesman : " Tom Hooper proved an outstanding director , imposing a bleak , overlit hyper @-@ realism on the search for a killer in a hospital , isolating Mirren in rows of empty chairs and playing on the eyewitness / optical visual metaphors . " The serial was also broadcast on PBS in the United States . Hooper received nominations for the British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Serial and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries , Movie or Dramatic Special for his work on Prime Suspect .
= = = Film debut and HBO works = = =
Hooper made his debut as a feature film director with the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission drama Red Dust ( 2004 ) , which stars Hilary Swank , Chiwetel Ejiofor and Jamie Bartlett . The film was not widely seen , which Hooper attributed to media coverage of torture during the Iraq War : " When I started making it you could watch the movie with a wonderful sense of ' we 'd never do it in our own country … they 're the horrible people but it 's not us . ' By the time the film came out ( there were ) these revelations that the Americans were torturing , the British were torturing . The film became a lot more uncomfortable for the very audiences it was designed to target . I have learned that sadly the theatrical audience does not run to see films that are openly issue led . " The premiere of the film in the United Kingdom came on BBC Two in 2005 , making it eligible for the BAFTA Television Awards ; it was nominated in the Best Single Drama category at the 2006 ceremony .
In 2005 , Hooper was asked by Helen Mirren to direct the Company Pictures / HBO Films two @-@ part serial Elizabeth I , in which she was starring . The serial won Hooper his first Emmy Award , for Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries , Movie or Dramatic Special . In January 2006 , Hooper commenced filming the Granada / HBO television film Longford . The film dramatises the failed efforts of Lord Longford ( played by Jim Broadbent ) to secure the release from prison of Moors murderer Myra Hindley ( played by Samantha Morton ) . Hooper first met with the writer Peter Morgan about the production in 2005 and the film was broadcast on Channel 4 in October 2006 . Seb Morton @-@ Clark for the Financial Times called Longford one of the most accomplished television dramas of 2006 , and praised the writer and director : " Morgan and director Tom Hooper wove a seamless narrative about obsession – and not just that of the misguided philanthropist for the incarcerated Hindley or even that that existed between the sadistic lovers themselves . More significantly , by using chunks of original television footage , they painted a stark picture of the zealotry of a vengeful nation and its press over the supposed embodiment of evil . " Hooper 's continued successes led him to be ranked at number four in the Directors category of Broadcast magazine 's annual Hot 100 . The following year he was nominated for the British Academy Television Craft Award for Best Director for Longford .
Elizabeth I and Longford led directly to Hooper being selected by Tom Hanks to direct the epic miniseries John Adams for Playtone and HBO . Hooper had been working on a biographical film with Joan Didion about Katharine Graham , publisher of The Washington Post , since 2006 when he was asked by Hanks to helm the programme . The miniseries , starring Paul Giamatti as John Adams , was based on David McCullough 's Adams biography and was Hooper 's first wholly American production . He was surprised to learn that the American Revolutionary War was not a well @-@ documented period in film and television ; Abigail Adams actress Laura Linney told him that , for her generation , the musical 1776 was the most well @-@ known depiction of the era . He worked on the miniseries for a total of 16 months ; principal photography lasted 110 days on locations in the United States , France , England and Hungary and he controlled a $ 100 million budget . The Boston Globe 's Matthew Gilbert complimented Hooper 's style of direction in the first two episodes " Join or Die " and " Independence " :
Director Tom Hooper lets his actors shine , as he did so marvelously in Helen Mirren 's Elizabeth I and the child @-@ killer drama Longford , but he complements them , too , with this kind of immediate point of view . And when he does give us panoramic shots from afar – of the Adams farm in Braintree , for example – they 're askew , to keep us out of the classroom mode . At the end of episode 2 [ ... ] Hooper showcases all his directorial strength with one bold choice . When the long @-@ fretting Congress finally decides to break with Britain , he refrains from using any visual or aural tweaks . Upon the announcement , " The resolution carries , " the scene remains perfectly silent for one long moment . The terror of responsibility hangs heavily in the room , while a victorious soundtrack surely would have chased it away .
John Adams received 23 Emmy Award nominations , including another Outstanding Direction nomination for Hooper , and won 13 , the highest number for any nominee in a single year . He was also nominated for the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement . At the beginning of 2009 , he was profiled for The Observer 's film Hotlist .
= = = Independent feature films = = =
The wake of John Adams ' Emmy wins brought offers to Hooper from studios to direct spy and comic book films , which he declined . In November 2007 , he signed on to direct The Damned United , reuniting him with Peter Morgan and Andy Harries . The film was an adaptation of David Peace 's novel The Damned Utd , a fictional version of the 44 turbulent days English football manager Brian Clough spent as manager of Leeds United . It was originally developed by Stephen Frears for Michael Sheen to play Clough . Frears quit the project after he was unable to translate the book to film . Hooper received a copy of the script while shooting John Adams in Hungary and noticed a similarity between the " egotistical , flawed , brilliant " Adams and the " egotistical , flawed , brilliant " Clough . He was not put off by joining the project later , as Morgan 's script was in only its first draft . During pre @-@ production , Hooper engaged in meticulous research , particularly on the locations and the football grounds of the era . He cast Timothy Spall as Clough 's assistant Peter Taylor , Colm Meaney as Don Revie and Jim Broadbent as Derby County chairman Sam Longson . During editing , it was decided to make the tone of the film lighter in order to attract audiences and to appease the real people depicted in the film . The Damned United was released in 2009 .
Work on Hooper 's next film , The King 's Speech , began in the same year . Hooper explained : " It was a stage play , and my mother who 's Australian was invited to a fringe [ theatre ] reading in London because she 's part of the Australian community . The play 's about the relationship between King George the Sixth and his Australian speech therapist . She came back and said ' you 've got to read this play , ' and I read it and it was brilliant ... " . Hooper cast Colin Firth as George VI and Geoffrey Rush as Lionel Logue and spent three weeks with the actors reading the script and rehearsing . Principal photography took place on location around the UK from November 2009 to January 2010 . During editing , Hooper continued to consult with Firth and Rush by sending them cuts of the film and listening to their feedback .
Hooper completed the final cut of the film at the end of August 2010 and presented it a few days later at the Telluride Film Festival . The film won the People 's Choice Award at the Toronto International Film Festival and Hooper won the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures . In February 2011 , he was presented with the Academy Award for Best Director , though lost the BAFTA Award for Best Direction to David Fincher . In comparing the two films , Variety 's Adam Dawtrey wrote , " Hooper 's 2009 film The Damned United didn 't register among awards selectors , but King 's Speech is a much more personal project . His Anglo @-@ Australian parentage reflects the culture clash at the heart of the movie , and it pays off with beautifully crafted , crowd @-@ pleasing drama . "
= = = Studio films = = =
Following the success of The King 's Speech during the awards season , Hooper joined the 15 @-@ person board of governors at the British Film Institute , was invited to join the directors branch of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences , and was ranked at number 19 in The Times ' British Film Power 100 . In March 2009 , Hooper met with Nelson Mandela in preparation for directing a film adaptation of Mandela 's autobiography Long Walk to Freedom . By 2012 , however , he had left the project .
He was offered the chance to direct Iron Man 3 for Marvel Studios but declined and instead signed on to direct Les Misérables for Working Title Films , which he had first heard about while discussing a different project with screenwriter William Nicholson in 2010 . Hooper had not seen the musical , so watched a performance of it in London 's West End . Adapted from the musical , the film starred Hugh Jackman , Russell Crowe , Anne Hathaway , Amanda Seyfried , Helena Bonham Carter , Sacha Baron Cohen , and Eddie Redmayne . As the film required the actors to sing and dance , they were auditioned in front of Hooper , producers and composers . The role of Fantine was hugely contested ; Hooper said , " It was like half a dozen of the biggest female movie stars on the planet wanted to play the role " .
Filming started in February 2012 . Hooper investigated filming the feature in 3D , and performed some camera tests before deciding to film it with traditional 2D methods . He stated " [ ... ] I slightly worry with 3D that some people will physically struggle with it . If you have a certain type of eyesight it can be more demanding than watching a normal movie . " Unlike other musical films , Les Misérables features the actors singing live on camera , rather than miming to backing vocals . Hooper told Los Angeles Times that he thought there was a " slightly strange falseness " when he saw musical films where the actors sang to recordings . The actors wore wireless earpieces on set so they could sing to accompanying piano music . Hooper believed this method allowed the actors to have emotional control over their songs : " When Annie [ Hathaway , who plays Fantine ] is singing ' I Dreamed a Dream ' , if she needs to take a tenth of a second to have a thought before she sings it , or to have an emotion before she sings a line , she can take it . " The actors also performed their songs in recitative style , which Hooper likened to being immersed in a 3D film . Les Miserables was released in North America on 25 December 2012 , and received eight Academy Award nominations including Best Picture .
Hooper 's fifth feature film , The Danish Girl , was released in late 2015 . It loosely tells the story of Lili Elbe , one of the first people to undergo sex reassignment surgery , and wife Gerda Wegener . It stars Eddie Redmayne and Alicia Vikander , both of whom received Academy Award nominations . Critics were generally positive about the film .
= = Directing style = =
Hooper uses camera styles " that encode the DNA of the storytelling in some way " and will reuse and develop filming styles in successive productions . Hooper identifies research as being key to his process of directing period dramas such as John Adams in order to make the scenes authentic . For The Damned United , Hooper and director of photography Ben Smithard researched the look of the late 1960s and early 1970s through football photography books . Hooper has also been influenced by cinematographer Larry Smith , who worked with Stanley Kubrick and advised Hooper of techniques used by Kubrick . Hooper and Smith have worked together on Cold Feet , Love in a Cold Climate , Prime Suspect , Red Dust and Elizabeth I.
Hooper also uses uncommon framing techniques to emphasise story ; in John Adams , he wanted to imply American independence seemed unlikely during the Revolutionary War , so he used " a very rough camera style — almost all hand held , wide lenses close to the actors , lots of movement , many cameras shooting at once so there was often not a settled master " point of view " , and lots of unmatching dutch tilts so the horizon lines of the frame were often being thrown off . " The America @-@ set scenes were contrasted by the scenes set in France , in which more traditional filming techniques were employed to evoke a feel of entrenched values . Similarly , in The Damned United , Hooper began to experiment with using wide @-@ angle lenses and putting actors in the extreme edges of the frame . He was influenced by the unusual framing from social photography of the 1970s , and he and Ben Smithard decided to adopt the framing style while scouting locations . Hooper used the same style in The King 's Speech , particularly in the scene where Bertie and Logue meet in Logue 's consulting room ; Colin Firth is framed to the extreme left of the picture , leaving most of the shot dominated by the rough wall behind Firth .
Another frequently used technique is Hooper 's tendency to use a variety of focal length camera lenses to distort the resulting picture . In The Damned United he used a 10mm lens , notably in the scene where Clough stays inside during the Derby – Leeds match . Hooper operated the camera in this scene himself . In The King 's Speech , Hooper used " typically 14mm , 18mm , 21mm , 25mm and 27mm " lenses and put the camera close to the actors ' faces . Hooper said the use of this method in the first consulting room scene served to " suggest the awkardness and tension of Logue and Bertie 's first meeting " .
= = Filmography = =
= = Filmography by awards = =
= = = Feature films = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Ernest II , Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha =
Ernest II ( German : Ernst August Karl Johann Leopold Alexander Eduard ; 21 June 1818 – 22 August 1893 ) was the sovereign duke of the Duchy of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha , reigning from 1844 to his death . Ernest was born in Coburg as the eldest child of Ernest III , Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld , and his duchess , Princess Louise of Saxe @-@ Gotha @-@ Altenburg . Fourteen months later , his younger brother Prince Albert was born , who later became consort of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom . Ernest 's father became Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha in 1826 through an exchange of territories .
In 1842 , Ernest married Princess Alexandrine of Baden in what was to be a childless marriage . Soon after , he succeeded as duke upon the death of his father on 29 January 1844 . As reigning Duke Ernest II , he supported the German Confederation in the Schleswig @-@ Holstein Wars against Denmark , sending thousands of troops and becoming the commander of a German corps ; as such , he was instrumental in the 1849 victory at the battle of Eckernförde against Danish forces . After King Otto of Greece was deposed in 1862 , the British government put Ernest 's name forward as a possible successor . Negotiations fell through however for various reasons , not in the least of which was that he would not give up his beloved duchies in favor of the Greek throne .
A supporter of a unified Germany , Ernest watched the various political movements with great interest . While he initially was a great and outspoken proponent of the liberal movement , he surprised many by switching sides and supporting the more conservative ( and eventually victorious ) Prussians during the Austro @-@ Prussian and Franco @-@ Prussian wars and subsequent unification of Germany . His support of the conservatives came at a price however , and he was no longer viewed as the possible leader of a political movement . According to historian Charlotte Zeepvat , Ernest became " increasingly lost in a whirl of private amusements which earned only contempt from outside " .
Ernest 's position was often linked to his brother Prince Albert , husband of Queen Victoria . The two boys were raised as though twins , and became closer upon the separation and divorce of their parents , as well as the eventual death of their mother . The princes ' relationship experienced phases of closeness as well as minor arguments as they grew older ; after Albert 's death in 1861 , Ernest became gradually more antagonistic to Victoria and her children , as well as increasingly bitter toward the United Kingdom , publishing anonymous pamphlets against various members of the British royal family . Despite their increasingly differing political views and opinions however , Ernest accepted his second eldest nephew Prince Alfred , Duke of Edinburgh as his heir @-@ presumptive , who upon Ernest 's death on 22 August 1893 at Reinhardsbrunn , succeeded to the ducal throne .
= = Early life = =
Ernest , Hereditary Prince of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld , was born at Ehrenburg Palace in Coburg on 21 June 1818 . He was the elder son of Ernest III , Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld and his first wife Princess Louise of Saxe @-@ Gotha @-@ Altenburg . He was soon joined by a brother , Prince Albert , who would later become the husband of Queen Victoria . Though Duke Ernest fathered numerous children in various affairs , the two boys would have no other legitimate siblings . In 1826 , their father succeeded as Ernest I , Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha through an exchange of territories after the death of the duke 's uncle , Frederick IV , Duke of Saxe @-@ Gotha @-@ Altenburg .
There are various accounts of Ernest 's childhood . When he was fourteen months old , a servant commented that Ernest " runs around like a weasel . He is teething and as cross as a little badger from impatience and liveliness . He is not pretty now , except his beautiful black eyes " . In May 1820 , his mother described Ernest as " very big for his age , as well as intelligent . His big black eyes are full of spirit and vivacity " . Biographer Richard Hough writes that " even from their infancy , it was plainly evident that the elder son took after his father , in character and appearance , while Albert strongly resembled his mother in most respects " . Ernest and his brother often lived with their grandmother the Dowager Duchess of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld until her death in 1831 .
He and Albert were brought up and educated together as if they were twins . Though Albert was fourteen months younger , he surpassed Ernest intellectually . According to their tutor , " they went hand @-@ in @-@ hand in all things , whether at work or at play . Engaging in the same pursuits , sharing the same joys and the same sorrows , they were bound to each other by no common feelings of mutual love " . Perhaps the " sorrows " aforementioned related to their parents ' marriage . It was not a happy one and Duke Ernest I was continually unfaithful . In 1824 , Ernest I and Louise divorced ; she subsequently left Coburg and was disallowed from seeing her sons again . She soon remarried to Alexander von Hanstein , Count of Pölzig and Beiersdorf , dying in 1831 at the age of thirty . The year after her death , their father remarried his niece Duchess Marie of Württemberg , who was his sister Antoinette 's daughter . Their stepmother was thus also their first cousin . The duke and his new duchess were not close , and would produce no children ; while the boys formed a happy relationship with their stepmother , Marie had little to no input in her stepsons ' lives . The separation and divorce of their parents , as well as the later death of their mother left the boys scarred and in close companionship with each other .
In 1836 , Ernest and Albert visited their matrimonially eligible cousin Princess Victoria of Kent , spending a few weeks at Windsor . Both boys , and especially Albert were considered by his family to be a potential husband for the young princess , and they were both taught to speak competent English . Their father first thought that Ernest would make a better husband to Victoria than Albert , possibly because his sporting interests would be better received by the British public . Most others favored Albert over Ernest as a possible husband however . Temperamentally , Victoria was much more like Ernest , as both were lively and sociable with a love for dancing , gossip , and late nights ; conversely , this fast pace made Albert physically ill . Victoria believed Ernest had a " most kind , honest , and intelligent expression in his countenance " , while Albert " seemed full of goodness and sweetness , and very clever and intelligent " . No offer of marriage was forthcoming for either brother however , and they returned home .
Ernest entered military training later that year . In April 1837 , Ernest and Albert and their household moved to the University of Bonn . Six weeks into their academic term , Victoria succeeded as Queen of the United Kingdom . As rumors of an impending marriage between her and Albert interfered with their studies , the two brothers left on 28 August 1837 at the close of the term to travel around Europe . They returned to Bonn in early November to continue their studies . In 1839 , the brothers traveled to England again , where Victoria found her cousin Albert agreeable and soon proposed . This connection would have many implications upon Ernest in the future ; for instance , he was selected as godfather for Albert 's second daughter Princess Alice , and would eventually come to give her away at her wedding , only months after Albert 's death .
= = Marriage = =
Various candidates were put forward as a possible wife for Ernest . His own father wanted him to look high @-@ up for a wife , such as a Russian grand duchess . One possibility was Princess Clémentine of Orléans , a daughter of Louis Philippe I , whom he met while visiting the court at the Tuileries . Such a marriage would have required his conversion from Lutheranism to Roman Catholicism however , and consequently nothing came of it . She later married his cousin Prince August of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha . Ernest was also considered by Dowager Queen Maria Christina as a possible husband for her young daughter Isabella II of Spain , and by Queen Victoria for her cousin Princess Augusta of Cambridge .
In Karlsruhe on 3 May 1842 , Ernest married 21 @-@ year @-@ old Princess Alexandrine of Baden . She was the eldest daughter of Leopold , Grand Duke of Baden and Princess Sophie of Sweden , daughter of the deposed King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden . Though he gave his consent , his father was disappointed that his second son did not do more to advance the concerns of Coburg . The marriage did not produce any issue , though Ernest apparently fathered at least three illegitimate children in later years .
Ernest had suffered from a venereal disease in his late teens and early twenties , most likely as the consequence of living a wild , promiscuous lifestyle . These qualities he had inherited under the tutelage of his father , who took his sons to " sample the pleasures " of Paris and Berlin , to Albert 's " horror and shame " . Ernest had been so visibly deteriorating in appearance as a result that Sarah Lyttelton , a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting of Queen Victoria , observed at Windsor in 1839 that he was " very thin and hollow @-@ cheeked and pale , and no likeness to his brother , nor much beauty . But he has fine dark eyes and black hair , and light figure , and a great look of spirit and eagerness " . Later that year , Albert counseled his brother against finding a wife until his ' condition ' was fully recovered . He further warned that continued promiscuity could leave Ernest incapable of fathering children . Some historians believe that while he himself was able to father other children , the disease rendered his young wife infertile .
As the years went by with further childlessness , Ernest became more distant to his wife , and was continually unfaithful . Though Alexandrine continued to be devoted , choosing to ignore those relationships she was aware of , her loyalty became increasingly baffling to those outside her immediate family . By 1859 , after seventeen years of childlessness , Ernest took no further interest in his wife .
= = Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha = =
On 29 January 1844 , Ernest 's father died in Gotha , one of the territories their family had recently acquired . Ernest consequently succeeded to the duchies of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha as Ernest II .
= = = Development of a constitution = = =
Extravagant to a great degree , Ernest had many money troubles throughout his reign . In January 1848 , Ernest visited his brother in the midst of political unrest in Germany . Upon his return , he also discovered unrest in Coburg . One of the many concerns related to finances . Although Ernest had a large inheritance , he also had frequent debts . There were increasing calls to nationalize most of his property . Indeed , Albert had to intervene at one point and spare his brother the embarrassment of losing one of his Coburg properties .
During the 1848 turmoil in Germany , Albert had been constructing his own liberal reform plan , under which a single monarch , chancellor , and parliament would unite the German states ; in addition , each state would retain its own current ruling dynasty . As this plan pertained to his brother , Ernest was given a copy in the hope that he would develop his own liberal constitution . Ernest subsequently made a few concessions , but his position remained sound , not counting the increasing problem of his debts . A constitution was drafted and promulgated in 1849 in Gotha , though one had existed in Coburg since 1821 . In 1852 , both constitutions were converged into one , which converted the personal union of the two duchies into a real union ; the duchies were now inseparable , with a common set of institutions . During the political turmoil , timely concessions and Ernest 's popular habit of mingling with " the people in their pleasures " were instrumental in keeping him from losing his throne . Furthermore , various contemporary sources state that Ernest was an able , just and very popular ruler , which may have also helped keep him in power .
= = = Schleswig @-@ Holstein wars = = =
From 1848 to 1864 , Denmark and the German Confederation fought over control of the two duchies of Schleswig and Holstein . Historically , the duchies had been ruled by Denmark since medieval times , but there remained a large German majority . This majority was sparked to rebellion after Frederick VII of Denmark announced on 27 March 1848 the duchies would become an integral part of Denmark under his new liberal constitution . Prussia soon became involved , supporting the uprising and beginning the First Schleswig War . Ernest sent 8 @,@ 000 men initially , adding to the army sent by the German Confederation . He also desired to be given a military job during the war , but was refused , as it was " extremely difficult to offer me a position in the army of Schleswig @-@ Holstein corresponding to my rank " , according to his memoirs . He agreed to a smaller command , coming to lead a Thuringian contingent ; he commented in a letter to his brother that " I should have declined any other command of the kind , but I could not refuse this one , as , in the present condition of our States , it is important to keep the executive power in our hands " . As commander of a German corps , Ernest was instrumental in winning the 5 April 1849 battle of Eckernförde against Danish forces .
The first war ended in 1851 , but would resume in 1864 . During this interlude , Ernest fervently opposed the marriage of his nephew Albert Edward , Prince of Wales ( ' Bertie ' ) to Princess Alexandra of Denmark , a daughter of the future Christian IX of Denmark ( and therefore an enemy of the German states ) . He believed that such a match flew in the face of German interests . Albert replied angrily " What has that got to do with you ? ... Vicky has racked her brains to help us to find someone , but in vain ... We have no [ other reasonable ] choice " . Albert agreed there were going to be problems with the match , but as he could find no alternative bride , he wrote to Ernest that keeping the affair a private matter ( and outside the realm of government ) was " the only way to prevent a break with Prussia and the only way to keep the game in our own hands , impose the conditions that we think necessary , and as far as we can , take off its political edge " . Albert also warned his son of Ernest 's endeavors to interfere with the match , commenting , " Your uncle ... will try his hand at this work . Your best defence will be not to enter on the subject , should he broach it " .
Soon after writing these letters , Prince Albert died on 14 December 1861 . His death helped Ernest repair his relationship with his sister @-@ in @-@ law , as Victoria had been becoming increasingly angrier over Ernest 's objections to the Danish match . The two brothers had always been close , whatever their disagreements , and Albert 's death left Ernest " wretched " , noted Victoria in a letter to her eldest daughter . The death did not solve their argument however ; seeing that his direct involvement had failed to persuade Victoria , Ernest tried a new tactic . He began to spread gossip about Alexandra and her family , in which her mother Princess Louise " had had illegitimate children and Alexandra had had flirtations with young officers " ; he also wrote to Louise herself , warning that Bertie would be an unfortunate choice for a husband . Additionally , Ernest met with his nephew at Thebes , most likely attempting to discourage him from the match in person . In an 11 April letter , Victoria unhappily noted to her eldest daughter " You did not tell me that Bertie had met Uncle Ernest at Thebes ... I am always alarmed when I think of Uncle Ernest and Bertie being together as I know the former will do all he can to set Bertie against the marriage with Princess Alix " . Despite Ernest 's disprovable , Bertie was duly married to Alexandra on 10 March 1863 .
The Duke had a reputation for being a strong friend of the United States , as did his brother Albert . He was , however , the only European sovereign to appoint a consul , Ernst Raven , to the Confederate States of America , on 30 July 1861 . The Texas government , where Raven resided , made it clear , however , that his request for an exequatur did not imply or extend diplomatic recognition to the Confederate regime .
= = = Nomination for the Greek throne = = =
On 23 October 1862 , Otto of Bavaria , King of Greece was deposed in a bloodless coup . The Greeks were eager to have someone close to Britain and Queen Victoria replace Otto ; some desired to allow Prince Alfred , Duke of Edinburgh ( her second son ) succeed as King of Greece . He was elected with 95 % of the vote in the Greek head of state referendum of 1862 . After his ineligibility was confirmed however , the Greeks began looking for other possible candidates , which included Duke Ernest at the British government 's suggestion . To their and Victoria 's reasoning , if Ernest were to take the Greek throne , Alfred could immediately take up his inheritance and succeed Ernest as duke ( the Prince of Wales having passed his claim to the duchy of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha onto his younger brother ) . Many were in favor of his nomination , including Prime Minister Lord Palmerston and Ernest 's sister @-@ in @-@ law . In a letter written to her uncle Leopold I of Belgium , Victoria stated her support for a new royal branch of the House of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha ( as Leopold had been chosen as King of the Belgians in 1831 ) as well as her desire for her second son Alfred to succeed his uncle in the duchy . As negotiations continued however , she began to lose enthusiasm for the idea .
There were problems to the nomination ; Ernest had no children , and thus would have had to adopt one of the princes of his house to succeed him as King of Greece . To solve this problem , Ernest suggested to Palmerston that he simply take the title regent of Greece and hold the kingdom in trust for his chosen heir . He also stipulated that if he accepted the throne , it should be subject to certain guarantees by the other powers . The apparent deal @-@ breaker however was the fact that Ernest wanted to acquire the Greek throne and still maintain control of his " safer " duchies . In the end , the British cabinet thought the proposed conditions unacceptable . His proposals turned down , Ernest in turn refused . In 1863 , the Greek throne was accepted by another member of a royal family : the Princess of Wales ' younger brother Prince William of Denmark . Ernest would later comment , " That this cup was spared me , I always regarded as a piece of good fortune " .
= = = Austro @-@ Prussian and Franco @-@ Prussian Wars = = =
Ernest , like his brother , was in favor of a German unified , federal state . To best realize this goal , Ernest liked to dabble in whatever political system promised the most success . He subsequently watched the growth of liberalism in Germany with much interest and tried to build links with the movement 's leaders . During Albert 's lifetime , Ernest took a close interest in the movement for reform , and was perceived as a progressive within Germany . His favorable view of liberalism caused his duchy to become an asylum for political refugees from other German states . In 1863 , he attended the liberal Frankfurt Conference , which was openly avoided by more conservative Prussia . Though his attendance made him no friends in Prussia , he developed such strong contacts in Austria that many looked to him as a potential leader in the mounting conflict between the northern and southern powers . He grew tired of the advice he received from Albert on the subject however ; as Ernest " was by no means inclined to consent to an energetic rule such as I adopted immediately afterwards for the perfection of the constitutional system " , according to Albert 's letters .
The Austro @-@ Prussian War was triggered by the desire of German conservative leaders to unify , albeit on different terms than their liberal counterparts . Ernest urged Prussian leaders against the impending war , and was an active advocate of the Austrian cause . Though Ernest normally followed more liberal politics than many of his counterparts , he began switching his views to align more closely with Prussian Minister President Otto von Bismarck by the mid @-@ 1860s . Despite this change in his private political views , he still had strong publicly known Austrian ties , and no one foresaw that Ernest would immediately side with the better @-@ equipped Prussians upon breakout of the war . His reasoning is usually understood as acting in the best interests of his duchies , and by extension , of himself . Regardless , it was seen as a betrayal of former friends ; Queen Victoria commented that Ernest " might have agreed to neutrality - for that might be necessary , but to change colours I cannot think right " .
Ernest was fortunate in his support of victorious Prussia ; many other petty German dukes , princes , and kings who had supported Austria suffered immensely at Hohenzollern hands . Hanover , Hesse @-@ Kassel , and Nassau for instance were all annexed to Prussia at the expense of their respective rulers . Though he had only recently changed his political views , Ernest was allowed to ride at the head of his battalion during the victory parade . His eldest niece Prussian Crown Princess Victoria ( " Vicky " ) was for one pleased with his Prussian support and commented " I am not accustomed to hearing so much praise of Coburg here . [ Ernest ] was not among the crushed and beaten foe , it is sad enough as it is to see so many of one 's friends suffering from the effects of their miscalculations " . Victoria 's husband Crown Prince Frederick was also pleased with Ernest 's decision , writing in his journal 28 September 1871 , that the duke 's " society always affords me peculiar pleasure , especially ... when his heart beats so warmly for Germany " .
Ernest 's support of the Prussians in the Austro @-@ Prussian War and later Franco Prussian War meant he was no longer the potential leader of a political movement ; although it was true that he had been able to retain his duchies , it had come at a price . According to historian Charlotte Zeepvat , Ernest " was increasingly lost in a whirl of private amusements which earned only contempt from outside " . Ernest funneled his political thoughts into the private sphere , preferring to write covertly sponsored articles in the Coburg press that became increasingly embittered against England . In 1886 , Ernest published Co @-@ Regents and Foreign Influence in Germany , a pamphlet that greatly angered his family ; though produced anonymously , no one doubted that it was written by Ernest . It attacked Vicky as a disloyal German that was too dependent on her mother , and declared that she had been too indiscreet in passing along confidential information during both war and peacetime . Queen Victoria was furious , writing to Vicky , " What you told me of Uncle E and that pamphlet is simply monstrous . I assure you that I felt great difficulty in writing to him for his birthday , but I wrote it as short and cool as I could consistently with civility " . " Dear Uncle Ernest does us all a great deal of harm by his odd ways and uncontrollable tongue with his very lively imagination " .
= = = Later years = = =
Later in his reign , Ernest 's actions managed to continually anger his sister @-@ in @-@ law . Though Victoria loved Ernest because he was Albert 's brother , she was displeased that Ernest was writing his memoirs , worrying about their contents mainly in regard to her dead husband . Despite their disputes , Ernest still met with Victoria and her family occasionally . In 1891 , they met in France ; Victoria 's lady @-@ in @-@ waiting commented " the old Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha has been here today with his wife . He is the Prince Consort 's only brother and an awful looking man , the Queen dislikes him particularly . He is always writing anonymous pamphlets against the Queen and the Empress Frederick , which naturally creates a great deal of annoyance in the family " .
Throughout his reign , Ernest had been known for his extravagance and womanizing ; as he grew older , Ernest enjoyed gossip and was " now a thoroughly disreputable old roué who enjoyed the outrage provoked by his actions " , leading Vicky to declare that her uncle " was his own enemy " . His behavior and manner of dress increasingly became a joke for younger generations . His great @-@ niece Marie of Edinburgh would later describe Ernest as " an old beau , squeezed into a frock @-@ coat too tight for his bulk and uncomfortably pinched in at the waist ' , sporting a top hat , lemon coloured gloves , and a rosebud in his lapel " . He put on weight and though on paper his wealth was large , he was still constantly in debt .
An excellent musician and amateur composer all his life , Ernest was a great patron of the arts and sciences in Coburg , often giving awards and titles to members of the artistic and scientific world , such as Paul Kalisch , a German opera singer and chemist William Ernest Bush . Ernest composed songs , hymns , and cantatas , as well as musical pieces for opera and the stage , including Die Gräberinsel ( 1842 ) , Tony , oder die Vergeltung ( 1849 ) , Casilda ( 1851 ) , Santa Chiara ( 1854 ) , and Zaïre , which met with success in Germany . He could also draw and play the piano . One of his operas , Diana von Solange ( 1858 ) , prompted Franz Liszt the following year to write an orchestral Festmarsch nach Motiven von E. H. z . S.-C.-G. , S.116 ( E. H. z . S.-C.-G. was short for Ernst Herzog zu Sachsen @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha ) . However , its production at the Metropolitan Opera in New York City in 1890 inspired dismal reviews , with one spectator commenting that its " music was simply rubbish " . Ernest was also an avid hunter and sportsman ; one contemporary remarked that he was " one of the foremost and keenest sportsman produced by the present century " . In addition , Ernest was an enthusiastic patron of everything connected with natural history , for instance traveling to Abyssinia with the German zoologist Alfred Brehm in 1862 .
Ernest II died at Reinhardsbrunn on 22 August 1893 after a short illness . A lifelong sportsman , his last words were apparently " Let the drive commence ! " His funeral was held in the Morizkirche in Coburg ; thousands of spectators came to the funeral , including Emperor Wilhelm and the Prince of Wales . He is buried in the ducal mausoleum in the Friedhof am Glockenberg which he himself had built in 1853 @-@ 8 .
Ernest was succeeded by his nephew Prince Alfred , Duke of Edinburgh .
= = Inheritance to Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha = =
For much of Ernest 's reign , the heir presumptive to Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha was his only sibling Prince Albert , consort of Queen Victoria . When it became increasingly more clear that Ernest would be childless , the possibility of a personal union between his duchies and the United Kingdom became real , a reality that was deemed undesirable . Special arrangements were made by a combination of constitutional clauses and renunciations to pass Ernest 's throne to a son of Albert while preventing a personal union . Consequently , Prince Alfred , Duke of Edinburgh , his brother 's second eldest son , was designated the childless Ernest 's heir presumptive on 14 December 1861 , when his older brother the Prince of Wales ( later Edward VII of the United Kingdom ) renounced his succession rights .
Issues arose over authority to control the upbringing of his heir @-@ presumptive . As head of the Coburg family , Ernest would normally have been able to arrange Alfred 's education and general upbringing unchallenged . This however was not the case . Alfred was torn between his British birth and his German inheritance . This was partly because Alfred was second @-@ in @-@ line to the United Kingdom until the birth of his nephew Prince Albert Victor , Duke of Clarence and Avondale , in 1864 . One example of the many problems of his education concerned the language he would speak . Although he grew up learning German , his native language was decided to be English . In addition , a naval career was chosen for Alfred , a common profession for a British prince but almost unheard of for a prince of Germany . Ernest also wanted Alfred to be educated in Coburg , but his brother refused . Albert 's refusal most likely stemmed from the negative British reaction that would have inevitably occurred and the fact that Albert was fearful of Alfred 's moral development . Thus despite Ernest 's protests , he went unheeded in Albert 's lifetime . In 1863 , Ernest told Victoria that it was time for Alfred to leave the navy and enter a German university . By March of the following year , it was decided that Alfred would attend Bonn University but be left to consider his future , as he was having reservations over permanently residing outside England . The matter was eventually resolved ; Alfred came to accept his inheritance , and Victoria understood and accepted that Ernest needed to be involved in the upbringing of his heir @-@ presumptive , with a strong German element added to his education and ( carefully chaperoned ) visits to Coburg .
= = Titles , styles , honours , and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
21 June 1818 – 12 November 1826 : His Serene Highness The Hereditary Prince of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld
12 November 1826 – 29 January 1844 : His Highness The Hereditary Prince of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha
29 January 1844 – 22 August 1893 : His Highness The Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha
= = = Honours = = =
Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha
KJ : Knight of St. Joachim
Grand Master of the Order of the Ernestine House of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha
Master Mason , 1857
= = = = Foreign = = = =
United Kingdom
KG : Knight of the Garter , 1844
German Empire
Recipient of the Iron Cross of 1870 , 1st and 2nd class
= = Ancestry = =
= = = Primary = = =
Baillie @-@ Grohman , William Adolph ( 1896 ) . Sport in the Alps in the Past and Present : An Account of the Chase of the Chamois , Red @-@ deer , Bouquetin , Roe @-@ deer , Capercaillie , and Black @-@ cock , with Personal References and Historical Notes and Some Sporting Reminisces of H.R.H. the Late Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha . London : Scribner .
Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha , Duke Ernest II of ( 1888 ) . Memoirs of Ernest II : Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha . London : Remington & Co . Publishers . , four volumes .
= = = Secondary = = =
Alden , Raymond ; George Berry ; Ernest I. Bogart ; et al . ( 1918 ) . The Encyclopedia Americana : A Library of Universal Knowledge , Volume 10 . New York : The Encyclopedia Americana Corporation .
Allinson , A.R. ( 2006 ) . The War Diary of the Emperor Frederick III - 1870 - 1871 . Home Farm Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 4067 @-@ 9995 @-@ 5 .
Berwanger , Eugene H. ( 1994 ) . The British Foreign Service and the American Civil War . Lexington , KY : University Press of Kentucky . ISBN 0 @-@ 8131 @-@ 1876 @-@ X.
Coit Gilman , Daniel ; Harry Thurston Peck ; Frank Moore Colby ( 1903 ) . The New International Encyclopædia , Volume 6 . New York : Dodd , Mead , and Company .
D 'Auvergne , Edmund Basil ( 1911 ) . The Coburgs : The Story of the Rise of a Great Royal House . New York : James Pott & Company . ISBN 1 @-@ 120 @-@ 85860 @-@ 7 .
Feuchtwanger , E.J. ( 2006 ) . Albert and Victoria : The Rise and Fall of the House of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha . London : Hambledon Continuum . ISBN 1 @-@ 85285 @-@ 461 @-@ 8 .
Gill , Gillian ( 2009 ) . We Two : Victoria and Albert : Rulers , Partners , Rivals . New York : Ballatine Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 345 @-@ 52001 @-@ 7 .
Grey , Hon. Charles ( 1868 ) . The Early Years of His Royal Highness The Prince Consort . New York : Harper & Brothers Publishers .
Hibbert , Christopher ( 2007 ) . Edward VII : The Last Victorian King . New York : Palgrave Macmillan .
Hough , Richard ( 1996 ) . Victoria and Albert . New York : St. Martin 's Griffin . ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 30385 @-@ 8 .
Kenning , George ( 1878 ) . Kenning 's Masonic Encyclopedia and Handbook of Masonic Archeology , History and Biography . London : Kessinger Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 7661 @-@ 6526 @-@ 4 .
Packard , Jerome M. ( 1998 ) . Victoria 's Daughters . New York : St. Martin 's Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 24496 @-@ 7 .
Pakula , Hannah ( 1997 ) . An Uncommon Woman : The Empress Frederick , Daughter of Queen Victoria , Wife of the Crown Prince of Prussia , Mother of Kaiser Wilhelm . New York : Simon and Schuster Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 684 @-@ 84216 @-@ 5 .
Weintraub , Stanley ( 1997 ) . Uncrowned King : The Life of Prince Albert . London : John Murray Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 7195 @-@ 5756 @-@ 9 .
Zeepvat , Charlotte ( July 2000 ) . " The Queen and Uncle E " . Royalty Digest X ( 109 ) : 1 – 7 . Retrieved 16 February 2010 .
= Kersal Moor =
Kersal Moor is a recreation area in Kersal , Greater Manchester , England which consists of eight hectares of moorland bounded by Moor Lane , Heathlands Road , St. Paul 's Churchyard and Singleton Brook .
Kersal Moor , first called Karsey or Carsall Moor , originally covered a much larger area , running down to the River Irwell . Evidence of activity during the Neolithic period has been discovered and the area was used by the Romans . It was the site of the first Manchester Racecourse and the second golf course to be built outside Scotland . It has been extensively used for other sporting pursuits , military manoeuvres and public gatherings such as the Great Chartist Meeting of 1838 , prompting the political theorist Friedrich Engels to dub it " the Mons Sacer of Manchester " .
With the increasing industrialisation and urbanisation of Manchester and Salford during the 18th and 19th centuries , the moor became one of the remaining areas of natural landscape of interest to amateur naturalists , one of whom collected the only known specimens of the now extinct moth species Euclemensia woodiella . It is now a Site of Biological Importance and in 2007 was designated as a Local Nature Reserve by English Nature .
= = Geography = =
Kersal Moor is one of the many fluvioglacial ridges that formed along the Irwell Valley during the melting of the glaciers at the end of the last ice age . Typically for this type of landform , the subsoil is composed of sand mixed with coarse gravel . The 19th century botanist Richard Buxton described this as " Mr. E.W. Binney 's drift deposit no.2 ... a deposit of sharp forest sand , parted with layers of gravel composed of Azoic , Palaeozoic and Triassic rocks , well rounded , parted with layers of fine sand , and having every appearance of a regular deposit by water . " This deposit is overlaid with a thin topsoil supporting a range of mosses , heathers , grasses , ferns , common broom , gorse and some trees , which are predominantly oak with some rowan , cherry and other broadleaved species . The land to the south is elevated , rising to a high point towards the south west . From this elevated position there are views across Manchester to the Derbyshire hills in the south , to the Pennines in the north east and across the Irwell Valley and Salford in the west . The land falls away to the north , ending with two drumlin @-@ shaped hills on the northern edge , which were probably formed by sediment from the meltwater of the receding glaciers , in a process known as sedimentary fluting . The moor is criss @-@ crossed with footpaths , many of which cut through to the sand and gravel below . Singleton Brook , to the north of the moor , denotes the boundary between Salford and Prestwich .
= = History = =
Flint scrapers , knives and other materials associated with neolithic humans were discovered on the moor in the late 19th and early 20th century by local antiquarians such as Charles Roeder . The Roman road from Manchester ( Mamucium ) to Ribchester ( Bremetennacum ) roughly followed the line of the A56 road ( Bury New Road ) which is just to the east of Kersal Moor . There was a Roman camp at Rainsough just to the west , and some have speculated that there may have been a second camp to the east , in the area known as Castle Hill , making a defensive line across the moor to protect the north of Mamucium .
The 18th century historian John Whitaker said of the moor :
" The moor of Kersal was in the time of the Romans , perhaps in that of the Britons before them , and for many ages after both , a thicket of oaks and a pasture for hogs ; and the little knolls , that so remarkably diversify the plain , and are annually covered with mingled crowds rising in ranks over ranks to the top , were once the occasional seats of the herdsmen that superintended these droves into the woods . "
However , the last of these trees were burnt around 1880 .
= = = Sport on the moor = = =
The first Manchester racecourse was sited on the moor . The earliest record of horse @-@ racing is contained in the following notice in the London Gazette of 2 – 5 May 1687 :
On Carsall Moore near Manchester in Lancashire on the 18th instant , a 20 £ . plate will be run for to carry ten stone and ride three heats , four miles each heat . And the next day another plate of 40 £ . will be run for at the same moore , riding the same heats and carrying the same weight . The horses marks are to be given in four days before to Mr. William Swarbrick at the King 's Arms in Manchester .
The racecourse is shown on the map of 1848 as a roughly oval @-@ shaped course extending around the west , north and east of the moor , crossing Moor Lane and carrying on around the ground that is now the home of Salford City F.C. , roughly following the line of what is now Nevile Road . John Byrom ( 1692 – 1763 ) , the owner of Kersal Cell , was greatly opposed to the racing and wrote a pamphlet against it , but the racing continued for fifteen years until , probably through Dr Byrom 's influence , they were stopped in 1746 , the year of the Jacobite rising . After this there is known to have been at least one race in 1750 ; regular fixtures recommenced in 1759 , and were then held every year until 1846 , when they were transferred to the New Barns racecourse . Racing carried on there until the new Castle Irwell Racecourse was built , just across the river from the moor , in Lower Broughton in 1847 . Today part of the course can still be seen as a wide , well @-@ worn path stretching from east to west along the northern side of the moor .
During the 18th century the moor was also used for nude male races , allowing females to study the form before choosing their mates . Indeed , in 1796 Roger Aytoun , known as " Spanking Roger " ( who was later a hero of the siege of Gibraltar ) acquired Hough Hall in Moston through marriage to the widowed Barbara Minshull , after such a race .
The moor has also been used for a number of other sporting activities . In the 18th and early 19th century archery was still practised as a village sport , and the archers of Broughton , Cheetham and Prestwich were renowned countrywide . The Broughton archers practised their sport on Kersal Moor and in 1793 the Manchester writer , James Ogden , composed a poem in praise of them , which begins :
The Broughton Archers , and the bowmen good
Of Lancashire , keep up the former name
Their sires acquir 'd , for skill in archery ...
and ends with :
... Near Kersal Moor the Broughton archers fix
Their targets pierced with many a well aimed shot .
By 1830 , however , archery had become the sport of gentlemen and an exclusive club called the " Broughton Archers " was formed , the membership of which included some of the most influential men in the town . They originally met at a public house nicknamed " Hard Backed Nan 's " on the site of Bishopscourt where the Bishop of Manchester now resides , but after Bury New Road was built and the site became too public , they moved to the Turf Tavern on Kersal Moor . In 1818 a golf course was founded on the moor for the Manchester Golf Club , a group of Manchester businessmen , some of whom had emigrated from Scotland . This was only the second course to be built outside Scotland . The course at that time consisted of only five holes and had no fairways or greens as the players had to share the ground with other users . The club was very exclusive and by 1825 a club house had been built on Singleton Road . By 1869 the course had increased to nine holes and the club continued playing on the moor until 1862 when a new course was built a few hundred yards away at Kersal Vale .
The archery ground became Kersal Cricket Ground in 1847 and in 1881 the Northern Tennis Tournament was staged there . In 1919 the ground became the home of Manchester 's oldest rugby club , Manchester Football Club . When Manchester F.C. moved in 1968 they were replaced briefly by Langworthy Juniors and then Salford City F.C. , who still lease the ground today .
= = = Public gatherings and military use = = =
As one of the largest open spaces close to Manchester , the moor has a history of use for army manoeuvres and large public gatherings . In his book The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 , Friedrich Engels referred to it as the Mons Sacer of Manchester . This was a reference to the hill to which the plebs ( common citizens ) of Rome withdrew en masse in 494 BC as an act of civil protest .
In 1789 and 1790 there had been a spate of highway and house robberies . Gangs of armed men had entered houses in the middle of the night and taken away all they could carry . Armed patrols were placed around the neighbourhood to little effect until , at last , a man named James Macnamara was arrested with three others for burglary at the Dog and Partridge Inn on Stretford Road . Macnamara was tried at Lancaster Assizes and sentenced to be hanged on Kersal Moor as a warning to other criminals . A large number of people came to watch the execution but , as Joseph Aston said in his Metrical Records of Manchester " no one could suppose that the example had any use ... as several persons had their pockets picked within sight of the gallows and the following night a house was broken into and robbed in Manchester " .
The Stockport , Bolton and Rochdale Volunteers were reviewed on Kersal Moor on 25 August 1797 and in June 1812 , 30 @,@ 000 troops from the Wiltshire , Buckinghamshire , Louth and Stirling regiments were camped there ready for action to suppress the Luddites . In 1818 a protest meeting was held on the moor by coal miners to publicise their case for better pay , because of the dangers they faced at work .
A duel
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was fought on the moor in July 1804 between Mr. Jones and Mr. Shakspere Philips . Mr. Jones fired at Mr. Philips without effect and Mr. Philips then fired his pistol in the air , upon which the seconds interfered , the two man shook hands and honour was satisfied . Two weeks later , two other men who had been quarrelling in the newspapers met on the moor to gain satisfaction . However , the magistrates had been informed and the men were arrested before the duel could take place .
On 12 April 1831 the 60th Rifle Corps had carried out an exercise on the moor under the command of Lieutenant P.S. Fitzgerald , and a detachment of 74 men were returning to their barracks in Salford by way of Lower Broughton and Pendleton . As the men were crossing the Broughton Suspension Bridge , built four years earlier by Fitzgeralds 's father , they felt it begin to vibrate in time with their footsteps , and before they had reached the other side the bridge collapsed . Although no one was killed twenty men were injured , six of them seriously . It was this incident that caused the British Military to issue the order for soldiers to " break step " when crossing a bridge .
The largest of a series of Chartist meetings was held on the moor on 24 September 1838 . The meeting , which was planned as a show of strength and to elect delegates for the Chartist national convention , attracted speakers from all over the country and a massive crowd , which was estimated at 30 @,@ 000 by the Manchester Guardian and 300 @,@ 000 by the Morning Advertiser .
The Chartists were active for the next eight months but the poor attendance at a second meeting , held on the moor at the same time as a racing fixture on 25 May 1839 , signalled the end of the movement . Although the movement was not successful initially , most of the Chartists ' demands were eventually met by Parliament .
In 1848 , the moor was used as an encampment for the East Norfolk Regiment as part of an increased military presence in Lancashire brought about by the unrest caused by Chartist agitation .
= = = Other pursuits = = =
As a relatively rural environment in an increasingly urbanised area , Kersal Moor was also used for more peaceful pursuits . During the 18th and 19th centuries it was much frequented by amateur naturalists and botanists . One of the botanists was Richard Buxton who went on to write A Botanical Guide to Manchester . In 1829 an amateur insect collector named Robert Cribb collected a series of about fifty small yellow and brown moths from a rotting alder on the moor . These turned out to be a previously unknown species of moth , but they were mistakenly attributed to a friend of Cribb 's , the collector R. Wood , who had asked an expert to identify them . The moths were classified as Pancalia woodiella ( today Euclemensia woodiella ) in Wood 's honour .
The only specimen I have seen of this beautiful Moth , which is larger than the others , is a female ; it was taken on Kersall @-@ moor the middle of last June by Mr. R. Wood , of Manchester , to whom I have the pleasure of dedicating it ; — a most zealous and successful naturalist , to whose liberality I am indebted for many valuable insects . - John Curtis writing in British Entomology 1830
Enraged by this , and by accusations of fraudulently passing off foreign moths as British , Cribb gave up collecting and left the rest of the specimens with his landlady as security for a debt . Here the stories from Manchester University and The Australian Museum , Victoria differ as to whether it was Cribb 's pub landlady or the landlady of his lodgings , but either way the result was the same . The debt was not paid on time and when Cribb went back for the moths , which he had already sold to another collector , his landlady had burnt them . Subsequent efforts by other collectors to find more of the moths were unsuccessful , and the three specimens left in existence are thought to be the only representatives of an extinct species .
Towards the end of the 19th century a Mr. Cosmo Melvill contributed an article to the Journal of Botany in which he gave a list of more than 240 plants and flowers , not including mosses , that he had found on the moor .
Shortly after 6.00pm on 10 September 1848 the " celebrated aeronaut " George Gale ascended in a hot air balloon from Pomona Gardens in Hulme . After discharging a number of fireworks from a height of over 1 @,@ 000 feet , Lieutenant Gale drifted in various directions and made abortive attempts to land in a number of locations . Eventually , at about 10.00pm , the balloon descended safely in the farmyard of Mr Josiah Taylor on Kersal Moor .
In 1852 , Queen Victoria commissioned a painting by the artist William Wyld which became A view of Manchester from Kersal Moor ( pictured ) . The painting , which depicts the moor as a beautiful pastoral scene overlooking Castle Irwell racecourse and the industrial landscape of Manchester , is now in the Royal Collection where it is listed as Manchester from Higher Broughton . A steel line engraving of the painting by the engraver Edward Goodall was also commissioned .
= = Literary references = =
The English radical and writer Samuel Bamford mentions Kersal Moor in his book Passages in the Life of a Radical ( 1840 – 1844 ) when he advises one of his friends to make his way from Middleton to Bolton via Kersal Moor to avoid the authorities :
Healey I advised to go to his brother at Bolton , and get some money , and keep out of sight entirely , until something further was known . His best way would be to avoid Manchester , and go over Kersal moor and Agecroft bridge ; and as I had a relation in that quarter who wished to see me , I would keep him company as far as Agecroft .
The races on the moor were mentioned in the 19th @-@ century novel The Manchester Man by Mrs. G Linnaeus Banks ( 1874 ) . The hero of the story , Jabez Clegg , meets a street boy named Kit Townley , of whom Mrs. Banks says :
He knew him to be not over @-@ scrupulous . He had seen him at Knott Mill Fair and Dirt Fair ( so called from its being held in muddy November ) , or at Kersal Moor Races , with more money to spend in pop , nuts , and gingerbread , shows and merry @-@ go @-@ rounds , flying boats and flying boxes , fighting cocks and fighting men , than he could possibly have saved out of the sum his father allowed him for pocket @-@ money , even if he had been of the saving kind ; and , coupling all these things together , Jabez was far from satisfied .
It is also mentioned in a collection of poems by Philip Connell called " Poaching on Parnassus " published in 1865 .
Lines to Mr. Isaac Holden by Philip Connell on his Drawing of the Prestwich Lunatic Asylum :
And Southward at due distance the huge hive ,
Of busy Manchester is all alive ,
Its towering chimnies , domes and steeples rise ,
In strange confusion thro ' the hazy skies ;
There Broughton glimmers in the evening sun ;
Here Cheetham Hill o 'ertops the vapours dun ;
There Kersal Moor the same bleak front doth shew ,
That met the view Eight hundred years ago ,
Where Clunian Monks there with their God did dwell ,
Within the precincts of its holy cell .
In 1876 the Lancashire dialect poet and songwriter Edwin Waugh moved from his Manchester home to Kersal Moor for the " fresher air " . Waugh 's early life was spent in Rochdale and although he worked in Manchester he yearned for the moors he remembered from his youth . He wrote the following poem about Kersal Moor
Kersal Moor
Sweet falls the blackbird 's evening song ,
in Kersal 's poised dell ;
But the skylarks trill makes the dewdrops thrill ,
In the bonny heather ;
Wild and free
Wild and free
Where the moorland breezes blow .
Oft have I roved you craggy steeps ,
Where the tinkling moorland rills ,
Sing all day long their low sweet song ,
To the lonely listening hills ;
And croon at night
In the pale moonlight
While mountain breezes blow .
As his health declined , Waugh moved to the seaside town of New Brighton . On his death in 1890 , his body was brought back to be buried in the graveyard of St. Paul 's Church , on the edge of the moorland he loved so well .
... Oh lay me down in moorland ground ,
And make it my last bed ,
With the heathery wilderness around ,
And the bonny lark o 'erhead :
Let fern and ling around me cling ,
And green moss o 'er me creep ;
And the sweet wild mountain breezes sing ,
Above my slumbers deep . - from The Moorland Breeze , Edwin Waugh ( 1889 )
= Shamanism in the Qing dynasty =
Shamanism was the dominant religion of the Jurchen people of northeast Asia and of their descendants , the Manchu people . As early as the Jin dynasty ( 1111 – 1234 ) , the Jurchens conducted shamanic ceremonies at shrines called tangse . There were two kinds of shamans : those who entered in a trance and let themselves be possessed by the spirits , and those who conducted regular sacrifices to heaven , to a clan 's ancestors , or to the clan 's protective spirits .
When Nurhaci ( 1559 – 1626 ) , the chieftain of the Jianzhou Jurchens , unified the other Jurchen tribes under his own rule in the early seventeenth century , he imposed the protective spirits of his clan , the Aisin Gioro , upon other clans , and often destroyed their shrines . As early as the 1590s , he placed shamanism at the center of his state 's ritual , sacrificing to heaven before engaging in military campaigns . His son and successor Hong Taiji ( 1592 – 1643 ) , who renamed the Jurchens " Manchu " and officially founded the Qing dynasty ( 1636 – 1912 ) , further put shamanistic practices in the service of the state , notably by forbidding others to erect new tangse for ritual purposes . In the 1620s and 1630s , the Qing ruler conducted shamanic sacrifices at the tangse of Mukden , the Qing capital . In 1644 , as soon as the Qing seized Beijing to begin their conquest of China , they named it their new capital and erected an official shamanic shrine there . In the Beijing tangse and in the women 's quarters of the Forbidden City , Qing emperors and professional shamans ( usually women ) conducted shamanic ceremonies until the abdication of the dynasty in 1912 .
Until at least the eighteenth century , shamanism was at the core of Manchu spiritual life and differentiated Manchus from Han Chinese even as Manchu Bannermen garrisoned in various Chinese cities were adopting many aspects of the Chinese lifestyle . In 1747 the Qianlong Emperor ( r . 1735 – 1796 ) commissioned the publication of a " Shamanic Code " to revive and regulate shamanic practices , which he feared were becoming lost . He had it distributed to Bannermen to guide their practice , but we know very little about the effect of this policy . Mongols and Han Chinese were forbidden to attend shamanic ceremonies . Partly because of their secret aspect , these rituals attracted the curiosity of Beijing dwellers and visitors to the Qing capital . Even after the " Shamanic Code " was translated into Chinese and published in the 1780s , outsiders had little understanding of these practices .
During his fieldwork among the Tungusic populations of " Manchuria " in the 1910s , Russian anthropologist S. M. Shirokogoroff found enough surviving practices to build a theory of shamanism that shaped later theoretical debates about shamanism . Since the late 1980s , however , these theories have been criticized for neglecting the relation between shamanism and the state . Historians are now arguing that shamanistic practices in northeast Asia were intimately tied to the establishment of states , an analysis that fits the Qing case very well .
= = Background = =
Shamanism is the religion most typical of Tungusic peoples of Northeast Asia . The word " shaman " itself ( saman in the Manchu language ) appears in every Tunguso @-@ Manchurian language and seems to be of Tungusic origins . The most common religion among the Manchus was shamanism , which they and their ancestors the Jurchens practiced long before their leaders conquered China as emperors of the Qing dynasty ( 1644 – 1911 ) .
= = Historical origins to 1644 = =
= = = Early Jurchen shamanism = = =
The Manchu name for a shamanic shrine or altar to the spirits is tangse . Because its Chinese equivalent tangzi ( 堂子 ) means " hall , " it may seem that tangse was derived from Chinese , but only around 1660 did tangse start to be translated as tangzi . Before that , it was rendered into Chinese as yemiao ( 謁廟 ) , or " visitation temple . " The term tangse may have originated in the portable " god boxes " ( also " tangse " ) in which the Jurchens placed god figurines when they were still mobile hunters . Once Jurchen bands started to settle into palisaded villages ( their typical kind of settlement ) , their tangse became permanent fixtures of the village .
Each clan — mukūn , a village or association of villages who claimed to share common ancestors — had its sacred protective spirits ( enduri ) . The shaman ( often a woman ) was in charge of placating spirits and dead ancestors and of contacting them to seek a good hunt or harvest , quick healing , success in battle , and other such favors . The point of contact between the community and the spirits was the " spirit pole " ( Manchu : šomo ; Chinese : 神柱 ; pinyin : shénzhù ) . Shamans played a crucial role in these early Jurchen communities , as the authority of the clan headman often depended on the assent of the shaman .
There were two kinds of Jurchen shamanistic rituals , corresponding to two kinds of shamans . The most common was " domestic ritual " : ritual @-@ based sacrifices to Heaven and to the clan 's ancestors conducted by hereditary shamans from that clan . " Primitive ritual , " on the other hand , was performed by people who had undergone a " shamanic illness , " which was seen as a sign that they had been chosen by the spirits . Entering into a trance , these " transformational " shamans let themselves be possessed by various animal spirits and sought the help of these spirits for purposes like healing or exorcism . These shamans set up an altar in their own houses and received a different kind of training from hereditary shamans .
Manchu shamans typically wore an apron , a feathered cap denoting their ability to fly to the spirit world , and a belt with dangling bells , and carried a knife , two wooden sticks with bells affixed to the top , and a drum they used during ceremonies . These attributes could still be observed among shamans from Manchuria and Mongolia in the early twentieth century .
= = = Shamanism after the rise of Nurhaci = = =
Jurchen shamanic practices were transformed by the rise of Qing founder Nurhaci ( 1559 – 1626 ) . As he started to unify the Jurchen tribes , Nurhaci destroyed the tangse of the defeated tribes and replaced their protective deities with the magpie , the totemic animal of his own clan , the Aisin Gioro . Tribes that voluntarily joined Nurhaci were allowed to keep their own gods . This absorption of other clans ' shamanic rituals into those of Nurhaci 's clan started a process of " state codification of religion " that continued into the eighteenth century .
In another transformation that " mirrored the process of political centralization " in Nurhaci 's state , the traditional Jurchen belief in multiple heavens was replaced by one Heaven called " Abka ama " or " Abka han . " This new shamanic Heaven became the object of a state cult similar to that of the Jurchen rulers ' cult of Heaven in the Jin dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) and to Chinggis Khan 's worship of Tengri in the thirteenth century . This state sacrifice became an early counterpart to the Chinese worship of Heaven . From as early as the 1590s , Nurhaci appealed to Heaven as , " the arbiter of right and wrong . " He worshipped Heaven at a shamanic shrine in 1593 before leaving for a campaign against the Yehe , a Jurchen tribe that belonged to the rival Hūlun confederacy . Qing annals also report that when Nurhaci announced his Seven Great Grievances against the Ming dynasty in April 1618 , he conducted a shamanic ceremony during which he burned an oath to Heaven written on a piece of yellow paper . This ceremony was deliberately omitted from the later Chinese translation of this event by the Qing court .
Nurhaci 's son Hong Taiji ( r . 1626 – 1643 ) , who renamed the Jurchens " Manchus " in 1635 , forbade commoners and officials from erecting shamanic shrines for ritual purposes , making the tangse " the monopoly of the ruler . " He also banned shamans from treating illness , albeit with little success . The Old Manchu Archives , a chronicle documenting Manchu history from 1607 to 1636 , show that state rituals were held at the tangse of the Qing capital Mukden in the 1620s and 1630s . Just before commanding Banner troops into China in early 1644 , Prince Dorgon ( 1612 – 1650 ) , who was then regent to the newly enthroned Shunzhi Emperor ( r . 1643 – 1661 ) , led the other Manchu princes in worshipping Heaven at the Mukden tangse .
Shamans could also be used for personal purposes , as when Nurhaci 's eldest son Cuyen supposedly tried to bewitch the entire Aisin Gioro lineage with the help of shamans in 1612 .
= = State shamanism after 1644 = =
= = = The Beijing tangse = = =
In 1644 , just a few months after the Qing seized the city of Beijing from the peasant rebels who had pushed the last emperor of the Ming dynasty to suicide , the Manchus constructed a new tangse in the city , modeled on the tangse of the former Qing capital Mukden . This " Manchu shamanist sanctuary , " an octagonal building whose shape was specific to the Aisin Gioro clan , was located outside the Imperial City to the southeast , but still within the Inner City occupied by Bannermen , making it convenient for imperial visits . There , the emperor made offerings to Heaven and various other deities , including the horse spirit and the Manchu progenitor . Chinese and Mongols were strictly forbidden from entering this ritual area .
The Qing state 's main shamanistic ritual was performed at the tangse by the emperor on the first day of the New Year . In the Shunzhi ( 1644 – 1661 ) , Kangxi ( 1662 – 1722 ) , and Yongzheng ( 1723 – 1735 ) eras , this ceremony was the emperor 's first activity on the first day of the New Year , but sometime during the Qianlong era ( 1736 – 1796 ) it fell to the second rank after private sacrifices to the Aisin Gioro ancestors . Even with this somewhat diminished importance , these shamanic rites continued to the end of the dynasty .
The tangse was destroyed in 1900 by foreign powers in the aftermath of the Boxer Uprising as part of reprisals for the two @-@ month siege of the international Legation Quarter . A new shrine was rebuilt inside the palace in December 1901 . Its former site became part of the expanded Italian legation . Historian Mark Elliott notes that in today 's Beijing , the old tangse would have been located on East Chang 'an Avenue , " directly opposite the ' modern ' wing of the Beijing Hotel . "
= = = Kunning Palace = = =
Daily shamanistic rites were also conducted in the women 's quarters , in the Palace of Earthly Tranquility ( Chinese : 坤寧宮 ; pinyin : Kunning gong ) , a building located near the north gate of the Forbidden City , on the central axis of the palace complex . This palace had served as the Empress 's residence under the Ming dynasty , but the Qing converted it for ritual use , installing a " spirit pole " to present sacrifices to heaven , changing the style of the windows , and setting up large cauldrons to cook sacrificial food .
The shamans in the Kunning Palace were all women . In the Shunzhi era ( 1644 – 1661 ) , the sacrifices were performed by the wives of Aisin Gioro men and by the emperor 's consorts . After that , the shamanesses were selected from the wives of " imperial guards " ( Chinese : 侍衛 ; pinyin : shìwèi ) , high officials belonging to Gioro households registered in the " Upper Three Banners , " which belonged directly to the emperor . These shamanesses ( Chinese : 薩滿太太 ; pinyin : sāmǎn tàitài ) , who were assisted by eunuchs , were managed by the " Office of Shamanism " ( Chinese : 神房 ; pinyin : shénfáng ) , a bureau under the authority of the Imperial Household Department . Only members of the imperial clan could attend such ceremonies .
= = = Role in Qing rulership = = =
The Qing emperor used shamanism to promote the dynasty 's legitimacy among the Tungusic peoples — such as the Evenks , Daurs , and Oroqens — who lived near the northeastern borders of the empire . They were taught the Manchu language and Manchu fashion , as well as legends recounting how Qing founder Nurhaci had been assisted by the spirits in his many exploits . Qing emperors adopted different images to address the different subjects of their multi @-@ ethnic empire . As khan of the Manchus and Mongols , he presented himself as an incarnation of the bodhisattva ( " enlightened being " ) Manjusri and as a universal Buddhist ruler protector of Tibetan Buddhism . As emperor of China ( huangdi ) , he sponsored civil examinations based on the Confucian Classics and worshipped at the Altar of Heaven . Shamanism was thus only one aspect of the Qing 's " extraordinarily flexible view of community and rulership " .
= = = Healing rituals = = =
Besides state ritual , the Manchus often resorted to shamans to treat illness . In 1649 Dorgon 's brother Dodo , who had helped the Qing conquer southern China in 1645 , fell ill with smallpox , a highly contagious disease that the Manchus particularly dreaded . He called a shaman named Jingguda to his bedside , but the shaman 's ritual therapies failed and Dodo died in April 1649 at the age of 35 . After variolation began in 1681 , shamanic sacrifices were performed for imperial sons who survived inoculation . The Kangxi Emperor ( r . 1661 – 1722 ) attempted to cure his sixth son Yinzuo ( 胤祚 ) with shamanic rites in June 1685 , but that son died a few days later .
= = The " Shamanic Code " of 1747 = =
In the 1740s , the Qianlong Emperor worried that shamanic traditions were becoming lost , especially among the Manchu Bannermen who lived in garrisons throughout the empire . To fight this trend , in 1741 he commissioned a " Shamanic Code " , based on the rites of the imperial clan , that would explain the use of shamanic instruments and the meaning of Manchu ritual incantations , many of which had been transmitted by officiants who were not fluent in Manchu , to the point of becoming nonsensical . It was completed in 1747 . Its full title in Manchu was ᡥᡝᠰᡝᡳ
ᡨᠣᡴᡨᠣᠪᡠᡥᠠ
ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠᠰᠠᡳ
ᠸᡝᠴᡝᡵᡝ
ᠮᡝᡨᡝᡵᡝ
ᡴᠣᠣᠯᡳ
ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ Wylie : Ghesei toktopuha Manchusai wetchere metere kauli pitghe , Möllendorff : Hesei toktobuha Manjusai wecere metere kooli bithe , which scholars have translated variously as " Imperially commissioned Manchu rituals for sacrificing to deities and to Heaven , " " Rites for the Manchu worship of Heaven and the spirits , " and " Imperially commissioned code of rituals and sacrifices of the Manchus . " The Code attempted to formalize Manchu shamanistic practices . Historian Pamela Crossley sees it as part of the Qianlong Emperor 's attempts to " standardize the cultural and spiritual life of the Manchus , " taking the practices of the imperial clan as a model .
Though the Shamanic Code was first kept in manuscript form , French Jesuit Joseph @-@ Marie Amiot had a study on it , " Rituels des Tartares Mandchous déterminés et fixés par l 'empereur comme chef de sa religion " , published in Amsterdam in 1773 . In 1777 the Qianlong Emperor ordered the code translated into Chinese for inclusion in the Siku quanshu . The Manchu version was printed in 1778 , whereas the Chinese @-@ language edition , titled Qinding Manzhou jishen jitian dianli ( 欽定滿洲祭神祭天典禮 ) , was completed in 1780 or 1782 .
The compilation of this Code " opened Qing shamanism to bureaucratic review " and modified the practices of ordinary Manchus . The Code was distributed to Bannermen to guide their practices . Commercial editions were even produced for sale to the common public . One of these editions , the Manzhou tiaoshen huanyuan dianli ( 滿洲跳神還願典例 ) , dated 1828 , has survived . Even though this " Shamanic Code " did not fully unify shamanic practice among the Banners , it " helped systematize and reshape what had been a very fluid and diverse belief system . "
= = Diversity of practices = =
There is little evidence concerning the shamanic practices of common Bannermen in the garrisons . We know that after the publication of the " Shamanic Code " some clans ( like the Šušu ) and tribes ( like the Xibe ) also wrote down their rituals and incantations , showing that the court model was not always followed . Shamanic sacrifices among ordinary households were simpler than those of the imperial clan . Noble Manchus in Beijing often erected spirit poles in their private homes , but because Manchu households were forbidden from having private tangse shrines , they made offerings to the spirit at a small altar called a weceku , where they installed portraits of their ancestors as well as a clan genealogy .
The worship of heaven in the Chinese imperial tradition paralleled shamanistic sacrifices , but only the emperor made offerings to the Chinese heaven , whereas ordinary Manchus could also worship shamanistic heaven . Both Chinese and Manchu heaven were an " all @-@ encompassing principle of cosmic order and human destiny " that could be used to give the state legitimacy .
In their shamanic ceremonies , Manchus worshipped a number of gods , including non @-@ Tungusic deities . Guandi and the bodhisattva ( Buddhist " enlightened being " ) Guanyin were two of a " handful of Chinese gods " who were integrated into the rituals of the state tangse and Kunning Palace . One of the four ritual sites in the tangse was a large hall where the Buddha , Guanyin , and Guandi received offerings several times a year , including at the New Year . Ordinary Manchu households rarely sacrificed to Buddhist deities , but almost all of them worshipped Guandi because of his association with war .
= = Shamanism and Manchu identity = =
At least into the eighteenth century , shamanism served to strengthen Manchu ethnic identity by forming " the spiritual core of Manchu life . " The Qing emperors also used shamanism to shape Manchu identity . In an edict dated 17 April 1727 in which he opposed Jesuit attempts to convert Chinese and Manchus to Catholicism , the Yongzheng Emperor ( r . 1722 – 1735 ) singled out Manchu converts for criticism . To the emperor , the " Lord of Heaven " — the Jesuit name for God in Chinese — was none other than the Heaven the Chinese and Manchus already worshipped . To convince Manchu nobles that they should use existing Manchu rituals for worshipping Heaven , he explained that , " In the empire we have a temple for honoring Heaven and sacrificing to Him . We Manchus have Tiao Tchin . The first day of every year we burn incense and paper to honor Heaven . We Manchus have our own particular rites for honoring Heaven . " In this edict , which we know through a French translation by court Jesuit Antoine Gaubil , Tiao Tchin refers to Tiao Shen ( 跳神 , literally " spirit @-@ jumping " ) , the Chinese name of the Manchu shamanic ceremony .
According to historian Pamela Crossley , proficiency with shamanism was among the qualities that the Qianlong Emperor ( r . 1735 – 1796 ) promoted as being part of the " Old Way " ( fe doro ) of the Manchus when he attempted to formalize the Manchu heritage late in his reign . Mark Elliott has countered that he has never seen shamanism listed among " the qualities the court expected of Manchus " in any Qing documents , and that shamanism was therefore " never formally enunciated as part of the Manchu Way " ( Manjusai doro ) . Nicola di Cosmo of the Institute for Advanced Studies comments that once Manchu rituals were codified into formal regulations , they became " mere simulacra of the ancestral cults " and lost their place at the center of the spiritual life of Manchu clans . Nonetheless the persistence of shamanistic practices at the Qing court into the twentieth century suggests that the Manchus were not automatically " sinicized " by the sole fact that they ruled over China .
Elliott argues that " shamanism contributed to Manchu identity ... by constructing a very obvious boundary between Manchu and Han . " Chinese residents and visitors , who were forbidden to observe the rituals performed at the shamanic shrine , saw these rites as " different and mysterious " or " secret and alien . " A visitor to Beijing in the early Qing remarked that the Tangzi was one of the three things one didn 't ask about in the capital . The difference between shamanic rites and Chinese rituals still " aroused significant interest . " Korean visitors from Joseon , for instance , often " asked questions about the secret Manchu rites in the Tangzi . " Writers who wanted to satisfy their readers ' curiosity about these exotic practices could only speculate or rely on the late eighteenth @-@ century Shamanic Code . This is why nineteenth @-@ century Chinese accounts about Manchu rituals are " fragmentary and often error @-@ prone , " while their explanations of ritual language are " positively confusing . "
= = Scholarly interpretations = =
During his fieldwork among the Tungusic peoples of " Manchuria " from 1912 to 1918 , Russian anthropologist S. M. Shirokogoroff ( 1887 – 1939 ) found enough surviving practices to develop an influential theory of shamanism . He noted that the northern Tungus had been heavily influenced by Manchu language and culture : they wore Manchu clothing and hairstyle , read Manchu books , and conducted weddings and funerals according to Manchu customs . As he also discovered , the Manchus venerated many Buddhist deities , so much that he hypothesized that northeast Asian shamanism was an outgrowth of Buddhism . This thesis has not been widely accepted . His definition of shamanism , however , has been widely discussed . Equipped with specific ritual implements , the shaman enters into a trance to gain control of harmful spirits who cause illness or misfortune to a clan or a tribe . His role is recognized by his society , and there is an explicit explanation of how he masters the spirits .
Shirokogoroff claimed that true shamanism only existed among the Tungus and the Manchus , but despite his warnings that Tungus shamanism could only be understood in relation to all other elements of Tungus culture , and that his findings should therefore not serve to develop a general interpretation of shamanism , Shirokogoroff 's ideas have shaped theoretical debates about shamanism . Social anthropologists Raymond Firth ( 1901 – 2002 ) and Ioan Myrddin Lewis ( b . 1930 ) — the latter a student of E. E. Evans @-@ Pritchard — drew from Shirokogoroff 's work to emphasize the social roles of shamans . Lewis 's influential analysis of spirit possession was also directly inspired by Shirokogoroff . Historian of religion Mircea Eliade ( 1907 – 1986 ) borrowed from the Russian ethnologist and many others to build his seminal theory of shamanism , which he presented in Shamanism : Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy ( 1964 , based on a French original dated 1951 ) . Eliade 's notion of " classic shamanism " or " shamanism in the strict and proper sense " was based on Siberian models . But whereas Shirokogoroff emphasized that control over the spirits was the chief function of shamanic rituals , Eliade stated that the ecstatic and visionary spirit @-@ journey induced by trance was the most central aspect of shamanism .
Shirokogoroff 's and Eliade 's views of shamanism were both centered on individuals and on the role of shamans in small groups . Shirokogoroff , for instance , considered eighteenth @-@ century Qing shamanism too formalized to be authentic . Historians of northeast Asia have criticized Eliade 's and Shirokogoroff 's interpretations because they neglect the political roles of shamans and shamanism 's relation with the state . Eliade 's claim that shamanism is by essence archaic , individualistic , and socially transgressive led him and his followers to neglect historical contexts in which shamanism fulfilled political functions or served the needs of the state , as it did under the Qing .
= Exponentiation =
Exponentiation is a mathematical operation , written as bn , involving two numbers , the base b and the exponent n . When n is a positive integer , exponentiation corresponds to repeated multiplication of the base : that is , bn is the product of multiplying n bases :
<formula>
In that case , bn is called the n @-@ th power of b , or b raised to the power n .
The exponent is usually shown as a superscript to the right of the base . Some common exponents have their own names : the exponent 2 ( or 2nd power ) is called the square of b ( b2 ) or b squared ; the exponent 3 ( or 3rd power ) is called the cube of b ( b3 ) or b cubed . The exponent − 1 of b , or 1 / b , is called the reciprocal of b .
When n is a negative integer and b is not zero , bn is naturally defined as 1 / b − n , preserving the property bn × bm = bn + m .
The definition of exponentiation can be extended to allow any real or complex exponent . Exponentiation by integer exponents can also be defined for a wide variety of algebraic structures , including matrices .
Exponentiation is used extensively in many fields , including economics , biology , chemistry , physics , and computer science , with applications such as compound interest , population growth , chemical reaction kinetics , wave behavior , and public @-@ key cryptography .
= = History of the notation = =
The term power was used by the Greek mathematician Euclid for the square of a line . Archimedes discovered and proved the law of exponents , 10a 10b
= 10a + b , necessary to manipulate powers of 10 . In the 9th century , the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Mūsā al @-@ Khwārizmī used the terms mal for a square and kahb for a cube , which later Islamic mathematicians represented in mathematical notation as m and k , respectively , by the 15th century , as seen in the work of Abū al @-@ Hasan ibn Alī al @-@ Qalasādī .
In the late 16th century , Jost Bürgi used Roman numerals for exponents .
Early in the 17th century , the first form of our modern exponential notation was introduced by Rene Descartes in his text titled La Géométrie ; there , the notation is introduced in Book I.
Nicolas Chuquet used a form of exponential notation in the 15th century , which was later used by Henricus Grammateus and Michael Stifel in the 16th century . The word " exponent " was coined in 1544 by Michael Stifel . Samuel Jeake introduced the term indices in 1696 . In the 16th century Robert Recorde used the terms square , cube , zenzizenzic ( fourth power ) , sursolid ( fifth ) , zenzicube ( sixth ) , second sursolid ( seventh ) , and zenzizenzizenzic ( eighth ) . Biquadrate has been used to refer to the fourth power as well .
Some mathematicians ( e.g. , Isaac Newton ) used exponents only for powers greater than two , preferring to represent squares as repeated multiplication . Thus they would write polynomials , for example , as ax + bxx + cx3 + d .
Another historical synonym , involution , is now rare and should not be confused with its more common meaning .
In 1748 Leonhard Euler wrote " consider exponentials or powers in which the exponent itself is a variable . It is clear that quantities of this kind are not algebraic functions , since in those the exponents must be constant . " With this introduction of transcendental functions , Euler laid the foundation for the modern introduction of natural logarithm as the inverse function for y =
ex .
= = Terminology = =
The expression b2
= b ⋅ b is called the square of b because the area of a square with side @-@ length b is b2 . It is pronounced " b squared " .
The expression b3 =
b ⋅ b ⋅ b is called the cube of b because the volume of a cube with side @-@ length b is b3 . It is pronounced " b cubed " .
The exponent indicates how many copies of the base are multiplied together . For example , 35
= 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 =
243 . The base 3 appears 5 times in the repeated multiplication , because the exponent is 5 . Here , 3 is the base , 5 is the exponent , and 243 is the power or , more specifically , the fifth power of 3 , 3 raised to the fifth power , or 3 to the power of 5 .
The word " raised " is usually omitted , and very often " power " as well , so 35 is typically pronounced " three to the fifth " or " three to the five " . The exponentiation bn can be read as b raised to the n @-@ th power , or b raised to the power of n , or b raised by the exponent of n , or most briefly as b to the n .
Exponentiation may be generalized from integer exponents to more general types of numbers .
= = Integer exponents = =
The exponentiation operation with integer exponents requires only elementary algebra .
= = = Positive integer exponents = = =
Formally , powers with positive integer exponents may be defined by the initial condition
<formula>
and the recurrence relation
<formula>
From the associativity of multiplication , it follows that for any positive integers m and n ,
<formula>
= = = Zero exponent = = =
Any nonzero number raised by the exponent 0 is 1 ; one interpretation of such a power is as an empty product . The case of 00 is discussed below .
= = = Negative exponents = = =
The following identity holds for an arbitrary integer n and nonzero b :
<formula>
Raising 0 by a negative exponent is left undefined .
The identity above may be derived through a definition aimed at extending the range of exponents to negative integers .
For non @-@ zero b and positive n , the recurrence relation from the previous subsection can be rewritten as
<formula>
By defining this relation as valid for all integer n and nonzero b , it follows that
<formula>
and more generally for any nonzero b and any nonnegative integer n ,
<formula>
This is then readily shown to be true for every integer n .
= = = Combinatorial interpretation = = =
For nonnegative integers n and m , the power nm is the number of functions from a set of m elements to a set of n elements ( see cardinal exponentiation ) . Such functions can be represented as m @-@ tuples from an n @-@ element set ( or as m @-@ letter words from an n @-@ letter alphabet ) .
= = = Identities and properties = = =
The following identities hold for all integer exponents , provided that the base is non @-@ zero :
<formula>
Exponentiation is not commutative . This contrasts with addition and multiplication , which are . For example , 2 + 3
= 3 + 2 =
5 and 2 ⋅ 3
= 3 ⋅ 2 =
6 , but 23
= 8 , whereas 32 =
9 .
Exponentiation is not associative either . Addition and multiplication are . For example , ( 2 + 3 ) + 4
= 2 + ( 3 + 4 ) =
9 and ( 2 ⋅ 3 ) ⋅ 4
= 2 ⋅ ( 3 ⋅ 4 ) =
24 , but 23 to the 4 is 84 or 4096 , whereas 2 to the 34 is 281 or 2417851639229258349412352 . Without parentheses to modify the order of calculation , by convention the order is top @-@ down , not bottom @-@ up :
<formula>
While Google and WolframAlpha follow the above convention , note that some computer programs such as Microsoft Office Excel or Matlab associate to the left instead , i.e. a ^ b ^ c is evaluated as ( a ^ b ) ^ c .
= = = Particular bases = = =
= = = = Powers of ten = = = =
In the base ten ( decimal ) number system , integer powers of 10 are written as the digit 1 followed or preceded by a number of zeroes determined by the sign and magnitude of the exponent . For example , 103
= 1000 and 10 − 4 =
0 @.@ 0001 .
Exponentiation with base 10 is used in scientific notation to denote large or small numbers . For instance , 299792458 m / s ( the speed of light in vacuum , in metres per second ) can be written as 2 @.@ 99792458 × 108 m / s and then approximated as 2 @.@ 998 × 108 m / s .
SI prefixes based on powers of 10 are also used to describe small or large quantities . For example , the prefix kilo means 103 = 1000 , so a kilometre is 1000 m .
= = = = Powers of two = = = =
The positive powers of 2 are important in computer science because there are 2n possible values for an n @-@ bit binary register .
Powers of 2 are important in set theory since a set with n members has a power set , or set of all subsets of the original set , with 2n members .
The negative powers of 2 are commonly used , and the first two have special names : half , and quarter .
In the base 2 ( binary ) number system , integer powers of 2 are written as 1 followed or preceded by a number of zeroes determined by the sign and magnitude of the exponent . For example , two to the power of three is written as 1000 in binary .
= = = = Powers of one = = = =
The powers of one are all one : 1n = 1 .
= = = = Powers of zero = = = =
If the exponent is positive , the power of zero is zero : 0n
= 0 , where n > 0 .
If the exponent is negative , the power of zero ( 0n , where n < 0 ) is undefined , because division by zero is implied .
If the exponent is zero , some authors define 00 =
1 , whereas others leave it undefined , as discussed below under § Zero to the power of zero .
= = = = Powers of minus one = = = =
If n is an even integer , then ( − 1 ) n
= 1 .
If n is an odd integer , then ( − 1 ) n =
− 1 .
Because of this , powers of − 1 are useful for expressing alternating sequences . For a similar discussion of powers of the complex number i , see § Powers of complex numbers .
= = = Large exponents = = =
The limit of a sequence of powers of a number greater than one diverges ; in other words , the sequence grows without bound :
bn → ∞ as n → ∞ when b > 1
This can be read as " b to the power of n tends to + ∞ as n tends to infinity when b is greater than one " .
Powers of a number with absolute value less than one tend to zero :
bn → 0 as n → ∞ when | b | < 1
Any power of one is always one :
bn
= 1 for all n if b =
1
If the number b varies tending to 1 as the exponent tends to infinity then the limit is not necessarily one of those above . A particularly important case is
( 1 + 1 / n ) n → e as n → ∞
See § The exponential function below .
Other limits , in particular of those that take on an indeterminate form , are described in § Limits of powers below .
= = Rational exponents = =
An nth root of a number b is a number x such that xn
= b .
If b is a positive real number and n is a positive integer , then there is exactly one positive real solution to xn =
b . This solution is called the principal nth root of b . It is denoted n √ b , where √ is the radical symbol ; alternatively , the principal root may be written b1 / n . For example : 41 / 2
= 2 , 81 / 3 =
2 .
The fact that <formula> solves <formula> follows from noting that
<formula>
If n is even , then xn
= b has two real solutions if b is positive , which are the positive and negative nth roots ( the positive one being denoted <formula> ) . If b is negative , the equation has no solution in real numbers for even n .
If n is odd , then xn =
b has one real solution . The solution is positive if b is positive and negative if b is negative .
The principal root of a positive real number b with a rational exponent u / v in lowest terms satisfies
<formula>
where u is an integer and v is a positive integer .
Rational powers u / v , where u / v is in lowest terms , are positive if u is even ( and hence v is odd ) ( because then bu is positive ) , and negative for negative b if u and v are odd ( because then bu is negative ) . There are two roots , one of each sign , if b is positive and v is even ( as exemplified by the case in which u
= 1 and v =
2 , whereby a positive b has two square roots ) ; in this case the principal root is defined to be the positive one .
Thus we have ( − 27 ) 1 / 3
= − 3 and ( − 27 ) 2 / 3 =
9 . The number 4 has two 3 / 2th roots , namely 8 and − 8 ; however , by convention 43 / 2 denotes the principal root , which is 8 . Since there is no real number x such that x2
= − 1 , the definition of bu / v when b is negative and v is even must use the imaginary unit i , as described more fully in the section § Powers of complex numbers .
Care needs to be taken when applying the power identities with negative nth roots . For instance , − 27 =
( − 27 ) ( ( 2 / 3 ) ⋅ ( 3 / 2 ) )
= ( ( − 27 ) 2 / 3 ) 3 / 2 =
93 / 2 = 27 is clearly wrong . The problem here occurs in taking the positive square root rather than the negative one at the last step , but in general the same sorts of problems occur as described for complex numbers in the section § Failure of power and logarithm identities .
= = Real exponents = =
The identities and properties shown above for integer exponents are true for positive real numbers with non @-@ integer exponents as well . However the identity
<formula>
cannot be extended consistently to cases where b is a negative real number ( see § Real exponents with negative bases ) . The failure of this identity is the basis for the problems with complex number powers detailed under § Failure of power and logarithm identities .
Exponentiation to real powers of positive real numbers can be defined either by extending the rational powers to reals by continuity , or more usually as given in § Powers via logarithms below .
= = = Limits of rational exponents = = =
Since any irrational number can be expressed as the limit of a sequence of rational numbers , exponentiation of a positive real number b with an arbitrary real exponent x can be defined by continuity with the rule
<formula>
where the limit as r gets close to x is taken only over rational values of r . This limit only exists for positive b . The ( ε , δ ) -definition of limit is used , this involves showing that for any desired accuracy of the result bx one can choose a sufficiently small interval around x so all the rational powers in the interval are within the desired accuracy .
For example , if x
= π , the nonterminating decimal representation π =
3 @.@ 14159 ... can be used ( based on strict monotonicity of the rational power ) to obtain the intervals bounded by rational powers
<formula> , <formula> , <formula> , <formula> , <formula> , <formula> , ...
The bounded intervals converge to a unique real number , denoted by <formula> . This technique can be used to obtain the power of a positive real number b for any irrational exponent . The function fb ( x ) = bx is thus defined for any real number x .
= = = The exponential function = = =
The important mathematical constant e , sometimes called Euler 's number , is approximately equal to 2 @.@ 718 and is the base of the natural logarithm . Although exponentiation of e could , in principle , be treated the same as exponentiation of any other real number , such exponentials turn out to have particularly elegant and useful properties . Among other things , these properties allow exponentials of e to be generalized in a natural way to other types of exponents , such as complex numbers or even matrices , while coinciding with the familiar meaning of exponentiation with rational exponents .
As a consequence , the notation ex usually denotes a generalized exponentiation definition called the exponential function , exp ( x ) , which can be defined in many equivalent ways , for example by :
<formula>
Among other properties , exp satisfies the exponential identity
<formula>
The exponential function is defined for all integer , fractional , real , and complex values of x . In fact , the matrix exponential is well @-@ defined for square matrices ( in which case this exponential identity only holds when x and y commute ) , and is useful for solving systems of linear differential equations .
Since exp ( 1 ) is equal to e and exp ( x ) satisfies this exponential identity , it immediately follows that exp ( x ) coincides with the repeated @-@ multiplication definition of ex for integer x , and it also follows that rational powers denote ( positive ) roots as usual , so exp ( x ) coincides with the ex definitions in the previous section for all real x by continuity .
= = = Powers via logarithms = = =
The natural logarithm ln ( x ) is the inverse of the exponential function ex . It is defined for b > 0 , and satisfies
<formula>
If bx is to preserve the logarithm and exponent rules , then one must have
<formula>
for each real number x .
This can be used as an alternative definition of the real number power bx and agrees with the definition given above using rational exponents and continuity . The definition of exponentiation using logarithms is more common in the context of complex numbers , as discussed below .
= = = Real exponents with negative bases = = =
Powers of a positive real number are always positive real numbers . The solution of x2
= 4 , however , can be either 2 or − 2 . The principal value of 41 / 2 is 2 , but − 2 is also a valid square root . If the definition of exponentiation of real numbers is extended to allow negative results then the result is no longer well @-@ behaved .
Neither the logarithm method nor the rational exponent method can be used to define br as a real number for a negative real number b and an arbitrary real number r . Indeed , er is positive for every real number r , so ln ( b ) is not defined as a real number for b ≤ 0 .
The rational exponent method cannot be used for negative values of b because it relies on continuity . The function f ( r ) =
br has a unique continuous extension from the rational numbers to the real numbers for each b > 0 . But when b < 0 , the function f is not even continuous on the set of rational numbers r for which it is defined .
For example , consider b
= − 1 . The nth root of − 1 is − 1 for every odd natural number n . So if n is an odd positive integer , ( − 1 ) ( m / n ) =
− 1 if m is odd , and ( − 1 ) ( m / n )
= 1 if m is even . Thus the set of rational numbers q for which ( − 1 ) q =
1 is dense in the rational numbers , as is the set of q for which ( − 1 ) q = − 1 . This means that the function ( − 1 ) q is not continuous at any rational number q where it is defined .
On the other hand , arbitrary complex powers of negative numbers b can be defined by choosing a complex logarithm of b .
= = = Irrational exponents = = =
If a is a positive algebraic number , and b is a rational number , it has been shown above that ab is algebraic . This remains true even if one accepts any algebraic number for a , with the only difference that ab may take several values ( see below ) , all algebraic . Gelfond – Schneider theorem provides some information on the nature of ab when b is irrational ( that is not rational ) . It states :
If a is an algebraic number different from 0 and 1 , and b an irrational algebraic number , then all the values of ab are transcendental numbers ( that is , not algebraic ) .
= = Complex exponents with positive real bases = =
= = = Imaginary exponents with base e = = =
A complex number is an expression of the form <formula> , where x and y are real numbers , and i is the so @-@ called imaginary unit , a number that satisfies the rule <formula> . A complex number can be visualized as a point in the ( x , y ) plane . The polar coordinates of a point in the ( x , y ) plane consist of a non @-@ negative real number r and angle θ such that x
= r cos θ and y =
r sin θ . So
<formula>
The product of two complex numbers z1
= x1 + iy1 , z2 =
x2 + iy2 is obtained by expanding out the product of the binomials and simplifying using the rule <formula> :
<formula>
As a consequence of the angle sum formulas of trigonometry , if z1 and z2 have polar coordinates ( r1 , θ1 ) , ( r2 , θ2 ) , then their product z1z2 has polar coordinates equal to ( r1r2 , θ1 + θ2 ) .
Consider the right triangle in the complex plane which has 0 , 1 , 1 + ix / n as vertices . For large values of n , the triangle is almost a circular sector with a radius of 1 and a small central angle equal to x / n radians . 1 + ix / n may then be approximated by the number with polar coordinates ( 1 , x / n ) . So , in the limit as n approaches infinity , ( 1 + ix / n ) n approaches ( 1 , x / n ) n
= ( 1n , nx / n ) =
( 1 , x ) , the point on the unit circle whose angle from the positive real axis is x radians . The cartesian coordinates of this point are ( cos x , sin x ) . So e ix
= cos x + isin x ; this is Euler 's formula , connecting algebra to trigonometry by means of complex numbers .
The solutions to the equation ez =
1 are the integer multiples of 2πi :
<formula>
More generally , if ev
= w , then every solution to ez =
w can be obtained by adding an integer multiple of 2πi to v :
<formula>
Thus the complex exponential function is a periodic function with period 2πi .
More simply : eiπ
= − 1 ; ex + iy =
ex ( cos y + i sin y ) .
= = = Trigonometric functions = = =
It follows from Euler 's formula stated above that the trigonometric functions cosine and sine are
<formula>
Before the invention of complex numbers , cosine and sine were defined geometrically . The above formula reduces the complicated formulas for trigonometric functions of a sum into the simple exponentiation formula
<formula>
Using exponentiation with complex exponents may reduce problems in trigonometry to algebra .
= = = Complex exponents with base e = = =
The power z = ex + iy can be computed as ex ⋅ eiy . The real factor ex is the absolute value of z and the complex factor eiy identifies the direction of z .
= = = Complex exponents with positive real bases = = =
If b is a positive real number , and z is any complex number , the power bz is defined as ez ⋅ ln ( b ) , where x
= ln ( b ) is the unique real solution to the equation ex =
b . So the same method working for real exponents also works for complex exponents .
For example :
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
The identity ( bz ) u = bzu is not generally valid for complex powers . The power bz is a complex number and any power of it has to follow the rules for powers of complex numbers below . A simple counterexample is given by :
<formula>
The identity is , however , valid for arbitrary complex <formula> when <formula> is an integer .
= = Powers of complex numbers = =
Integer powers of nonzero complex numbers are defined by repeated multiplication or division as above . If i is the imaginary unit and n is an integer , then in equals 1 , i , − 1 , or − i , according to whether the integer n is congruent to 0 , 1 , 2 , or 3 modulo 4 . Because of this , the powers of i are useful for expressing sequences of period 4 .
Complex powers of positive reals are defined via ex as in section Complex exponents with positive real bases above . These are continuous functions .
Trying to extend these functions to the general case of noninteger powers of complex numbers that are not positive reals leads to difficulties . Either we define discontinuous functions or multivalued functions . Neither of these options is entirely satisfactory .
The rational power of a complex number must be the solution to an algebraic equation . Therefore , it always has a finite number of possible values . For example , w
= z1 / 2 must be a solution to the equation w2 =
z . But if w is a solution , then so is − w , because ( − 1 ) 2 = 1 . A unique but somewhat arbitrary solution called the principal value can be chosen using a general rule which also applies for nonrational powers .
Complex powers and logarithms are more naturally handled as single valued functions on a Riemann surface . Single valued versions are defined by choosing a sheet . The value has a discontinuity along a branch cut . Choosing one out of many solutions as the principal value leaves us with functions that are not continuous , and the usual rules for manipulating powers can lead us astray .
Any nonrational power of a complex number has an infinite number of possible values because of the multi @-@ valued nature of the complex logarithm . The principal value is a single value chosen from these by a rule which , amongst its other properties , ensures powers of complex numbers with a positive real part and zero imaginary part give the same value as does the rule defined above for the corresponding real base .
Exponentiating a real number to a complex power is formally a different operation from that for the corresponding complex number . However , in the common case of a positive real number the principal value is the same .
The powers of negative real numbers are not always defined and are discontinuous even where defined . In fact , they are only defined when the exponent is a rational number with the denominator being an odd integer . When dealing with complex numbers the complex number operation is normally used instead .
= = = Complex exponents with complex bases = = =
For complex numbers w and z with w ≠ 0 , the notation wz is ambiguous in the same sense that log w is .
To obtain a value of wz , first choose a logarithm of w ; call it log w . Such a choice may be the principal value Log w ( the default , if no other specification is given ) , or perhaps a value given by some other branch of log w fixed in advance . Then , using the complex exponential function one defines
<formula>
because this agrees with the earlier definition in the case where w is a positive real number and the ( real ) principal value of log w is used .
If z is an integer , then the value of wz is independent of the choice of log w , and it agrees with the earlier definition of exponentiation with an integer exponent .
If z is a rational number m / n in lowest terms with z > 0 , then the countably infinitely many choices of log w yield only n different values for wz ; these values are the n complex solutions s to the equation sn = wm .
If z is an irrational number , then the countably infinitely many choices of log w lead to infinitely many distinct values for wz .
The computation of complex powers is facilitated by converting the base w to polar form , as described in detail below .
A similar construction is employed in quaternions .
= = = Complex roots of unity = = =
A complex number w such that wn
= 1 for a positive integer n is an nth root of unity . Geometrically , the nth roots of unity lie on the unit circle of the complex plane at the vertices of a regular n @-@ gon with one vertex on the real number 1 .
If wn =
1 but wk ≠ 1 for all natural numbers k such that 0 < k < n , then w is called a primitive nth root of unity . The negative unit − 1 is the only primitive square root of unity . The imaginary unit i is one of the two primitive 4th roots of unity ; the other one is − i .
The number e2πi / n is the primitive nth root of unity with the smallest positive argument . ( It is sometimes called the principal nth root of unity , although this terminology is not universal and should not be confused with the principal value of n √ 1 , which is 1 . )
The other nth roots of unity are given by
<formula>
for 2 ≤ k ≤ n .
= = = Roots of arbitrary complex numbers = = =
Although there are infinitely many possible values for a general complex logarithm , there are only a finite number of values for the power wq in the important special case where q
= 1 / n and n is a positive integer . These are the nth roots of w ; they are solutions of the equation zn =
w . As with real roots , a second root is also called a square root and a third root is also called a cube root .
It is conventional in mathematics to define w1 / n as the principal value of the root . If w is a positive real number , it is also conventional to select a positive real number as the principal value of the root w1 / n . For general complex numbers , the nth root with the smallest argument is often selected as the principal value of the nth root operation , as with principal values of roots of unity .
The set of nth roots of a complex number w is obtained by multiplying the principal value w1 / n by each of
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or sequestering the promoter region , either by tight binding by repressor molecules that physically block the polymerase , or by organizing the DNA so that the promoter region is not accessible .
In prokaryotes , transcription occurs in the cytoplasm ; for very long transcripts , translation may begin at the 5 ' end of the RNA while the 3 ' end is still being transcribed . In eukaryotes , transcription occurs in the nucleus , where the cell 's DNA is stored . The RNA molecule produced by the polymerase is known as the primary transcript and undergoes post @-@ transcriptional modifications before being exported to the cytoplasm for translation . One of the modifications performed is the splicing of introns which are sequences in the transcribed region that do not encode protein . Alternative splicing mechanisms can result in mature transcripts from the same gene having different sequences and thus coding for different proteins . This is a major form of regulation in eukaryotic cells and also occurs in some prokaryotes .
= = = Translation = = =
Translation is the process by which a mature mRNA molecule is used as a template for synthesizing a new protein . Translation is carried out by ribosomes , large complexes of RNA and protein responsible for carrying out the chemical reactions to add new amino acids to a growing polypeptide chain by the formation of peptide bonds . The genetic code is read three nucleotides at a time , in units called codons , via interactions with specialized RNA molecules called transfer RNA ( tRNA ) . Each tRNA has three unpaired bases known as the anticodon that are complementary to the codon it reads on the mRNA . The tRNA is also covalently attached to the amino acid specified by the complementary codon . When the tRNA binds to its complementary codon in an mRNA strand , the ribosome attaches its amino acid cargo to the new polypeptide chain , which is synthesized from amino terminus to carboxyl terminus . During and after synthesis , most new proteins must folds to their active three @-@ dimensional structure before they can carry out their cellular functions .
= = = Regulation = = =
Genes are regulated so that they are expressed only when the product is needed , since expression draws on limited resources . A cell regulates its gene expression depending on its external environment ( e.g. available nutrients , temperature and other stresses ) , its internal environment ( e.g. cell division cycle , metabolism , infection status ) , and its specific role if in a multicellular organism . Gene expression can be regulated at any step : from transcriptional initiation , to RNA processing , to post @-@ translational modification of the protein . The regulation of lactose metabolism genes in E. coli ( lac operon ) was the first such mechanism to be described in 1961 .
= = = RNA genes = = =
A typical protein @-@ coding gene is first copied into RNA as an intermediate in the manufacture of the final protein product . In other cases , the RNA molecules are the actual functional products , as in the synthesis of ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA . Some RNAs known as ribozymes are capable of enzymatic function , and microRNA has a regulatory role . The DNA sequences from which such RNAs are transcribed are known as non @-@ coding RNA genes .
Some viruses store their entire genomes in the form of RNA , and contain no DNA at all . Because they use RNA to store genes , their cellular hosts may synthesize their proteins as soon as they are infected and without the delay in waiting for transcription . On the other hand , RNA retroviruses , such as HIV , require the reverse transcription of their genome from RNA into DNA before their proteins can be synthesized . RNA @-@ mediated epigenetic inheritance has also been observed in plants and very rarely in animals .
= = Inheritance = =
Organisms inherit their genes from their parents . Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent 's genome . Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent .
= = = Mendelian inheritance = = =
According to Mendelian inheritance , variations in an organism 's phenotype ( observable physical and behavioral characteristics ) are due in part to variations in its genotype ( particular set of genes ) . Each gene specifies a particular trait with different sequence of a gene ( alleles ) giving rise to different phenotypes . Most eukaryotic organisms ( such as the pea plants Mendel worked on ) have two alleles for each trait , one inherited from each parent .
Alleles at a locus may be dominant or recessive ; dominant alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotypes when paired with any other allele for the same trait , whereas recessive alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotype only when paired with another copy of the same allele . For example , if the allele specifying tall stems in pea plants is dominant over the allele specifying short stems , then pea plants that inherit one tall allele from one parent and one short allele from the other parent will also have tall stems . Mendel 's work demonstrated that alleles assort independently in the production of gametes , or germ cells , ensuring variation in the next generation . Although Mendelian inheritance remains a good model for many traits determined by single genes ( including a number of well @-@ known genetic disorders ) it does not include the physical processes of DNA replication and cell division .
= = = DNA replication and cell division = = =
The growth , development , and reproduction of organisms relies on cell division , or the process by which a single cell divides into two usually identical daughter cells . This requires first making a duplicate copy of every gene in the genome in a process called DNA replication . The copies are made by specialized enzymes known as DNA polymerases , which " read " one strand of the double @-@ helical DNA , known as the template strand , and synthesize a new complementary strand . Because the DNA double helix is held together by base pairing , the sequence of one strand completely specifies the sequence of its complement ; hence only one strand needs to be read by the enzyme to produce a faithful copy . The process of DNA replication is semiconservative ; that is , the copy of the genome inherited by each daughter cell contains one original and one newly synthesized strand of DNA .
After DNA replication is complete , the cell must physically separate the two copies of the genome and divide into two distinct membrane @-@ bound cells . In prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ) this usually occurs via a relatively simple process called binary fission , in which each circular genome attaches to the cell membrane and is separated into the daughter cells as the membrane invaginates to split the cytoplasm into two membrane @-@ bound portions . Binary fission is extremely fast compared to the rates of cell division in eukaryotes . Eukaryotic cell division is a more complex process known as the cell cycle ; DNA replication occurs during a phase of this cycle known as S phase , whereas the process of segregating chromosomes and splitting the cytoplasm occurs during M phase .
= = = Molecular inheritance = = =
The duplication and transmission of genetic material from one generation of cells to the next is the basis for molecular inheritance , and the link between the classical and molecular pictures of genes . Organisms inherit the characteristics of their parents because the cells of the offspring contain copies of the genes in their parents ' cells . In asexually reproducing organisms , the offspring will be a genetic copy or clone of the parent organism . In sexually reproducing organisms , a specialized form of cell division called meiosis produces cells called gametes or germ cells that are haploid , or contain only one copy of each gene . The gametes produced by females are called eggs or ova , and those produced by males are called sperm . Two gametes fuse to form a diploid fertilized egg , a single cell that has two sets of genes , with one copy of each gene from the mother and one from the father .
During the process of meiotic cell division , an event called genetic recombination or crossing @-@ over can sometimes occur , in which a length of DNA on one chromatid is swapped with a length of DNA on the corresponding sister chromatid . This has no effect if the alleles on the chromatids are the same , but results in reassortment of otherwise linked alleles if they are different . The Mendelian principle of independent assortment asserts that each of a parent 's two genes for each trait will sort independently into gametes ; which allele an organism inherits for one trait is unrelated to which allele it inherits for another trait . This is in fact only true for genes that do not reside on the same chromosome , or are located very far from one another on the same chromosome . The closer two genes lie on the same chromosome , the more closely they will be associated in gametes and the more often they will appear together ; genes that are very close are essentially never separated because it is extremely unlikely that a crossover point will occur between them . This is known as genetic linkage .
= = Molecular evolution = =
= = = Mutation = = =
DNA replication is for the most part extremely accurate , however errors ( mutations ) do occur . The error rate in eukaryotic cells can be as low as 10 − 8 per nucleotide per replication , whereas for some RNA viruses it can be as high as 10 − 3 . This means that each generation , each human genome accumulates 1 – 2 new mutations . Small mutations can be caused by DNA replication and the aftermath of DNA damage and include point mutations in which a single base is altered and frameshift mutations in which a single base is inserted or deleted . Either of these mutations can change the gene by missense ( change a codon to encode a different amino acid ) or nonsense ( a premature stop codon ) . Larger mutations can be caused by errors in recombination to cause chromosomal abnormalities including the duplication , deletion , rearrangement or inversion of large sections of a chromosome . Additionally , the DNA repair mechanisms that normally revert mutations can introduce errors when repairing the physical damage to the molecule is more important than restoring an exact copy , for example when repairing double @-@ strand breaks .
When multiple different alleles for a gene are present in a species 's population it is called polymorphic . Most different alleles are functionally equivalent , however some alleles can give rise to different phenotypic traits . A gene 's most common allele is called the wild type , and rare alleles are called mutants . The genetic variation in relative frequencies of different alleles in a population is due to both natural selection and genetic drift . The wild @-@ type allele is not necessarily the ancestor of less common alleles , nor is it necessarily fitter .
Most mutations within genes are neutral , having no effect on the organism 's phenotype ( silent mutations ) . Some mutations do not change the amino acid sequence because multiple codons encode the same amino acid ( synonymous mutations ) . Other mutations can be neutral if they lead to amino acid sequence changes , but the protein still functions similarly with the new amino acid ( e.g. conservative mutations ) . Many mutations , however , are deleterious or even lethal , and are removed from populations by natural selection . Genetic disorders are the result of deleterious mutations and can be due to spontaneous mutation in the affected individual , or can be inherited . Finally , a small fraction of mutations are beneficial , improving the organism 's fitness and are extremely important for evolution , since their directional selection leads to adaptive evolution .
= = = Sequence homology = = =
Genes with a most recent common ancestor , and thus a shared evolutionary ancestry , are known as homologs . These genes appear either from gene duplication within an organism 's genome , where they are known as paralogous genes , or are the result of divergence of the genes after a speciation event , where they are known as orthologous genes , and often perform the same or similar functions in related organisms . It is often assumed that the functions of orthologous genes are more similar than those of paralogous genes , although the difference is minimal .
The relationship between genes can be measured by comparing the sequence alignment of their DNA . The degree of sequence similarity between homologous genes is called conserved sequence . Most changes to a gene 's sequence do not affect its function and so genes accumulate mutations over time by neutral molecular evolution . Additionally , any selection on a gene will cause its sequence to diverge at a different rate . Genes under stabilizing selection are constrained and so change more slowly whereas genes under directional selection change sequence more rapidly . The sequence differences between genes can be used for phylogenetic analyses to study how those genes have evolved and how the organisms they come from are related .
= = = Origins of new genes = = =
The most common source of new genes in eukaryotic lineages is gene duplication , which creates copy number variation of an existing gene in the genome . The resulting genes ( paralogs ) may then diverge in sequence and in function . Sets of genes formed in this way comprise a gene family . Gene duplications and losses within a family are common and represent a major source of evolutionary biodiversity . Sometimes , gene duplication may result in a nonfunctional copy of a gene , or a functional copy may be subject to mutations that result in loss of function ; such nonfunctional genes are called pseudogenes .
De novo or " orphan " genes , whose sequence shows no similarity to existing genes , are extremely rare . Estimates of the number of de novo genes in the human genome range from 18 to 60 . Such genes are typically shorter and simpler in structure than most eukaryotic genes , with few if any introns . Two primary sources of orphan protein @-@ coding genes are gene duplication followed by extremely rapid sequence change , such that the original relationship is undetectable by sequence comparisons , and formation through mutation of " cryptic " transcription start sites that introduce a new open reading frame in a region of the genome that did not previously code for a protein .
Horizontal gene transfer refers to the transfer of genetic material through a mechanism other than reproduction . This mechanism is a common source of new genes in prokaryotes , sometimes thought to contribute more to genetic variation than gene duplication . It is a common means of spreading antibiotic resistance , virulence , and adaptive metabolic functions . Although horizontal gene transfer is rare in eukaryotes , likely examples have been identified of protist and alga genomes containing genes of bacterial origin .
= = Genome = =
The genome is the total genetic material of an organism and includes both the genes and non @-@ coding sequences .
= = = Number of genes = = =
The genome size , and the number of genes it encodes varies widely between organisms . The smallest genomes occur in viruses ( which can have as few as 2 protein @-@ coding genes ) , and viroids ( which act as a single non @-@ coding RNA gene ) . Conversely , plants can have extremely large genomes , with rice containing > 46 @,@ 000 protein @-@ coding genes . The total number of protein @-@ coding genes ( the Earth 's proteome ) is estimated to be 5 million sequences .
Although the number of base @-@ pairs of DNA in the human genome has been known since the 1960s , the estimated number of genes has changed over time as definitions of genes , and methods of detecting them have been refined . Initial theoretical predictions of the number of human genes were as high as 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . Early experimental measures indicated there to be 50 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 transcribed genes ( expressed sequence tags ) . Subsequently , the sequencing in the Human Genome Project indicated that many of these transcripts were alternative variants of the same genes , and the total number of protein @-@ coding genes was revised down to ~ 20 @,@ 000 with 13 genes encoded on the mitochondrial genome . Of the human genome , only 1 – 2 % consists of protein @-@ coding genes , with the remainder being ' noncoding ' DNA such as introns , retrotransposons , and noncoding RNAs.Every organism has all his genes in all cells of his body but it is not important that every gene must function in every cell .
= = = Essential genes = = =
Essential genes are the set of genes thought to be critical for an organism 's survival . This definition assumes the abundant availability of all relevant nutrients and the absence of environmental stress . Only a small portion of an organism 's genes are essential . In bacteria , an estimated 250 – 400 genes are essential for Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis , which is less than 10 % of their genes . Half of these genes are orthologs in both organisms and are largely involved in protein synthesis . In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae the number of essential genes is slightly higher , at 1000 genes ( ~ 20 % of their genes ) . Although the number is more difficult to measure in higher eukaryotes , mice and humans are estimated to have around 2000 essential genes ( ~ 10 % of their genes ) . The synthetic organism , Syn 3 , has a minimal genome of 473 essential genes and quasi @-@ essential genes ( necessary for fast growth ) , although 149 have unknown function .
Essential genes include Housekeeping genes ( critical for basic cell functions ) as well as genes that are expressed at different times in the organisms development or life cycle . Housekeeping genes are used as experimental controls when analysing gene expression , since they are constitutively expressed at a relatively constant level .
= = = Genetic and genomic nomenclature = = =
Gene nomenclature has been established by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee ( HGNC ) for each known human gene in the form of an approved gene name and symbol ( short @-@ form abbreviation ) , which can be accessed through a database maintained by HGNC . Symbols are chosen to be unique , and each gene has only one symbol ( although approved symbols sometimes change ) . Symbols are preferably kept consistent with other members of a gene family and with homologs in other species , particularly the mouse due to its role as a common model organism .
= = Genetic engineering = =
Genetic engineering is the modification of an organism 's genome through biotechnology . Since the 1970s , a variety of techniques have been developed to specifically add , remove and edit genes in an organism . Recently developed genome engineering techniques use engineered nuclease enzymes to create targeted DNA repair in a chromosome to either disrupt or edit a gene when the break is repaired . The related term synthetic biology is sometimes used to refer to extensive genetic engineering of an organism .
Genetic engineering is now a routine research tool with model organisms . For example , genes are easily added to bacteria and lineages of knockout mice with a specific gene 's function disrupted are used to investigate that gene 's function . Many organisms have been genetically modified for applications in agriculture , industrial biotechnology , and medicine .
For multicellular organisms , typically the embryo is engineered which grows into the adult genetically modified organism . However , the genomes of cells in an adult organism can be edited using gene therapy techniques to treat genetic diseases .
= Dynamics of the celestial spheres =
Ancient , medieval and Renaissance astronomers and philosophers developed many different theories about the dynamics of the celestial spheres . They explained the motions of the various nested spheres in terms of the materials of which they were made , external movers such as celestial intelligences , and internal movers such as motive souls or impressed forces . Most of these models were qualitative , although a few of them incorporated quantitative analyses that related speed , motive force and resistance .
= = The celestial material and its natural motions = =
In considering the physics of the celestial spheres , scholars followed two different views about the material composition of the celestial spheres . For Plato , the celestial regions were made " mostly out of fire " on account of fire 's mobility . Later Platonists , such as Plotinus , maintained that although fire moves naturally upward in a straight line toward its natural place at the periphery of the universe , when it arrived there , it would either rest or move naturally in a circle . This account was compatible with Aristotle 's meteorology of a fiery region in the upper air , dragged along underneath the circular motion of the lunar sphere . For Aristotle , however , the spheres themselves were made entirely of a special fifth element , Aether ( Αἰθήρ ) , the bright , untainted upper atmosphere in which the gods dwell , as distinct from the dense lower atmosphere , Aer ( Ἀήρ ) . While the four terrestrial elements ( earth , water , air and fire ) gave rise to the generation and corruption of natural substances by their mutual transformations , aether was unchanging , moving always with a uniform circular motion that was uniquely suited to the celestial spheres , which were eternal . Earth and water had a natural heaviness ( gravitas ) , which they expressed by moving downward toward the center of the universe . Fire and air had a natural lightness ( levitas ) , such that they moved upward , away from the center . Aether , being neither heavy nor light , moved naturally around the center .
= = The causes of celestial motion = =
As early as Plato , philosophers considered the heavens to be moved by immaterial agents . Plato believed the cause to be a world @-@ soul , created according to mathematical principles , which governed the daily motion of the heavens ( the motion of the Same ) and the opposed motions of the planets along the zodiac ( the motion of the Different ) . Aristotle proposed the existence of divine unmoved movers which act as final causes ; the celestial spheres mimic the movers , as best they could , by moving with uniform circular motion . In his Metaphysics , Aristotle maintained that an individual unmoved mover would be required to insure each individual motion in the heavens . While stipulating that the number of spheres , and thus gods , is subject to revision by astronomers , he estimated the total as 47 or 55 , depending on whether one followed the model of Eudoxus or Callippus . In On the Heavens , Aristotle presented an alternate view of eternal circular motion as moving itself , in the manner of Plato 's world @-@ soul , which lent support to three principles of celestial motion : an internal soul , an external unmoved mover , and the celestial material ( aether ) .
= = = Later Greek interpreters = = =
In his Planetary Hypotheses , Ptolemy ( c.90 – 168 ) rejected the Aristotelian concept of an external prime mover , maintaining instead that the planets have souls and move themselves with a voluntary motion . Each planet sends out motive emissions that direct its own motion and the motions of the epicycle and deferent that make up its system , just as a bird sends out emissions to its nerves that direct the motions of its feet and wings .
John Philoponus ( 490 – 570 ) considered that the heavens were made of fire , not of aether , yet maintained that circular motion is one of the two natural motions of fire . In a theological work , On the Creation of the World ( De opificio mundi ) , he denied that the heavens are moved by either a soul or by angels , proposing that " it is not impossible that God , who created all these things , imparted a motive force to the Moon , the Sun , and other stars – just as the inclination to heavy and light bodies , and the movements due to the internal soul to all living beings – in order that the angels do not move them by force . " This is interpreted as an application of the concept of impetus to the motion of the celestial spheres . In an earlier commentary on Aristotle 's Physics , Philoponus compared the innate power or nature that accounts for the rotation of the heavens to the innate power or nature that accounts for the fall of rocks .
= = = Islamic interpreters = = =
The Persian philosophers al @-@ Farabi ( c.872 – c.950 ) and Avicenna ( c.980 – 1037 ) , following Plotinus , maintained that Aristotle 's movers , called intelligences , came into being through a series of emanations beginning with God . A first intelligence emanated from God , and from the first intelligence emanated a sphere , its soul , and a second intelligence . The process continued down through the celestial spheres until the sphere of the Moon , its soul , and a final intelligence . They considered that each sphere was moved continually by its soul , seeking to emulate the perfection of its intelligence . Avicenna maintained that besides an intelligence and its soul , each sphere was also moved by a natural inclination ( mayl ) .
An interpreter of Aristotle from Muslim Spain , al @-@ Bitruji ( d. c.1024 ) , proposed a radical transformation of astronomy that did away with epicycles and eccentrics , in which the celestial spheres were driven by a single unmoved mover at the periphery of the universe . The spheres thus moved with a " natural nonviolent motion " . The mover 's power diminished with increasing distance from the periphery so that the lower spheres lagged behind in their daily motion around the Earth ; this power reached even as far as the sphere of water , producing the tides .
More influential for later Christian thinkers were the teachings of Averroes ( 1126 – 1198 ) , who agreed with Avicenna that the intelligences and souls combine to move the spheres but rejected his concept of emanation . Considering how the soul acts , he maintained that the soul moves its sphere without effort , for the celestial material has no tendency to a contrary motion .
Later in the century , a commentator on the Islamic theologian Adud al @-@ Din al @-@ Iji ( 1281 – 1355 ) rejected non @-@ religious science and astronomy , following the Ash 'ari doctrine of occasionalism , which maintained that all physical effects were caused directly by God 's will rather than by natural causes . He maintained that the celestial spheres were " imaginary things " and " more tenuous than a spider 's web " .
= = = Medieval Western Europe = = =
In the Early Middle Ages , Plato 's picture of the heavens was dominant among European philosophers , which led Christian thinkers to question the role and nature of the world @-@ soul . With the recovery of Aristotle 's works in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries , Aristotle 's views supplanted the earlier Platonism , and a new set of questions regarding the relationships of the unmoved movers to the spheres and to God emerged .
In the early phases of the Western recovery of Aristotle , Robert Grosseteste ( c.1175 – 1253 ) , influenced by medieval Platonism and by the astronomy of al @-@ Bitruji , rejected the idea that the heavens are moved by either souls or intelligences . Adam Marsh 's ( c.1200 – 1259 ) treatise On the Ebb and Flow of the Sea , which was formerly attributed to Grosseteste , maintained al @-@ Bitruji 's opinion that the celestial spheres and the seas are moved by a peripheral mover whose motion weakens with distance .
Thomas Aquinas ( c.1225 – 1274 ) , following Avicenna , interpreted Aristotle to mean that there were two immaterial substances responsible for the motion of each celestial sphere , a soul that was an integral part of its sphere , and an intelligence that was separate from its sphere . The soul shares the motion of its sphere and causes the sphere to move through its love and desire for the unmoved separate intelligence . Avicenna , al @-@ Ghazali , Moses Maimonides , and most Christian scholastic philosophers identified Aristotle 's intelligences with the angels of revelation , thereby associating an angel with each of the spheres . Moreover , Aquinas rejected the idea that celestial bodies are moved by an internal nature , similar to the heaviness and lightness that moves terrestrial bodies . Attributing souls to the spheres was theologically controversial , as that could make them animals . After the Condemnations of 1277 , most philosophers came to reject the idea that the celestial spheres had souls .
Robert Kilwardby ( c . 1215 – 1279 ) discussed three alternative explanations of the motions of the celestial spheres , rejecting the views that celestial bodies are animated and are moved by their own spirits or souls , or that the celestial bodies are moved by angelic spirits , which govern and move them . He maintained , instead , that " celestial bodies are moved by their own natural inclinations similar to weight " . Just as heavy bodies are naturally moved by their own weight , which is an intrinsic active principle , so the celestial bodies are naturally moved by a similar intrinsic principle . Since the heavens are spherical , the only motion that could be natural to them is rotation . Kilwardby 's idea had been earlier held by another Oxford scholar , John Blund ( c . 1175 – 1248 ) .
In two slightly different discussions , John Buridan ( c.1295 – 1358 ) suggested that when God created the celestial spheres , he began to move them , impressing in them a circular impetus that would be neither corrupted nor diminished , since there was neither an inclination to other movements nor any resistance in the celestial region . He noted that this would allow God to rest on the seventh day , but he left the matter to be resolved by the theologians .
Nicole Oresme ( c.1323 @-@ 1382 ) explained the motion of the spheres in traditional terms of the action of intelligences but noted that , contrary to Aristotle , some intelligences are moved ; for example , the intelligence that moves the Moon 's epicycle shares the motion of the lunar orb in which the epicycle is embedded . He related the spheres ' motions to the proportion of motive power to resistance that was impressed in each sphere when God created the heavens . In discussing the relation of the moving power of the intelligence , the resistance of the sphere , and the circular velocity , he said " this ratio ought not to be called a ratio of force to resistance except by analogy , because an intelligence moves by will alone ... and the heavens do not resist it . "
According to Grant , except for Oresme , scholastic thinkers did not consider the force @-@ resistance model to be properly applicable to the motion of celestial bodies , although some , such as Bartholomeus Amicus , thought analogically in terms of force and resistance . By the end of the Middle Ages it was the common opinion among philosophers that the celestial bodies were moved by external intelligences , or angels , and not by some kind of an internal mover .
= = = The movers and Copernicanism = = =
Although Nicolaus Copernicus ( 1473 – 1543 ) transformed Ptolemaic astronomy and Aristotelian cosmology by moving the Earth from the center of the universe , he retained both the traditional model of the celestial spheres and the medieval Aristotelian views of the causes of its motion . Copernicus follows Aristotle to maintain that circular motion is natural to the form of a sphere . However , he also appears to have accepted the traditional philosophical belief that the spheres are moved by an external mover .
Johannes Kepler 's ( 1571 – 1630 ) cosmology eliminated the celestial spheres , but he held that the planets were moved both by an external motive power , which he located in the Sun , and a motive soul associated with each planet . In an early manuscript discussing the motion of Mars , Kepler considered the Sun to cause the circular motion of the planet . He then attributed the inward and outward motion of the planet , which transforms its overall motion from circular to oval , to a moving soul in the planet since the motion is " not a natural motion , but more of an animate one " . In various writings , Kepler often attributed a kind of intelligence to the inborn motive faculties associated with the stars .
In the aftermath of Copernicanism the planets came to be seen as bodies moving freely through a very subtle aethereal medium . Although many scholastics continued to maintain that intelligences were the celestial movers , they now associated the intelligences with the planets themselves , rather than with the celestial spheres .
= Greg Wohlwend =
Greg Wohlwend is an American independent video game developer and artist whose games include Threes ! , Ridiculous Fishing , Hundreds , Gasketball , Puzzlejuice , and Solipskier . He originally formed Intuition Games with Iowa State University classmate Mike Boxleiter in 2007 where they worked on Dinowaurs and other small Adobe Flash games . Trained as an artist , Wohlwend worked mainly on the visual assets . As Mikengreg , they released Solipskier ( 2010 , iOS ) , whose success let the two take a more experimental approach with Gasketball , which did not fare as well . At the same time , Wohlwend collaborated with Asher Vollmer to make Puzzlejuice and with Adam Saltsman to make Hundreds based on Wohlwend 's first game design . He later released Threes ! with Vollmer in 2014 to critical acclaim . He was named among Forbes ' 2014 " 30 under 30 " in the games industry . Mikengreg released TouchTone in 2015 following two years of development .
= = Career = =
Wohlwend studied graphic design at Iowa State University and graduated in 2008 . He has described his aesthetic as " simple and elegant " , and has said about his practice that he is not good at character design and that he prefers to work with vector file formats in Adobe Illustrator so that the images can work at all resolutions . Wohlwend also feels that creativity is a skill that is cultivated and not inborn . He has been influenced by his lifelong experience playing video games , and his favorite game is Baldur 's Gate II : Shadows of Amn . His writings on the lifestyle required for indie development have been noted by games journalists . Wohlwend was named among Forbes ' 2014 " 30 under 30 " in the games industry .
= = = Intuition and Mikengreg = = =
Wohlwend met Mike Boxleiter in an experimental video game development class they took together at Iowa State University . Wohlwend had attempted to help Boxleiter with a project , but quit after drawing a few aliens . They met again as coworkers at the university 's Virtual Reality Application Center during Boxleiter 's final year of college . Upon discovering their close interests , they began to work on an Adobe Flash game named Dinowaurs while they completed college . So as to make money while they worked on the game , they founded Intuition Games at the university 's Research Park around May 2007 . They decided to stay in Ames , Iowa due to its financial feasibility and local connections , but two other team members ( friends from Iowa State ) lived farther away . They saw Flash games as an easy entry point into full @-@ time self @-@ employment , but planned to eventually work on console platforms such as WiiWare .
In their development process , Boxleiter and Wohlwend both proposed and worked on each other 's ideas , and would drop the ideas they found unexciting . Wohlwend said they often argued over aspects of their games , which he found normal and natural . Their labor as a team was divided in that Wohlwend always did the art and Boxleiter the programming , as reflective of their skills at the time . The pair agreed to an assessment of their partnership as " left @-@ brain right @-@ brain " , and saw the majority of their joint work as " editing " . Aside from the business aspects , they were grateful to have the " creative freedom " to do their own work . Wohlwend appreciated the benefits of not doing contract work , but struggled with the relative " isolation " of having few colleagues , a low salary , and job instability . He disagreed with the " cinematic action games " he saw to be popular at the time and hoped to contribute more compelling ideas to the young industry . They thought of themselves as artists and of their work as experimental . Boxleiter and Wohlwend worked long hours when making the Flash games , which they found exciting and unsustainable . At Intuition , they worked on games such as Dinowaurs , Gray , Fig . 8 , and Lifecraft and participated in at least six game jams . As of April 2010 , they had created 10 games together .
Intuition 's first game , Dinowaurs , is a Flash @-@ based strategy and action game where two players compete as dinosaurs to seize the most cavemen settlements so as to upgrade their own capacity and eventually kill the other dinosaur . It features online matchmaking . The concept came from one of Boxleiter 's unfinished projects and another Intuition member 's drawing of a stegosaurus with a jetpack . The team was funded then @-@ new Flash site Kongregate by November 2007 as one of the first five games for Kongregate platform . It was finished in two years for a 2009 release . IndieGames.com reported mixed reviews from players .
Their later games would only take a few months each , in comparison . They abandoned the use of design documents after Dinowaurs , and instead chose to refine and experiment in process . Intuition released Effing Hail and Gray around April 2009 . Players in action game Effing Hail control hail and wind to destroy the most buildings and midair objects within a time limit . The game was published through Kongregate . In Gray , players control a single character and try to end a riot by influencing other individuals in the crowd . The game was featured at IndieCade in 2009 . In the case of Fig . 8 . , Wohlwend thought of the idea based on a college art project . In the project , Wohlwend followed a bike trail in the snow , metaphorically related it to the tribulations of romantic relationship , and made an art installation involving a bike spray @-@ painted black with two errant red and blue tracks painted on the floor . The concept went unused on their whiteboard for four months until they needed an idea , whereupon Boxleiter added game mechanics to the visuals . In their next game , Liferaft , the player @-@ character is a young woman set to escape " a post @-@ apocalyptic sci @-@ fi ... test chamber " , with core gameplay that revolves around a " Bionic Commando @-@ style grappling hook " . Wohlwend used a 16 @-@ bit era graphics style . They sought crowdfunding from Kickstarter , but later canceled and put the project on hiatus in October 2009 .
In March 2010 and under the moniker Mikengreg , Boxleiter and Wohlwend 's 4fourths was selected for Kokoromi 's Gamma IV showcase . Based on the showcase 's " one button game " theme , four players control two spaceships using one button apiece to cooperatively destroy enemy ships . It was Michael Rose of IndieGame.com 's favorite game of the Gamma IV selections , was later displayed at the 2010 Game Developers Conference and in Brandon Boyer 's 2011 Wild Rumpus event .
Mikengreg announced Liferaft : Zero and Solipskier in November 2010 . The former is a " prequel teaser " to Liferaft : a game of trial @-@ based challenges with wall @-@ jumping and grappling wherein girl clones attempt to swing and jump around test chambers to reach and ring a bell . Wohlwend and Boxleiter made the shorter version to limit the scope creep of the overall project . IndieGames.com named the Flash game their third best browser platformer of the year . Their other game , 4fourths , was put on hiatus for lack of resources . They were interested in making games outside the Flash market .
= = = Solipskier = = =
Their first game as Mikengreg was the sport @-@ inspired Solipskier , where the player 's finger draws the ground for the on @-@ screen skier to pass through a level filled with gates , tunnels , and walls . It was designed as a Flash game , which set the limitations for its mechanics . The game concept came from a brainstorming session about parallax scrolling , and was revised in fits of creativity . They paired the parallax scrolling with speed and began to prototype . Wohlwend saved the skier 's character design for last since he felt it was his weakest area . Mikengreg then decided to develop for iOS in addition to Flash , and to release both versions simultaneously . It was released simultaneously for Kongregate ( Flash ) and iOS on August 29 , 2010 . Solipskier became their first game to receive public appreciation . The iOS version made around $ 70 @,@ 000 in its first two months ( as compared to $ 15 @,@ 000 from the Flash release ) , which gave them enough stability to branch out into non @-@ Flash platforms .
= = = Gasketball = = =
Riding the earnings from Solipskier , Mikengreg continued to pay themselves their same salary but now had the means to try new ideas . Wohlwend estimated that they discarded about six " fairly polished prototypes " over the development of their next game , Gasketball . They were able to live on $ 20 – 25 @,@ 000 a year each in Iowa for the next two years while working on the new game . Wohlwend made somewhat more income due to other collaborations , such as Puzzlejuice with Asher Vollmer , but shared his income with Boxleiter . Even though Solipskier was successful , the duo did not have a following comparable to indie developers like Team Meat and thus felt like their external pressure was low . Instead , their pressure was internal . Wohlwend
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said he worked 100 @-@ hour weeks with no weekends or vacations while living off of the Solipskier funds . In making Gasketball , Boxleiter and Wohlwend felt that their game quality had improved continually , but found the idea of a million @-@ person audience " daunting " . Wohlwend questioned whether he could even recreate Solipskier 's success . When they ran out of money , Boxleiter borrowed money from his parents , and eventually they both went homeless , living off of the couches of friends .
Gasketball was released for iPad on August 9 , 2012 . They had decided to release the game as an ethically non @-@ coercive free @-@ to @-@ play game , with a free base game and in @-@ app purchases for the extended content . Not as many players paid for the content as expected . This was due , in part , to the players ' difficulty in finding the purchase function . The game had been downloaded 200 @,@ 000 times in its August 2012 launch week and was briefly ranked near the top of an iTunes top downloads ranking , though it did not break the top 200 grossing chart .
= = = Puzzlejuice = = =
Wohlwend began to collaborate with Asher Vollmer when Vollmer reached out to Wohlwend for aesthetic advice on a game he was designing , Puzzlejuice . The game has been compared to a cross between Boggle , Tetris , and tile @-@ matching , where tetromino blocks fall from the top of the screen that players turn into letters and rearrange into words . Wohlwend and Vollmer communicated nonverbally through the entire development process via a 365 @-@ message email chain . Vollmer served as the game 's programmer , Wohlwend as the artist , and Jimmy Hinson as the composer . Puzzlejuice was selected for the PAX 10 , a spotlighted group of indie games , in July 2012 . It was released as a universal app for iPhone and iPad on January 19 , 2012 .
= = = Hundreds = = =
Upon finishing his role as artist on Solipskier , Wohlwend wanted to experiment with game programming by designing his own game . He developed Hundreds from an idea he had while staring at a ceiling , where he imagined a circle growing without overlapping another when growing . He found this to be a good core game concept and based the game around " patience and persistence " . The game 's style inadvertently borrowed from his first year in art school , where Wohlwend composed in black , white , and red so as to focus on composition rather than color . While Wohlwend 's design style is " simple and elegant " , the game 's minimalism was also functional due to his inexperience with programming . The code was " brute forced " and written in a single file . He finished Hundreds as a Flash game in 2010 , but when Flash sites were not interested in purchasing it , Wohlwend chose to open source the code ( partly with the intent to spur " non @-@ coders " to try coding , as he had ) . This version is available online at Newgrounds .
At a lull in @-@ between projects , programmer Eric Johnson of Semi Secret Software found the open source code and ported the game to iPad in a weekend before notifying Wohlwend . At the time , Wohlwend did not have an iOS device to test the port , and had to purchase an iPad . Johnson 's iPad version spurred Wohlwend to consider how Hundreds would work with multitouch and cooperative play , and Semi Secret 's Adam Saltsman to consider a Hundreds collaborative iOS release . The project was intended to be a quick level expansion , but quickly surpassed its several month estimate . Wohlwend and Saltsman extended the game 's mechanics with new circles and puzzles , and many of their implemented ideas were later removed . Wohlwend was happy with the final result and credited the game 's " emergent interaction " qualities to Saltsman . They built on each other 's level designs , though Wohlwend said that Saltsman made " basically all the levels " . The new team enjoyed working with each other .
In Hundreds , players touch circles to make them grow without overlapping . There are 100 puzzles that increase in complexity . The Flash version was much simpler in design , and added circles onscreen as the game progressed . The iOS version added a new gameplay mode and a narrative element based on ciphers and codes , and was released on January 7 , 2013 for iPhone and iPad , and later for Android . It was nominated for several Independent Games Festival awards , and The Atlantic critic Ian Bogost wrote that the game functioned like a design object , a feat unique for the video game medium .
= = = Ridiculous Fishing = = =
Wohlwend produced the art for Vlambeer 's Ridiculous Fishing . The four @-@ person team — Vlambeer designer Jan Willem Nijman and marketer Rami Ismail alongside iOS developer Zach Gage — was described by games journalists as an " indie supergroup " and a " dream team " . In Ridiculous Fishing , the player uses motion and touch controls to catch fish and consequently shoot them out of the sky for cash . The game is known for its developers ' battle against a cloned version of their game released by another company . The team worked separately and sporadically with little progress as disheartened by their cloned game predicament , until an August 2012 road trip home across the United States from Penny Arcade Expo in Seattle to New York convinced the team to set a deadline . They scrapped " 90 percent " of their work , and Wohlwend moved to New York City to live with Gage and work 14 @-@ hour days during the final weeks .
The last parts of Ridiculous Fishing assembled smoothly and it was released March 14 , 2013 for iOS and later that year for Android . It was well received at launch with " near @-@ universal perfect scores " and won both a 2013 Apple Design Award and Apple 's iPhone game of the year . While IGN 's Justin Davis thought the game 's levels could have been more differentiated in theme and art style , he found the " almost cubist design ... absolutely gorgeous " . Welsh of Eurogamer agreed that Wohlwend 's art was " achingly cool " and reflected a " retro and minimalist " indie gaming trend without overpowering the gameplay .
= = = Threes ! = = =
Wohlwend , Vollmer , and Hinson of Puzzlejuice collaborated again on Threes ! , a game where the player slides numbered tiles on a four @-@ by @-@ four grid to combine addends and multiples of three . Its development began before Ridiculous Fishing 's March 2013 release . Vollmer presented an idea similar to the final product in its simplicity : pair tiles as multiples of three . The first prototype was written in a single night . Vollmer and Wohlwend spent at least half a year of the game 's 14 @-@ month development iterating on this main idea . Early Threes designs had no inclination towards minimalism : the pair felt that the game needed to appear more complex so as to interest players . Wohlwend sent Vollmer designs with themes such as sushi , chess , broccoli and cheese soup , and hydrogen atoms , which confused their test audiences . They received a " wake @-@ up call " from fellow game designer Zach Gage , who encouraged them to return from their foray into complexity . The final game returned to its original theme of numbers . Speaking in retrospect , Wohlwend said the game " always wanted to be simple " . He noted that players " think math " upon seeing the game 's numbers , though the game is more about " spatial relationships " and just happens to have a " number theme " .
When returning to the fundamental and original game concept — pairing tiles as multiples of three — the developers felt their experiments informed their final game development decisions . The theme of individual tile personalities extended to the final version , as tiles have faces and express emotions when paired . For example , the 384 tile has a pirate personality with a large tooth and a pirate eyepatch . Of the development process , Wohlwend called it " tough and frustrating and sometimes hard to see if it was worth it " . It was released for iOS on February 6 , 2014 and later ported to Android , with an Xbox One version announced as in development . The game received what video game review score aggregator Metacritic described as " universal acclaim " . Eurogamer and TouchArcade awarded the game perfect scores , with the latter calling Threes " about as close as it gets to a perfect mobile game " . Re / code reported that it " dominated " the chart in the following weeks and became one of the 25 highest grossing apps on the App Store . It later won a 2014 Apple Design Award .
= = = TouchTone = = =
After Gasketball 's 2012 release , Boxleiter and Wohlwend planned a celebratory road trip to a game jam in Victoria , British Columbia . The game did not fare as expected , so Boxleiter used the two @-@ day jam to create the core mirror reflection mechanics of what would become TouchTone , though it would take two years of sporadic work to finalize the remainder of the game . In TouchTone , the player monitors phone calls as part of a government surveillance program to find public threats . The story is told through a series of reflection puzzles wherein the player swipes the screen to reflect a beam around a room to its intended destination .
Mikengreg felt that their first theme of light , prisms , and audio signal too closely mimicked " a hacking minigame from a bigger AAA game like BioShock or System Shock " , but eventually paired the concept with a satirical Edward Snowden theme following the mid @-@ 2013 global surveillance disclosures . Their original efforts were jocular , but their concept became more serious as the story and " political message " grew deeper . Boxleiter wrote most of the script , and together with Wohlwend , would conference after each chapter for coherency . Mikengreg decided against including an option to skip puzzles , which they felt would spoil the game and the player 's capacity to adapt to increasing difficulty . They called this philosophy the " Derek Yu ( of Spelunky ) school of game design " . TouchTone was released on March 19 , 2015 for iOS . Review aggregator Metacritic characterized its reviews as generally favorable .
= = = TumbleSeed = = =
As of July 2015 , Wohlwend is collaborating with Benedict Fritz on Tumbleseed , a computer game based on arcade game Ice Cold Beer wherein the player uses four keyboard keys to navigate a seed around holes . The game 's development is part of a Cards Against Humanity game incubation program . Tumbleseed is planned for release in 2015 .
= Vincent and the Doctor =
" Vincent and the Doctor " is the tenth episode in the fifth series of British science fiction television series Doctor Who , first broadcast on BBC One on 5 June 2010 . It was written by Richard Curtis and directed by Jonny Campbell and featured an uncredited guest appearance from actor Bill Nighy .
Intrigued by an ominous figure in one of Vincent van Gogh 's paintings , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and his companion Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) go back in time to meet Van Gogh ( Tony Curran ) and discover that Provence has been plagued by an invisible monster , known as the Krafayis , which only Van Gogh can see . The Doctor and Amy work with Van Gogh to defeat the Krafayis , but in their attempt to have Van Gogh realise his legacy through bringing him to the future they ultimately realise that not all of time can be rewritten and there are some evils which are out of the Doctor 's reach .
Curtis , inspired by the fact that Van Gogh never knew he would be famous , had the idea for an episode centred on him . He left the script open to criticism from the crew and made many revisions as a result . Curtis wanted to portray Van Gogh truthfully , rather than being cruel by writing jokes about his madness . The episode was filmed in Trogir , Croatia and many of the sets were modelled after Van Gogh paintings . The episode was watched by 6 @.@ 76 million viewers on BBC One and BBC HD . Reception to the episode varied , ranging from very positive to mixed to very negative . While the amount of emotion in the episode was debated over , most reviewers agreed that the Krafayis was not a threatening monster while Curran 's performance as Van Gogh was immensely praised .
= = Plot = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
The Doctor has taken Amy to the Musée d 'Orsay in Paris , where they admire the work of the post @-@ impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh . The Doctor discovers a seemingly alien figure in a window of the painting The Church at Auvers , and decides they must travel back in time to speak to Vincent around when he painted the painting . In 1890 , they find Vincent at a cafe in Arles , a lonely man with a bad reputation . Vincent opens up when he notices Amy , sensing a loss she herself is not aware of . Outside the cafe a young girl is murdered , when the trio go out to see what happened they are stoned by locals who blame Vincent 's insanity for the killing . The Doctor and Amy talk Vincent into letting them stay the night and they return to his home .
That evening , Vincent confesses that his works have little value to anyone else . He believes the universe is filled with wonders that he must paint , and that he can " hear the colours " . Amy goes outside and is attacked by a beast that only Vincent is able to see . He sketches it for the Doctor , who identifies it as a Krafayis . Knowing the beast will appear when Vincent paints the nearby church the next evening , the Doctor and Amy plan to join him . The next morning , Vincent becomes distraught after being told that The Doctor and Amy won 't be staying long . Vincent shuts himself in his bedroom , saying that everyone leaves him in the end . The Doctor and Amy set out to capture the beast alone , but Vincent soon joins them eager to help . He confides to Amy that if she can " soldier on , then so can Vincent van Gogh " .
Vincent begins creating the painting of the church and soon spots the beast inside . The Doctor demands that Amy stay back as he enters the church alone , but she and Vincent both agree they should help the Doctor . Vincent is able to save the Doctor and Amy , describing the beast 's actions as they hide in the confessionals . The Doctor soon realises from Vincent 's description that the beast is blind , the likely reason it was abandoned on Earth . The beast is impaled on Vincent 's easel when it tries to lunge at the artist . The Doctor attempts to soothe the dying creature while Vincent empathises with its pain . After the creature dies , the three return outside the church and Vincent describes the night sky as he envisions it .
The next day , the Doctor and Amy prepare to leave . Vincent asks Amy to return and marry him should she leave the Doctor . The Doctor offers to show him something . The Doctor and Amy take Vincent in the TARDIS to the present and the Van Gogh exhibit at the Musée d 'Orsay . Vincent is stunned at the display and becomes emotionally overwhelmed when he overhears art curator Dr. Black ( Bill Nighy ) say that Van Gogh was " the greatest painter of them all " and " one of the greatest men who ever lived " . They return an emotionally changed Vincent to the past and say their final goodbyes . As the Doctor and Amy return to the present , Amy is confident that there will be hundreds of new paintings by Vincent waiting for them . She is crushed to learn that Vincent still committed suicide weeks after their adventure , at the age of 37 . The Doctor explains that life is a mixture of bad and good , and while their brief encounter with Vincent couldn 't undo all of the bad , they added some good to his life . The evidence is in Vincent 's displayed works : the face no longer appears in The Church , and now Vase with 12 Sunflowers bears the inscription , " For Amy " .
= = = Continuity = = =
Images of the First and Second Doctors are displayed on the Doctor 's mirror device and printout from the TARDIS ' typewriter . The episode presents these trips as the Doctor 's compensation to Amy for her fiancé Rory Williams ' death in the previous episode , which Amy herself does not remember since Rory was consumed by a crack in the universe and thus erased from time . Van Gogh is able to sense Amy 's sadness at Rory 's death , and the Doctor later accidentally addresses Amy and Vincent as Amy and Rory , respectively .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Writer Richard Curtis was previously executive producer on the Doctor Who spoof The Curse of Fatal Death , a one @-@ off comedy special written for Comic Relief by current show @-@ runner Steven Moffat . Based on this experience , Moffat asked Curtis to write an episode of Doctor Who . Curtis had enjoyed the show 's historical episodes and felt comfortable writing one . He had the idea of a story centred on Van Gogh for " a long while " and was particularly interested in the fact Van Gogh never knew he would be famous , as well as his inspirational story . Curtis was also interested in depression and the price paid for it . He wanted to convey that the Doctor could rewrite time , but Van Gogh 's " demons " were out of his reach . Moffat was " enthusiastic " about the story idea .
Curtis asked Moffat to criticise " anything and everything " and later said he was very honest . Executive producer Piers Wenger and director Jonny Campbell also critiqued the script . Moffat told Curtis that it needed to " start quicker " and that the meeting with the Doctor and Vincent was " dull " and needed to be something " cute " like Curtis had done in his films . He also noted that the Doctor did not talk as much as Curtis had written and recommended Curtis watch some episodes to see he was " rather efficient in the way that he talked " . Curtis enjoyed the experience , commenting that it was " fun " to work within boundaries rather than doing it all himself . After seeing a read @-@ through performed by leads Matt Smith and Karen Gillan , Curtis made more changes . He commented that it was easy to write for them as they were " so delightful and modern and relaxed " . Curtis 's original title for the episode was " Eyes that See the Darkness " , but he said this was vetoed .
Curtis wanted to write for Doctor Who because he thought it would be " something my kids would like . " When writing " Vincent and the Doctor " , Curtis put up prints of Van Gogh paintings around the house as well as a board with index cards outlining the plot . His children helped him come up with some ideas . Gillan commented that the story had a different style and approach and was more character @-@ driven . Though it was a subject he knew " quite a lot " about , he still read a 200 @-@ page biography of Van Gogh , which was more research than he normally would have done if working on other projects ; he took Van Gogh very seriously . As such , he wanted to be " truthful rather than cruel " and refused to write any jokes about Van Gogh 's ears after he famously cut one of them off . However , he did incorporate other humour as he naturally wanted to " try to make things funny " .
= = = Casting and filming = = =
Curtis stated that casting an actor to play Van Gogh was done carefully , as he wanted him to feel to the audience as Van Gogh , not " like a bloke they ’ ve seen acting lots of other parts , in an orange wig " . Tony Curran was ultimately cast as the part ; Curtis called him a " wonderful actor " who " really could not look more like " Van Gogh . Curran , Smith and Gillan got to know each other very well , which Gillan hoped would be evident in their chemistry in the episode . Bill Nighy appears uncredited as the Musée d 'Orsay 's expert on Van Gogh . Nighy was rumoured to have been considered for the role of the Ninth Doctor when the show was revived . Campbell stated that they were " very fortunate " to have Nighy in the role , who he believed was someone people paid attention to , and the audience needed to pay attention to his character as he said facts which would become important later in the story .
Scenes set in Provence were filmed on location in Trogir , Croatia in the same production block as " The Vampires of Venice " , which sees Trogir depicting 16th @-@ century Venice . Filming took place around November 2009 . The National Museum Cardiff doubled for the interior of the Musée d 'Orsay . Some of the sets were intended to reference paintings , such as Van Gogh 's bedroom . One such set was the café where the Doctor and Amy first meet Van Gogh , which was modelled after the painting Cafe Terrace at Night . This proved challenging for the art department , who extensively looked for a suitable building in Croatia to use . Once they found the one they wanted , they had to redesign it to look like the painting ; this involved putting an awning up , changing the windows , and adding a platform with tables and chairs . The song played during the ending scene is " Chances " by the British rock band Athlete .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Vincent and the Doctor " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One and simulcast on BBC HD on 5 June 2010 . Initial overnight ratings showed that the episode was watched by 5 million , the second rated show of the day and the first on BBC One . Final consolidated ratings rose to 6 @.@ 76 million , with 6 @.@ 29 on BBC One and a further 0 @.@ 47 on BBC HD . It was the second most watched programme on BBC One and the highest on BBC HD . It was given an Appreciation Index of 86 , considered " excellent " .
After the original broadcast , viewers were offered a helpline if they had been affected by the issues raised in the programme . " Vincent and the Doctor " was released in Region 2 on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on 6 September 2010 with " The Lodger " , " The Pandorica Opens " and " The Big Bang " . It was then re @-@ released as part of the Complete Fifth Series boxset on 8 November 2010 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Since its broadcast , Vincent and the Doctor has received critical acclaim . Dave Golder of SFX magazine gave the episode five out of five stars , calling it " a genuinely magical episode of Who , high on atmosphere ... and bursting with charm " . John Moore , writing on Den of Geek , also took a positive stance towards the episode , describing it as " life @-@ affirming " as a Doctor Who fan , and , though he did criticise some elements of the plot , likewise wrote positively about the ending , ultimately finding the episode " utterly useless , but absolutely art " . Keith Watson in the Metro was surprised by the " impressive imagining of Van Gogh 's world " , praising Curtis ' humour throughout the episode . He also praised the performance by Curran as Van Gogh , feeling that , with regard to Van Gogh 's depression , the producers " pulled it off " against the odds . Mark Lawson of The Guardian praised it as " exceptionally good " and " thrilling and funny , as well as educational " , noting its " historical rigour " and its " good arty jokes " , while Deborah Orr wrote that it was " hardly original for someone to alight on [ Van Gogh 's ] tale as a tear @-@ jerker , although it is pretty shrewd to think of placing it in a popular time @-@ travel context " and that " the feeling that I 'd been gently monstered into life @-@ affirming feel @-@ good sobs by Richard Curtis was not new , not in the least " .
In the mainstream press , Tom Sutcliffe in The Independent praised the episode as " first ingenious and then decidedly poignant " , though he felt some aspects of plot would have wider implications not addressed in the episode , and remained " coldly unfeeling " towards the death of the Krafayis . Sam Wollaston of The Guardian liked the episode , considering Curtis ' dialogue to be " witty and clever " and , despite feeling that some of the moral sentiments expressed during the episode were " as schmaltzy as sugary gloop " , described how the emotion of the episode eventually got to him . The A.V. Club 's Keith Phipps gave the episode a B- , explaining that it " didn 't quite work " and suffered from tonal problems . Matt Wales on IGN was also mixed , giving it a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 rating . He was positive toward Curran and Gillan and that the episode " finally gave us a three @-@ dimensional Amy Pond " , but thought the " usually excellent " Smith " didn 't get much to work with " . He also thought that the Krafayis was " a nice idea " for being a metaphor but was not threatening , and he labelled the emotional ending as " self @-@ indulgently mawkish " .
On The Guardian film blog , Peter Bradshaw considered " Vincent and the Doctor " to be a " terrifically clever , funny , likeable wildly surreal episode " . He praised the " unmistakeably [ sic ] Curtis dialogue " and the " uproariously emotional ending of the sort only Richard Curtis could get away with " . Dan Martin on the same paper 's regular Doctor Who blog was more critical , writing that its " main problem [ was ] that it doesn 't feel much like a Doctor Who story " and would have worked better if " the middle section with the monster had been stripped out " . He also criticised the script for its " lashings of weapons @-@ grade sentimentality " and for " throwing up possibilities that weren 't followed up " and the monster as an " afterthought [ posing ] ... no tangible threat " . However , he did praise Curran 's " great performance " along with the episode 's treatment of depression , concluding like Wollaston that he enjoyed the episode despite his misgivings .
One of the most negative reviews came from Gavin Fuller in The Telegraph , who criticised it as a " bland , inconsequential episode that , once it set up what was a decent enough premise ... completely failed to run with it " . He compared it unfavourably with the third series episode " The Shakespeare Code " in being centred round a historical " tormented artist " but wrote that it lacked that episode 's " narrative drive " , with " a serious plot hole " in Van Gogh 's ability to see the creature and that the Krafayis was " the most pointless monsters ever to appear in the series ' long history " . He also criticised Smith 's Doctor and wrote that Van Gogh still committing suicide despite the trip to the Orsay was " nonsensical " . He did , however , praise " the Doctor 's homily about good things and bad things " ( though Sam Wollaston criticised this speech in The Guardian ) and was grateful that Curtis " avoided turning the Doctor into a bumbling Hugh Grant character from his romcoms " , concluding however " he did little else right and a crushing disappointment was the result " .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
" Vincent and the Doctor " was nominated for the Bradbury Award for Outstanding Dramatic Presentation in the 2010 Nebula Awards and the 2011 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation ( Short Form ) . It lost both of these ; the Bradbury to the film Inception and the Hugo to the series finale " The Pandorica Opens " / " The Big Bang " . In Canada 's Constellation Awards , Curran was nominated ( alongside Smith ) for Best Actor and Curtis for Best Script ; Curran came in sixth with 10 % of the votes and Curtis came in second , losing out to Christopher Nolan 's Inception by one percent of the vote .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Vincent and the Doctor " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
= Quantum electrodynamics =
In particle physics , quantum electrodynamics ( QED ) is the relativistic quantum field theory of electrodynamics . In essence , it describes how light and matter interact and is the first theory where full agreement between quantum mechanics and special relativity is achieved . QED mathematically describes all phenomena involving electrically charged particles interacting by means of exchange of photons and represents the quantum counterpart of classical electromagnetism giving a complete account of matter and light interaction .
In technical terms , QED can be described as a perturbation theory of the electromagnetic quantum vacuum . Richard Feynman called it " the jewel of physics " for its extremely accurate predictions of quantities like the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron and the Lamb shift of the energy levels of hydrogen .
= = History = =
The first formulation of a quantum theory describing radiation and matter interaction is attributed to British scientist Paul Dirac , who ( during the 1920s ) was able to compute the coefficient of spontaneous emission of an atom .
Dirac described the quantization of the electromagnetic field as an ensemble of harmonic oscillators with the introduction of the concept of creation and annihilation operators of particles . In the following years , with contributions from Wolfgang Pauli , Eugene Wigner , Pascual Jordan , Werner Heisenberg and an elegant formulation of quantum electrodynamics due to Enrico Fermi , physicists came to believe that , in principle , it would be possible to perform any computation for any physical process involving photons and charged particles . However , further studies by Felix Bloch with Arnold Nordsieck , and Victor Weisskopf , in 1937 and 1939 , revealed that such computations were reliable only at a first order of perturbation theory , a problem already pointed out by Robert Oppenheimer . At higher orders in the series infinities emerged , making such computations meaningless and casting serious doubts on the internal consistency of the theory itself . With no solution for this problem known at the time , it appeared that a fundamental incompatibility existed between special relativity and quantum mechanics .
Difficulties with the theory increased through the end of 1940 . Improvements in microwave technology made it possible to take more precise measurements of the shift of the levels of a hydrogen atom , now known as the Lamb shift and magnetic moment of the electron . These experiments unequivocally exposed discrepancies which the theory was unable to explain .
A first indication of a possible way out was given by Hans Bethe . In 1947 , while he was traveling by train to reach Schenectady from New York , after giving a talk at the conference at Shelter Island on the subject , Bethe completed the first non @-@ relativistic computation of the shift of the lines of the hydrogen atom as measured by Lamb and Retherford . Despite the limitations of the computation , agreement was excellent . The idea was simply to attach infinities to corrections of mass and charge that were actually fixed to a finite value by experiments . In this way , the infinities get absorbed in those constants and yield a finite result in good agreement with experiments . This procedure was named renormalization .
Based on Bethe 's intuition and fundamental papers on the subject by Sin @-@ Itiro Tomonaga , Julian Schwinger , Richard Feynman and Freeman Dyson , it was finally possible to get fully covariant formulations that were finite at any order in a perturbation series of quantum electrodynamics . Sin @-@ Itiro Tomonaga , Julian Schwinger and Richard Feynman were jointly awarded with a Nobel prize in physics in 1965 for their work in this area . Their contributions , and those of Freeman Dyson , were about covariant and gauge invariant formulations of quantum electrodynamics that allow computations of observables at any order of perturbation theory . Feynman 's mathematical technique , based on his diagrams , initially seemed very different from the field @-@ theoretic , operator @-@ based approach of Schwinger and Tomonaga , but Freeman Dyson later showed that the two approaches were equivalent . Renormalization , the need to attach a physical meaning at certain divergences appearing in the theory through integrals , has subsequently become one of the fundamental aspects of quantum field theory and has come to be seen as a criterion for a theory 's general acceptability . Even though renormalization works very well in practice , Feynman was never entirely comfortable with its mathematical validity , even referring to renormalization as a " shell game " and " hocus pocus " .
QED has served as the model and template for all subsequent quantum field theories . One such subsequent theory is quantum chromodynamics , which began in the early 1960s and attained its present form in the 1975 work by H. David Politzer , Sidney Coleman , David Gross and Frank Wilczek . Building on the pioneering work of Schwinger , Gerald Guralnik , Dick Hagen , and Tom Kibble , Peter Higgs , Jeffrey Goldstone , and others , Sheldon Glashow , Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam independently showed how the weak nuclear force and quantum electrodynamics could be merged into a single electroweak force .
= = Feynman 's view of quantum electrodynamics = =
= = = Introduction = = =
Near the end of his life , Richard P. Feynman gave a series of lectures on QED intended for the lay public . These lectures were transcribed and published as Feynman ( 1985 ) , QED : The strange theory of light and matter , a classic non @-@ mathematical exposition of QED from the point of view articulated below .
The key components of Feynman 's presentation of QED are three basic actions .
A photon goes from one place and time to another place and time .
An electron goes from one place and time to another place and time .
An electron emits or absorbs a photon at a certain place and time .
These actions are represented in a form of visual shorthand by the three basic elements of Feynman diagrams : a wavy line for the photon , a straight line for the electron and a junction of two straight lines and a wavy one for a vertex representing emission or absorption of a photon by an electron . These can all be seen in the adjacent diagram .
It is important not to over @-@ interpret these diagrams . Nothing is implied about how a particle gets from one point to another . The diagrams do not imply that the particles are moving in straight or curved lines . They do not imply that the particles are moving with fixed speeds . The fact that the photon is often represented , by convention , by a wavy line and not a straight one does not imply that it is thought that it is more wavelike than is an electron . The images are just symbols to represent the actions above : photons and electrons do , somehow , move from point to point and electrons , somehow , emit and absorb photons . We do not know how these things happen , but the theory tells us about the probabilities of these things happening .
As well as the visual shorthand for the actions Feynman introduces another kind of shorthand for the numerical quantities called probability amplitudes . The probability is the square of the total probability amplitude . If a photon moves from one place and time — in shorthand , A — to another place and time — in shorthand , B — the associated quantity is written in Feynman 's shorthand as P ( A to B ) . The similar quantity for an electron moving from C to D is written E ( C to D ) . The quantity which tells us about the probability amplitude for the emission or absorption of a photon he calls ' j ' . This is related to , but not the same as , the measured electron charge ' e ' .
QED is based on the assumption that complex interactions of many electrons and photons can be represented by fitting together a suitable collection of the above three building blocks , and then using the probability amplitudes to calculate the probability of any such complex interaction . It turns out that the basic idea of QED can be communicated while making the assumption that the square of the total of the probability amplitudes mentioned above ( P ( A to B ) , E ( A to B ) and ' j ' ) acts just like our everyday probability . ( A simplification made in Feynman 's book . ) Later on , this will be corrected to include specifically quantum @-@ style mathematics , following Feynman .
The basic rules of probability amplitudes that will be used are that a ) if an event can happen in a variety of different ways then its probability amplitude is the sum of the probability amplitudes of the possible ways and b ) if a process involves a number of independent sub @-@ processes then its probability amplitude is the product of the component probability amplitudes .
= = = Basic constructions = = =
Suppose we start with one electron at a certain place and time ( this place and time being given the arbitrary label A ) and a photon at another place and time ( given the label B ) . A typical question from a physical standpoint is : ' What is the probability of finding an electron at C ( another place and a later time ) and a photon at D ( yet another place and time ) ? ' . The simplest process to achieve this end is for the electron to move from A to C ( an elementary action ) and for the photon to move from B to D ( another elementary action ) . From a knowledge of the probability amplitudes of each of these sub @-@ processes – E ( A to C ) and P ( B to D ) – then we would expect to calculate the probability amplitude of both happening together by multiplying them , using rule b ) above . This gives a simple estimated overall probability amplitude , which is squared to give an estimated probability .
But there are other ways in which the end result could come about . The electron might move to a place and time E where it absorbs the photon ; then move on before emitting another photon at F ; then move on to C where it is detected , while the new photon moves on to D. The probability of this complex process can again be calculated by knowing the probability amplitudes of each of the individual actions : three electron actions , two photon actions and two vertexes – one emission and one absorption . We would expect to find the total probability amplitude by multiplying the probability amplitudes of each of the actions , for any chosen positions of E and F. We then , using rule a ) above , have to add up all these probability amplitudes for all the alternatives for E and F. ( This is not elementary in practice , and involves integration . ) But there is another possibility , which is that the electron first moves to G where it emits a photon which goes on to D , while the electron moves on to H , where it absorbs the first photon , before moving on to C. Again we can calculate the probability amplitude of these possibilities ( for all points G and H ) . We then have a better estimation for the total probability amplitude by adding the probability amplitudes of these two possibilities to our original simple estimate . Incidentally the name given to this process of a photon interacting with an electron in this way is Compton scattering .
There are an infinite number of other intermediate processes in which more and more photons are absorbed and / or emitted . For each of these possibilities there is a Feynman diagram describing it . This implies a complex computation for the resulting probability amplitudes , but provided it is the case that the more complicated the diagram the less it contributes to the result , it is only a matter of time and effort to find as accurate an answer as one wants to the original question . This is the basic approach of QED . To calculate the probability of any interactive process between electrons and photons it is a matter of first noting , with Feynman diagrams , all the possible ways in which the process can be constructed from the three basic elements . Each diagram involves some calculation involving definite rules to find the associated probability amplitude .
That basic scaffolding remains when one moves to a quantum description but some conceptual changes are needed . One is that whereas we might expect in our everyday life that there would be some constraints on the points to which a particle can move , that is not true in full quantum electrodynamics . There is a possibility of an electron at A , or a photon at B , moving as a basic action to any other place and time in the universe . That includes places that could only be reached at speeds greater than that of light and also earlier times . ( An electron moving backwards in time can be viewed as a positron moving forward in time . )
= = = Probability amplitudes = = =
Quantum mechanics introduces an important change in the way probabilities are computed . Probabilities are still represented by the usual real numbers we use for probabilities in our everyday world , but probabilities are computed as the square of probability amplitudes . Probability amplitudes are complex numbers .
Feynman avoids exposing the reader to the mathematics of complex numbers by using a simple but accurate representation of them as arrows on a piece of paper or screen . ( These must not be confused with the arrows of Feynman diagrams which are actually simplified representations in two dimensions of a relationship between points in three dimensions of space and one of time . ) The amplitude arrows are fundamental to the description of the world given by quantum theory . No satisfactory reason has been given for why they are needed . But pragmatically we have to accept that they are an essential part of our description of all quantum phenomena . They are related to our everyday ideas of probability by the simple rule that the probability of an event is the square of the length of the corresponding amplitude arrow . So , for a given process , if two probability amplitudes , v and w , are involved , the probability of the process will be given either by
<formula>
or
<formula>
The rules as regards adding or multiplying , however , are the same as above . But where you would expect to add or multiply probabilities , instead you add or multiply probability amplitudes that now are complex numbers .
Addition and multiplication are familiar operations in the theory of complex numbers and are given in the figures . The sum is found as follows . Let the start of the second arrow be at the end of the first . The sum is then a third arrow that goes directly from the start of the first to the end of the second . The product of two arrows is an arrow whose length is the product of the two lengths . The direction of the product is found by adding the angles that each of the two have been turned through relative to a reference direction : that gives the angle that the product is turned relative to the reference direction .
That change , from probabilities to probability amplitudes , complicates the mathematics without changing the basic approach . But that change is still not quite enough because it fails to take into account the fact that both photons and electrons can be polarized , which is to say that their orientations in space and time have to be taken into account . Therefore , P ( A to B ) actually consists of 16 complex numbers , or probability amplitude arrows . There are also some minor changes to do with the quantity " j " , which may have to be rotated by a multiple of 90 ° for some polarizations , which is only of interest for the detailed bookkeeping .
Associated with the fact that the electron can be polarized is another small necessary detail which is connected with the fact that an electron is a fermion and obeys Fermi – Dirac statistics . The basic rule is that if we have the probability amplitude for a given complex process involving more than one electron , then when we include ( as we always must ) the complementary Feynman diagram in which we just exchange two electron events , the resulting amplitude is the reverse – the negative – of the first . The simplest case would be two electrons starting at A and B ending at C and D. The amplitude would be calculated as the " difference " , E ( A to D ) × E ( B to C ) − E ( A to C ) × E ( B to D ) , where we would expect , from our everyday idea of probabilities , that it would be a sum .
= = = Propagators = = =
Finally , one has to compute P ( A to B ) and E ( C to D ) corresponding to the probability amplitudes for the photon and the electron respectively . These are essentially the solutions of the Dirac Equation which describes the behavior of the electron 's probability amplitude and the Klein – Gordon equation which describes the behavior of the photon 's probability amplitude . These are called Feynman propagators . The translation to a notation commonly used in the standard literature is as follows :
<formula>
where a shorthand symbol such as <formula> stands for the four real numbers which give the time and position in three dimensions of the point labeled A.
= = = Mass renormalization = = =
A problem arose historically which held up progress for twenty years : although we start with the assumption of three basic " simple " actions , the rules of the game say that if we want to calculate the probability amplitude for an electron to get from A to B we must take into account all the possible ways : all possible Feynman diagrams with those end points . Thus there will be a way in which the electron travels to C , emits a photon there and then absorbs it again at D before moving on to B. Or it could do this kind of thing twice , or more . In short we have a fractal @-@ like situation in which if we look closely at a line it breaks up into a collection of " simple " lines , each of which , if looked at closely , are in turn composed of " simple " lines , and so on ad infinitum . This is a very difficult situation to handle . If adding that detail only altered things slightly then it would not have been too bad , but disaster struck when it was found that the simple correction mentioned above led to infinite probability amplitudes . In time this problem was " fixed " by the technique of renormalization . However , Feynman himself remained unhappy about it , calling it a " dippy process " .
= = = Conclusions = = =
Within the above framework physicists were then able to calculate to a high degree of accuracy some of the properties of electrons , such as the anomalous magnetic dipole moment . However , as Feynman points out , it fails totally to explain why particles such as the electron have the masses they do . " There is no theory that adequately explains these numbers . We use the numbers in all our theories , but we don 't understand them – what they are , or where they come from . I believe that from a fundamental point of view , this is a very interesting and serious problem . "
= = Mathematics = =
Mathematically , QED is an abelian gauge theory with the symmetry group U ( 1 ) . The gauge field , which mediates the interaction between the charged spin @-@ 1 / 2 fields , is the electromagnetic field . The QED Lagrangian for a spin @-@ 1 / 2 field interacting with the electromagnetic field is given by the real part of
where
<formula> are Dirac matrices ;
<formula> a bispinor field of spin @-@ 1 / 2 particles ( e.g. electron – positron field ) ;
<formula> , called " psi @-@ bar " , is sometimes referred to as the Dirac adjoint ;
<formula> is the gauge covariant derivative ;
e is the coupling constant , equal to the electric charge of the bispinor field ;
m is the mass of the electron or positron ;
<formula> is the covariant four @-@ potential of the electromagnetic field generated by the electron itself ;
<formula> is the external field imposed by external source ;
<formula> is the electromagnetic field tensor .
= = = Equations of motion = = =
To begin , substituting the definition of D into the Lagrangian gives us
<formula>
Next , we can substitute this Lagrangian into the Euler – Lagrange equation of motion for a field :
to find the field equations for QED .
The two terms from this Lagrangian are then
<formula>
<formula>
Substituting these two back into the Euler – Lagrange equation ( 2 ) results in
<formula>
with Hermitian conjugate
<formula>
Bringing the middle term to the right @-@ hand side transforms this second equation into
The left @-@ hand side is like the original Dirac equation and the right @-@ hand side is the interaction with the electromagnetic field .
One further important equation can be found by substituting the above Lagrangian into another Euler – Lagrange equation , this time for the field <formula> :
The two terms this time are
<formula>
<formula>
and these two terms , when substituted back into ( 3 ) give us
Now , if we impose the Lorenz gauge condition , that the divergence of the four potential vanishes
<formula>
then we get
<formula>
which is a wave equation for the four potential , the QED version of the classical Maxwell equations in the Lorenz gauge . ( In the above equation , the square represents the D 'Alembert operator . )
= = = Interaction picture = = =
This theory can be straightforwardly quantized by treating bosonic and fermionic sectors as free . This permits us to build a set of asymptotic states which can be used to start a computation of the probability amplitudes for different processes . In order to do so , we have to compute an evolution operator that , for a given initial state <formula> , will give a final state <formula> in such a way to have
<formula>
This technique is also known as the S @-@ matrix . The evolution operator is obtained in the interaction picture where time evolution is given by the interaction Hamiltonian , which is the integral over space of the second term in the Lagrangian density given above :
<formula>
and so , one has
<formula>
where T is the time ordering operator . This evolution operator only has meaning as a series , and what we get here is a perturbation series with the fine structure constant as the development parameter . This series is called the Dyson series .
= = = Feynman diagrams = = =
Despite the conceptual clarity of this Feynman approach to QED , almost no early textbooks follow him in their presentation . When performing calculations it is much easier to work with the Fourier transforms of the propagators . Experimental tests of quantum electrodynamics are typically scattering experiments . In scattering theory , particles ' momenta rather than their positions are considered , and it is convenient to think of particles as being created or annihilated when they interact . Feynman diagrams then look the same , but the lines have different interpretations . The electron line represents an electron with a given energy and momentum , with a similar interpretation of the photon line . A vertex diagram represents the annihilation of one electron and the creation of another together with the absorption or creation of a photon , each having specified energies and momenta .
Using Wick theorem on the terms of the Dyson series , all the terms of the S @-@ matrix for quantum electrodynamics can be computed through the technique of Feynman diagrams . In this case rules for drawing are the following
To these rules we must add a further one for closed loops that implies an integration on momenta <formula> , since these internal ( " virtual " ) particles are not constrained to any specific energy – momentum – even that usually required by special relativity ( see this article for details ) . From them , computations of probability amplitudes are straightforwardly given . An example is Compton scattering , with an electron and a photon undergoing elastic scattering . Feynman diagrams are in this case
and so we are able to get the corresponding amplitude at the first order of a perturbation series for the S @-@ matrix :
<formula>
from which we are able to compute the cross section for this scattering .
= = Renormalizability = =
Higher order terms can be straightforwardly computed for the evolution operator but these terms display diagrams containing the following simpler ones
that , being closed loops , imply the presence of diverging integrals having no mathematical meaning . To overcome this difficulty , a technique called renormalization has been devised , producing finite results in very close agreement with experiments . It is important to note that a criterion for theory being meaningful after renormalization is that the number of diverging diagrams is finite . In this case the theory is said to be renormalizable . The reason for this is that to get observables renormalized one needs a finite number of constants to maintain the predictive value of the theory untouched . This is exactly the case of quantum electrodynamics displaying just three diverging diagrams . This procedure gives observables in very close agreement with experiment as seen e.g. for electron gyromagnetic ratio .
Renormalizability has become an essential criterion for a quantum field theory to be considered as a viable one . All the theories describing fundamental interactions , except gravitation whose quantum counterpart is presently under very active research , are renormalizable theories .
= = Nonconvergence of series = =
An argument by Freeman Dyson shows that the radius of convergence of the perturbation series in QED is zero . The basic argument goes as follows : if the coupling constant were negative , this would be equivalent to the Coulomb force constant being negative . This would " reverse " the electromagnetic interaction so that like charges would attract and unlike charges would repel . This would render the vacuum unstable against decay into a cluster of electrons on one side of the universe and a cluster of positrons on the other side of the universe . Because the theory is ' sick ' for any negative value of the coupling constant , the series do not converge , but are an asymptotic series .
From a modern perspective , we say that QED is not well defined as a quantum field theory to arbitrarily high energy . The coupling constant runs to infinity at finite energy , signalling a Landau pole . The problem is essentially that QED appears to suffer from quantum triviality issues . This is one of the motivations for embedding QED within a Grand Unified Theory .
= = = Books = = =
De Broglie , Louis ( 1925 ) . Recherches sur la theorie des quanta [ Research on quantum theory ] . France : Wiley @-@ Interscience .
Feynman , Richard Phillips ( 1998 ) . Quantum Electrodynamics ( New ed . ) . Westview Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 201 @-@ 36075 @-@ 2 .
Jauch , J.M. ; Rohrlich , F. ( 1980 ) . The Theory of Photons and Electrons . Springer @-@ Verlag . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 387 @-@ 07295 @-@ 1 .
Greiner , Walter ; Bromley , D.A. ; Müller , Berndt ( 2000 ) . Gauge Theory of Weak Interactions . Springer . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 67672 @-@ 0 .
Kane , Gordon , L. ( 1993 ) . Modern Elementary Particle Physics . Westview Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 201 @-@ 62460 @-@ 1 .
Miller , Arthur I. ( 1995 ) . Early Quantum Electrodynamics : A Sourcebook . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 56891 @-@ 3 .
Milonni , Peter W. , ( 1994 ) The quantum vacuum - an introduction to quantum electrodynamics . Academic Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 498080 @-@ 5
Schweber , Silvan S. ( 1994 ) . QED and the Men Who Made It . Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 03327 @-@ 3 .
Schwinger , Julian ( 1958 ) . Selected Papers on Quantum Electrodynamics . Dover Publications . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 60444 @-@ 2 .
Tannoudji @-@ Cohen , Claude ; Dupont @-@ Roc , Jacques ; Grynberg , Gilbert ( 1997 ) . Photons and Atoms : Introduction to Quantum Electrodynamics . Wiley @-@ Interscience . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 471 @-@ 18433 @-@ 1 .
= = = Journals = = =
Dudley , J.M. ; Kwan , A.M. ( 1996 ) . " Richard Feynman 's popular lectures on quantum electrodynamics : The 1979 Robb Lectures at Auckland University " . American Journal of Physics 64 ( 6 ) : 694 – 698 . Bibcode : 1996AmJPh .. 64 .. 694D. doi : 10 @.@ 1119 / 1 @.@ 18234 .
= Asker Line =
The Asker Line ( Norwegian : Askerbanen ) is a 9 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 5 @.@ 9 mi ) railway line between Asker and Lysaker in Norway . The line runs along the same corridor as the Drammen Line , offering increased capacity , speed and regularity on the rail network west of Oslo . The first part opened in 2005 , and in 2011 an extension opened from Sandvika to Lysaker . An extension to Skøyen in Oslo will perhaps be built after 2020 . Most of the railway is in tunnel and is dimensioned for 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) running . The entire railway is electrified at 15 kV 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz AC . The first section cost NOK 3 @.@ 7 billion , while the second is budgeted at NOK 2 @.@ 7 billion .
The purpose of the new line is to allow regional and express trains to run directly between Asker Station , Sandvika Station and Lysaker Station , without being slowed and delayed by commuter trains that make frequent stops at intermediate stations . The Asker Line will improve regularity , and capacity will increase from 12 to 26 trains per hour in each direction . Travel time from Asker to Skøyen Station will be reduced from 20 to 13 minutes . The line has received criticism for not being a true high @-@ speed line , and for Lysaker Station not being in compliance with accessibility requirements . Similar parallel , high @-@ speed lines have been or will be built northeast and southeast of Oslo .
The line is built , owned and maintained by the Norwegian National Rail Administration . At Sandvika , the line connects to the Drammen Line , which runs to Oslo Central Station in the east . At Asker , the line connects to the Spikkestad and Drammen Lines ; the latter connects to the Sørland- and Vestfold Line at Drammen . The line is served by Norwegian State Railways with regional trains to Vestfold , Buskerud and Telemark , and the express trains along the Sørland Line and the Bergen Line ; in addition , the Airport Express Train operates from Asker to Oslo Airport , Gardermoen . During night , freight trains also use the line .
= = Background = =
Following the construction of the high @-@ speed Gardermoen Line from Oslo , via Oslo Airport , Gardermoen , to Eidsvoll , the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications started planning additional high @-@ speed lines west and southeast of Oslo . The Asker and Follo Lines would allow express and regional trains to travel faster and more reliably to Drammen and Ski , leaving the old tracks for slower freight trains , and commuter trains making frequent stops . Construction of the Follo Line will , at the earliest , be completed in 2015 .
The Gardermoen Line had shown that profits could be made by operating passenger trains , but that it would not be possible to debt @-@ finance short @-@ distance tracks in Eastern Norway . Therefore , a conventional financial method for the Asker Line was started . While the railway is entirely financed through allocation through the state budget , the prioritising was secured through a political compromise for investments in Greater Oslo , the Oslo Package 2 . Financing of a diverse range of road and public transport investments — including new motorways , extension of the Oslo Metro and new railways — would be made through a " package " . This involved both state , county and toll funding being collected in one lot , and then redistributing the funds to the agencies responsible for the investments .
Prior to the construction , the Western Corridor had a capacity of 12 – 14 trains per hour in each direction west of Skøyen . The first section of the Asker Line , from Asker to Sandvika , increased the capacity with an additional two trains . The opening of Lysaker Station will increase capacity with four more , since all stations along the line between Oslo and Drammen will then have four platforms . When the whole line is completed , total capacity in the Western Corridor will be 26 trains per hour . This is equivalent to 5 @,@ 500 cars per hour , and exceeds the capacity of a four @-@ lane motorway .
The Asker Line is also a necessary component to allow a high @-@ speed route to be built along the Vestfold and Ringerike Lines . The former is planned to branch off at Drammen , while the latter would branch of at Sandvika , and become a 60 @-@ kilometre ( 37 mi ) shortening of the Bergen Line . The first sections of the upgraded Vestfold Line opened in 1995 and 2001 , and additional proposals are under planning for the remaining sections .
= = Route = =
= = = Asker Station = = =
Asker Station is the end of the Asker Line , and trains must continue westwards along the Spikkestad Line or the Drammen Line . The latter immediately enters the Lieråsen Tunnel , allowing the same speeds as the Asker Line to Drammen . The Spikkestad Line is only used by the commuter trains to Spikkestad . Along with building the line , Asker Station was upgraded from five to six platforms , and also received a new , artistically decorated underpass between the
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1 to 96 . Domitian was the third and last emperor of the Flavian dynasty .
Domitian 's youth and early career were largely spent in the shadow of his brother Titus , who gained military renown during the First Jewish – Roman War . This situation continued under the rule of his father Vespasian , who became emperor in 69 following the civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors . While Titus held a great many offices under the rule of his father , Domitian was left with honours but no responsibilities . Vespasian died in 79 and was succeeded by Titus , whose own reign came to an unexpected end when he was struck by a fatal illness in 81 . The following day Domitian was declared Emperor by the Praetorian Guard , commencing a reign that lasted fifteen years – longer than any man who had ruled since Tiberius .
As Emperor , Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing the Roman coinage , expanded the border defenses of the Empire , and initiated a massive building program to restore the damaged city of Rome . Significant wars were fought in Britain , where his general Agricola attempted to conquer Caledonia ( Scotland ) , and in Dacia , where Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against king Decebalus . Domitian 's government exhibited totalitarian characteristics ; he saw himself as the new Augustus , an enlightened despot destined to guide the Roman Empire into a new era of brilliance . Religious , military , and cultural propaganda fostered a cult of personality , and by nominating himself perpetual censor , he sought to control public and private morals . As a consequence , Domitian was popular with the people and army but considered a tyrant by members of the Roman Senate .
Domitian 's reign came to an end in 96 when he was assassinated by court officials . The same day he was succeeded by his advisor Nerva . After his death , Domitian 's memory was condemned to oblivion by the Roman Senate , while senatorial authors such as Tacitus , Pliny the Younger and Suetonius published histories propagating the view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant . Modern revisionists have instead characterized Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat whose cultural , economic and political program provided the foundation of the peaceful 2nd century .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family = = =
Domitian was born in Rome on 24 October 51 , the youngest son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus — commonly known as Vespasian — and Flavia Domitilla Major . He had an older sister , Domitilla the Younger , and brother , also named Titus Flavius Vespasianus .
Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome , which a new Italian nobility gradually replaced in prominence during the early part of the 1st century . One such family , the Flavians , or gens Flavia , rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations , acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty . Domitian 's great @-@ grandfather , Titus Flavius Petro , had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar 's civil war . His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC .
Nevertheless , Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla , whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro 's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I , Domitian 's grandfather . Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia ( modern Switzerland ) . By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied the Flavian family to the more prestigious gens Vespasia , ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to senatorial rank .
The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor , aedile , and praetor , and culminated with a consulship in 51 , the year of Domitian 's birth . As a military commander , Vespasian gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43 . Nevertheless , ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian 's upbringing , even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula ( 37 – 41 ) and Nero ( 54 – 68 ) . Modern history has refuted these claims , suggesting these stories later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty and to maximize achievements under Emperor Claudius ( 41 – 54 ) and his son Britannicus .
By all appearances , the Flavians enjoyed high imperial favour throughout the 40s and 60s . While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus , Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career . Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s , he returned to public office under Nero , serving as proconsul of the Africa province in 63 , and accompanying the emperor during an official tour of Greece in 66 .
The same year the Jews of the Judaea province revolted against the Roman Empire in what is now known as the First Jewish @-@ Roman War . Vespasian was assigned to lead the Roman army against the insurgents , with Titus — who had completed his military education by this time — in charge of a legion .
= = = Youth and character = = =
By the time he was 6 years old , Domitian 's mother and sister had long since died , while his father and brother were continuously active in the Roman military , commanding armies in Germania and Judaea . For Domitian , this meant that a significant part of his adolescence was spent in the absence of his near relatives . During the Jewish @-@ Roman wars , he was likely taken under the care of his uncle Titus Flavius Sabinus II , at the time serving as city prefect of Rome ; or possibly even Marcus Cocceius Nerva , a loyal friend of the Flavians and the future successor to Domitian .
He received the education of a young man of the privileged senatorial class , studying rhetoric and literature . In his biography in the Lives of the Twelve Caesars , Suetonius attests to Domitian 's ability to quote the important poets and writers such as Homer or Virgil on appropriate occasions , and describes him as a learned and educated adolescent , with elegant conversation . Among his first published works were poetry , as well as writings on law and administration .
Unlike his brother Titus , Domitian was not educated at court . Whether he received formal military training is not recorded , but according to Suetonius , he displayed considerable marksmanship with the bow and arrow . A detailed description of Domitian 's appearance and character is provided by Suetonius , who devotes a substantial part of his biography to his personality .
He was tall of stature , with a modest expression and a high colour . His eyes were large , but his sight was somewhat dim . He was handsome and graceful too , especially when a young man , and indeed in his whole body with the exception of his feet , the toes of which were somewhat cramped . In later life he had the further disfigurement of baldness , a protruding belly , and spindling legs , though the latter had become thin from a long illness .
Suetonius , De Vita Caesarum , " Life of Domitian " , 18
Domitian was allegedly extremely sensitive regarding his baldness , which he disguised in later life by wearing wigs . According to Suetonius , he even wrote a book on the subject of hair care . With regard to Domitian 's personality , however , the account of Suetonius alternates sharply between portraying Domitian as the emperor @-@ tyrant , a man both physically and intellectually lazy , and the intelligent , refined personality drawn elsewhere .
Historian Brian Jones concludes in The Emperor Domitian that assessing the true nature of Domitian 's personality is inherently complicated by the bias of the surviving sources . Common threads nonetheless emerge from the available evidence . He appears to have lacked the natural charisma of his brother and father . He was prone to suspicion , displayed an odd , sometimes self @-@ deprecating sense of humour , and often communicated in cryptic ways .
This ambiguity of character was further exacerbated by his remoteness , and as he grew older , he increasingly displayed a preference for solitude , which may have stemmed from his isolated upbringing . Indeed , by the age of eighteen nearly all of his closest relatives had died by war or disease . Having spent the greater part of his early life in the twilight of Nero 's reign , his formative years would have been strongly influenced by the political turmoil of the 60s , culminating with the civil war of 69 , which brought his family to power .
= = Rise of the Flavian dynasty = =
= = = Year of the Four Emperors = = =
On 9 June 68 , amid growing opposition of the Senate and the army , Nero committed suicide and with him the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty came to an end . Chaos ensued , leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors , during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire — Galba , Otho , Vitellius and Vespasian — successively vied for imperial power .
News of Nero 's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem . Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba , then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis ( modern northern Spain ) , as Emperor of Rome . Rather than continue his campaign , Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor .
Before reaching Italy , Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho , the governor of Lusitania ( modern Portugal ) . At the same time Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt and prepared to march on Rome , intent on overthrowing Otho . Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other , Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea .
Otho and Vitellius realized the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction . With four legions at his disposal , Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80 @,@ 000 soldiers . His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital province of Egypt , which controlled the grain supply to Rome . His brother Titus Flavius Sabinus II , as city prefect , commanded the entire city garrison of Rome . Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high but so long as either Galba or Otho remained in power , Vespasian refused to take action .
When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the First Battle of Bedriacum , the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69 . Vespasian accepted and entered an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus , the governor of Syria , against Vitellius . A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus , while Vespasian travelled to Alexandria , leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion .
In Rome , Domitian was placed under house arrest by Vitellius , as a safeguard against Flavian aggression . Support for the old emperor waned as more legions around the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian . On 24 October 69 , the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian met at the Second Battle of Bedriacum , which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius .
In despair , Vitellius attempted to negotiate a surrender . Terms of peace , including a voluntary abdication , were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II but the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard — the imperial bodyguard — considered such a resignation disgraceful and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty . On the morning of 18 December , the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the Temple of Concord but at the last minute retraced his steps to the Imperial palace . In the confusion , the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus ' house , proclaiming Vespasian as Emperor , but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus , who was forced to retreat to the Capitoline Hill .
During the night , he was joined by his relatives , including Domitian . The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day . On 19 December , Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol and in a skirmish , Sabinus was captured and executed . Domitian managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis and spent the night in safety with one of his father 's supporters , Cornelius Primus .
By the afternoon of 20 December , Vitellius was dead , his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions . With nothing more to be feared , Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces ; he was universally saluted by the title of Caesar and the mass of troops conducted him to his father 's house . The following day , 21 December , the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire .
= = = Aftermath of the war = = =
Although the war had officially ended , a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius . Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70 but Vespasian did not enter Rome until September of that year . In the meantime , Domitian acted as the representative of the Flavian family in the Roman Senate . He received the title of Caesar and was appointed praetor with consular power .
The ancient historian Tacitus describes Domitian 's first speech in the Senate as brief and measured , at the same time noting his ability to elude awkward questions . Domitian 's authority was merely nominal , however , foreshadowing what was to be his role for at least ten more years . By all accounts , Mucianus held the real power in Vespasian 's absence and he was careful to ensure that Domitian , still only eighteen years old , did not overstep the boundaries of his function . Strict control was also maintained over the young Caesar 's entourage , promoting away Flavian generals such as Arrius Varus and Antonius Primus and replacing them by more reliable men such as Arrecinus Clemens .
Equally curtailed by Mucianus were Domitian 's military ambitions . The civil war of 69 had severely destabilized the provinces , leading to several local uprisings such as the Batavian revolt in Gaul . Batavian auxiliaries of the Rhine legions , led by Gaius Julius Civilis , had rebelled with the aid of a faction of Treveri under the command of Julius Classicus . Seven legions were sent from Rome , led by Vespasian 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Quintus Petillius Cerialis .
Although the revolt was quickly suppressed , exaggerated reports of disaster prompted Mucianus to depart the capital with reinforcements of his own . Domitian eagerly sought the opportunity to attain military glory and joined the other officers with the intention of commanding a legion of his own . According to Tacitus , Mucianus was not keen on this prospect but since he considered Domitian a liability in any capacity that was entrusted to him , he preferred to keep him close at hand rather than in Rome .
When news arrived of Cerialis ' victory over Civilis , Mucianus tactfully dissuaded Domitian from pursuing further military endeavours . Domitian then wrote to Cerialis personally , suggesting he hand over command of his army but , once again , he was snubbed . With the return of Vespasian in late September , his political role was rendered all but obsolete and Domitian withdrew from government devoting his time to arts and literature .
= = = Marriage = = =
Where his political and military career had ended in disappointment , Domitian 's private affairs were more successful . In 70 Vespasian attempted to arrange a dynastic marriage between his youngest son and the daughter of Titus , Julia Flavia , but Domitian was adamant in his love for Domitia Longina , going so far as to persuade her husband , Lucius Aelius Lamia , to divorce her so that Domitian could marry her himself . Despite its initial recklessness , the alliance was very prestigious for both families . Domitia Longina was the younger daughter of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo , a respected general and honoured politician who had distinguished himself for his leadership in Armenia . Following the failed Pisonian conspiracy against Nero in 65 , he had been forced to commit suicide . The new marriage not only re @-@ established ties to senatorial opposition , but also served the broader Flavian propaganda of the time , which sought to diminish Vespasian 's political success under Nero . Instead connections to Claudius and Britannicus were emphasised , and Nero 's victims , or those otherwise disadvantaged by him , rehabilitated .
In 80 , Domitia and Domitian 's only attested son was born . It is not known what the boy 's name was , but he died in childhood in 83 . Shortly following his accession as Emperor , Domitian bestowed the honorific title of Augusta upon Domitia , while their son was deified , appearing as such on the reverse of coin types from this period . Nevertheless , the marriage appears to have faced a significant crisis in 83 . For reasons unknown , Domitian briefly exiled Domitia , and then soon recalled her , either out of love or due to rumours that he was carrying on a relationship with his niece Julia Flavia . Jones argues that most likely he did so for her failure to produce an heir . By 84 , Domitia had returned to the palace , where she lived for the remainder of Domitian 's reign without incident . Little is known of Domitia 's activities as Empress , or how much influence she wielded in Domitian 's government , but it seems her role was limited . From Suetonius , we know that she at least accompanied the Emperor to the amphitheatre , while the Jewish writer Josephus speaks of benefits he received from her . It is not known whether Domitian had other children , but he did not marry again . Despite allegations by Roman sources of adultery and divorce , the marriage appears to have been happy .
= = = Ceremonial heir ( 71 – 81 ) = = =
Prior to becoming Emperor , Domitian 's role in the Flavian government was largely ceremonial . In June 71 , Titus returned triumphant from the war in Judaea . Ultimately , the rebellion had claimed the lives of over 1 million people , a majority of whom were Jewish . The city and temple of Jerusalem were completely destroyed , its most valuable treasures carried off by the Roman army , and nearly 100 @,@ 000 people were captured and enslaved .
For his victory , the Senate awarded Titus a Roman triumph . On the day of the festivities , the Flavian family rode into the capital , preceded by a lavish parade that displayed the spoils of the war . The family procession was headed by Vespasian and Titus , while Domitian , riding a magnificent white horse , followed with the remaining Flavian relatives .
Leaders of the Jewish resistance were executed in the Forum Romanum , after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter . A triumphal arch , the Arch of Titus , was erected at the south @-@ east entrance to the Forum to commemorate the successful end of the war .
Yet the return of Titus further highlighted the comparative insignificance of Domitian , both militarily and politically . As the eldest and most experienced of Vespasian 's sons , Titus shared tribunician power with his father , received seven consulships , the censorship , and was given command of the Praetorian Guard ; powers that left no doubt he was the designated heir to the Empire . As a second son , Domitian held honorary titles , such as Caesar or Princeps Iuventutis , and several priesthoods , including those of augur , pontifex , frater arvalis , magister frater arvalium , and sacerdos collegiorum omnium , but no office with imperium .
He held six consulships during Vespasian 's reign but only one of these , in 73 , was an ordinary consulship . The other five were less prestigious suffect consulships , which he held in 71 , 75 , 76 , 77 and 79 respectively , usually replacing his father or brother in mid @-@ January . While ceremonial , these offices no doubt gained Domitian valuable experience in the Roman Senate , and may have contributed to his later reservations about its relevance .
Under Vespasian and Titus , non @-@ Flavians were virtually excluded from the important public offices . Mucianus himself all but disappeared from historical records during this time , and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77 . Real power was unmistakably concentrated in the hands of the Flavian faction ; the weakened Senate only maintained the facade of democracy .
Because Titus effectively acted as co @-@ emperor with his father , no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred when Vespasian died on 23 June 79 . Titus assured Domitian that full partnership in the government would soon be his , but neither tribunician power nor imperium of any kind was conferred upon him during Titus ' brief reign . The new Emperor was not eager to alter this arrangement : he was under forty and at the height of his power .
Two major disasters struck during 79 and 80 . On 24 August 79 , Mount Vesuvius erupted , burying the surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum under metres of ash and lava ; the following year , a fire broke out in Rome that lasted three days and that destroyed a number of important public buildings . Consequently , Titus spent much of his reign coordinating relief efforts and restoring damaged property . On 13 September 81 after barely two years in office , he unexpectedly died of fever during a trip to the Sabine territories .
Ancient authors have implicated Domitian in the death of his brother , either by directly accusing him of murder , or implying he left the ailing Titus for dead , even alleging that during his lifetime , Domitian was openly plotting against his brother . It is difficult to assess the factual veracity of these statements given the known bias of the surviving sources . Brotherly affection was likely at a minimum , but this was hardly surprising , considering that Domitian had barely seen Titus after the age of seven .
Whatever the nature of their relationship , Domitian seems to have displayed little sympathy when his brother lay dying , instead making for the Praetorian camp where he was proclaimed emperor . The following day , 14 September , the Senate confirmed Domitian 's powers , granting tribunician power , the office of Pontifex Maximus , and the titles of Augustus , and Pater Patriae .
= = Emperor ( 81 – 96 ) = =
= = = Rule = = =
As Emperor , Domitian quickly dispensed with the republican facade his father and brother had maintained during their reign . By moving the centre of government ( more or less formally ) to the imperial court , Domitian openly rendered the Senate 's powers obsolete . In his view , the Roman Empire was to be governed as a divine monarchy with himself as the benevolent despot at its head .
In addition to exercising absolute political power , Domitian believed the Emperor 's role encompassed every aspect of daily life , guiding the Roman people as a cultural and moral authority . To usher in the new era , he embarked on ambitious economic , military and cultural programs with the intention of restoring the Empire to the splendour it had seen under the Emperor Augustus .
Despite these grand designs Domitian was determined to govern the Empire conscientiously and scrupulously . He became personally involved in all branches of the administration : edicts were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law , while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced . According to Suetonius , the imperial bureaucracy never ran more efficiently than under Domitian , whose exacting standards and suspicious nature maintained historically low corruption among provincial governors and elected officials .
Although he made no pretence regarding the significance of the Senate under his absolute rule , those senators he deemed unworthy were expelled from the Senate , and in the distribution of public offices he rarely favoured family members ; a policy that stood in contrast to the nepotism practiced by Vespasian and Titus . Above all , however , Domitian valued loyalty and malleability in those he assigned to strategic posts , qualities he found more often in men of the equestrian order than in members of the Senate or his own family , whom he regarded with suspicion , and promptly removed from office if they disagreed with imperial policy .
The reality of Domitian 's autocracy was further highlighted by the fact that , more than any emperor since Tiberius , he spent significant periods of time away from the capital . Although the Senate 's power had been in decline since the fall of the Republic , under Domitian the seat of power was no longer even in Rome , but rather wherever the Emperor was . Until the completion of the Flavian Palace on the Palatine Hill , the imperial court was situated at Alba or Circeii , and sometimes even farther afield . Domitian toured the European provinces extensively , and spent at least three years of his reign in Germania and Illyricum , conducting military campaigns on the frontiers of the Empire .
= = = Economy = = =
Domitian 's tendency towards micromanagement was nowhere more evident than in his financial policy . The question of whether Domitian left the Roman Empire in debt or with a surplus at the time of his death has been fiercely debated . The evidence points to a balanced economy for the greater part of Domitian 's reign . Upon his accession he revalued the Roman currency dramatically . He increased the silver purity of the denarius from 90 % to 98 % — the actual silver weight increasing from 2 @.@ 87 grams to 3 @.@ 26 grams . A financial crisis in 85 forced a devaluation of the silver purity and weight to 93 @.@ 5 % and 3 @.@ 04 grams respectively .
Nevertheless , the new values were still higher than the levels that Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reigns . Domitian 's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years . Coinage from this era displays a highly consistent degree of quality including meticulous attention to Domitian 's titulature and refined artwork on the reverse portraits .
Jones estimates Domitian 's annual income at more than 1 @.@ 2 billion sestertii , of which over one @-@ third would presumably have been spent maintaining the Roman army . The other major expense was the extensive reconstruction of Rome . At the time of Domitian 's accession the city was still suffering from the damage caused by the Great Fire of 64 , the civil war of 69 and the fire in 79 .
Much more than a renovation project , Domitian 's building program was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire @-@ wide cultural renaissance . Around fifty structures were erected , restored or completed , achievements second only to those of Augustus . Among the most important new structures were an odeon , a stadium , and an expansive palace on the Palatine Hill known as the Flavian Palace , which was designed by Domitian 's master architect Rabirius .
The most important building Domitian restored was the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill , said to have been covered with a gilded roof . Among those completed were the Temple of Vespasian and Titus , the Arch of Titus and the Colosseum , to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area .
In order to appease the people of Rome an estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donatives , or congiaria , throughout Domitian 's reign . The Emperor also revived the practice of public banquets , which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero , while he invested large sums on entertainment and games . In 86 he founded the Capitoline Games , a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays , chariot racing , and competitions for oratory , music and acting .
Domitian himself supported the travel of competitors from all corners of the Empire to Rome and distributed the prizes . Innovations were also introduced into the regular gladiatorial games such as naval contests , nighttime battles , and female and dwarf gladiator fights . Lastly , he added two new factions to the chariot races , Gold and Purple , to race against the existing White , Red , Green and Blue factions .
= = = Military campaigns = = =
The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian 's reign were generally defensive in nature , as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare . His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus , which encompassed a vast network of roads , forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire . Nevertheless , several important wars were fought in Gaul , against the Chatti , and across the Danube frontier against the Suebi , the Sarmatians , and the Dacians .
The conquest of Britain continued under the command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola , who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia , or modern day Scotland . Domitian also founded a new legion in 82 , the Legio I Minervia , to fight against the Chatti . Domitian is also credited on the easternmost evidence of Roman presence , the rock inscription near Boyukdash mountain , in present @-@ day Azerbaijan . As judged by the carved titles of Caesar , Augustus and Germanicus , the related march took place between 84 and 96 AD .
Domitian 's administration of the Roman army was characterized by the same fastidious involvement he exhibited in other branches of the government . His competence as a military strategist was criticized by his contemporaries however . Although he claimed several triumphs , these were largely propaganda manoeuvres . Tacitus derided Domitian 's victory against the Chatti as a " mock triumph " , and criticized his decision to retreat in Britain following the conquests of Agricola .
Nevertheless , Domitian appears to have been very popular among the soldiers , spending an estimated three years of his reign among the army on campaigns — more than any emperor since Augustus — and raising their pay by one @-@ third . While the army command may have disapproved of his tactical and strategic decisions , the loyalty of the common soldier was unquestioned .
= = = = Campaign against the Chatti = = = =
Once Emperor , Domitian immediately sought to attain his long delayed military glory . As early as 82 , or possibly 83 , he went to Gaul , ostensibly to conduct a census , and suddenly ordered an attack on the Chatti . For this purpose , a new legion was founded , Legio I Minervia , which constructed some 75 kilometres ( 46 mi ) of roads through Chattan territory to uncover the enemy 's hiding places .
Although little information survives of the battles fought , enough early victories were apparently achieved for Domitian to be back in Rome by the end of 83 , where he celebrated an elaborate triumph and conferred upon himself the title of Germanicus . Domitian 's supposed victory was much scorned by ancient authors , who described the campaign as " uncalled for " , and a " mock triumph " . The evidence lends some credence to these claims , as the Chatti would later play a significant role during the revolt of Saturninus in 89 .
= = = = Conquest of Britain ( 77 – 84 ) = = = =
One of the most detailed reports of military activity under the Flavian dynasty was written by Tacitus , whose biography of his father @-@ in @-@ law Gnaeus Julius Agricola largely concerns the conquest of Britain between 77 and 84 . Agricola arrived c . 77 as governor of Roman Britain , immediately launching campaigns into Caledonia ( modern Scotland ) .
In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then . He fortified the coast facing Ireland , and Tacitus recalls that his father @-@ in @-@ law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries . He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest . This conquest never happened , but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small @-@ scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland .
Turning his attention from Ireland , the following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the Forth into Caledonia . To aid the advance , a large legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil . In the summer of 84 , Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians , led by Calgacus , at the Battle of Mons Graupius . Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the enemy , two @-@ thirds of the Caledonian army escaped and hid in the Scottish marshes and Highlands , ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control .
In 85 , Agricola was recalled to Rome by Domitian , having served for more than six years as governor , longer than normal for consular legates during the Flavian era . Tacitus claims that Domitian ordered his recall because Agricola 's successes outshone the Emperor 's own modest victories in Germania . The relationship between Agricola and the Emperor is unclear : on the one hand , Agricola was awarded triumphal decorations and a statue , on the other , Agricola never again held a civil or military post in spite of his experience and renown . He was offered the governorship of the province of Africa but declined it , either due to ill health or , as Tacitus claims , the machinations of Domitian .
Not long after Agricola 's recall from Britain , the Roman Empire entered into war with the Kingdom of Dacia in the East . Reinforcements were needed , and in 87 or 88 , Domitian ordered a large @-@ scale strategic withdrawal of troops in the British province . The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled and the Caledonian forts and watchtowers abandoned , moving the Roman frontier some 120 kilometres ( 75 mi ) further south . The army command may have resented Domitian 's decision to retreat , but to him the Caledonian territories never represented anything more than a loss to the Roman treasury .
= = = = Dacian wars ( 85 – 88 ) = = = =
The most significant threat the Roman Empire faced during the reign of Domitian arose from the northern provinces of Illyricum , where the Suebi , the Sarmatians and the Dacians continuously harassed Roman settlements along the Danube river . Of these , the Sarmatians and the Dacians posed the most formidable threat . In approximately 84 or 85 the Dacians , led by King Decebalus , crossed the Danube into the province of Moesia , wreaking havoc and killing the Moesian governor Oppius Sabinus .
Domitian quickly launched a counteroffensive , personally travelling to the region accompanied by a large force commanded by his praetorian prefect Cornelius Fuscus . Fuscus successfully drove the Dacians back across the border in mid @-@ 85 , prompting Domitian to return to Rome and celebrate his second triumph .
The victory proved short @-@ lived , however : as early in 86 Fuscus embarked on an ill @-@ fated expedition into Dacia , which resulted in the complete destruction of the fifth legion , Legio V Alaudae , in the First Battle of Tapae . Fuscus was killed , and the battle standard of the Praetorian Guard was lost . The loss of the battle standard , or aquila , was indicative of a crushing defeat and a serious affront to Roman national pride .
Domitian returned to Moesia in August 86 . He divided the province into Lower Moesia and Upper Moesia , and transferred three additional legions to the Danube . In 87 , the Romans invaded Dacia once more , this time under the command of Tettius Julianus , and finally defeated Decebalus in late 88 at the same site where Fuscus had previously perished . An attack on the Dacian capital Sarmizegetusa was forestalled when new troubles arose on the German frontier in 89 .
In order to avert having to conduct a war on two fronts , Domitian agreed to terms of peace with Decebalus , negotiating free access of Roman troops through the Dacian region while granting Decebalus an annual subsidy of 8 million sesterces . Contemporary authors severely criticized this treaty , which was considered shameful to the Romans and left the deaths of Sabinus and Fuscus unavenged . For the remainder of Domitian 's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom , but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses .
Domitian probably wanted a new war against the Dacians , and reinforced Upper Moesia with two more cavalry units brought from Syria and with at least five cohorts brought from Pannonia . Trajan continued Domitian 's policy and added two more units to the auxiliary forces of Upper Moesia , and then he used the build up of troops for his Dacian wars . Eventually the Romans achieved a decisive victory against Decebalus in 106 . Again , the Roman army sustained heavy losses , but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and , importantly , annexed the Dacian gold and silver mines .
= = = Religious policy = = =
Domitian firmly believed in the traditional Roman religion , and personally saw to it that ancient customs and morals were observed throughout his reign . In order to justify the divine nature of the Flavian rule , Domitian emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter , perhaps most significantly through the impressive restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill . A small chapel dedicated to Jupiter Conservator was also constructed near the house where Domitian had fled to safety on 20 December 69 . Later in his reign , he replaced it with a more expansive building , dedicated to Jupiter Custos .
The goddess he worshipped the most zealously , however , was Minerva . Not only did he keep a personal shrine dedicated to her in his bedroom , she regularly appeared on his coinage — in four different attested reverse types — and he founded a legion , Legio I Minervia , in her name .
Domitian also revived the practice of the imperial cult , which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian . Significantly , his first act as an Emperor was the deification of his brother Titus . Upon their deaths , his infant son , and niece , Julia Flavia , were likewise enrolled among the gods . With regards to the emperor himself as a religious figure , both Suetonius and Cassius Dio allege that Domitian officially gave himself the title of Dominus et Deus . However , not only did he reject the title of Dominus during his reign , but since he issued no official documentation or coinage to this effect , historians such as Brian Jones contend that such phrases were addressed to Domitian by flatterers who wished to earn favors from the emperor .
To foster the worship of the imperial family , he erected a dynastic mausoleum on the site of Vespasian 's former house on the Quirinal , and completed the Temple of Vespasian and Titus , a shrine dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother . To memorialize the military triumphs of the Flavian family , he ordered the construction of the Templum Divorum and the Templum Fortuna Redux , and completed the Arch of Titus .
Construction projects such as these constituted only the most visible part of Domitian 's religious policy , which also concerned itself with the fulfilment of religious law and public morals . In 85 , he nominated himself perpetual censor , the office that held the task of supervising Roman morals and conduct . Once again , Domitian acquitted himself of this task dutifully , and with care . He renewed the Lex Iulia de Adulteriis Coercendis , under which adultery was punishable by exile . From the list of jurors he struck an equestrian who had divorced his wife and taken her back , while an ex @-@ quaestor was expelled from the Senate for acting and dancing .
Domitian also heavily prosecuted corruption among public officials , removing jurors if they accepted bribes and rescinding legislation when a conflict of interest was suspected . He ensured that libellous writings , especially those directed against himself , were punishable by exile or death . Actors were likewise regarded with suspicion , as their performances provided an opportunity for satire at the expense of the government . Consequently , he forbade mimes from appearing on stage in public .
In 87 , Vestal Virgins were found to have broken their sacred vows of lifelong public chastity . As the Vestals were regarded as daughters of the community , this offense essentially constituted incest . Accordingly , those found guilty of any such transgression were condemned to death , either by a manner of their choosing , or according to the ancient fashion , which dictated that Vestals should be buried alive .
Foreign religions were tolerated insofar as they did not interfere with public order , or could be assimilated with the traditional Roman religion . The worship of Egyptian deities in particular flourished under the Flavian dynasty , to an extent not seen again until the reign of Commodus . Veneration of Serapis and Isis , who were identified with Jupiter and Minerva respectively , was especially prominent .
4th century writings by Eusebius of Caesarea maintain that Jews and Christians were heavily persecuted toward the end of Domitian 's reign . The Book of Revelation is thought by some to have been written during this period . Although Jews were heavily taxed , no contemporary authors mention trials or executions based on religious offenses other than those within the Roman religion .
= = = Opposition = = =
= = = = Revolt of Governor Saturninus ( 89 ) = = = =
On 1 January 89 , the governor of Germania Superior , Lucius Antonius Saturninus , and his two legions at Mainz , Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax , revolted against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Germanic Chatti people . The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain , although it appears to have been planned well in advance . The Senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian 's military strategies , such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack , as well as his recent retreat from Britain , and finally the disgraceful policy of appeasement towards Decebalus .
At any rate , the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus ' province , and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces . The governor of Germania Inferior , Lappius Maximus , moved to the region at once , assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia , Titus Flavius Norbanus . From Spain , Trajan was summoned , while Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard .
By a stroke of luck , a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus ' aid . Within twenty @-@ four days the rebellion was crushed , and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished . The mutinous legions were sent to the front in Illyricum , while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded .
Lappius Maximus received the governorship of the province of Syria , a consulship in May 95 , and finally a priesthood , which he still held in 102 . Titus Flavius Norbanus may have been appointed to the prefecture of Egypt , but almost certainly became prefect of the Praetorian Guard by 94 , with Titus Petronius Secundus as his colleague . Domitian opened the year following the revolt by sharing the consulship with Marcus Cocceius Nerva , suggesting the latter had played a part in uncovering the conspiracy , perhaps in a fashion similar to the one he played during the Pisonian conspiracy under Nero .
Although little is known about the life and career of Nerva before his accession as Emperor in 96 , he appears to have been a highly adaptable diplomat , surviving multiple regime changes and emerging as one of the Flavians ' most trusted advisors . His consulship may therefore have been intended to emphasize the stability and status quo of the regime . The revolt had been suppressed and the Empire returned to order .
= = = = Relationship with the Senate = = = =
Since the fall of the Republic , the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi @-@ monarchical system of government established by Augustus , known as the Principate . The Principate allowed the existence of a de facto dictatorial regime , while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic . Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy , and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor 's status as a de facto monarch .
Some rulers handled this arrangement with less subtlety than others . Domitian was not so subtle . From the outset of his reign , he stressed the reality of his autocracy . He disliked aristocrats and had no fear of showing it , withdrawing every decision @-@ making power from the Senate , and instead relying on a small set of friends and equestrians to control the important offices of state .
The dislike was mutual . After Domitian 's assassination , the senators of Rome rushed to the Senate house , where they immediately passed a motion condemning his memory to oblivion . Under the rulers of the Nervan @-@ Antonian dynasty , senatorial authors published histories that elaborated on the view of Domitian as a tyrant .
Nevertheless , the evidence suggests that Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion . Whereas his father and brother had concentrated consular power largely in the hands of the Flavian family , Domitian admitted a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship , allowing them to head the official calendar by opening the year as an ordinary consul . Whether this was a genuine attempt to reconcile with hostile factions in the Senate cannot be ascertained . By offering the consulship to potential opponents , Domitian may have wanted to compromise these senators in the eyes of their supporters . When their conduct proved unsatisfactory , they were almost invariably brought to trial and exiled or executed , and their property was confiscated .
Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of Domitian 's reign , identifying a point of sharp increase around 93 , or sometime after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89 . At least twenty senatorial opponents were executed , including Domitia Longina 's former husband Lucius Aelius Lamia and three of Domitian 's own family members , Titus Flavius Sabinus IV , Titus Flavius Clemens and Marcus Arrecinus Clemens . Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85 however , lending little credit to Tacitus ' notion of a " reign of terror " late in Domitian 's reign . According to Suetonius , some were convicted for corruption or treason , others on trivial charges , which Domitian justified through his suspicion :
He used to say that the lot of Emperors was most unfortunate , since when they discovered a conspiracy , no one believed them unless they had been murdered .
Suetonius , De Vita Caesarum , " Life of Domitian " , 21
Jones compares the executions of Domitian to those under Emperor Claudius ( 41 – 55 ) , noting that Claudius executed around 35 senators and 300 equestrians , and yet was still deified by the Senate and regarded as one of the good Emperors of history . Domitian was apparently unable to gain support among the aristocracy , despite attempts to appease hostile factions with consular appointments . His autocratic style of government accentuated the Senate 's loss of power , while his policy of treating patricians and even family members as equals to all Romans earned him their contempt .
= = Death and succession = =
= = = Assassination ( 96 ) = = =
Domitian was assassinated on 18 September 96 , in a palace conspiracy organized by court officials . A highly detailed account of the plot and the assassination is provided by Suetonius , who alleges that Domitian 's chamberlain Parthenius was the chief instigator behind the conspiracy , citing the recent execution of Domitian 's secretary Epaphroditus as the primary motive . The murder itself was carried out by a freedman of Parthenius named Maximus , and a steward of Domitian 's niece Flavia Domitilla , named Stephanus .
The precise involvement of the Praetorian Guard is less clear . At the time the Guard was commanded by Titus Flavius Norbanus and Titus Petronius Secundus and the latter was almost certainly aware of the plot . Cassius Dio , writing nearly a hundred years after the assassination , includes Domitia Longina among the conspirators , but in light of her attested devotion to Domitian — even years after her husband had died — her involvement in the plot seems highly unlikely .
Dio further suggests that the assassination was improvised , while Suetonius implies a well @-@ organized conspiracy . For some days before the attack took place , Stephanus feigned an injury so as to be able to conceal a dagger beneath his bandages . On the day of the assassination the doors to the servants ' quarters were locked while Domitian 's personal weapon of last resort , a sword he concealed beneath his pillow , had been removed in advance .
In accordance with an astrological prediction the Emperor believed that he would die around noon , and was therefore restless during this time of the day . On his last day , Domitian was feeling disturbed and asked a servant several times what time it was . The boy , included in the plot , lied , saying that it was much later than noon . More at ease , the Emperor went to his desk to sign some decrees , where he was suddenly approached by Stephanus :
Then pretending to betray a conspiracy and for that reason being given an audience , [ Stephanus ] stabbed the emperor in the groin as he was reading a paper which the assassin handed him , and stood in a state of amazement . As the wounded prince attempted to resist , he was slain with seven wounds by Clodianus , a subaltern , Maximus , a freedman of Parthenius , Satur , decurion of the chamberlains , and a gladiator from the imperial school .
Suetonius , De Vita Caesarum , " Life of Domitian " , 17
Domitian and Stephanus wrestled on the ground for some time , until the Emperor was finally overpowered and fatally stabbed by the conspirators ; Stephanus was stabbed by Domitian during the struggle and died shortly afterward . Around noon Domitian , just one month short of his 45th birthday , was dead . His body was carried away on a common bier , and unceremoniously cremated by his nurse Phyllis , who later mingled the ashes with those of his niece Julia , at the Flavian temple .
According to Suetonius , a number of omens had foretold Domitian 's death . Several days prior to the assassination , Minerva had appeared to him in a dream , announcing she had been disarmed by Jupiter and would no longer be able to protect him .
= = = Succession and aftermath = = =
The Fasti Ostienses , the Ostian Calendar , records that the same day the Senate proclaimed Marcus Cocceius Nerva emperor . Despite his political experience , this was a remarkable choice . Nerva was old and childless , and had spent much of his career out of the public light , prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian 's assassination .
According to Cassius Dio , the conspirators approached Nerva as a potential successor prior to the assassination , suggesting that he was at least aware of the plot . He does not appear in Suetonius ' version of the events , but this may be understandable , since his works were published under Nerva 's direct descendants Trajan and Hadrian . To suggest the dynasty owed its accession to murder would have been less than sensitive .
On the other hand , Nerva lacked widespread support in the Empire , and as a known Flavian loyalist , his track record would not have recommended him to the conspirators . The precise facts have been obscured by history , but modern historians believe Nerva was proclaimed Emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate , within hours after the news of the assassination broke . The decision may have been hasty so as to avoid civil war , but neither appears to have been involved in the conspiracy .
The Senate nonetheless rejoiced at the death of Domitian , and immediately following Nerva 's accession as Emperor , passed damnatio memoriae on his memory : his coins and statues were melted , his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records . Domitian and , over a century later Publius Septimius Geta , were the only emperors known to have officially received a damnatio memoriae , though others may have received de facto ones . In many instances , existing portraits of Domitian , such as those found on the Cancelleria Reliefs , were simply recarved to fit the likeness of Nerva , which allowed quick production of new images and recycling of previous material . Yet the order of the Senate was only partially executed in Rome , and wholly disregarded in most of the provinces outside Italy .
According to Suetonius , the people of Rome met the news of Domitian 's death with indifference , but the army was much grieved , calling for his deification immediately after the assassination , and in several provinces rioting . As a compensation measure , the Praetorian Guard demanded the execution of Domitian 's assassins , which Nerva refused . Instead he merely dismissed Titus Petronius Secundus , and replaced him with a former commander , Casperius Aelianus .
Dissatisfaction with this state of affairs continued to loom over Nerva 's reign , and ultimately erupted into a crisis in October 97 , when members of the Praetorian Guard , led by Casperius Aelianus , laid siege to the Imperial Palace and took Nerva hostage . He was forced to submit to their demands , agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian 's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians . Titus Petronius Secundus and Parthenius were sought out and killed . Nerva was unharmed in this assault , but his authority was damaged beyond repair . Shortly thereafter he announced the adoption of Trajan as his successor , and with this decision all but abdicated .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Ancient sources = = =
The classic view of Domitian is usually negative , since most of the antique sources were related to the Senatorial or aristocratic class , with which Domitian had notoriously difficult relations . Furthermore , contemporary historians such as Pliny the Younger , Tacitus and Suetonius all wrote down the information on his reign after it had ended , and his memory had been condemned to oblivion . The work of Domitian 's court poets Martial and Statius constitutes virtually the only literary evidence concurrent with his reign . Perhaps as unsurprising as the attitude of post @-@ Domitianic historians , the poems of Martial and Statius are highly adulatory , praising Domitian 's achievements as equalling those of the gods .
The most extensive account of the life of Domitian to survive was written by the historian Suetonius , who was born during the reign of Vespasian , and published his works under Emperor Hadrian ( 117 – 138 ) . His De Vita Caesarum is the source of much of what is known of Domitian . Although his text is predominantly negative , it neither exclusively condemns nor praises Domitian , and asserts that his rule started well , but gradually declined into terror . The biography is problematic however , in that it appears to contradict itself with regards to Domitian 's rule and personality , at the same time presenting him as a conscientious , moderate man , and as a decadent libertine .
According to Suetonius , Domitian wholly feigned his interest in arts and literature , and never bothered to acquaint himself with classic authors . Other passages , alluding to Domitian 's love of epigrammatic expression , suggest that he was in fact familiar with classic writers , while he also patronized poets and architects , founded artistic Olympics , and personally restored the library of Rome at great expense after it had burned down .
De Vita Caesarum is also the source of several outrageous stories regarding Domitian 's marriage life . According to Suetonius , Domitia Longina was exiled in 83 because of an affair with a famous actor named Paris . When Domitian found out , he allegedly murdered Paris in the street and promptly divorced his wife , with Suetonius further adding that once Domitia was exiled , Domitian took Julia as his mistress , who later died during a failed abortion .
Modern historians consider this highly implausible however , noting that malicious rumours such as those concerning Domitia 's alleged infidelity were eagerly repeated by post @-@ Domitianic authors , and used to highlight the hypocrisy of a ruler publicly preaching a return to Augustan morals , while privately indulging in excesses and presiding over a corrupt court . Nevertheless , the account of Suetonius has dominated imperial historiography for centuries .
Although Tacitus is usually considered to be the most reliable author of this era , his views on Domitian are complicated by the fact that his father @-@ in @-@ law , Gnaeus Julius Agricola , may have been a personal enemy of the Emperor . In his biographical work Agricola , Tacitus maintains that Agricola was forced into retirement because his triumph over the Caledonians highlighted Domitian 's own inadequacy as a military commander . Several modern authors such as Dorey have argued the opposite : that Agricola was in fact a close friend of Domitian , and that Tacitus merely sought to distance his family from the fallen dynasty once Nerva was in power .
Tacitus ' major historical works , including The Histories and Agricola 's biography , were all written and published under Domitian 's successors Nerva ( 96 – 98 ) and Trajan ( 98 – 117 ) . Unfortunately , the part of Tacitus ' Histories dealing with the reign of the Flavian dynasty is almost entirely lost . His views on Domitian survive through brief comments in its first five books , and the short but highly negative characterization in Agricola in which he severely criticizes Domitian 's military endeavours . Nevertheless , Tacitus admits his debt to the Flavians with regard to his own public career .
Other influential 2nd century authors include Juvenal and Pliny the Younger , the latter of whom was a friend of Tacitus and in 100 delivered his famous Panygericus Traiani before Trajan and the Roman Senate , exalting the new era of restored freedom while condemning Domitian as a tyrant . Juvenal savagely satirized the Domitianic court in his Satires , depicting the Emperor and his entourage as corrupt , violent and unjust . As a consequence , the anti @-@ Domitianic tradition was already well established by the end of the 2nd century , and by the 3rd century , even expanded upon by early Church historians , who identified Domitian as an early persecutor of Christians , such as in the Acts of John .
= = = Modern revisionism = = =
Hostile views of Domitian were propagated until well into the early 20th century , before archeological and numismatic advances brought renewed attention to his reign , and necessitated a revision of the literary tradition established by Tacitus and Pliny . In 1930 , Ronald Syme argued a complete reassessment of Domitian 's financial policy , which had until then been largely viewed as a disaster , opening his paper with the following introduction :
The work of the spade and the use of common sense have done much to mitigate the influence of Tacitus and Pliny and redeem the memory of Domitian from infamy or oblivion . But much remains to be done .
Ronald Syme , Imperial finances under Domitian , Nerva and Trajan
Over the course of the 20th century , Domitian 's military , administrative and economic policies were re @-@ evaluated . New book length studies were not published until the 1990s however , nearly a hundred years after Stéphane Gsell 's Essai sur le règne de l 'empereur Domitien ( 1894 ) . The most important of these was The Emperor Domitian , by Brian W. Jones . In his monograph , Jones concludes that Domitian was a ruthless , but efficient autocrat . For the majority of his reign , there was no widespread dissatisfaction with the emperor or his rule . His harshness was felt by only a small , but highly vocal minority , who later exaggerated his despotism in favour of the well @-@ regarded Nervan @-@ Antonian dynasty that followed .
Domitian 's foreign policy was realistic , rejecting expansionist warfare and negotiating peace at a time when Roman military tradition dictated aggressive conquest . His economic program , which was rigorously efficient , maintained the Roman currency at a standard it would never again achieve . Persecution of religious minorities , such as Jews and Christians , was non @-@ existent . Domitian 's government nonetheless exhibited totalitarian characteristics . As Emperor , he saw himself as the new Augustus , an enlightened despot destined to guide the Roman Empire into a new era of Flavian renaissance .
Religious , military and cultural propaganda fostered a cult of personality . He deified three of his family members and erected massive structures to commemorate the Flavian achievements . Elaborate triumphs were celebrated in order to boost his image as a warrior @-@ emperor , but many of these were either unearned or premature . By nominating himself perpetual censor , he sought to control public and private morals .
He became personally involved in all branches of the government and successfully prosecuted corruption among public officials . The dark side of his censorial power involved a restriction in freedom of speech , and an increasingly oppressive attitude toward the Roman Senate . He punished libel with exile or death and , due to his suspicious nature , increasingly accepted information from informers to bring false charges of treason if necessary .
Although contemporary historians vilified Domitian after his death , his administration provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century . His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive , but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian 's . Much more than a " gloomy coda to the ... 1st century " the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96 , in a reign that Theodor Mommsen described as the sombre but intelligent despotism of Domitian .
= = In later arts = =
= = = Literature = = =
The Roman Actor ( 1626 ) , a play by Philip Massinger that features Domitian as the main character .
Josephus and the Emperor ( 1942 ; earlier Der Tag wird kommen ) , historical novel by Lion Feuchtwanger , in which a cruel and hypocritical Domitian suggests the tyranny of Adolf Hitler .
The Ravishers ( 1980 ) , a historical romance by Jeanne Duval , about a Gallic princess who is enslaved in Rome and survives the Year of the Four Emperors
The Marcus Didius Falco series of crime novels ( 1989 — ) by Lindsey Davis , set during the reign of Vespasian . Domitian appears as a peripheral character , and is named as the primary suspect in the murder being investigated in the first novel , Silver Pigs .
The companion series , featuring Falco 's adoptive daughter , Flavia Albia , takes place during the reign of Domitian .
Master and God ( 2012 ) , a historical novel by Davis centers around the reign of Domitian .
The Light Bearer ( 1994 ) , a historical novel by Donna Gillespie .
Domitia and Domitian ( 2000 ) , a historical novel by David Corson based on the works of Brian Jones and Pat Southern , revolving around the title characters .
The Roman Mysteries series of young adult novels by Caroline Lawrence features Domitian as a peripheral character , in which he is depicted as indolent and cruel , and responsible for several plots to undermine his brother Titus 's popularity ;
Mistress of Rome ( 2010 ) , an historical novel by Kate Quinn where Domitian 's skills as an emperor are tarnished by his personal cruelty and suspicion towards those around him .
Roman Hell
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. Anderson worked with series director Kim Manners for the majority of the episode , later noting that if she had any questions , she would approach Manners first . To help Anderson , Manners gave her directing exercises , such as making a list of shots for every scene . The episode also marked the first time that a woman had helmed the direction of an episode of The X @-@ Files .
Anderson 's directing helped to energize the production , and the cast and crew worked more than usual to make sure that everything was in order for her . Production designer Corey Kaplan made sure that the episode featured a Buddhist temple at Anderson 's request , and casting director Rick Millikan helped Anderson choose the appropriate actors and actresses . Millikan later said that he particularly enjoyed working with Anderson , because it was " fun " for him to watch her go through the casting process , which was entirely new to her . On set , Anderson 's directing style was described as " right on the money " by Marc Shapiro in his book all things : The Official Guide to The X @-@ Files , Volume 6 . He later wrote that " Anderson wielded a deft hand in her directorial debut , prodding the actors to her will , making decisions on the fly , and handling the complex special effects sequences " . Fans of the show later wrote to express their appreciation of Anderson 's directing abilities . Anderson was also involved in post @-@ production editing , during which she was forced to cut the final conversation scene between Scully and Daniel Waterston by 10 minutes in order to meet the allotted episode length .
The meditation scene required clips from previous episodes to appear in flashback . Initially , Paul Rabwin and the special effects crew cut the necessary scenes and placed them in animated bubbles . According to Rabwin , at this point , the crew was just experimenting with ideas . Eventually , the crew decided that the bubbles were too " hokey " , so they adopted a more standard slit @-@ scan effect . In order to create the sequence of Scully visualizing Waterston 's heart condition , Nicolas Surovy had to lie naked on a platform surrounded by a blue screen . A sphere was matched via motion control as a marker for a prosthetic beating heart that was crafted and filmed separately . The two shots were then combined .
Anderson wanted to include " The Sky Is Broken " , a song from Moby 's 1999 album Play in the episode , having heard it while driving home from work . She later explained that the song 's lyrics " fit with [ the ] idea that was unfolding for the script " . Anderson crafted the first shot after the opening credits , which involved Scully getting ready while water dripped from a sink , to create a " continuation of sound , rhythmic sound " , because it was important to the show 's musical aspect . Anderson and series composer Mark Snow worked together in post @-@ production ; after filming , she sent Snow several CDs of music and asked him for compositions that were similar in style and feel . A certain melody that the two worked on later became " Scully 's Theme " , which was not broadcast until the eighth season episode " Within " . " all things " also featured the use of the gong , an instrument that Anderson called " very Tibetan " and " appropriate for this episode " .
= = Themes = =
In the chapter " Scully as a Pragmatist Feminist " of the book The Philosophy of The X @-@ Files , Erin McKenna argues that " all things " represents an " important shift " in Scully 's approach to science , knowledge acquisition , and the pursuit of the truth . She reasons that the events of the episode open Scully 's mind to new ways of knowing , specifically citing " auras , chakras , visions ... and the importance of coincidence " . McKenna notes that Scully 's shift in perspective is a shift to American pragmatism , a belief that reality is ever @-@ changing . Pragmatists believe " the truth is out there " — the motto of the series — in a manner similar to Mulder 's . In " all things " , Scully begins to embrace pragmatism , although she still clings to her skeptic roots . Mixing the two , Scully evolves from a mere skeptic who demands proof to validate a truth , to an empiricist who wants proof , but is open to other perspectives .
In addition , McKenna reasons that " all things " is heavily influenced by feminist philosophy and epistemology , schools of thought that try to criticize or re @-@ evaluate the ideas of traditional philosophy and epistemology from within a feminist framework . According to McKenna , feminism rejects dualistic ways of thinking , especially " typical male / female dualism " . Feminist philosophy , instead , calls for a pluralistic way of thinking , noting that there are many consistent sets of truths about the world . In the episode , Scully starts out " sure of her more rational scientific view and approach " . As the episode progresses , however , she decides to branch out . Eventually , she brings in a spirit healer to " corroborate or nullify the new beliefs she is encountering " . Despite dabbling in mysticism , a field generally stereotyped as feminine by the patriarchy , Scully engages in " protracted inquiry " , examining all sides of the issue , in order to return Waterston to health .
When Mulder and Scully talk at the end of the episode , Mulder questions the fact that he left " town for two days and [ Scully ] spoke to God in a Buddhist temple and God spoke back " . Scully retorts that , " I didn 't say God spoke back " . McKenna proposes that this is an example of Scully 's rational scientific approach meshing with her newer , feministic pragmatism . The two modes of understanding are not " to be seen ... as competing systems , but as complementary , as are Scully and Mulder themselves " . McKenna concludes that this is represented in the opening scene , in which Mulder and Scully are implied to have had sex . This is meant as a metaphor , showing the full merging of Scully 's and Mulder 's different philosophies into pragmatic feminism .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The episode originally aired in the United States on the Fox network on April 9 , 2000 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on Sky1 on July 9 , 2000 . In the U.S. , " all things " was watched by 12 @.@ 18 million viewers . It earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 5 , with an 11 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 5 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 11 percent of households watching television , tuned into the episode . In the U.K. , " all things " was seen by 580 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the seventh @-@ most watched program on Sky1 for that week . On May 13 , 2003 , the episode was released on DVD as part of the complete seventh season .
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C " and called it " a curious failure " . He felt that the writing was " pretentious " and composed of " some weird , weird bullshit " . VanDerWerff wrote that , although the episode was unsuccessful , there was something so " pure and unadorned at its center that I can 't outright hate it " . Furthermore , he admired the show and Anderson for " making the attempt " . Kevin Silber of Space.com gave the episode a negative review , critical of the script and characterization . He said , " nothing much seems to happen , and what does occur is substantially driven by coincidence and arbitrariness " . He did not like Azar and disapproved of Scully 's philosophical " reverie " , calling it " facile , and hard to reconcile with the determined rationalism she 's displayed over the years in the face of events no less strange than those that occur here " .
In their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson rated the episode one star out of five , calling the premise and characters dull . The two criticized Anderson for looking at the " minutiae of life too intensely " , which made many of the actors and actresses come off as ciphers . Furthermore , Shearman and Pearson were critical of Anderson 's directing style , calling it " pretentious " , noting that the plot 's significance was drowned out by unnecessary artistic flourishes and needless pizzazz . Paula Vitaris from CFQ gave the episode a negative review , awarding it one star out of four . She called Anderson 's directing " heavy @-@ handed " and bemoaned the storyline because it " plays havoc with Scully 's motivations and character as established in the past seven years " .
Not all reviews were negative . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a largely positive review and called it " wonderful " . He praised Anderson 's tenacity in presenting a darker moment from Scully 's past and favorably compared the episode to " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " in terms of character development . Kinney Littlefield of The Orange County Register wrote that the " wistful , meditative episode " was " not bad for Anderson 's first directing effort " . He did , however , comment that it was not as " sly as the episode about an alien baseball player that Duchovny directed " . The Michigan Daily writer Melissa Runstrom , in a review of the seventh season , called the episode " interesting " .
While the episode received lukewarm reviews from critics , fans of the show reacted generally positively to " all things " , and the show 's producers received calls and letters from viewers stating that they " loved the vulnerability and quiet determination that Scully revealed in the unusual episode " .
= Hurricane Doria ( 1967 ) =
Hurricane Doria was an unusual and erratic hurricane that existed during September 1967 . The fourth named storm and hurricane of the 1967 Atlantic hurricane season , Doria developed on September 8 off the east coast of Florida . It meandered until attaining tropical storm status , at which point the storm accelerated towards the northeast . On September 10 , Doria intensified into a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . After moving out to sea , the storm turned westward towards the United States . A compact cyclone , Doria weakened to a tropical storm shortly before moving ashore in the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . The storm ultimately dissipated on September 21 .
The storm , which ultimately made landfall near the Virginia – North Carolina border , produced high winds along the coast from New Jersey through North Carolina . A small boat sank off the coast of New Jersey , killing three of its occupants . Overall damage was estimated around $ 150 @,@ 000 ( 1967 USD ) , although the storm overall was considered beneficial .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Doria are traced back to an area of disturbed weather off the northeastern coast of Florida on September 4 . For several days , the low pressure system meandered as its central barometric pressure gradually fell . The storm is estimated to have organized into a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on September 8 . At the time , it was situated north of Grand Bahama Island . Drifting westward , the cyclone attained tropical storm intensity early the next day . Doria turned northeastward and accelerated as it moved away from Florida . On September 10 , the tropical storm achieved hurricane force . Cold air became entrained into the hurricane 's circulation by September 11 , causing it to weaken to a tropical storm . However , its forward motion slowed and it once again strengthened .
The hurricane moved eastward , seemingly out to sea . However , an area of high pressure over New England began to steer Doria westward on September 13 . The hurricane continued to strengthen , and it is estimated to have peaked with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum air pressure of 973 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 73 inHg ) . It maintained these winds for approximately 18 hours , before weakening slightly late on September 14 . In his 2007 book " Hurricanes and the Middle Atlantic States " , Rick Schwartz compared Doria to the 1933 Chesapeake – Potomac hurricane , citing similar intensities , tracks , and forward speeds . On September 16 , the storm weakened to a tropical storm in a colder , drier environment . As it turned southward , Doria quickly weakened . Initial forecasts suggested the possibility for the storm to maintain its severity and move ashore between Maryland and New Jersey .
Continually deteriorating , Doria made landfall near the Virginia – North Carolina border , and moved south over land . It reemerged over open waters on September 17 , and at around the same time , it weakened to a tropical depression . It curved southeastward as a weak depression , and several days later it was still identifiable as a storm system south of the island of Bermuda . It dissipated on September 21 . Doria had an unusual and capricious track , described as " one of the most erratic storms ever observed " .
= = Impact = =
In advance of the storm , hurricane warnings were issued for much of the East Coast of the United States . For 19 hours , about 260 mi ( 420 km ) of shoreline was under an advisory . At least 400 people were evacuated from their homes in southern New Jersey and 6 @,@ 600 from Ocean City , Maryland .
Doria was a small storm , although it brought high winds and moderate coastal flooding to some areas ; generally light rainfall was also observed . In North Carolina , 6 @.@ 09 in ( 155 mm ) of precipitation fell at Whiteville . Flash flooding and the overflowing of storm sewers ensued in the southeastern portions of the state ; there were also losses to crops , especially corn , cotton , and tobacco . In Virginia , strong winds were reported along the coast , with gusts up to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) at Wallops Island . Along the east coast of the state , winds damaged trees , roofs , signs , and billboards . In Maryland , similar impact occurred in Ocean City , with damage sustained to signs and billboards and tore the roof of a prefabricated home ; a city boardwalk also sustained storm @-@ related damage .
A station at the Indian River Inlet in Delaware recorded a tide 6 @.@ 5 ft ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) above @-@ normal ; the highest sustained winds reported on land association with the storm , 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , also occurred there . Atlantic City , New Jersey , recorded a peak gust of 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , with rainfall amounting to 0 @.@ 53 in ( 13 mm ) . Damage from the storm was generally light . Off the coast of Ocean City , New Jersey , a cabin cruiser sank in 25 @-@ ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) seas . Three of the vessel 's occupants , a mother and her two sons , drowned . In Massachusetts , some small boats sank at the harbors . At Ipswich Bay , 10 people required rescue after two boats capsized . Minor beach erosion was reported at Nantucket . Overall damage was estimated at $ 150 @,@ 000 , which was considered minor . The storm 's passage was considered beneficial , due to adding sand to beaches and providing favorable rains .
= Brehon B. Somervell =
Brehon Burke Somervell ( 9 May 1892 – 13 February 1955 ) was a General in the United States Army and Commanding General of the Army Service Forces in World War II . As such he was responsible for the U.S. Army 's logistics . Following his death , the Washington Post lauded him as " one of the ablest officers the United States Army has produced . "
Somervell graduated near the top of his United States Military Academy class of 1914 and was commissioned in the United States Army Corps of Engineers . During World War I he served with the Pancho Villa Expedition in Mexico and the American Expeditionary Force in France in logistical posts . He was also decorated for gallantry in the Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensive .
After the war he served in various engineering assignments . From 1936 to 1940 Somervell was head of the Works Project Administration in New York City , where he was responsible for a series of Great Depression relief works , including the construction of LaGuardia Airport .
As head of the Construction Division of the Quartermaster Corps in 1941 , Somervell took charge of the construction of a series of camps to house the large numbers of draftees who entering into the Army . Once again , Somervell was able to deliver vital projects on time . The most enduring of these projects was the Pentagon , which is today one of the most recognizable buildings in the world . From 1942 to 1945 , Somervell commanded the Army Service Forces , the logistical arm of the United States Army .
= = Early life = =
Brehon Burke Somervell was born on 9 May 1892 in Little Rock , Arkansas , the only child of William Taylor Somervell , a physician , and wife Mary née Burke , a schoolteacher . The two of them opened Belcourt Seminary , a girls ' finishing school in Washington , D.C. , in 1906 .
Somervell was appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point , New York by Congressman Charles C. Reid of Arkansas . He entered West Point in 1910 and graduated sixth out of the 106 cadets in the class of 1914 . Like other high @-@ ranking cadets of the period , he was commissioned a second Lieutenant in the Corps of Engineers .
= = World War I = =
Somervell traveled to Europe for his two months ' graduation leave and was in Paris when World War I broke out . Reporting to the U.S. Embassy in Paris for volunteer duty , he became an assistant to the military attaché . He took charge of refugee funds and dispensed $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to help American citizens to get back home .
On return to the United States , he was posted to an engineer battalion at Washington Barracks , DC . Scoring high marks in his Garrison Officers ' School examinations , he was promoted to 1st Lieutenant on 28 February 1915 . During the Punitive Expedition into Mexico in 1916 , he was for a time depot manager at Columbus , New Mexico , the main logistical base of the expedition . Later , he joined the expedition in Mexico , working on roads and as a supply officer .
Somervell returned to Washington Barracks to attend the Engineer School but his course was interrupted by the declaration of war by the United States on Germany on 6 April 1917 . The course was abruptly terminated and Somervell , along with hundreds of other junior officers , was ordered to appear before an examination board that would determine his fitness for promotion . Following a favorable report from the board , Somervell was promoted to captain on 15 May 1917 . He helped organize the 15th Engineers , a rail transport unit , at Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . In July 1917 this became the first engineer regiment to be sent overseas , arriving in England in July 1917 and France later that month . The 15th Engineers worked on a several construction projects , including a munitions dump at Mehun @-@ sur @-@ Yèvre and an advanced depot and regulating station at Is @-@ sur @-@ Tille . Somervell got his projects completed by working his men around the clock and deploying every available resource regardless of the cost . For his role , Somervell was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal .
He was promoted to major on 15 August 1917 and lieutenant colonel on 1 October 1918 . While visiting some friends at the 89th Division , he volunteered his services to its chief of staff , Colonel John C. H. Lee , who accepted him as a temporary replacement for his Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 3 , in charge of operations , who had been captured a few days before . For leading a three @-@ man patrol to inspect damage to a bridge some 600 yards ( 550 m ) in front of American lines , Somervell was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross . He was one of only nine American officers , including Douglas MacArthur , Barnwell R. Legge , Sereno E. Brett or William J. Donovan , to have been awarded both the Distinguished Service Cross and the Distinguished Service Medal in the First World War . A few days later Lee arranged for Somervell to be permanently assigned to the 89th Division .
= = Between the wars = =
The 89th Division returned to the United States in May 1919 but Somervell remained behind as Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 4 , in charge of supply , of the U.S. Third Army , and the American Forces in Germany , as it was re @-@ designated on 2 July 1919 . There , he met Anna Purnell , the daughter of a Chicago businessman , who was there as a YMCA volunteer . The two were married in August 1919 . They had three children together , all daughters . While in Germany , Somervell also met Walker D. Hines , a prominent New York corporate lawyer , whom he assisted with a survey of shipping and navigation on the Rhine River . Somervell reverted to the permanent rank of major on 1 July 1920 .
Returning to the United States in July 1920 , Somervell was posted to the Office of the Chief of Engineers in Washington , D.C. His war record earned him a place at the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth , reserved for the Army 's best and most promising officers . He once again ranked near the top of his class . After graduation he was posted to the 1st New York Engineer District but soon obtained leave to assist Hines with a special study of navigation on the Rhine and Danube Rivers on behalf of the League of Nations , essentially a continuation of the work that the two men had done in 1920 . He then attended the Army War College from 1925 to 1926 .
From 1926 to 1930 he was District Engineer , Washington , D.C. Engineer District . As such he became involved in a conflict between proponents of the development of hydroelectric power through damming the Great Falls of the Potomac River and the Maryland @-@ National Capital Park and Planning Commission . Despite his advocacy , the falls remain undammed to this day . On 1 September 1930 , Somervell was transferred to the Lower Mississippi Valley Division as Assistant Chief Engineer . The next year he became assistant to , and then the District Engineer of the Memphis District . In 1933 , he teamed up with Hines again , for an economic survey of Turkey , which culminated in a seven @-@ volume report . Named as District Engineer for Ocala , Florida , Somervell got behind a project to build the Cross Florida Barge Canal . Somervell was chosen to head the project but although President Franklin D. Roosevelt allocated emergency funds for the canal in 1935 , opponents of the canal protested that it would cause seawater to seep into the groundwater , and work was stopped a year later . In the meantime , he was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 1 August 1935 .
In 1935 , Somervell was appointed as head of the Works Project Administration in New York City . Over the next three and a half years he spent $ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 a month on Great Depression relief works . He worked with the local politicians and labor leaders . He upheld the right of workers to form unions and improved relations with left @-@ wing groups , once declaring that " I wouldn 't know a Red if I saw one , and wouldn 't do anything about it if I did " . The biggest project was the construction of LaGuardia Airport . Somervell established a reputation as a man who could handle projects involving hundreds of thousands of people and hundreds of millions of dollars .
= = World War II = =
= = = Construction Division = = =
In December 1940 , Somervell became head of the Construction Division of the Quartermaster Corps , and was promoted to the temporary rank of brigadier general on 29 January 1941 . His immediate concern was the construction of a series of camps — which were scheduled for completion by April 1941 — to house the large numbers of draftees who were then entering the Army . Reasoning that time was more important than money , Somervell pushed the project through to completion . By February , he was responsible for a work force 485 @,@ 000 people employed on military construction projects . The job was completed on time but over $ 100 million over budget . He was also responsible for constructing new facilities to hold stores and munitions , for which $ 700 million was allocated by December 1940 . By December , 375 projects had been completed and 320 were still under way , with a total value of $ 1 @.@ 8 billion . He accepted promotion to brigadier general in the Army of the United States on February 14 , 1941 with the date of rank of January 29 , 1941 .
The best known of these projects was the Pentagon , an enormous office complex to house the War Department 's 40 @,@ 000 @-@ person staff together in one building . On the afternoon of Thursday , 17 July 1941 , Somervell summoned George Bergstrom and Major Hugh Casey . Bergstrom was a former president of the American Institute of Architects ; Casey a Corps of Engineers officer seconded to the Construction Division . The two had previously worked together closely on the design of cantonments . Somervell gave them until 9am on Monday morning to design the building , which he envisaged as a modern , four @-@ story structure with no elevators on the site of the old Washington Hoover Airport . Over that " very busy weekend " , Casey , Bergstrom and their staff roughed out the design for a four @-@ story , five @-@ sided structure with a floor area of 5 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 square feet ( 470 @,@ 000 m2 ) — twice that of the Empire State Building . The estimated cost was $ 35 million . President Roosevelt subsequently moved the site of the building , over Somervell 's objections , in order to prevent it being constructed in front of Arlington National Cemetery .
Somervell still pursued his own designs , making important changes , including the addition of a fifth story . The outbreak of war led to a new urgency , and by May 1942 , some 13 @,@ 000 workers were working around the clock on the building , which was completed in early 1943 at a cost of $ 63 million , the overrun being caused by the emphasis on speed and the addition of the extra floor . For his work with the Construction Division , Somervell was awarded an oak leaf cluster to his Distinguished Service Medal .
Somervell hoped to become Chief of Engineers but was " not really in the running " , being too junior in rank . Instead , the job went to Brigadier General Eugene Reybold , the Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 4 on the War Department General Staff . Somervell 's post was abolished on the transfer of the Construction Division to the Corps of Engineers . Reybold , who considered Somervell " a firecracker but ruthless " who " didn 't care who he hit " , selected Brigadier General Thomas M. Robins to head the new Corps of Engineers Construction Division .
Somervell instead received Reybold 's former assignment , with promotion to the temporary rank of major general on January 28 , 1942 and was promoted to temporary lieutenant general on March 9 , 1942 . The posting was unusual because Somervell had never previously served on War Department General Staff . As Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 4 , Somervell pressed for the adoption of a comprehensive Army Supply Program that would set targets and priorities for all Army production . Such a program could be used as the basis for requests for appropriations , for expenditures , and for allocating scare materials .
= = = Army Service Forces = = =
Within weeks Army Chief of Staff , General George Marshall , implemented sweeping changes to the War Department designed to reduce the number of people reporting to him so as to free his time for planning and conducting a global war . Three huge new commands were created by Executive Order Number 9082 of 28 February 1942 , " Reorganizing the Army and the War Department " : the Army Air Forces under Lieutenant General Henry H. Arnold , the Army Ground Forces under Lieutenant General Lesley J. McNair and the Services of Supply , under Somervell . As such , he was not only promoted to the rank of lieutenant general over the heads of many more senior officers , but some of them , including Reybold , now found themselves his subordinates . He was answerable to two men : Marshall , and Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson . Somervell built up a good working relationship with both . Senator Harry S. Truman of the Truman Committee disapproved of Somervell 's cost overruns , declaring : " I will say this for General Somervell , he will get the stuff , but it is going to be hell on the taxpayer . He has a WPA attitude on the expenditure of money . " The Services of Supply were renamed the Army Service Forces in March 1943 , as the term " supply " was felt to be too narrow a description of the broad range of logistic activities carried out by the organization . As head of Army Service Forces , Somervell became responsible for the implementation of the Army Supply Program .
According to military historian John D. Millett , who served on Somervell 's Army Service Forces staff , Somervell was " impatient , tense , and decisive " . Some saw him as an " empire @-@ builder " . Millett noted the opinion of an observer that :
In the jurisdictional. wrangles that developed there was one argument ad hominem that was constantly used , to wit : that the A.S.F. and its dynamic Commanding General were constantly seeking as `Empire Builders ' to enlarge their job by encroaching on that of others . By dint of repetition it got considerable acceptance inside the Department and out . There was something in the drive of the Commanding General of the A.S.F. , his quickness on the mental trigger , his adroitness and his evident ambition to tackle tough jobs that in itself lent some support to this feeling of impending encroachment among those of a more deliberate pace . I should be surprised if the Chief of Staff ever had any such feeling though he must have been well aware of the feelings of others in his organization in this respect .
A 1943 attempt by Somervell to abolish the Technical Services failed amid the furor and panic created by false rumors that he was being considered for the post of Chief of Staff if Marshall was sent to Europe to command the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force . Somervell sometimes pushed extravagant white elephant projects , such as the Canol Road , which he continued long after the strategic imperative behind it had faded .
Somervell understood logistics and its paramount importance in modern warfare , and he spared no effort to ensure that the American fighting man had all he needed for victory . Near the end of the war , Somervell was promoted to general on March 9 , 1945 . He was the very few officers to be promoted to that rank during the war who had not commanded combat forces overseas .
When Somervell 's retirement was announced in December 1945 , Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson issued a press release that read :
In organizing and directing the worldwide supply lines on which our troops depended for their offensive power , General Somervell performed a service without parallel in military history . He was completely dedicated to the task of winning the war in the shortest possible time and with the smallest cost in America lives , and the energy and ability he applied to his task contributed in great measure to the force of our attack and the speed of our victory .
= = Decorations = =
Here is the ribbon bar of General Brehon B. Somervell :
= = Later life and legacy = =
Somervell retired from the Army on 30 April 1946 and moved to Ocala , Florida . His wife Anna had died in January , 1942 and he had married Mrs. Louise Hampton Wartmann , a former student at Belcourt , in March 1943 . Somervell accepted an offer to become president of Koppers , a Pittsburgh @-@ based company that mined coal and manufactured and sold coal @-@ based products . Applying the same managerial techniques that he had employed in the Army , he thoroughly reorganized the company , and doubled revenues and tripled profits over the next five years .
Somervell suffered a series of health problems in the 1950s . He had an appendectomy in 1953 and a hernia operation in 1954 . He suffered a severe heart attack in September 1954 and returned to his home Ocala to recuperate . In early 1955 he decided to resign as president and withdraw from day @-@ to @-@ day operations . He had a second , fatal heart attack at his home on 13 February 1955 . He was buried in Arlington National Cemetery , not far from his " brain child " , the Pentagon . Unfortunately , his other great creation , the Army Service Forces did not survive , being abolished in May 1946 . The Washington Post lauded him as " one of the ablest officers the United States Army has produced . " The USAT General Brehon B. Somervell , a US Army Reserve logistics support vessel that can carry up to 2 @,@ 000 short tons ( 1 @,@ 800 t ) of cargo , is named in his honor .
= Littorio @-@ class battleship =
The Littorio class , also known as the Vittorio Veneto class , was a class of battleship of the Regia Marina , the Italian navy . The class was composed of four ships : Littorio , Vittorio Veneto , Roma , and Impero . Only the first three ships of the class were completed , however . Built between 1934 and 1942 , they were the most modern battleships used by Italy during World War II . The Littorio @-@ class ships were developed in response to the French Dunkerque @-@ class battleships , and were armed with 381 @-@ millimeter ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) guns and had a top speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) . The design was considered by the Spanish Navy , but the outbreak of World War II interrupted construction plans .
The first two ships , Littorio and Vittorio Veneto , were operational by the early months of Italy 's participation in World War II . They formed the backbone of the Italian fleet , and conducted several sorties into the Mediterranean to intercept British convoys , though without any notable success . The two ships were repeatedly torpedoed throughout their careers : Littorio was hit by a torpedo during the attack on Taranto in November 1940 and again in June 1942 and Vittorio Veneto was torpedoed during the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941 and while escorting a convoy to North Africa in September 1941 . Roma joined the fleet in June 1942 , though all three ships remained inactive in La Spezia until June 1943 , when all three were damaged in a series of Allied air attacks on the harbor .
In September 1943 , Italy capitulated and signed an Armistice with the Allies . Littorio was then renamed Italia . The three active battleships were transferred to Malta before they were to be interned in Alexandria . While en route to Malta , German bombers attacked the fleet with Fritz X radio @-@ guided bombs , damaging Italia and sinking Roma . Nevertheless , Italia and Vittorio Veneto reached Malta and were interned . The incomplete Impero was seized by the Germans after Italy withdrew from the war and used as a target , until she was sunk by American bombers in 1945 . Italia and Vittorio Veneto were awarded to the United States and Britain , respectively , as war prizes . Italia , Vittorio Veneto , and Impero were broken up for scrap between 1952 and 1954 .
= = Design = =
The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 allotted Italy an additional 70 @,@ 000 long tons ( 71 @,@ 000 t ) of total capital ship tonnage , which could be used in 1927 – 1929 , while other powers were observing the " holiday " in battleship construction prescribed by the treaty . France , which was given parity with Italy , also possessed 70 @,@ 000 tons of capital ship tonnage . Both countries were put under significant pressure from the other signatories to use their allotted tonnage to build smaller battleships with reduced caliber main batteries . The first Italian design , prepared in 1928 , called for a 23 @,@ 000 long tons ( 23 @,@ 000 t ) ship armed with a main battery of six 381 mm ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) guns in twin turrets . They opted for this design because this allowed three ships under the 70 @,@ 000 @-@ ton limit . This would have allowed the Italian fleet to keep at least two units operational at any given time . Protection and radius of action were sacrificed for speed and heavy armament , though the Italians did not value range , as they operated primarily in the confined waters of the Mediterranean .
Later in 1928 , the design staff prepared another ship , with a displacement of 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) , armed with six 406 mm ( 16 @.@ 0 in ) guns and protected against guns of the same caliber . At least one of these ships would have followed the three 23 @,@ 000 @-@ ton ships once the building holiday expired in 1931 . Funding was not allocated to begin construction , however , as the Italian Navy did not want to instigate an arms race with the French Navy . The London Naval Treaty of 1930 extended the building holiday to 1936 , though Italy and France retained the right to build 70 @,@ 000 tons of new capital ships . Both countries rejected British proposals to limit new battleship designs to 25 @,@ 000 long tons ( 25 @,@ 000 t ) and 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns . After 1930 , the Italian Navy abandoned the smaller designs altogether . By 1930 , Germany had begun to build the three Deutschland @-@ class ships , armed with six 280 mm ( 11 in ) guns , and France had in turn laid down two Dunkerque @-@ class battleships to counter them . The French vessels were armed with eight 330 mm ( 13 in ) guns . In late 1932 , Italian constructors responded with a design similar to the Deutschland class , but armed with six 343 mm ( 13 @.@ 5 in ) guns in triple turrets on a 18 @,@ 000 long tons ( 18 @,@ 000 t ) displacement .
The Italian Navy decided that the smaller design was impractical , and that a larger design should be pursued . A 26 @,@ 500 long tons ( 26 @,@ 900 t ) design was then prepared , which mounted eight 343 mm guns in twin turrets . This was ultimately abandoned in favor of a 35 @,@ 000 ton design to be armed with 406 mm guns . The 406 mm gun in turn was abandoned in favor of the 381 mm gun because there were no designs for the larger gun , which would delay construction ; a 381 mm gun had already been designed for the canceled Francesco Caracciolo class . Ultimately , nine 381 mm guns in three triple turrets were adopted as the primary battery for the ships , on a displacement in excess of 40 @,@ 000 long tons ( 41 @,@ 000 t ) , despite the fact that this violated the established naval treaties . Nevertheless , by the time these ships entered service , the international arms control system had fallen apart and the major naval powers had invoked the " escalator clause " that allowed for ships up to 45 @,@ 000 long tons ( 46 @,@ 000 t ) displacement .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The ships of the class varied slightly in dimensions . Littorio and Vittorio Veneto were 224 @.@ 05 meters ( 735 @.@ 1 ft ) long between perpendiculars and 237 @.@ 76 m ( 780 @.@ 1 ft ) long overall , while Roma and Impero were 240 @.@ 68 m ( 789 @.@ 6 ft ) long overall . All four ships had a draft of 9 @.@ 6 m ( 31 ft ) and a beam of 32 @.@ 82 m ( 107 @.@ 7 ft ) . Littorio displaced 40 @,@ 724 metric tons ( 40 @,@ 081 long tons ; 44 @,@ 891 short tons ) as designed and 45 @,@ 236 t ( 44 @,@ 522 long tons ; 49 @,@ 864 short tons ) at full load . Vittorio Veneto displaced 40 @,@ 517 t ( 39 @,@ 877 long tons ; 44 @,@ 662 short tons ) and 45 @,@ 029 t ( 44 @,@ 318 long tons ; 49 @,@ 636 short tons ) , respectively . Roma 's displacement increased slightly as compared to the other ships , to 40 @,@ 992 t ( 40 @,@ 345 long tons ; 45 @,@ 186 short tons ) and 45 @,@ 485 t ( 44 @,@ 767 long tons ; 50 @,@ 139 short tons ) , respectively . As Impero was not completed , her final displacement is unknown . As built , the ships were fitted with bulbous bows to increase their speed , but they were found to cause serious vibration , which forced a modification to the bow .
Littorio and Vittorio Veneto had a standard crew of 80 officers and 1 @,@ 750 enlisted men ; while serving as a flagship , the crew was increased by a command staff of between 11 and 31 additional officers . The standard crew for Roma and Impero was increased by 100 enlisted men . Aircraft facilities were located on the quarterdeck , where it was initially planned to base six La Cierva autogyros . Instead , a single catapult was fitted . The ships were equipped with three Ro.43 reconnaissance seaplanes or navalized Re.2000 fighters . The Re.2000 fighter was a wheeled aircraft and had to land on an airfield .
The ships ' propulsion system consisted of four Belluzzo geared steam turbines powered by eight oil @-@ fired Yarrow boilers . The engines were rated at 128 @,@ 200 shaft horsepower ( 95 @,@ 600 kW ) and a top speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) . On sea trials , both Littorio and Vittorio Veneto exceeded the design specifications for their power plant . Littorio reached 137 @,@ 649 shp ( 102 @,@ 645 kW ) and 31 @.@ 3 kn ( 58 @.@ 0 km / h ; 36 @.@ 0 mph ) , while Vittorio Veneto made 133 @,@ 771 shp ( 99 @,@ 753 kW ) and 31 @.@ 4 kn ( 58 @.@ 2 km / h ; 36 @.@ 1 mph ) , both at light loadings . In service , however , the ships averaged 28 kn ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . Figures for Roma 's speed trials have not been recorded . The ships carried 4 @,@ 140 t ( 4 @,@ 070 long tons ; 4 @,@ 560 short tons ) of fuel oil , which enabled a maximum range of 4 @,@ 580 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 480 km ; 5 @,@ 270 mi ) at a cruising speed of 16 kn ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . At 14 kn ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) , the ships ' range increased slightly to 4 @,@ 700 nmi ( 8 @,@ 700 km ; 5 @,@ 400 mi ) . The entire machinery system accounted for about 5 @.@ 6 percent of the total displacement .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships ' main battery consisted of nine 381 mm L / 50 Ansaldo 1934 guns in three triple turrets , two in a superfiring pair forward and one aft . These long @-@ barrel , high @-@ velocity guns were chosen to compensate for the smaller 381 mm shell as compared to the 406 mm gun originally desired . The 381 mm guns had a maximum elevation of 35 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 42 @,@ 260 m ( 138 @,@ 650 ft ) . The guns fired a 885 kg ( 1 @,@ 951 lb ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 870 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 900 ft / s ) . High explosive shells weighed 774 kg ( 1 @,@ 706 lb ) . The high muzzle velocity of the guns reduced their service life and increased the dispersion of the fall of shot . Shell rooms were located below the propellant magazines beneath the gun house in the turret structure . The guns ' rate of fire was one shot every 45 seconds .
The ships ' secondary battery consisted of twelve 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) L / 55 Ansaldo Model 1934 guns in four triple turrets . Two were placed abreast the No. 2 main battery turret and two on either side of the rear turret . These guns fired a 50 kg ( 110 lb ) AP shell at a muzzle velocity of 910 m / s ( 3 @,@ 000 ft / s ) . They could elevate to 45 degrees , permitting a maximum range of 25 @,@ 740 m ( 84 @,@ 450 ft ) . They had a rate of fire of slightly better than four rounds a minute . Four 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 40 guns supplemented the 152 mm guns . The ships ' anti @-@ aircraft armament was composed of a powerful battery of twelve 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 50 guns closely arranged amidships , twenty 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) L / 54 guns , and sixteen 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) L / 65 guns . The 90 mm guns provided long @-@ range anti @-@ aircraft protection , and were mounted in quadriaxially stabilized single turrets . They had a rate of fire of 12 rounds per minute and had a ceiling of approximately 10 @,@ 800 m ( 35 @,@ 400 ft ) . The 37 mm and 20 mm guns were designed for close @-@ range defense and had effective ranges of 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) and 2 @,@ 500 m ( 8 @,@ 200 ft ) , respectively .
= = = Armor = = =
The ships ' belt armor was designed to defeat 380 mm shells at ranges over 16 @,@ 000 m ( 52 @,@ 000 ft ) , and was inclined at 11 degrees . The belt was layered as follows : a 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) hardened steel belt was used to de @-@ cap armor @-@ piercing projectiles . A 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) wide gap separated the outer layer from the main belt armor , which was 280 mm ( 11 in ) thick and was backed with 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of timber and 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) skin plating . Another 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) wide gap separated the main belt from a 36 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick splinter screen . Another 25 mm thick screen was placed further inboard . The main section of the belt armor was closed on either end by 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick transverse bulkheads . The bow was protected by a 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick belt , while the stern was given 125 mm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) of armor protection .
Horizontal protection over the magazine consisted of a 162 mm ( 6 @.@ 4 in ) thick armored deck . Over the machinery spaces , the deck was reduced in thickness to 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) , and on the outboard portions of the ships , the deck was reduced further to 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) . The aft steering rooms and auxiliary machinery spaces were protected by a 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) thick deck . The main conning tower was protected by 50 – 130 mm thick side armor .
Above the deck , the main battery barbettes that housed the turret assemblies for the 381 mm guns were protected with 350 mm ( 14 in ) thick armor , while below deck the thickness was reduced to 280 mm . The faces of the main battery turrets were 350 mm thick , with 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and roofs . The secondary gun turrets were housed in barbettes 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick above deck and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick below deck . The turret faces were 280 mm thick , with 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick sides . Below the third deck , neither the primary nor secondary barbettes were protected by armor . The anti @-@ aircraft guns were protected with gun shields ranging in thickness from 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) to 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) .
= = = = Pugliese torpedo defense system = = = =
All four ships incorporated a unique underwater protection system named after its designer , Umberto Pugliese . A 40 mm thick torpedo bulkhead extended inboard from the base of the main belt before curving down to meet the bottom of the hull . This formed a void which housed an empty drum 380 mm ( 15 in ) wide with 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) thick walls ; the rest of the void was filled with liquid . The drum ran the length of the torpedo defense system , and was designed to collapse to contain the explosive pressure of a torpedo hit . The torpedo bulkhead would prevent any splinters or explosive effects from entering the ships ' vitals . The system was designed to protect the ship from torpedo warheads up to 350 kg ( 770 lb ) .
The system did not perform as effectively as expected , however . This was due to two major defects in the design . The riveted joint that connected the interior torpedo bulkhead to the bottom of the hull was not strong enough to sustain the tremendous shear loadings associated with direct contact explosions . The joints failed even in cases of non @-@ contact explosions ; this prevented the hollow drum from collapsing as designed and resulted in massive flooding . The fineness of the hull shape prevented the 380 mm thickness from being maintained for the entire central citadel ; the width of the drum was reduced significantly abreast of the main battery , down to 228 mm ( 9 @.@ 0 in ) . The ability of the drum to absorb explosive shock correspondingly fell in relation to its size .
= = Construction = =
The keels for Vittorio Veneto and Littorio were laid on the same day , 28 October 1934 , at the Cantieri Riuniti dell 'Adriatico shipyard in Trieste and the Ansaldo shipyard in Genoa , respectively . Vittorio Veneto was launched on 22 July 1937 , with Littorio following exactly one month later on 22 August . While incomplete , Vittorio Veneto went to sea on 23 October 1939 to conduct machinery trials . She was delivered to the Italian Navy in Trieste , still incomplete , some six months later on 28 April 1940 . She departed Trieste on 1 May for final fitting out at the dockyard in La Spezia . After completion on 15 May 1940 , she went to Taranto to join the fleet . Littorio underwent the same pattern of machinery trials prior to completion ; she was delivered to the fleet on 6 May 1940 .
Two additional ships were laid down four years later . Roma was built by the CRDA shipyard , starting on 18 September 1938 . She was launched on 9 June 1940 and was completed on 14 June 1
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( 1162 – September 26 , 1241 ) was a Japanese poet , critic , calligrapher , novelist , anthologist , scribe , and scholar of the late Heian and early Kamakura periods . His influence was enormous , and he is counted as among the greatest of Japanese poets , and perhaps the greatest master of the waka form – an ancient poetic form consisting of five lines with a total of 31 syllables .
Teika 's critical ideas on composing poetry were extremely influential and studied until as late as the Meiji era . A member of a poetic clan , Teika was born to the noted poet Fujiwara no Shunzei . After coming to the attention of the Retired Emperor Go @-@ Toba ( 1180 – 1239 ; r . 1183 – 1198 ) , Teika began his long and distinguished career , spanning multiple areas of aesthetic endeavor . His relationship with Go @-@ Toba was at first cordial and led to commissions to compile anthologies , but later resulted in his banishment from the retired emperor 's court . His descendants and ideas would dominate classical Japanese poetry for centuries afterwards .
= = Biography = =
= = = Birth = = =
Teika was born to a minor and distant branch of the aristocratic and courtly clan , the Fujiwara , in 1162 , sometime after the Fujiwara regents had lost their political pre @-@ eminence in the Imperial court during the Hōgen Rebellion . His branch of the clan sought prestige and power in the court by aligning itself with the Mikohidari family , and by specializing in artistic endeavors , principally poetry . Such specialization was not unusual ; branches of extended clans were not in a position to compete directly in politics with the head branch of the clan ( or indeed other clans because of their junior status ) , but could compete in more restricted aesthetic pursuits . ( The Mikohidari , also known as the Miko , were a cadet branch of the Fujiwaras , through Fujiwara no Michinaga 's sixth son , Fujiwara no Nagaie ( 1005 – 1064 ) ; the Mikohidari were themselves aligned with the more senior Kujō branch of the original Fujiwara , who opposed the Rokujō family )
Teika 's grandfather was the venerable poet Fujiwara no Toshitada . His father was Fujiwara no Shunzei ( 1114 – 1204 ) , a well known and greatly respected poet ( and judge of poetry competitions ) , who had compiled the seventh Imperial anthology of waka ( the Senzai Wakashū ) . His sister would also become a well @-@ respected poet of waka and renga , known as Kengozen or Shunzei 's Daughter , whom he would occasionally seek out for poetic advice . His elder brother , Fujiwara no Nariee ( sometimes romanized as " Nariie " ; 藤原成家 ) , would be somewhat successful in court , but not nearly as much as his sister . Teika 's foster @-@ brother , the priest Jakuren or " Sadanaga " c . 1139 – 1202 would be successful as a poet although his career was cut tragically short ; he had been adopted by Shunzei when Shunzei 's younger brother " retired from the world " .
= = = Career = = =
Teika 's goals as the senior male of his branch were to inherit and cement his father 's position in poetry , and to advance his own reputation ( thereby also improving the political fortunes of his own clan in the court ) . While his life would be marked by repeated illness and wildly shifting fortunes – only partially moderated by his father 's long @-@ lasting influence in court ( Shunzei would live to the advanced age of 90 ) , the young and poetically inclined Retired Emperor Go @-@ Toba 's patronage would prove to lead to some of Teika 's greatest successes .
= = = = Go @-@ Toba 's patronage = = = =
The Retired Emperor Go @-@ Toba announced , in the second year of his abdication ( 1200 , the second year of the Shōji era ) that he would be conducting a poetry contest . Retired Emperors frequently became more influential after their retirement from the office of Emperor rather than as the actual Emperor , since they were free from the highly restricting ceremonial requirements and politics of the court . Go @-@ Toba was 20 when he abdicated ; he was the consummate amateur , skilled at playing the lute , considered an authority on traditional learning and courtly precedent , excellent at playing Go , and fond of equestrian pursuits such as horseback archery , shooting at running dogs , and swordsmanship .
Go @-@ Toba regarded all these pursuits as hobbies , taking one up and dropping another . One of these was his support of poetry , especially the waka . Immediately after his abdication , he had announced that he would hold two poetry contests , each requiring a number of preeminent poets to compose some 100 waka in a particular thematic progression , known as the hyakushu genre of poem sequences . The first contest ( Go @-@ Toba In shodo hyakushu後鳥羽院初度百首 - " Ex @-@ Emperor Go @-@ Toba 's First Hundred @-@ Poem Sequences " ) was considered a crucial political nexus ; if a clan 's poet did well and impressed the powerful ( and youthful ) Go @-@ Toba , the clan would benefit considerably .
Teika 's diary records that he looked forward to this chance to improve himself . He was 38 , and had reached middle age . While he was recognized as a talented poet , his career was stagnant ; he had been in the Palace Guards of the Left for twenty years , and had not been promoted for nearly 10 . He was " Lesser Commander of the Palace Guards of the Left " with little prospect of further advancement .
He had wider political problems : The influence of his patrons , the Kujōs , over the Emperors had declined drastically . Minamoto no Michichika ( d . 1202 ) had insinuated himself into Imperial circles through Go @-@ Toba 's former nursemaid ; with this leverage , Michichika 's adopted daughter ( the then Shogun 's daughter , who had decided to marry his daughter off to the Emperor , using Michichika as a go @-@ between – contrary to the Shogun 's usual policy if favoring Kujo Kanezane . The Shogun 's lack of confidence allowed Michichika to push Go @-@ Toba into firing Kanezane as kampaku in 1196 ) became Go @-@ Toba 's concubine ( making Michichika the Retired Emperor Go @-@ Toba 's father in law ) , and she bore him his first heir in 1195 ; the shame of this usurpation led Go @-@ Toba 's first wife , Ninshi , to retire from the court . As Ninshi was the daughter of the Kujō 's leader Kujo no Kanezane , the Kujō 's influence in court diminished considerably , even to the extent of Kanezane and Yoshitsune ( d . 1206 ; once the regent and prime minister ) being driven from the court in 1196 ; with the diminution of their influence , so dimmed Teika 's prospects . Teika expressed his disappointment through poetry , such as this example , written when he was " passed over for promotion in the spring list " in 1187 ( he would eventually be promoted in 1190 , but as his good and encouraging friend Saigyo died that year , it was cold comfort ) :
In fact , Teika was initially not invited , the instigation of the rival Rokujō clan 's leader , Suetsune and the connivance of Michichika . Suetsune and Teika were bitter enemies ; just a few months before , Teika had humiliated Suetsune by calling him " that fake poet " and publicly refusing to participate in a poetry competition with Suetsune . His revenge was well @-@ done ; Teika was furious , writing in his Meigetsuki : : " I never heard of such a thing as choosing only senior poets [ writes Teika about the pretext used to exclude him ] . I can just see Suetsune at the bottom of this , contriving by some bribe that I be left out . It has to be Suetsune , Tsuneie , that whole family . Well , I have no regrets , for there is no possible hope for me now . But I did write in confidence to Kintsune so this may all come out eventually . He has replied that there is still room for hope . "
" I gather that it was probably not the Emperor who decided on the rules for the hundred @-@ poem competition . It was due entirely to the machinations of Michichika . One feels like flicking him away in disgust . "
Teika 's appeals to the unrelenting Michichika failed , and so Shunzei stepped in with an eloquent letter ( the well @-@ known Waji sojo ; " Appeal in Japanese " – writing in Japanese as opposed to the official Chinese was considered a mark of sincerity ) addressed to Go @-@ Toba , arguing that such an exclusion was without precedent , and motivated by base jealousy on their opponent 's part :
" Of late the people who call themselves poets have all been mediocrities . The poems they compose are unpleasant to hear , wordy and lacking in finesse . "
As Keene writes , " He denounced by name Teika 's enemy Suetsune , calling him an ignoramus , and urged Gotoba not to be misled by his machinations . " Gotoba relented at this appeal from a man he greatly respected ( the second time Shunzei had so interceded on Teika 's behalf ; the first time was in 1185 when Teika had lost his temper and struck a superior – the lesser general Masayuki – with a lamp ) . He allowed Teika , along with two other " young " poets , Fujiwara no Ietaka ( 1159 – 1237 ; 1158 – 1237 , according to Brower ) , adopted son of Jakuren and pupil to Shunzei , and Takafusa ( 1148 – 1209 ) to enter the contest . Teika was overjoyed at this turn of events :
" Early this morning came a message from Lord Kintsune that last evening the Ex @-@ Emperor ordered my inclusion among the participants for the hundred @-@ poem sequences ..... To have been added to the list for this occasion fills me with inexpressible joy . Though they can hinder me no more , I am still convinced that the trouble was all due to the machinations of those evil men . And that it has turned out this way is a fulfillment of all my hopes and prayers for this life and the next . "
Teika furiously worked for more than two weeks to complete the full sequence , and when he finally turned his Shoji hyakushu in a day late , Go @-@ Toba was so eager he read the poems immediately . Go @-@ Toba 's personal secretary , Minamoto Ienaga , kept a diary ( the Minamoto Ienaga nikki ) which eulogistically concerned itself with Go @-@ Toba 's poetic activities , and he records that it was Teika 's hundred @-@ poem sequence , and more specifically , poem number 93 which was directly responsible for Teika 's being granted the special permission necessary to be admitted to the Retired Emperor 's court ( distinct from the reigning emperor 's court ; this special admittance was crucial to any future patronage ) ; this is scarcely surprising as the 100 @-@ poem sequences submitted were of uniformly high quality ( more poems originating in the sequences Go @-@ Toba commissioned were included in the Shin Kokinshū than from any other source except the enormous " Poetry Contest in 1 @,@ 500 Rounds " ) .
Interestingly , this poem is both a fine example of the jukkai ( " personal grievances " ) genre and as Minamoto no Ienaga first pointed out , also an allusion to the poem ( preserved , along with Go @-@ Shirakawa 's reply , in the Imperial anthology Senzai Wakashū ) Shunzei had sent Retired Emperor Go @-@ Shirakawa 14 years previously , imploring him to forgive Teika for striking a superior with a candlestick ; " the allusion conveys the hope that just as Shunzei 's poem obtained his erring son 's restoration to rank and office under Go @-@ Shirakawa , now Teika 's own poem will win him admission to Go @-@ Toba 's Court despite his connection with the " disgraced " Kujō faction . "
Teika and Go @-@ Toba would have a close and productive relationship ; Teika would be favored in such ways as being appointed by Go @-@ Toba as one of the six compilers ( and de facto head compiler by virtue of his dedication and force of personality in addition to his already established reputation as a poet ) of the eighth Imperial Anthology of waka poetry , the esteemed Shin Kokinshū ( c . 1205 , " New Collection of Japanese Poetry , Ancient and Modern " ) which Go @-@ Toba ordered to be written after the success of the hundred @-@ poem sequences ( which furnished a base for the collection ) . In order to compile it , Go @-@ Toba had resurrected the defunct institution , the Poetry Bureau in the seventh month of 1201 , with fifteen yoryudo , or " contributing members " , and three added later ) , who participated in the many poetry contests and similar activities that soon began taking place in the Bureau ; of the Fellows , six ( Minamoto Michitomo , Fujiwara Ariie , Teika , Fujiwara Ietaka , Fujiwara Masatsune and Jakuren , who would not live to finish the task , and was not replaced . Minamoto Ienaga was apparently detached from being Go @-@ Toba 's personal secretary to instead serve as the secretary for the compilation committee ; his and Teika 's diaries have survived , affording an unprecedentedly good view of the inner workings of how an imperial anthology was created ) were chosen to compile the Shin Kokinshū in the eleventh month of 1201 .
As if the honor of helping to compile the Shin Kokinshū and of having a remarkable 46 of his poems ( including three from the Shoji hyakushu ) included were not enough , Teika would later be appointed in 1232 by the Retired Emperor Go @-@ Horikawa to compile – by himself – the ninth Imperial Anthology , the Shinchokusen Wakashū ( c . 1235 ; " New Imperial Collection " ) . Teika was the first person to have ever been a compiler of two Imperial anthologies .
= = = = Teika and Go @-@ Toba quarrel = = = =
This favorable patronage and collaboration eventually soured even as Teika 's relation with Emperor Juntoku and Minamoto no Sanetomo deepened , over many things such as differences in how one should use " association and progression " ( as Brower terms it ) in poetic sequences . In 100 @-@ poem sequences and the like , the poems were usually in one of several groups ( the four seasons were common ones , as was love ) ; the poems generally formed an integrated sequence in which they dealt with the same subject matter , proceeding from stage to stage ( for instance , a sequence on Love might proceed from loneliness , to falling in love , to a mature relationship , and then the sorrow when it ends ) or which refer to elements of previous poems ( a technique later central to renga sequences ) . Go @-@ Toba used such techniques consistently and often , whereas Teika 's use was more erratic . During the compilation of the Shin Kokinshū , there were other differences , apparently over how wide @-@ ranging a net to throw for poems :
" In a situation like the present , where he [ Go @-@ Toba ] has included poems by a great many people one has never heard of , whose names have remained in almost total obscurity for generations , and persons who have only recently begun to attract attention had as many as ten poems apiece included – in such a situation it is no particular distinction for me to have forty @-@ odd [ 46 ] poems chosen , or for Ietaka to have a score or more . The Ex @-@ Sovereign 's recent decisions make it appear he is choosing men rather than poems – a questionable procedure . "
Teika 's displeasure manifested itself in more petty ways , such as refusing to attend a banquet in 1205 ( 300 years after the Kokinshū was completed ) celebrating the official completion of the Shin Kokinshū because there was no precedent for such a banquet ( apparently he was not convinced by the precedent of the banquet celebrating the completion of the Nihon Shoki ) ; Go @-@ Toba reciprocated by cutting Teika out of the process of continually revising the Shin Kokinshū ( while it was officially complete by the date of the banquet , it was de facto incomplete as the Japanese Preface only existed in rough drafts and because Go @-@ Toba would continue revising the selection of poems for some time thereafter , only releasing the final edition approximately 6 years later , sometime after the ninth month of 1210 ; indeed , Go @-@ Toba would continue revising it until his death , although the later revisions are not extant ) .
In addition , there apparently were serious personality conflicts , which lead Go @-@ Toba to write once , after praising Teika 's poetry , that :
" The way Teika behaved , as if he knew all about poetry , was really quite extraordinary . Especially when he was defending his own opinion , he would act like the man who insisted a stag was a horse . He was utterly oblivious of others , and would exceed all reason , refusing to listen to anything other people had to say . "
( The stag and horse anecdote refers to the ancient Chinese Chao Kao ( d . 207 BCE ) , who revolted after an incident in which he brought a stag to the Imperial court , claimed it was actually a horse , and saw that more of the officials sycophantically agreed with him , rather than the emperor who pointed out that the horse was actually a stag . )
Donald Keene believes that as Teika grew more important , he resented Go @-@ Toba 's peremptory use of him . In his later years , Go @-@ Toba took issue not merely with Teika 's personality , but also with his poetry , complaining of Teika 's more liberal style that Teika ( among other things ) " by contrast , paid no attention whatsoever to the topic . For this reason in recent times even beginners have all come to be like this . It is outrageous . Only when one concentrates very hard upon a compound topic and composes a poem which centers upon the topic is the result of any interest . This modern style is sheer carelessness . It is absolutely essential to practice composing poems on compound topics in the correct way . "
In any event , the precipitating events were two incidents , one in 1207 and the next in 1220 . In 1207 , Go @-@ Toba decided to organize the creation of 46 landscape screens for the Saishō Shitennō Temple which he had built in 1205 ( interestingly , apparently " in order to enlist divine aid in the overthrow the feudal government " ) ; each of these screens would also have a waka on the famous landscape depicted , composed by a leading poet , who would compose the requisite 46 , with the best poems for each landscape selected . Of course , Teika was asked to contribute , but one ( on the " Wood of Ikuta " , a famous and picturesque woodland attached to the Ikuta Shrine of Settsu Province , modern @-@ day Kobe ; it was famous for being a battlefield between the Minamoto and Taira clans , as well as for its scenic beauty ) was rejected by Go @-@ Toba ; not because it was a bad poem , but because it was a " poor model " , as Keene puts it . Teika , already annoyed by the minimal notice for the contest and the lack of time for composing the poems ( he had to turn them in two days after he was first informed of the contest ) , began complaining about Go @-@ Toba and attacking his poetic judgement , both with regard to the Shin Kokinshū and the poems selected from the screens . Nothing came of this incident , but nevertheless , the damage had been done .
The second incident took place in the second month of 1220 and is described in a preface to the two poems concerned as recorded in Teika 's personal anthology , the Shū gusō ; during the six @-@ year period covering such events as Teika 's banishment from Go @-@ Toba 's court and Go @-@ Toba 's participation in the Jōkyū War of 1221 , Teika 's diary is silent . Teika was asked to participate in a poem competition on the 13th of the second month ; Teika declined , citing as a reason the anniversary of his mother 's death 26 years previous , in 1194 . Go @-@ Toba and his officials sent several letters to him , strongly urging him to come , and Teika eventually gave in , arriving with only two waka . The headnote to the two poems reads :
" Having been summoned to the palace for a poetry gathering on the thirteenth day of the second month in the second year of Shokyu [ 1220 ] , I had begged to be excused because of a ritual defilement , it being the anniversary of my mother 's death . I thought no more about it , but quite unexpectedly in the evening of the appointed day , the Archivist Iemitsu come with a letter from the ex @-@ emperor , saying that I was not the hold back on account of the defilement , but was to come in any case . I continued to refuse , but after the ex @-@ emperor had sent two more letters insisting on my presence , I hastily wrote down the following two poems and took them with me . "
The first waka was critical of Go @-@ Toba but otherwise fairly innocuous , but the second was quite pointed , obliquely attacking Go @-@ Toba both for forcing Teika to attend Go @-@ Toba 's contest when Teika was memorializing his mother and also for insufficiently promoting Teika ( the final line is a variation on a phrase dealing with " double griefs " ) :
Go @-@ Toba saw this attack as both ingratitude of the rankest sort and the culmination of a series of affronts , this latest being petty resentment at what Go @-@ Toba would have seen as a flimsy pretext for attempting to get out of the poetry competition . Accordingly , he banished Teika from his court , a banishment that would last for more than a year ; this feud distressed devotees of poetry .
= = = = Teika in the ascendancy = = = =
Possibly another a factor in this estrangement was politics – Teika had had the good fortune of being selected in 1209 as a poetry teacher to the new and young shogun , Minamoto no Sanetomo ; the Shogunate was a rival and superior authority to that of the Emperors and the Imperial court . It was probably to the unhappy Sanetomo that Teika addressed the prefatory essay to his didactic collection , Kindai shūka ( " Superior Poems of Our Time " ) , and his treatise on poetry Maigetsusho ( " Monthly Notes " ) . Go @-@ Toba would become an enemy of the then @-@ bedridden Teika . Fortunately for Teika , Go @-@ Toba would be exiled by the Kamakura shogunate in 1221 for the rest of life to the Oki Islands after Go @-@ Toba led a failed rebellion against the Shogunate ( the Jōkyū War ) which Go @-@ Toba had long hated ;
Teika 's political fortunes improved in this period , as it was after Go @-@ Toba 's exile that Teika was appointed compiler of the ninth imperial anthology , the Shinchokusen Wakashū ( " New Imperial Collection " ; completed c . 1234 ) . While it was a great honor , it was poorly received except by conservatives . According to Donald Keene , Shunzei 's Daughter " declared that if it had not been compiled by Teika she would have refused even to take it into her hands . " ( From a letter sent to Fujiwara no Tameie , Teika 's son ) . She and others also criticized it for apparently deliberately excluding any of the objectively excellent poems produced by the three Retired Emperors exiled in the aftermath of the Jōkyū War This absence has been variously attributed to vengefulness on the part of Teika , or simply a desire to not potentially offend the Kamakura shogunate .
In 1232 , Teika was advanced at the age of 70 to the court rank of " Gon Chūnagon " ( Acting Middle Counselor .
But even Teika 's improved fortunes could not insulate him entirely from the various famines and disasters that wracked the country in this period , and which greatly exacberated his illnesses :
" Today I had my servants dig up the garden ( the north one ) , and plant wheat there . Even if we only grow a little , it will sustain our hunger in a bad year . Don 't make fun of me ! What other stratagem does a poor old man have ? " ( Meigetsuki , 13th day of the 10th month , 1230 )
" Starving people collapse , and their dead bodies fill the streets . Every day the numbers increase .... The stench has gradually reached my house . Day and night alike , people go by carrying the dead in their arms , too numerous to count . " ( Meigetsuki , 2nd day of the 7th month , 1231 )
During the later portions of his life , Teika experimented with refining his style of ushin , teaching and writing it ; in addition to his critical works and the manuscripts he studied and copied out , he experimented with the then @-@ very young and immature form of renga – " They are an amusement to me in my dotage . " He died in 1241 , in Kyoto , and was buried at a Buddhist temple named " Shokokuji " .
= = = Rival descendants = = =
One of his 27 children by various women ( and one of two legitimate sons ) , Fujiwara no Tameie ( 1198 – 1275 ; he is remembered as a reluctant heir , in youth inclining rather to court football at the encouragement of Go @-@ Toba than to poetry ) , would carry on Teika 's poetic legacy . Tameie 's descendants would split into three branches : the conservative elder Nijō branch ( founded by Tameie 's elder son , Nijō Tameuji ( 1222 – 1286 ) ; the middle branch of the Kyōgoku founded by Fujiwara no Tamenori ( 1226 – 1279 ) , which , before it became extinct in 1332 with the death of Fujiwara no Tamekane , merged with the Reizei at the prompting of Nun Abutsu ; and the younger , more liberal Reizei branch , founded by Tameie ' younger son Fujiwara no Tamesuke ( b . 1263 ) by Abutsu ( d. circa 1283 ; a poet and a great diarist , especially remembered for her diary Isayoi Nikki ( " Diary of the Waning Moon " ) chronicling her legal battles to get the Kamakura shogunate to stop Tameuji from disinheriting Tamesuke of the Hosokawa estate near the capital that Tameie had left Tamesuke ) .
It is a testament to Teika 's importance that the poetic history of the next centuries is in large part a story of the battles between the rival branches ; indeed , it is this rivalry that is chiefly responsible for the great number of forgeries attributed to Teika . When the Reizei lost a court case concerning possession of the Hosokawa estate Tameie had willed to Tamesuke , they were ordered to hand over the valuable manuscripts and documents inherited from Teika and Tameie over to the Nijō ; they outwardly complied , but along with the few genuine documents whose existence the Nijō had already learned of , they mostly included forgeries which the Nijō had little choice but to accept . In retaliation , the Nijō manufactured a number of forgeries of their own , the better to buttress their claims .
After a period of Reizei ascendancy under Reizei Tamehide ( 冷泉為秀 , great @-@ grandson of Teika ) ( b . 1302 ? , d . 1372 ) , they suffered a decline and a consequent rise in the fortunes of the Nijō , as Tamehide 's son , Iametuni , became a Buddhist monk . However , the Nijō soon suffered setbacks of their own under the wastrel Nijō no Tameshige ( b . 1325 , d . 1385 ) , whose promising son , Nijō no Tametō ( b . 1341 , d . 1381 ) , died comparatively young , killed by a brigand .
In a further disaster for the Nijō , Tametō 's son , Nijō no Tamemigi was killed by a brigand as well in 1399 ( ? ) , effectively wiping out the Nijō as an organized force . Under the grandson of Tamehide , Tanemasa ( b . 1361 , d . 1417 ) , the Rezei achieved temporary victory in the time of Shōtetsu . Ironically , the once @-@ liberal Reizei would become associated during and after the Meji Era with the ultra @-@ conservatives of the " Palace School " .
= = Poetic achievements = =
" In this art of poetry , those who speak ill of Teika should be denied the protection of the gods and Buddhas and condemned to the punishments of hell . " -Shōtetsu
Teika selected the works for the Ogura Hyakunin Isshu , an anthology of a hundred poems by a hundred poets . His Ogura Hyakunin Isshu was later thought to be a book of waka theory in which all types of ideal waka and all techniques were laid out ; disputes over specific style and whether to be conservative or liberal that divided his descendants into a number of feuding schools / clans like the Reizei , Kyōgoku , and Nijō .
Teika made many manuscript copies of Japanese classics , including such landmarks of Japanese literature as The Tale of Genji , The Tales of Ise and the Kokinshū anthology . In his days , the ancient Japanese pronunciations were lost or difficult to understand , rendering the orthography of kana confused and uncertain . Teika researched old documents and recovered the earlier system of deciding between interpretations of kana , and developed a systematic orthography which was used until the modern Meiji period . He applied his kana system to his manuscripts , which were known for their accuracy and general high quality and called Teika bon ( " Teika text " ) . Using his method he was able to document the accurate pronunciation of earlier waka like the ones in the Kokin Wakashū . His manuscripts were also appreciated for his eponymous distinct and bold style of calligraphy . The Adobe font " Kazuraki SPN " , released in 2009 , is based upon the calligraphic style of Fujiwara Teika .
Teika is also remembered , like his father , as being something of an innovator – the Encyclopædia Britannica says :
" Teika employed traditional language in startling new ways , showing that the prescriptive ideal of " old diction , new treatment " [ kotoba furuku , kokoro atarashi ] inherited from Shunzei might accommodate innovation and experimentation as well as ensure the preservation of the language and styles of the classical past . "
The " old diction " here are phrases and words from the " Three Collections " : the Kokinshū , the Gosen Wakashū , and the Shūi Wakashū , but not much older than that ( for instance , the diction of the Man 'yōshū was considered too old ) . Teika wrote in his Maigetsusho that the best poems were spontaneous and original , but nevertheless traditional :
" But such a notion is quite erroneous . For if we were to call such verses as that superior , then any poem at all we might write could be a fine one . No , first the powers of invention must be freed by reciting endless possibilities over and over to oneself . Then , suddenly and spontaneously , from among all the lines one is composing , may emerge a poem whose treatment of the topic is different from the common run , a verse that is somehow superior to the rest . It is full of poetic feeling , lofty in cadence , skillful , with resonances above and beyond the words themselves . It is dignified in effect , its phrasing original , yet smooth and gentle . It is interesting , suffused with an atmosphere subtle yet clear . It is richly evocative , its emotion not tense and nervous but sensible from the appropriateness of the imagery . Such a poem is not to be composed by conscious effort , but if a man will only persist in unremitting practice , he may produce one spontaneously . "
The following is an example of how Teika used old and classic imagery such as Takasago and Onoe , as well as pine and cherry trees , in fresh ways :
His poems were described as remarkable for their elegance and exemplars of Teika 's ideals , in his early and later years ( respectively ; Teika considerably modified his personal beliefs during his 40s , after the death of Shunzei , and simplified his style of composition ) , of the styles of yoen – one of the ten orthodox styles Teika defined and defended in his poetic criticism , with some of the others being the onihishigitei ( " demon @-@ quelling force " ) style , the style of sabi or " loneliness " ( closely related to mono no aware ) , the style of yugen , or " mystery and depth " ; the yoen style was concerned with " ethereal beauty " , and ushin ( " deep feeling " or " conviction of feeling " . This shift in style from yoen to ushin was intended to achieve a certain sort of makoto , or integrity ; Teika sometimes referred to his aim as ushin ( " deep feeling " ) , which confusingly was also the name of one of the ten styles . The yoen style was one of the most popular in his time due in no small part to Teika 's of it ( yoen had first been described by Fujiwara no Mototoshi in the 1150s , but had been only marginally successful ) ; years later , the Symbolists would admire and emulate ( to a degree ) his use of language to evoke atmosphere in his brief poems in the yoen style . An excellent example ( and one later chosen for an Imperial anthology ) is the first poem below :
= = Partial bibliography = =
Shūi gusō ( 拾遺愚草 ) ; Teika 's personal anthology which includes over 3500 poems selected by himself . The two poems which offended Retired Emperor Go @-@ Toba so much and caused the rift between Teika and him are preserved here only .
Meigetsuki ( 明月記 ) ( " The Record of the Clear Moon " ; sometimes called " Diary of the Clear Moon " or possibly " Chronicle of the Bright Moon " ; as the second translation suggests , this was a diary Teika kept in classical Chinese between the ages of approximately 18 ( in 1180 ) to just before his death , around 1241 ; the entries for 1180 and 1181 may have been written when Teika was an old man , but the bulk of the diary covers the 47 years between 1188 and 1235 . As its comprehensiveness might suggest , it is an extremely valuable resource for understanding the court and Teika 's place in the Imperial court , even despite its incompleteness — available extant versions consist of 56 scrolls ( the Reizei family possesses in its family library holographs of 56 and copies of two more ) , while scholars estimate that the original consisted of over 180 scrolls . ) Among its many interesting passages ( some quoted previously ) about Teika 's career and life is a famous passage from the ninth month of 1180 about Teika 's indifference to political or military advancement , in which he aristocratically remarked that " Reports of disturbances and punitive expeditions fill one 's ears , but I pay them no attention . The red banners and the expeditions against the traitors are no concern of mine . " ( Here , " red banners " probably refers to the Imperial standard ; the last line is possibly a reference to a poem by Po Chu @-@ i in which he tells of how he has been effectively exiled and passes his time playing Go ) .
Hyakunin isshu ( 百人一首 ) ( c . 1235 " Single Poems by One Hundred Poets " ; this collection became the foundation of the modern Japanese New Year game karuta . )
Hyakunin Shūka ( 百人秀歌 ) ( 1229 – 1236 ? ; a 101 @-@ poem anthology arranged at the request of Utsunomiya Yoritsuna to be copied onto 101 strips of paper and pasted onto the walls of his villa ; it has 97 poems in common with Hyakunin isshu , suggesting that perhaps it is a misidentified and variant version of the Isshu . )
Shoji hyakushu ( 正治百首 ) ( 1200 ; " Hundred @-@ Poem Sequence of the Shoji era " )
Gotoba @-@ in Kumano Gokō Ki ( 熊野御幸記 ) ( 1201 ; " The Visit of the Cloistered Emperor to Kumano " ) . Portion of Meigetsuki which Teika wrote about a trip to Kumano he took with Go @-@ Toba and Michichika ; like his other diary , it is written in classical Chinese , except for the wakas along the way to the shrines there that Go @-@ Toba was so devoted to that this trip was but one of more than thirty . Teika seems not to have enjoyed the trip ; his diary often records concern over his health and matters of decorum such as the proper clothes to wear .
Eiga taigai or Eika no Taigai ( 詠歌大概 ) ( c . 1216 , 1222 ? ; " Essentials of Poetic Composition " ) . Besides normal advice and criticism of poetry such as pedantic rules on honkadori – poems used as a base in honkadori should always be old poems and from either the Kokinshū , Shūi Wakashū , or the Gosen Wakashū with no more than two and a half lines borrowed from the originals ; similarly , borrowed elements were to be moved within the new poem and the new poem should have a different theme ) , Teika also tellingly recommends certain classic works for aspiring poets to study : the Tales of Ise , Sanjurokkasen ( or " Poems of the Thirty @-@ Six Immortals " ) and the first two portions of The Collected Works of Po Chü @-@ i . Portions of the Eiga taigai have been translated into English
Kindai shūka ( 近代秀歌 ) ( c . 1209 ; " Superior Poems of Our Time " ; a collection of poems Teika felt to be excellent models , with a preface dealing with his critical philosophy , sent to Sanetomo to instruct him in how his poems should emulate the great ancient Japanese poets – teaching by example . This sequence was constructed when he was 47 , after the death of Shunzei , which depressed Teika , as evidenced by his writing in the Kindai shūka that he had " forgotten the color of the followers of words ; the well @-@ springs of inspiration have run dry . " )
Maigetsusho ( 毎月抄 ) ( c . 1219 ; " Monthly Notes " ; an epistle of corrections of one hundred poems , sent to a student of Teika 's . Besides the corrections , it bore a preface which is a major source of information regarding Teika 's view on the aesthetics of poetry ; Shōtetsu states that it was sent to Minamoto no Sanetomo ; Ton 'a holds rather that it had been sent to the " Kinugasa Great Inner Minister " , or Fujiwara no Ieyoshi . ) Besides Brower 's English translation , the Maigetsusho was also translated to French , Italian and Hungarian .
Matsuranomiya Monogatari ( 松浦宮物語 ) ( " The Tale of the Matsura Palace " ; an experimental novel believed to be written by Teika , though Teika 's manuscript claims that he was merely copying it . )
Teika hachidai sho ( 定家八代抄 ) ( Anthology of 1811 poems from the first 8 Imperial anthologies . )
Shuka no daitai ( 秀歌大体 ) ( " A Basic Canon of Superior Poems " )
Teika Jittai ( 定家十体 ) ( 1207 – 1213 ; an anthology of 286 poems , chiefly derived from the Shin Kokinshū ; long believed a forgery , but some modern scholars contend that it is a genuine work . )
= Evan Rachel Wood =
Evan Rachel Wood ( born September 7 , 1987 ) is an American actress . She began acting in the 1990s , appearing in several television series , including American Gothic ( 1995 – 1996 ) and Once and Again ( 1999 – 2002 ) . Wood made her début as a leading film actress at the age of nine in Digging to China ( 1998 ) and became well known after her transition to a more adult @-@ oriented Golden Globe @-@ nominated role in the teen drama film Thirteen ( 2003 ) .
Wood continued acting mostly in independent films , including Pretty Persuasion ( 2005 ) , Down in the Valley ( 2006 ) , Running with Scissors ( 2006 ) , and in the big studio production Across the Universe ( 2007 ) . Since 2008 , Wood has appeared in more mainstream films , including The Wrestler ( 2008 ) , Whatever Works ( 2009 ) and The Ides of March ( 2011 ) . She has also returned to television , playing the supporting role of Queen Sophie @-@ Anne on True Blood from 2009 to 2011 and playing Kate Winslet 's character 's daughter in the HBO miniseries Mildred Pierce ( 2011 ) , a role for which she was nominated for the Golden Globe and Emmy Award for Best Supporting Actress .
Her personal life , particularly her relationship with Marilyn Manson , to whom she was previously engaged , has attracted press attention . In 2012 , she married English actor Jamie Bell , with whom she has one son . They separated in 2014 after two years of marriage .
= = Early life and family = =
Wood was born in Raleigh , North Carolina . Her father , Ira David Wood III , is a locally prominent actor , singer , theater director , and playwright ; he is the Executive Director of a local regional theatre company called Theatre in the Park . Her mother , Sara Lynn Moore ( b . March 6 , 1958 ) , is an actress , director , and acting coach . Wood 's brother , Ira David Wood IV , is also an actor ; she has two other brothers , Dana and Thomas , and a sister named Aden . Her paternal aunt , Carol Winstead Wood , was a Hollywood production designer .
Wood and her brothers were actively involved in Theatre in the Park while growing up , including an appearance by her in the 1987 production of her father 's musical comedy adaptation of A Christmas Carol when she was just a few months old . Subsequently , she played the Ghost of Christmas Past in several productions at the theater , and she later starred as Helen Keller alongside her mother ( who played Anne Sullivan ) in a production of The Miracle Worker , under her father 's direction . Wood briefly attended Cary Elementary , a public school in Cary , North Carolina . She was subsequently home @-@ schooled and received her high school diploma at age 15 .
= = Career = =
= = = Early works : 1994 – 2000 = = =
Wood began her career appearing in several made @-@ for @-@ television films from 1994 onward , also playing an occasional role in the television series American Gothic . In 1996 , Wood 's parents separated and later divorced , and Wood moved with her mother to her mother 's native Los Angeles County , California . After a one @-@ season role on the television drama Profiler , Wood was cast in the supporting role of Jessie Sammler on the television show Once and Again .
Wood 's first major screen role was in the low @-@ budget 1998 film Digging to China , which also starred Kevin Bacon and Mary Stuart Masterson . The film won the Children 's Jury Award at the Chicago International Children 's Film Festival . Wood remembers the role as initially being hard , but notes that it " eventually led to her decision that acting is something she might never want to stop doing . " She also had a role in Practical Magic , a fantasy film directed by Griffin Dunne , starring Sandra Bullock and Nicole Kidman , that same year .
= = = 2001 – 2005 = = =
Wood made her teenage debut as a leading film actress in 2002 's Little Secrets , directed by Blair Treu , where she played aspiring 14 @-@ year @-@ old concert violinist Emily Lindstrom . For that role , she was nominated for Best Leading Young Actress at the Young Artist Awards . That same year , Wood played a supporting role in the Andrew Niccol @-@ directed science fiction satirical drama film , S1m0ne , which starred Al Pacino . Wood 's breakthrough movie role followed with the 2003 film Thirteen . She played the role of Tracy Louise Freeland , one of two young teens who sink into a downward spiral of hard drugs , sex , and petty crime . Her performance was nominated for a Golden Globe Award as Best Actress - Drama and for a Screen Actors Guild ( SAG ) Award for Best Actress . During the time of Thirteen 's release , Vanity Fair named Wood as one of the It Girls of Hollywood , and she appeared , along with the other actresses , on the magazine 's July 2003 cover . A supporting role opposite Cate Blanchett and Tommy Lee Jones in Ron Howard 's The Missing , in which she played the kidnapped daughter , Lilly Gilkeson , followed the same year , as well as a role in the CSI : Crime Scene Investigation episode " Got Murder ? " .
In 2005 , Wood appeared in the Mike Binder @-@ directed The Upside of Anger , opposite Kevin Costner and Joan Allen , a well @-@ reviewed film in which Wood played Lavender " Popeye " Wolfmeyer , one of four sisters dealing with their father 's absence . Her character also narrated the film . Wood 's next two starring roles were in dark independent films . In the 2005 Grand Jury Prize Sundance Film Festival nominee Pretty Persuasion , a black comedy / satirical focusing on themes of sexual harassment and discrimination in schools and attitudes about females in media and society , Wood played Kimberly Joyce , a manipulative , sexually active high @-@ schooler . One critic commented , " Wood does flip cynicism with such precise , easy rhythms and with such obvious pleasure in naughtiness that she 's impossible to hate . "
In Down in the Valley , which was directed by David Jacobson , Wood 's character , Tobe , falls in love with an older man , a cowboy who is at odds with modern society ( Edward Norton ) . Of her performance , it was written that " Wood conveys every bit of the adamant certainty and aching vulnerability inherent in late adolescence . " Wood has commented on her choice of sexually themed roles , saying that she is not aiming for the " shock factor " in her film choices .
In 2005 , Wood starred in the music videos for Bright Eyes ' " At the Bottom of Everything " and Green Day 's " Wake Me Up When September Ends " .
= = = 2006 – present = = =
In September 2006 , Wood received Premiere magazine 's " Spotlight Award for Emerging Talent . " Also in 2006 , she was described by The Guardian as being " wise beyond her years " and as " one of the best actresses of her generation . " Later in 2006 , Wood appeared with an all @-@ star ensemble cast as Natalie Finch in the Golden Globe @-@ nominated 2006 comedy @-@ drama film Running with Scissors . Directed by Ryan Murphy and starring Annette Bening , the film was based on the memoir by Augusten Burroughs , which is a semi @-@ autobiographical account of Burroughs ' childhood in a dysfunctional family . Wood was awarded the 2007 Cannes Film Festival Chopard Trophy for Female Revelation for her performance .
Wood had roles in two films released in September 2007 . King of California , which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival , a story of a bipolar jazz musician ( Michael Douglas ) and his long @-@ suffering teenage daughter , Miranda ( Wood ) , who are reunited after his two @-@ year stay in a mental institution and who embark on a quixotic search for Spanish treasure . One review praised Wood 's performance as " excellent " .
Across the Universe , a Julie Taymor @-@ directed musical that was nominated for a Golden Globe and an Academy Award and was set in Liverpool , New York City , and Vietnam , focused on the tribulations of several characters during the counter @-@ cultural revolution of the 1960s . It was set to the songs of The Beatles . Wood , who has described the music of The Beatles as a major part of her life , played Lucy , who develops a relationship with Jude ( Jim Sturgess ) . The film featured her singing musical numbers and she describes the role as her favorite , calling director Julie Taymor " one of the most amazing directors out there . " One critic wrote that " Wood brings much @-@ needed emotional depth . " Wood provided the voice of an alien named Mala , a mechanically inclined free @-@ thinker , in Battle for Terra , a 2008 computer @-@ animated science fiction film about a peaceful alien planet that faces destruction from colonization by the displaced remainder of the human race . The film won the 2008 Grand Prize at the Ottawa International Animation Festival . The film showed at the San Francisco International Film Festival , where she received an award at the Midnight Awards along with Elijah Wood .
Wood starred in 2008 's Vadim Perelman @-@ directed The Life Before Her Eyes , based on the Laura Kasischke novel of the same name , about the friendship of two teens of opposite character who are involved in a Columbine @-@ like shooting incident at their school and are forced to make an impossible choice . Wood played the younger version of Uma Thurman 's character , Diana . One critic cited her performance as " hands @-@ down extraordinary " . Wood stated that she intended the film to be the last one in which she played a teenager .
In the same year , she also co @-@ starred in director Darren Aronofsky 's The Wrestler , winner of the Golden Lion Award for Best Film at the Venice Film Festival , about Randy " Ram " Robinson ( Mickey Rourke ) , a professional wrestler from the 1980s who is forced to retire after a heart attack threatens to kill him the next time he wrestles . Wood played Stephanie , Randy " Ram " Robinson 's estranged daughter . Of her performance , one critic wrote , " Once her character stops stonewalling her father and hears him out , Wood provides a fine foil for Rourke in their turbulent scenes together . "
Wood co @-@ starred in Woody Allen 's Whatever Works , which premiered at the 2009 Tribeca Film Festival , playing the young wife of Larry David 's character . In May 2009 , she played Juliet in six fundraising performances of William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet at the Theater In The Park . The production was directed by her brother , who also starred . Wood had a recurring role in the second and third seasons of the HBO supernatural drama series , True Blood , from 2009 to 2011 as Sophie @-@ Anne Leclerq . She appeared at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards on September 12 , 2010 . Wood had a role in the film The Conspirator , which premiered at Ford 's Theatre in Washington D. C. in April , 2011 , directed by Robert Redford ( about the conspiracy surrounding the assassination of Abraham Lincoln ) . She also had a role in The Ides of March . She portrayed the title character 's daughter in the 2011 HBO miniseries Mildred Pierce , for which she was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie .
Wood played Gabi in the 2013 psychological romantic thriller film Charlie Countryman with Shia LaBeouf and Rupert Grint .
She is featured with Chris Evans in a 2016 ad for Gucci Guilty Eau fragrances . "
In June 2016 , the Human Rights Campaign released a video in tribute to the victims of the 2016 Orlando gay nightclub shooting ; in the video , Wood and others told the stories of the people killed there .
= = Personal life = =
Wood began dating British actor Jamie Bell in 2005 after they co @-@ starred in the music video for Green Day 's song " Wake Me Up When September Ends . " They got matching tattoos of each other 's initials ; in Wood 's case , a " J " on her left ankle . After a year together , the relationship ended in 2006 . Wood later commented that , " We had matching tattoos because we knew our love would last forever . Trouble is , it didn 't , things happened , we split . But I don 't regret the tattoo . It reminds me of a great , great period in my life . "
In January 2007 , Wood 's relationship with Marilyn Manson became public . The two met at a party at the Chateau Marmont Hotel ; Wood has stated that she was attracted to Manson 's frequent use of black eye liner and once described their relationship as " healthy and loving " . Two portraits of Wood , painted by Manson , have been exhibited at the Celebritarian Corporation Gallery of Fine Art . Wood is also the inspiration behind Manson 's song " Heart @-@ Shaped Glasses " , and she appeared with Manson in the song 's music video . Manson has said that Wood 's appearance was the highest @-@ paid music video role ever . The couple split in November 2008 ; according to Wood , they " both decided to take some time apart so [ they ] could concentrate on work . " They later re @-@ united and it was reported in early January 2010 that the couple was engaged to be married . Wood and Manson ended their engagement in August 2010 .
In the summer of 2011 , Wood was reported to have rekindled her relationship with Jamie Bell , five years after they first broke up . The couple married in a small ceremony on October 30 , 2012 . They have one son , born in July 2013 . Wood had a natural home birth with her son , and publicly thanked Ricki Lake , creator of the documentary The Business of Being Born , for inspiring her decision . In May 2014 , Wood and Bell announced that they had separated after 19 months of marriage .
In August 2012 , Wood came out as bisexual via Twitter .
Wood 's mother is a convert to Judaism and Wood 's father is Christian . In 2003 , Wood described herself as Jewish . In 2012 , she stated , " I believe in God but I am not religious . I am spiritual . My definition of God isn 't in any religion . It 's very personal " .
Wood has a black belt in taekwondo .
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= M @-@ 30 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 30 is a state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan that runs in a north – south direction from the Midland area to West Branch . The highway runs through rural parts of three counties in the Lower Peninsula . The southern end runs along the Michigan Meridian and parallel to the Tittabawassee River . Prior to 1962 , M @-@ 30 's southern terminus ended at a junction with M @-@ 46 in Merrill . Since then , the segment south of US Highway 10 ( US 10 ) was returned to local control and decommissioned . In May 2009 , M @-@ 30 was extended southerly from US 10 to M @-@ 20 , restoring some of the highway decommissioned in the 1960s to M @-@ 30 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 30 is a rural , two @-@ lane highway . M @-@ 30 follows Meridian Road starting at an intersection with M @-@ 20 ( Isabella Road ) outside of Midland . From this intersection , the highway runs north along the Michigan Meridian through forest lands to a crossing of the Tittabawassee River near Sanford . M @-@ 30 passes through the community and crosses the US 10 freeway near the location where the latter crosses a narrow section of Sanford Lake . The road continues north running parallel to the lake along the meridian to a point near Edenville . There , the highway turns westerly along Curtis Road and then back northerly on Midland Road to a crossing of the Tittabawassee and Wixom Lake .
Past the river and lake crossings , M @-@ 30 angles to the northeast to return to the Michigan Meridian . The area adjacent to the lake is farm land , but continuing north , the highway returns to the woodlands of the Au Sable State Forest . M @-@ 30 intersects M @-@ 61 at Wooden Shoe Village near Smallwood Lake . The highway continues to parallel the Tittabawassee River , crossing several of its smaller tributaries , until a point south of the Gladwin – Ogemaw County county line . The trunkline passes through a small unnamed , unincorporated community northwest of Hockaday near Indian and Elk lakes as the road turns to the northeast between the lakes in the area . M @-@ 30 crosses the county line near Edwards and continues northward . The highway turns to the northeast as it approaches West Branch , crossing under I @-@ 75 without an interchange . M @-@ 30 ends at Business Loop I @-@ 75 / M @-@ 55 on the west side of West Branch .
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) maintains M @-@ 30 like all other parts of the state trunkline highway system . As a part of these responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic using its roads in surveys using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . MDOT calculates the traffic level for a segment of roadway for any average day of the year in these surveys . For 2009 , the highest traffic levels were observed on the section north of US 10 at 7 @,@ 579 vehicles per day . The lowest AADT levels were the 2 @,@ 952 vehicles between the M @-@ 61 junction and the Gladwin – Ogemaw county line . The survey did not include the section south of US 10 . No segment has been listed as part of the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 30 was first designated by July 1 , 1919 . The original routing only ran from Winegars to West Branch . South of Winegars , the roadway is a portion of M @-@ 18 . An extension of M @-@ 18 in 1928 or 1929 south of Beaverton led to the redesignation and extension of M @-@ 30 south through Edenville and Sanford to end at M @-@ 46 . M @-@ 30 was completely paved as the last 15 miles ( 24 km ) of gravel roadway were completed between Sanford and the Midland – Saginaw county line in 1961 . The next year , when M @-@ 30 was truncated to end at the US 10 freeway in Sanford , the remaining portion south of US 10 was turned over to county control . On May 13 , 2009 , the Midland County Road Commission ( MCRC ) and the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) signed a Memorandum of Understanding that transferred control of Meridian Road south of US 10 to M @-@ 20 . The roadway transferred included a newly constructed bridge over the Tittabawassee River and other segments of roadway rebuilt by the MCRC .
= = Major intersections = =
= Father 's Day ( Doctor Who ) =
" Father 's Day " is the eighth episode of the first series of the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who , first broadcast on 14 May 2005 on BBC One . It was written by Paul Cornell and directed by Joe Ahearne .
In the episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Christopher Eccleston ) agrees to take his companion Rose Tyler ( Billie Piper ) back to the day her father Pete ( Shaun Dingwall ) died in 1987 . When Rose intervenes and pulls her father out of the path of a car , time is wounded and dangerous Reapers attack , threatening
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and it " seems to be advancing forward over the threshold , threatening the viewer like a flood or a giant bat with flapping wings and extended claws . "
In the right panel , Dyer is shown with his eyes shut , vomiting into a hand basin . In the two outer frames his figure is shadowed by arrows , pictorial devices that Bacon often used to place a sense of energy into his paintings . In this work , the arrows point to a man about to die , and according to Tóibín they scream " Here ! " , " Him ! " . The arrow of the right panel , according to Tóibín , points to a " dead figure on the lavatory bowl , as though telling the Furies where to find him " . The triptych is centralised by the lightbulb , and by the fact that Dyer faces inwards in the two outer canvasses . The triptych 's composition and setting are poised to suggest instability , and the doors in each side panel are splayed outwards as if to look into the darkness of the foreground .
Triptych , May – June 1973 has been said to achieve its tension by locating voluptuously described figures in an austere , cage @-@ like space . The foreground of each panel is bounded by a wall , which runs parallel to a framing door . Each door admits a stark black into its frame , while the walls establish a link between each of the three Black Triptychs . In 1975 , the curator Hugh M. Davis noted that while Bacon 's earlier triptychs had been set in public spaces " open to all kinds of visitor " , the Black Triptychs are set in a " deeply private realm , to which only the individual — accompanied , perhaps , by one or two of his closest friends — has access " . In 1999 , Yard wrote that the sense of foreboding and ill @-@ omen conjured by the Eumenides of Bacon 's Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion ( 1944 ) reappears in the triptych as a " batlike void that snared the figure of George Dyer as he subsides into the supple curves of death " . John Russell observed that the painting 's background describes an area which is half studio , half condemned cell . A reviewer of the 1975 Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibition found a resemblance between the concept of the central panel and Albrecht Dürer 's engraving Melencolia I ( 1514 ) — in the figure 's pose , the bat form , and the panel 's radiance — suggesting that Bacon 's late triptychs evoke " memorable figural formulations " of classic Western culture .
Bacon later stated that " painting has nothing to do with colouring surfaces " , and in general he was not preoccupied with detailing his backgrounds : " When I feel that I have to some extent formed the image , I put the background in to see how it 's going to work and then I go with the image itself . " He told David Sylvester that he intended his " hard , flat , bright ground " to juxtapose with the complexity of the central images , and noted that " for this work , it can work more starkly if the background is very united and clear . I think that probably is why I have used a very clear background against which the image can articulate itself " . Bacon usually applied paint to the background quickly , and with " great energy " ; however , he thought of it as a secondary element . He used its colour to establish tone , but in his mind the real work began when he came to paint the figures .
Critics have argued whether the triptych should be read sequentially from left to right . Davies believes the work is a narrative , panoramic view of Dyer 's suicide , and that the triptych 's format implies a temporal continuity between each frame . Ernst van Alphen has argued that , notwithstanding spatial inconsistencies — the light bulb featured in the central panel is missing from the two outer canvasses , while the doorway view is reversed in the center panel — the triptych is a " plain representation of a story " .
= = The Black Triptychs = =
Bacon 's work from the 1970s has been described by the art critic Hugh Davies as the " frenzied momentum of a struggle against death " . Bacon admitted during a 1974 interview that he thought the most difficult aspect of aging was " losing your friends " . This was a bleak period in his life , and though he was to live for another seventeen years , he felt that his life was almost over , " and all the people I 've loved are dead " . His concern is reflected in the darkened flesh and background tones of his paintings from this period . His acute sense of mortality and awareness of the fragility of life were heightened by Dyer 's death in Paris . In the next three years he painted many images of his former lover , including the series of three " Black Triptychs " which have come to be seen as among his best work . A number of characteristics bind the triptychs together : the form of a monochromatically rendered doorway features centrally in all , and each is framed by flat and shallow walls . In each three Dyer is stalked by a broad shadow ; which takes the form of pools of blood or flesh in the outer panels and the wings of the angel of death in the left hand and central images . In its display caption for Triptych – August 1972 the Tate gallery wrote , " What death has not already consumed seeps incontinently out of the figures as their shadows . "
Each of the three Black Triptychs displays sequential views of a single figure , and each seems to be intended to be viewed as if stills from a film . The figures rendered are not drawn from any of Bacon 's usual intellectual sources ; they do not depict Golgotha , Handes , or Leopold Bloom . In these pictures Bacon strips Dyer from the context of both Dyer 's own life and the artist 's life , and presents him as a nameless , slumped , gathering of flesh , awaiting the onset of death . Describing the Black Triptychs in 1993 , the art critic Juan Vicente Aliaga wrote that " the horror , the abjection that oozed from the crucifixes has been transformed in his last paintings into quiet solitude . The masculine bodies entwined in a carnal embrace have given way to the solitary figure leaning over the washbasin , standing firm on the smooth ground , neutral , bald @-@ headed , his convex back deformed , his testicles contracted in a fold . "
When asked by the broadcaster Melvyn Bragg in 1984 if the portraits painted in the wake of Dyer 's death were depictions of his emotional reaction to the event , Bacon replied that he did not consider himself to be an " expressionist painter " . He explained that he was " not trying to express anything , I wasn 't trying to express the sorrow about somebody committing suicide ... but perhaps it comes through without knowing it " . When Bragg inquired if he often thought about death , the artist replied that he was always aware of it , and that although " it 's just around the corner for [ me ] , I don 't think about it , because there 's nothing to think about . When it comes , it 's there . You 've had it . " Reflecting on the loss of Dyer , Bacon observed that as part of aging , " life becomes more of a desert around you " . He told Bragg that he believed in " nothing . We are born and we die and that 's it . There is nothing else . " Bragg asked Bacon what he did about that reality , and after the artist told him he did nothing about it , Bragg pleaded , " No Francis , you try and paint it . "
Throughout his career , Bacon consciously and carefully avoided explaining the meaning behind his paintings , and pointedly observed that they were not intended as narratives , nor open to interpretation . When Bragg challenged him with the observation that Triptych , May – June 1973 was the nearest the artist had come to telling a story , Bacon admitted that " it is in fact the nearest I 've ever done to a story , because you know that is the triptych of how [ Dyer ] was found " . He went on to say that the work reflected not just his reaction to Dyer 's death , but his general feelings about the fact that his friends were then dying around him " like flies " . A borderline alcoholic himself , Bacon continued to explain that his dead friends were " generally heavy drinkers " , and that their deaths led directly to his composition of a series of meditative self @-@ portraits which emphasised his own aging and awareness of the passage of time .
= Julius Franks =
Julius Franks , Jr . ( September 5 , 1922 – November 26 , 2008 ) was a civil rights leader and an All @-@ American guard who played football at the University of Michigan from 1941 to 1942 . Franks wore # 62 as a varsity letterman in 1941 and # 63 in 1942 . Franks was the first ( or second depending on the source ) African @-@ American University of Michigan player to become an All @-@ American in football . Illness cut short his collegiate athletic career .
After Michigan , Franks pursued a career in dentistry . He also became an active community leader who contributed his time to public service and who helped to integrate Grand Rapids , Michigan by financing home construction in a majority Caucasian neighborhood .
= = First African @-@ American All @-@ American football player at Michigan = =
Franks , who was born in Macon , Georgia and raised in Hamtramck , Michigan , was named to the Detroit , Michigan , all @-@ city team after the 1939 high school football season . He is the son of Julius Franks , Sr. and Nellie Mae Solomon and father of Daryl , Cheryl , Bobby , Beverly A Grant , Fredrick . After graduating from high school , he attended the University of Michigan , where he became the third African @-@ American to play for the Michigan Wolverines football team . In 1942 , he became the first African @-@ American at Michigan to earn All @-@ American honors . He is described as the second to be All @-@ American by some accounts . Head coach Fritz Crisler said Franks was one of the hardest @-@ working players he ever coached . The 1942 Wolverines ' offensive line , which included Franks , Al Wistert , Robert Kolesar , Merv Pregulman , and Elmer Madar , was known as the " Seven Oak Posts " . Franks credited the group 's success to scrimmaging as rookies against the 1940 offense that included Tom Harmon , Forest Evashevski , and Bob Westfall . Franks was played all 60 minute in his games as a junior in 1942 and was named a first @-@ team All American by the International News Service ( Hearst newspapers ) , Central Press , and Collier 's Weekly , and a second @-@ team All @-@ American by the Associated Press and New York Sun .
In 1943 , Franks and teammate Tom Kuzma came down with tuberculosis and were hospitalized at University Hospital for 25 months as they recuperated . Franks recalled that head coach Fritz Crisler was a regular visitor to his hospital room , and team star Tom Harmon also stopped to visit while on leave from military service . As a result of the hospitalization , Franks missed his senior year as a football player . He obtained his bachelor of science degree in 1947 .
In 1982 , Franks was named to the University of Michigan Hall of Honor in the fifth class of inductees that was inducted in 1983 . He was the twelfth Michigan football player to earn this honor .
= = Professional career and community service = =
In 1951 , Franks earned his D.D.S. from the University of Michigan Dental School , and practiced dentistry in Grand Rapids , Michigan for more than 40 years . Franks was a leader in the Urban League , United Way , American Red Cross , Boy Scouts of America , and Rotary Club . In 1964 , Michigan Governor George Romney appointed Franks to Western Michigan University 's first Board of Trustees , where he served as a trustee until 1983 . Franks served on several boards : Executive Communication , Vice President , President , 1951 – 87 ; Kent County Dental Society , 1951 – 92 ; Michigan & American Dental Association , 1951 – 96 ; trustee , Western Michigan University , 1964 – 82 ( trustee emeritus , 1983 ) ; Director , Boulevard Memorial Medical Center , 1974 – 84 ; Director , United Way Kent County , 1987 – 92 . In 1992 , Franks contracted Guillain @-@ Barré syndrome , which forced him into retirement .
In the 1960s , Franks helped to integrate Grand Rapids . In the early 1960s , African Americans were not welcome in Grand Rapids ' " white " middle @-@ class neighborhoods , and real estate agents would not show them houses . In 1962 , Franks ' friend , J.E. Adams , found vacant land designated as a potential park site . Adams , Franks , and friends Joseph Lee and Samuel Triplett created a plan to purchase the 20 acres ( 80 @,@ 937 m2 ) site and build a middle @-@ class neighborhood for African @-@ Americans . The announcement " caused an uproar that resulted in protests , lawsuits and threats . " When banks refused to finance the project , the four men purchased the land on their own for $ 60 @,@ 000 and started building . The first of 51 houses was completed in 1965 . Today , the neighborhood , known as Auburn Hills ( not to be confused with Auburn Hills , Michigan ) , has a population of 542 and the lowest crime rate in Grand Rapids . In 2006 , the Michigan Alumni Club gave Franks the " Paul G. Goebel , Sr. Distinguished Alumni in Athletics Award " . In later years , Franks was also a leader with the Urban League , United Way and other groups .
= 2009 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship =
The 2009 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Tournament was held from May 9 through May 25 , 2009 . This was the 39th annual Division I NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament . Sixteen NCAA Division I college men 's lacrosse teams met after having played their way through a regular season , and for some , a conference tournament , to play in the NCAA Tournament .
= = Overview = =
The first round of the tournament was played on May 9 and 10 at the home fields of the seeded teams . The quarterfinals were held on May 16 and 17th on neutral site fields at Hofstra University ( James M. Shuart Stadium ) and the United States Naval Academy ( Navy @-@ Marine Corps Memorial Stadium ) . The tournament culminated with the semifinals and final held on Memorial Day weekend at Gillette Stadium in Foxborough , Massachusetts . The tournament was won by Syracuse University who defeated Cornell University , 10 – 9 , in overtime in front of 41 @,@ 935 fans .
= = Qualifying teams = =
The NCAA Division I Men ’ s Lacrosse Committee selected the participating teams for the championship tournament . The committee announced the qualifying teams and the seeding order on Sunday , May 3 , 2009 . Seven conferences received automatic bids for their top team . The remaining nine teams were selected by the committee as " at @-@ large " bids .
Five conferences held tournament championships , which also determined their NCAA bids . Siena earned an automatic bid by winning the Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference ( MAAC ) championship for both their first conference title and first NCAA tournament appearance . Villanova earned an automatic bid by winning Colonial Athletic Association ( CAA ) championship and also made its NCAA tournament debut . Navy earned an automatic bid by winning its fifth Patriot League championship in six years . Both Notre Dame and UMBC repeated as conference champions by winning the Great Western Lacrosse League ( GWLL ) and America East Conference , respectively .
Two conferences awarded their bids based on regular season performance . UMass earned the Eastern College Athletic Conference ( ECAC ) championship and its automatic with a 6 – 1 conference record . The Ivy League awarded its automatic bid to Cornell . Princeton and Cornell possessed identical conference records and were named co @-@ champions . The head @-@ to @-@ head regular season game , which Cornell had won , acted as the tie @-@ breaking criterion .
The remaining nine berths were awarded to at @-@ large teams . Duke won the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) tournament for the third straight season , but the league does not receive an automatic bid because it does not have at least six members . Nevertheless , all four ACC teams received at @-@ large bids : Duke , Maryland , North Carolina , and Virginia . Additionally , the NCAA Selection Committee awarded at @-@ large bids to : independents Johns Hopkins and Syracuse , Brown and Princeton of the Ivy League , and Hofstra of the CAA .
= = Tournament bracket = =
* = Overtime
= = Game summaries = =
= = = First round = = =
The 1st round of the tournament , seven of the eight seeded teams advanced . Every past NCAA tournament had been won by seven of the eight teams that advanced to the quarterfinals , with Duke being the only one to have never won a national title , up to this tournament . For the first time , all four Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) teams advanced to the second round . It was just the second time in tournament history that four teams from the same conference advanced . The first instance occurred in 1990 with Brown , Harvard , Princeton , and Yale of the Ivy League .
The tournament began on Saturday , May 9 , when the Brown Bears traveled to face the eighth @-@ seeded Johns Hopkins Blue Jays at Homewood Field in Baltimore . The Blue Jays pulled away to three @-@ goal leads in the first and final quarters , but the Bears equalized both times . In the final ten seconds of regulation , Brown attackman Kyle Hollingsworth batted in a loose ball to even the score , 11 – 11 . In overtime , Hopkins won the faceoff and called a timeout , before Brian Christopher drove up the right side of the field and made a game @-@ winning top @-@ corner shot on the run . It was the third overtime goal by Christopher in Hopkins ' past four games .
UMBC then played at number @-@ six seed North Carolina . The UMBC Retrievers possessed the most efficient extra @-@ man offense ( EMO ) and the best @-@ rated midfield in the nation . Their roster , however , lacked depth , and the first @-@ string midfielders were forced to play in the 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) heat for almost the entire game . At halftime , the Retrievers led the Tar Heels , 8 – 6 . The lead changed hands several times in the third period , before North Carolina took control for the remainder of the game to win , 15 – 13 . Tar Heels attackman Billy Bitter , who attempted only nine shots , matched the school single @-@ game record with eight goals .
Hofstra played at fifth @-@ seeded Cornell , where the teams were even at halftime , 5 – 5 . The third period was the decisive quarter , and Cornell won three face @-@ offs and outscored Hofstra five @-@ to @-@ one . In Durham , third @-@ seeded Duke hosted Navy . At halftime , the Blue Devils led 10 – 0 and expanded the rout to 13 – 1 at the start of the final period . Duke advanced with a final score of 14 – 5 .
The second day of the tournament began with the Maryland Terrapins facing the seventh @-@ seeded Notre Dame Fighting Irish at home in South Bend , Indiana . The Fighting Irish entered the game in possession of a perfect 15 – 0 record , but still considered an unknown variable due to their schedule . The magazine Inside Lacrosse called the Terrapins a talented team that had underachieved during the regular season . The first @-@ ranked Notre Dame defense frustrated Maryland , but the Terps still managed to gain a 6 – 1 lead in the third quarter . Maryland 's defense effectively shut @-@ down Notre Dame and the leading Irish scorer Ryan Hoff was unable to make a single shot on goal . Maryland was the only unseeded team to advance to the quarterfinals .
Both schools making their inaugural NCAA tournament appearance suffered quick elimination . The Villanova Wildcats were trounced by the Virginia Cavaliers , 18 – 6 . The Cavaliers were led by Brian Carroll 's career @-@ high five goal performance . The Siena Saints were held scoreless for nearly 42 minutes in their loss to the Syracuse Orange , 11 – 4 . Onondaga Community College transfer Cody Jamieson , who had just been cleared academically , scored three goals in his first start for the Orange .
At Princeton University , the Tigers defeated the visiting UMass Minutemen , 10 – 7 . Princeton was led by Mark Kovler 's six @-@ point effort . The game was the final in the collegiate career of Minutemen goalkeeper Doc Schneider who led his team to the 2006 championship game as a freshman . His opposite number , Princeton 's Tyler Fiorito , became just the second freshman goalkeeper to start an NCAA tournament game for the Tigers .
= = = Quarterfinals = = =
The quarterfinals took place over the weekend of May 16 to 17 at two neutral sites . The first doubleheader was sponsored on Saturday by Hofstra University , followed by games held at the United States Naval Academy on Sunday . Despite overcast weather at both locations , it was the first time that each NCAA quarterfinals venue attracted in excess of 11 @,@ 000 spectators .
The second round opened at Hofstra 's James M. Shuart Stadium with the Maryland – Syracuse match @-@ up . Al Cavalieri filled in as the Orange goalkeeper for long @-@ time starter John Galloway who was sick with the flu . Syracuse scored three unanswered goals in the first quarter before Maryland goalie Brian Phipps suffered an ACL tear . Terrapins midfielder Grant Catalino narrowed the deficit to 5 – 3 before halftime on an extra @-@ man score . In the second half , Syracuse made defensive adjustments to shut down Maryland 's behind @-@ the @-@ goal attack , and the Orange tallied three times in the span of 2 : 10 to pull away in the third quarter . Syracuse won , 11 – 6 , and extended its postseason streak against Maryland to five .
Ivy League rivals Cornell and Princeton then had their 70th meeting , but first in the NCAA tournament . Earlier in the postseason , the Big Red defeated the Tigers to split the Ivy League championship . Three Princeton shots hit the post in the first half of the second quarter , and Cornell entered halftime with a 5 – 1 advantage . In the third quarter , Tigers attackman Tommy Davis ended their 27 : 58 scoring drought with a 15 @-@ yard shot . Princeton quickly tallied again with 28 seconds in the period . In the final quarter , the Big Red withstood two penalties to win , 6 – 4 .
The second day of the quarterfinals took place at Navy @-@ Marine Corps Memorial Stadium in Annapolis , Maryland . The first game featured top @-@ ranked Virginia and Johns Hopkins . The Cavaliers dominated the Blue Jays , 19 – 8 , in their worst postseason defeat in school history . Shamel Bratton of Virginia scored a career @-@ high five goals . The victory marked the 300th of head coach Dom Starsia 's career , and he became the third coach in Division I lacrosse history to win as many games . Virginia advanced to their fourth Final Four appearance in five seasons . With the quarterfinals elimination of both Maryland and Johns Hopkins , 2009 became only the third time since the NCAA tournament began that no team from the state participated in the Final Four .
The final game of the round featured intrastate rivals Duke and North Carolina in their third meeting of the season . In the first quarter , the Blue Devils jumped out to an early lead and survived a two @-@ man @-@ down penalty , but the Tar Heels scored four unanswered goals to briefly take the lead in the second quarter . Late in the final period , North Carolina rallied from a four @-@ point deficit to trail by one goal , 12 – 11 . As time expired , a shot by Sean Delaney missed high over the goal , and Duke defeated North Carolina for the third time of the year . The Blue Devils ' Zach Howell scored a career @-@ high three goals and Tewaaraton Trophy finalist Ned Crotty tallied twice and had six assists . The Duke defense held Carolina 's leading scorer , Billy Bitter , to just two assists .
= = = Semifinals = = =
= = = = Syracuse vs. Duke = = = =
Syracuse met Duke for the first game at Gillette Stadium in Foxborough , Massachusetts , which was attended by 36 @,@ 594 fans , a decrease from the previous year 's 48 @,@ 224 . Nine Orange players scored in a rout of the Blue Devils , 17 – 7 , which demonstrated the depth of the Syracuse offense . It was the most goals allowed by Duke all season . Seniors Kenny Nims and Patrick Perritt led the Orange with four goals each . Freshman Tim Desko , son of head coach John Desko , and heralded transfer Cody Jamieson each tallied twice . The Orange dominated the faceoff circle and won 18 of 28 draws . To open the third quarter , senior Jake Moulton won the opening faceoff and scored nine seconds into the half . With the victory , the Orange advanced to the championship game for the seventh time since 1999 .
= = = = Cornell vs. Virginia = = = =
In the second game of the day , fifth @-@ seeded Cornell upset first @-@ ranked Virginia . The Big Red upset the Cavaliers decisively , 15 – 6 , and advanced to the championship game for the first time in over two decades . Cornell controlled the game from the start , and accounted for the game 's first three tallies and entered halftime with an 8 – 2 advantage . Big Red freshman Rob Pannell , junior Ryan Hurley , and senior Chris Finn each scored three times . The Cornell defense created 18 turnovers and stymied Virginia 's high @-@ powered attack . Commenting on the upset , Cornell head coach Jeff Tambroni said , " We knew we weren 't going to have a whole lot of believers out there . We needed to play hard first and believe second . "
= = = Championship = = =
= = = = Syracuse vs. Cornell = = = =
The final game was also held at Gillette Stadium and took place on Memorial Day , May 25 . Cornell controlled the tempo of the game for the first 56 minutes and frustrated Syracuse with a tough defense . Late in the fourth quarter , the Big Red led , 9 – 6 , before Syracuse 's Stephen Keogh and Cody Jamieson narrowed the deficit to one goal with 2 : 46 remaining . Keogh attempted another shot but missed , and Cornell took possession with 27 @.@ 6 seconds left to play . The Orange 's Kenny Nims then dislodged the ball from Matt Moyer , and Keogh recovered possession . He took a wild shot , which was caught by Syracuse 's Matt Abbott . As he was flattened by Cornell defenders , Abbott got off a pass to Nims , who had run from midfield to the very edge of the crease . Nims connected with his shot on goal to send the game into overtime . Cornell won the overtime faceoff , but Syracuse defenseman Sid Smith stripped Ryan Hurley to create a turnover . Dan Hardy feigned a shot before passing to Jamieson , positioned just beyond the crease , who scored the game @-@ winner .
= = Post @-@ tournament honors = =
After the championship , Cornell midfielder Max Seibald was honored with the Tewaaraton Trophy for the most outstanding Division I men 's lacrosse player . Syracuse attackman Kenny Nims was named the Most Outstanding Player of the tournament . The NCAA named its " All @-@ Tournament Team " following the championship game , which consisted of five players each from Syracuse and Cornell . The following individuals made up that team :
= = Record by conference = =
= The Latchkey =
The Latchkey is a 1910 American silent short comedy produced by the Thanhouser Company . The premise of the plot focuses on two businessmen who are friends Will ( or Bill in some publications ) and John . Will gives John the key to his apartment so he had stay there while Will goes on vacation . The landlady of the house leases the apartment to two ladies . John decides to go to Will 's apartment and lets himself in with the key and finds the two girls asleep . They awake and take him for a burglar and threaten to kill him and John pleads for mercy instead of addressing the misunderstanding . John is later revealed to be her employer after he is caught opening a safe in the office the next morning . The film was released on August 26 , 1910 and was met with positive reviews by the trade publications . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Bioscope from November 10 , 1910 . It states : " Will and John are prosperous young businessmen and close friends . Will has an apartment in the city , while John lives in the suburbs . When Will goes to the country on his vacation he leaves the latchkey of his apartment with his chum , telling him to make himself at home . The landlady in the house in which Will lives is seized with a bright idea that she can sublet his apartment during his absence . May and Belle , two pretty girls who are in business , decide to try their hand at housekeeping . They rent Will 's apartment and settle down in their new quarters . John decides to take advantage of his friend 's invitation and make use of his rooms . He lets himself in with the latchkey , and is amazed to find the two girls sound asleep . Believing him to be a burglar the girls threaten him with annihilation . John thinks the joke too good to spoil , so does not try to square himself , but pleads for mercy . May secures his promise that he will never ' burgle ' again , and allows him to escape . Unknown to John , May has been engaged by his partner as a typist , and when she enters the office the following morning and finds John opening the safe , she decides that once again her burglar has been caught red @-@ handed . She calls for help , and is greatly chagrined when her supposed burglar is introduced as her employer . Amid explanations , the ' burglar ' and the lady shake hands and become good friends . "
In both The Moving Picture World and The Moving Picture News the character of Will was named Bill , but it is not clear if this was intentional , a renaming or error .
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . There are no known credits for the cast , but Anna Rosemond and Frank H. Crane are two possible actors that were prominent players in 1910 . Credits may have included Anna Rosemond , one of two leading ladies of the Thanhouser company in this era . Frank H. Crane was a leading male actor of the company and also involved since the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company . Bowers states that most of the credits are fragmentary for 1910 Thanhouser productions . A surviving film still leaves open the possibility of identifying three actors .
= = Release and reception = =
The one reel comedy , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on August 26 , 1910 . The film likely saw a wide national release , advertisements in theaters are known in Indiana , North Carolina , and Pennsylvania . The New York Dramatic Mirror gave the most detailed review of the trade publications by summing up the scenario and approving of the plot and the good acting in the production . The reviewer concluded , " Not only are the leading roles well portrayed , but the minor parts are quite well done in the picture - the dismissed stenographer and the old landlady actually look and act their parts . There is a pleasing , symmetrical competence in the whole cast . " The production was reviewed positively by The Moving Picture World and concludes with the statement , " The story ends there without a suspicion of anybody falling in love with anybody else , a restraint which will be duly appreciated . " Bower 's notes that many Thanhouser plots conclude with the romance and the reviewer noted this change was a welcome one for this production . The previous film A Dainty Politician concluded with romance and the next release An Assisted Elopement took the romance element further with two sets of parents trying to get their children to marry each other .
= Moto Racer Advance =
Moto Racer Advance is a motocross racing game developed by Adeline Software International , produced by Delphine Software International and published by Ubisoft for the Game Boy Advance . It was released in PAL regions on October 4 , 2002 and in North America on December 4 , 2002 . It is part of the Moto Racer series and was the last game to be developed by Adeline Software and also the last with any involvement from Delphine Software .
Moto Racer Advance features several different modes , but much of it centers on a " Progression " mode , which requires the player to compete in races in a variety of environments . Multiplayer is supported through the link cable . Moto Racer Advance garnered positive reception from critics , noting its graphical quality and overall presentation as two of the main reasons for its success . IGN 's Craig Harris called it one of the top racing games from 2002 . As of 2009 , Moto Racer Advance has received compilation scores of 86 / 100 and 83 % on Metacritic and GameRankings respectively .
= = Gameplay = =
The player controls a motorcyclist and must try to win races on various terrain and settings . Each motorcycle in the game handles differently with some performing better on paved roads and others working better on rougher terrain .
There are a number of different modes : Grand Prix ( GP ) , Motocross , and Traffic . GP takes place at a number of different locations across the world on paved tracks in places such as San Francisco and Russia . The paved tracks require the player to learn how to effectively use their brakes around corners . The GP courses contain small differences between them , giving more variety to the courses in the game . Motocross requires the player to drive on off @-@ road terrain and to master the act of " powersliding " on corners . The courses found in Motocross races are less hospitable and often take place in arid and unkept locales and with obstacles . Traffic mixes both GP and Motocross , having mixed pavement courses and traffic on roads that serve as obstacles .
There are three different methods of gameplay : Championship , Progression , and Single Race . The single race mode must be earned through playing the progression mode . Progression is the game 's " main mode " and places the player in a number of different tournaments and races in all three racing styles . It allows the player to earn hidden content , including new bikes which handle differently . The game contains link cable support for up to four players , provided that all four people own a copy of the game .
= = History = =
Moto Racer Advance was first displayed at the 2002 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) . IGN gave the game two awards for portable games after its E3 2002 coverage : " Best Graphics " and " Best Racing Game " . IGN praised the early version of the game for its high draw distance and smooth frame rate . The game was built from the ground up to be a racing game for the Game Boy Advance and to take advantage of the hardware offered by the system . IGN previewed the game six months before it was made available for retail and called the graphics the game 's highlight , while noting that tune @-@ ups in the physics engine were needed before release . The game manipulated 2D sprites and backgrounds to give the impression of 3D to the player . By keeping the core graphics engine simple , the game was able to contain elongated draw distances and a smooth frame rate . It was released on October 4 , 2002 in PAL regions , and on December 4 , 2002 in North America . Moto Racer Advance was the last game to be developed by Adeline Software .
Moto Racer Advance garnered positive reaction from critics for its graphics and gameplay ; it received 86 / 100 and 83 % ratings on review aggregate websites Metacritic and GameRankings , respectively . IGN 's Craig Harris praised the smooth graphics engine of the game , noting that the designers had succeeded in creating a satisfying racing game for the Game Boy Advance . He called it one of the top racing games from 2002 . The Sydney Morning Herald 's Dan Toose praised the game 's " smooth , minimalist graphics " , while GameSpy 's Steve Steinberg noted that the physics of the game felt " dead @-@ on " and enjoyed the overall presentation of the game . GamePro 's Vicious Sid was surprised by the game 's long draw distance , calling it a technical feat on the Game Boy Advance . The sound design from the game received a mixed response from critics . GameZone 's Code Cowboy stated that the Motocross bikes sounded " like gravel in a blender-- being chopped up " . IGN noted otherwise , saying that the sound stayed to the background and was mostly pleasant , while The Sydney Morning Herald praised the realistic sound the bikes created . The game received Editors ' Choice Awards from GameSpy , GamePro , and IGN .
= Tina Turner =
Tina Turner ( born November 26 , 1939 ) , née Anna Mae Bullock , is a singer , dancer , actress and author , whose career has spanned more than half a century , earning her widespread recognition and numerous awards . Born and raised in the Southeastern United States , she is now a Swiss citizen .
She began her musical career in the mid @-@ 1950s as a featured singer with Ike Turner 's Kings of Rhythm , first recording in 1958 under the name " Little Ann . " Her introduction to the public as Tina Turner began in 1960 as a member of the Ike & Tina Turner Revue . Success followed with a string of notable hits credited to the duo , including " A Fool in Love " , " River Deep – Mountain High " ( 1966 ) , " Proud Mary " ( 1971 ) and " Nutbush City Limits " ( 1973 ) , a song which she herself wrote . In her autobiography , I , Tina , she revealed several instances of severe domestic abuse against her by Ike Trevor Turner prior to their 1976 split and subsequent 1978 divorce . Raised as a Baptist , she encountered faith with Nichiren Shoshu Buddhism in 1971 , crediting the spiritual chant of Nam Myoho Renge Kyo , which Turner claims helped her to endure during difficult times .
After her divorce from Ike Turner , she rebuilt her career through live performances . In the early 1980s , she launched a major comeback with another string of hits , starting in 1983 with the single " Let 's Stay Together " followed by the 1984 release of her fifth solo album Private Dancer which became a worldwide success . " What 's Love Got to Do with It " , the lead single won three Grammy Awards including Record of the Year . Her solo success continued with the multi platinum albums Break Every Rule and Foreign Affair and with singles such as " We Don 't Need Another Hero ( Thunderdome ) " , " The Best " and " GoldenEye " for the James Bond film of the same name . " What 's Love Got to Do with It " was later used as the title of a loosely based biographical film adapted from her autobiography . In addition to her musical career , Turner has also experienced success in films , including the role of Acid Queen in the 1975 rock musical Tommy , a starring role alongside Mel Gibson in the 1985 action film Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome , and a cameo role in the 1993 film Last Action Hero .
One of the world 's best @-@ selling music artists of all time , she has also been referred to as The Queen of Rock ' n ' Roll . Turner has been termed the most successful female Rock ' n ' Roll artist , receiving eleven Grammy Awards , including eight competitive awards and three Grammy Hall of Fame awards . Turner has also sold more concert tickets than any other solo performer in history . Her combined album and single sales total approximately 100 million copies worldwide , making her one of the biggest selling females in music history . She is noted for her energetic stage presence , powerful vocals , and career longevity . In 2008 , Turner returned from semi @-@ retirement to embark on her Tina ! : 50th Anniversary Tour . Turner 's tour became one of the highest selling ticketed shows of 2008 – 09 . Rolling Stone ranked her no . 63 on their 100 greatest artists of all time . In 1991 , she was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame .
= = Early life = =
Turner was born Anna Mae Bullock on November 26 , 1939 , in Nutbush , an unincorporated area in Haywood County , Tennessee . Her parents were Zelma Priscilla ( née Currie ) and Floyd Richard Bullock . Anna Mae was born at Poindexter Farm on Highway 180 , where her father worked as an overseer of the sharecroppers . She is of African @-@ American descent , with approximately 33 % European and 1 % Native American ancestry . ( The latter was revealed when she appeared on the PBS documentary African American Lives 2 , and the host Henry Louis Gates shared the results of Turner 's ancestral tests . )
Anna Mae had an older sister , Ruby Aillene . As young children , Anna Mae and Aillene were separated when their parents relocated to Knoxville , Tennessee , to work at a defense facility during World War II . Anna went to stay with her strict , religious paternal grandparents , Alex and Roxanna Bullock , who were deacon and deaconess at the Woodlawn Missionary Baptist Church , which was located on Woodlawn Road off Highway 19 . After the war , the sisters reunited with their parents and moved with them to Knoxville . Two years later , the family returned to Nutbush to live in the Flagg Grove community , where Anna attended Flagg Grove Elementary School from first through eighth grade . In 1889 , her great @-@ great uncle had sold the land on which the school was built to the school trustees .
As a youngster , Anna Mae sang in the church choir at Nutbush 's Spring Hill Baptist Church . When she was 11 , her mother ran off without warning , seeking freedom from her abusive relationship with Floyd Bullock . Zelma relocated to St. Louis to live with Anna Mae 's great @-@ aunt . As a preteen , Anna Mae worked as a domestic worker for the Henderson family . When Anna Mae was 13 , her father married another woman and moved to Detroit . Anna Mae and her sister were sent to live with their grandmother Georgeanna in Brownsville , Tennessee . Anna Mae later stated in her memoir I , Tina that she felt her mother had not loved her , and that she " wasn 't wanted " , stating further that her mother had planned to leave her father when pregnant with Anna Mae . " She was a very young woman who didn 't want another kid " , Anna Mae wrote . Her relationship with her mother remained estranged until Bullock 's death in 1999 .
A self @-@ professed tomboy , Anna Mae joined both the cheerleading squad and the female basketball team at Carver High School in Brownsville , and " socialized every chance she got . " Her first boyfriend , while she was living in Brownsville , was Harry Taylor , who originally attended a rival school to hers . Taylor relocated to Anna 's school to be near her . The relationship ended after Anna Mae learned Harry had married another woman .
When Anna Mae was 16 , her grandmother died suddenly . After the funeral , Anna Mae went to live with her mother in St. Louis , where she was reunited with her sister . There , Anna Mae graduated from Sumner High School in 1958 . After her graduation , she worked as a nurse 's aide at Barnes @-@ Jewish Hospital and dreamed of becoming a nurse .
= = Ike & Tina Turner = =
= = = Origins = = =
Anna and her sister began to frequent nightclubs in the St. Louis and East St. Louis areas around this time . At Club Manhattan , a nightclub in the East St. Louis area , she first saw Ike Turner and his band , the Kings of Rhythm , perform . Anna was impressed by the band 's music and of Ike 's talent , claiming the bandleader 's music put her " into a trance . " Anna felt the urge to sing on stage with Ike 's band despite the fact that few women had ever sung with him . One night , 18 @-@ year @-@ old Anna was given a microphone by Kings of Rhythm drummer Gene Washington during an intermission . Upon hearing her sing , Ike asked her if she knew more songs , she was allowed to sing that night , becoming a guest vocalist from then on . Through this period , Ike taught her the points of voice control and performance . Her first studio recording was in 1958 , singing background , under the name " Little Ann " , on the Ike Turner song , " Box Top " , alongside singer Carlson Oliver .
In 1960 , Ike wrote an R & B song , " A Fool in Love " , originally for Kings of Rhythm vocalist Art Lassiter . Lassiter failed to show up to the recording studio and Anna eventually was allowed to sing the song after much pleading to Ike . Ike agreed to use her voice as a " dummy vocal " , with the intention of erasing her vocals and adding Lassiter 's at a later date . Although some felt that the demo with Anna 's voice was " high pitched " and " screechy " , the song received decent airtime in St. Louis . Local St. Louis deejay Dave Dixon convinced Ike to send the tape to Juggy Murray , president of R & B label , Sue Records . Upon hearing the song , Murray was impressed with Anna 's vocals , later stating that her vocals " sounded like screaming dirt ... it was a funky sound . " Murray bought the track and paid Ike a $ 25 @,@ 000 advance for recording and publishing rights . Murray also convinced Turner to make Anna " the star of the show . " It was at this point that Ike Turner renamed Anna Mae Bullock " Tina " , because the name rhymed with the television character Sheena . It has also been said that the renaming of Anna Mae Bullock was intended to keep her from running off and making a name for herself . Ike Turner felt that , if Anna Mae Bullock left him , he could replace her with another singer and have her perform as Tina .
= = = Early success = = =
" A Fool in Love " was released in July 1960 and became an immediate hit , peaking at number 2 on the Hot R & B Sides chart and number 27 on the Billboard Hot 100 that October . Kurt Loder described the track as " the blackest record to ever creep into the white pop charts since Ray Charles ' gospel @-@ styled ' What 'd I Say ' that previous summer . " A second pop hit , " It 's Gonna Work Out Fine " ( 1961 ) , reached the top 20 and earned the duo a Grammy Award nomination for Best Rock and Roll Performance . Notable singles released during the duo 's Sue Records period included the R & B hits , " I Idolize You " , " Poor Fool " and " Tra @-@ La @-@ La @-@ La . " In 1964 , Ike & Tina left Sue and signed with Kent Records , releasing the modest single , " I Can 't Believe What You Say . " The following year , they signed with Loma Records , a subsidiary of Warner Bros. Records and run by Bob Krasnow , who had become their manager shortly after they left Sue Records . Between 1964 and 1969 , Ike & Tina signed with more than ten labels .
The duo maintained a popularity through a rigorous touring schedule across the United States , gigging 90 days straight in dates around the country . During the days of the chitlin ' circuit , the Ike and Tina Turner Revue built a reputation that a writer for the History of Rock site cited as " one of the most hottest , most durable and potentially most explosive of all R & B ensembles " with its show rivaling that of the James Brown Show in terms of musical spectacle . The shows , organized by Ike Turner , provided them financial success . Due to their successful performances , the couple were able to perform in front of diverse crowds in the American South due to the money they made from performing in Southern clubs . Between 1963 and 1966 , the band toured constantly without the presence of a hit single . Tina 's own profile was raised after several solo appearances on shows such as American Bandstand and Shindig ! , while the entire Revue appeared on shows such as Hollywood A Go @-@ Go , The Andy Williams Show and , in late 1965 , in the concert film The Big T.N.T. Show .
= = = Mainstream success = = =
In 1965 , Phil Spector caught an Ike & Tina performance in Los Angeles and sought to work with Tina . Working out a deal , Spector gave Ike a $ 20 @,@ 000 advance to keep out of the studio to which Ike agreed . With Spector , Tina produced the song " River Deep - Mountain High " , which was released in 1966 on Spector 's Philles label . Spector considered that record , with Tina 's maximum energy over a symphonic sound , to be his best work . It was successful overseas , particularly in the United Kingdom , where it eventually reached number 3 on the singles chart , but it failed to go any higher than # 88 in the United States . Crushed , Spector never signed another act to Philles and seldom produced again . But the impact of the record gave Ike and Tina an opening spot for The Rolling Stones ' UK tour later that fall , which the Revue later extended by performing all over Europe and Australia . Signing with Blue Thumb Records in 1968 , the Revue issued the blues @-@ heavy albums , Outta Season and The Hunter . Outta Season produced the Revue 's charted cover of Otis Redding 's " I 've Been Loving You Too Long " , while the latter earned Tina a Grammy nomination for Best Female R & B Vocal Performance for her rendition of the title track , originally recorded by Albert King . The success of the albums led to the Revue headlining at Las Vegas where their shows were attended by a variety of celebrities including David Bowie , Sly Stone , Janis Joplin , Cher , James Brown , Ray Charles , Elton John and Elvis Presley .
In 1969 , the Revue 's profile in their home country was raised after opening for the Rolling Stones on their US tour . In 1970 , they performed on The Ed Sullivan Show . The tour 's success resulted in the Revue signing with Liberty Records , where they released two albums , Come Together and Workin ' Together , released in 1970 and 1971 respectively . Come Together produced the duo 's first top 40 single with their cover of Sly and the Family Stone 's " I Want to Take You Higher . " Come Together marked a turning point in their careers in which they switched from their usual R & B repertoire to incorporate more rock tunes . In early 1971 , their cover of Creedence Clearwater Revival 's " Proud Mary " became their biggest hit , reaching number 4 on the Hot 100 and selling over a million copies , winning them a Grammy for Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group . Later in 1971 , their live album , What You Hear Is What You Get , taken from a performance at Carnegie Hall , was their first to be certified gold . In 1972 , Ike Turner created the studio , Bolic Sounds , near their home in Inglewood . After Liberty was bought by United Artists Records , the duo was assigned to that label , releasing ten albums in a three @-@ year period . The duo 's final major hit single , " Nutbush City Limits " , was released in 1973 , reaching number 22 on the Hot 100 , and peaking at number 4 in the UK . In 1974 , Tina released her first solo album , Tina Turns the Country On ! , winning a Grammy nomination .
That year , Tina traveled to London to participate in the filming of the rock musical , Tommy , in which she played The Acid Queen , A drug addicted prostitute who tries to heal Tommy with illegal drugs and sang the song of the same name . Turner 's performance was critically acclaimed . Shortly after filming wrapped , Turner appeared with Ann @-@ Margret on her TV special in London . Returning to the United States , Turner continued her career with the Revue . Following the release of Tommy , another Turner solo album , Acid Queen , was released in 1975 .
= = = Decline of the duo = = =
By the mid @-@ 1970s , Ike Turner 's excessive cocaine habit had gotten out of hand . During this period , Tina adopted the Nichiren Buddhism faith and chanting Nam Myoho Renge Kyo to help her deal through a stressful marriage and career . Due to Ike Turner 's drug abuse , some shows were either canceled or postponed . In July 1976 , Ike Turner had plans to leave United Artists Records for a five @-@ year , $ 150 @,@ 000 deal with Cream Records . The deal was to be signed on July 6 . On July 2 , 1976 , Ike and Tina were en route from Los Angeles to Dallas where the Revue had a gig at the Dallas Statler Hilton . The couple engaged in a bloody fight during their ride to the hotel . Shortly after arriving to the hotel , Tina fled from the hotel and later hid at a friend 's house . On July 27 , Tina sued for divorce in the grounds of irreconcilable differences .
Tina later credited the Nichiren Buddhist faith and chanting Nam Myoho Renge Kyo with giving her the courage to strike out on her own . However , by walking out on Ike in the middle of a tour , she learned she was legally responsible to tour promoters for the canceled shows . After a year in court , their divorce was made final on March 29 , 1978 . In the divorce , she completely parted ways with him , retaining only her stage name and assuming responsibility for the debts incurred by the canceled tour as well as a significant Internal Revenue Service lien .
= = First solo performances = =
In 1977 , with finances given to her by United Artists executive Richard Stewart , Tina returned onstage , giving a round of shows in Las Vegas in a cabaret setting , influenced by the cabaret shows she witnessed while a member of the Ike & Tina Turner Revue . She took her cabaret act to smaller venues in the United States . Turner earned further income by appearing on shows such as The Hollywood Squares , Donny and Marie , The Sonny & Cher Show and The Brady Bunch Hour . Later in 1977 , Turner headlined her first solo concert tour , throughout Australia . In 1978 , United Artists released Turner 's third solo album , Rough , with distribution both in North America and Europe with EMI . That album , along with its followup , Love Explosion , which included a brief diversion to disco rhythms , failed to chart .
The albums completed her United Artists / EMI contracts and Turner left the labels . Continuing her performing career with her second headlining tour , Wild Lady of Rock ' n ' Roll , she continued to be a successful live act even without the premise of a hit record . Following an appearance on Olivia Newton @-@ John 's US TV special , Hollywood Nights , in 1979 , Turner sought contract with Newton @-@ John 's manager Roger Davies . Davies agreed to work with Turner as her manager after seeing her perform at the Venetian Ballroom in the Fairmont San Francisco hotel in February 1980 .
Davies advised Turner to drop her band and remodel her show into a grittier rock 'n'roll showcase . In 1981 , Davies booked Tina at The Ritz in New York City . Following the performance , Rod Stewart hired Turner to perform a duet version of his hit , " Hot Legs " , on Saturday Night Live , and later hired Turner to open for him on his U.S. tour . One show with Rod Stewart and Kim Carnes , on 19 December 1981 , at the L. A. Forum , Inglewood , was filmed . Afterwards , Turner opened three shows for The Rolling Stones . A recorded cover of The Temptations ' " Ball of Confusion " for the UK production team B.E.F. featuring Robert Cray , became a hit in European dance clubs in 1982 . Following performances with Chuck Berry and several short tours in the U.S. and Europe , Turner again performed at the Ritz in December of the year , which resulted in a singles deal with Capitol Records under the insistence of David Bowie .
= = Mainstream success = =
In November 1983 , Tina released her cover of Al Green 's " Let 's Stay Together " , with Capitol . The record became a hit , reaching several European charts , including a top 10 placement in the United Kingdom . The song peaked at number 26 on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Turner 's first solo entry into the U.S. charts . It also peaked at the top 10 of the Hot Dance Club Songs and Hot Black Singles charts . The success of the song forced Capitol to rethink its contract with Turner , offering the singer a three album deal , demanding an album on short notice , which had Turner staging what Ebony magazine later called an " amazing comeback . " Recorded in two months in London , the album , Private Dancer , was released in June 1984 . That same month , Capitol issued the album 's second single , " What 's Love Got to Do with It . " It reached the top 10 within a month and in September had reached number 1 on the Hot 100 in the U.S. Featuring hit singles such as " Better Be Good to Me " and " Private Dancer " , the album peaked at number 3 on the Billboard 200 , selling five million copies alone in the states and selling over twenty million copies worldwide , making it her most successful album . Turner 's comeback culminated in early 1985 when she won four Grammy Awards , including Record of the Year for " What 's Love Got to Do with It . " In February of that year , she embarked on her second world tour supporting the Private Dancer album , where she toured to huge crowds . One show , filmed at Birmingham , England 's NEC Arena , was later released on home video . During this time , she also contributed on vocals to the USA for Africa benefit song " We Are the World . "
Turner 's success continued when she travelled to Australia to star opposite Mel Gibson in the 1985 post @-@ apocalyptic film Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome . The movie provided her with her first acting role in ten years — she portrayed the glamorous Aunty Entity , the ruler of Bartertown . Upon release , critical response to her performance was generally positive , and the film became a global success , making more than $ 36 million in the United States alone . Turner later received the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress for her role in the film . She also recorded two songs for the film , " We Don 't Need Another Hero ( Thunderdome ) " and " One of the Living " ; both became hits , with the latter winning Turner a Grammy Award for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance . In July , Turner performed at Live Aid alongside Mick Jagger . Encouraged by a performance together during Tina 's filmed solo concert in England , singer Bryan Adams released their duet single together , " It 's Only Love " , later resulting in a Grammy nomination for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal .
= = = Subsequent releases = = =
Turner followed up Private Dancer with Break Every Rule in 1986 . Featuring " Typical Male " , " Two People " and " What You Get Is What You See " , the album sold over four million copies worldwide . Prior to the album 's release , Turner published her memoirs , I , Tina , which later became a bestseller , and received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . Turner 's European Break Every Rule Tour , which culminated in March 1988 in Munich , Germany , contributed to record breaking sales and concert attendances . In January 1988 , Turner made history alongside Paul McCartney when she performed in front of the largest paying audience ( approximately 184 @,@ 000 ) to see a solo performer in Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , earning her a Guinness World Record . The success of Turner 's two live tours led to the recording of Tina Live in Europe which was released that April . Turner lay low following the end of her Break Every Rule Tour , emerging once again with Foreign Affair which included one of Turner 's signature songs , " The Best . " She later embarked on a European tour to promote the album . While Foreign Affair went gold in the United States , with its singles " The Best " and " Steamy Windows " becoming Top 40 hits there . It was hugely successful in Europe , where Turner had personally relocated .
In 1991 , Ike & Tina Turner were inducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . Phil Spector later accepted on their behalf . That same year , the ex @-@ couple signed away their rights to have their lives dramatized in the semi @-@ autobiographical film What 's Love Got to Do with It , later released in 1993 and starring Angela Bassett as Tina and Laurence Fishburne as Ike , with the actors receiving Best Actress and Best Actor Academy Award nominations for their portrayals of the former husband @-@ and @-@ wife team . Turner contributed to the soundtrack for What 's Love Got to Do with It , re @-@ recording songs from her Revue days and recording several newer songs , including what turned out to be her last Top
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. If a character dies , players can use Garcian Smith to retrieve the fallen character 's head and bring them back to life ; if Garcian dies , then the game ends .
Defeated Smiles yield " thick blood " and " thin blood " . Thick blood functions similarly to experience points , and players gain more by shooting Smiles ' critical points . The player may redeem thick blood for " serum " while in " Harman 's Room " , checkpoints that appear throughout the game . Serum is used to improve the attributes of the characters such as " power " and " speed " . This also unlocks special abilities for the characters . Players may save their game to a memory card in designated Harman 's Rooms . Thin blood is used to recover the characters ' stamina and fuel special abilities .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Killer7 takes place in an alternate version of Earth in the early 21st century . After a treaty ends all international conflict , the world powers destroy all nuclear weapons by firing them into the upper atmosphere and intercepting them with other missiles . This event becomes known as " Fireworks " and symbolizes world peace to the general populace . In an effort to combat terrorism , pandemic disease , and cyberterrorism , the International Ethics Committee ( IEC ) shuts down all air travel and public use of the Internet . Air transportation is replaced by a system of intercontinental expressways . However , a new terrorist group called " Heaven Smile " appears , targeting the United Nations ( UN ) and IEC . The members of Heaven Smile are humans who have been infected with a virus that evokes a desire to kill . Factory @-@ produced Smiles are given a " bomb @-@ organ " that allows them to explode at will , their principal means of attack .
In this Earth , Japanese politics are dominated by two parties : the UN Party and the Liberal Party . The UN Party is more powerful and moves to end the Asian Security Treaty and sever ties with the United States ( US ) . The UN Party seized control of the Japanese government through the wisdom of the " Yakumo Cabinet Policy " , a secret document which details how to run the " ideal nation " . It was written by the Union 7 , young members of the Liberal Party who went on to found the UN Party . The US government is also eager to sever relations with Japan , seeing the country as a hindrance and of little economic value . The interaction between Japan and the US is a central source of conflict in Killer7 .
= = = Characters = = =
The player controls the members of a group of assassins called the " killer7 " . The group is led by an elderly man in a wheelchair named Harman Smith , who exhibits " Multifoliate Personae Phenomenon " . This condition allows him to physically transform into one of his seven assassin personae : African American Garcian Smith , aggressive Irish American Dan Smith , barefoot Japanese American female KAEDE Smith , albino Briton Kevin Smith , Puerto Rican Coyote Smith , young Chinese American Con Smith , and Mexican American luchador MASK de Smith . These people were gifted killers in life and Harman absorbed their souls through his condition after their deaths . The killer7 were temporarily incapacitated in an incident 50 years ago , in which the members of the group were systematically tracked and killed while performing a job at the Union Hotel in Pennsylvania . Garcian , whose power is to revive fallen personae , became the dominant personality as a result . In this capacity , he receives orders from the frail Harman when his consciousness is " awake " and accepts jobs from Christopher Mills , who hires the killer7 on behalf of the US government . Multifoliate Personae Phenomenon also causes Harman and his personae to see " remnant psyches " — ghosts of their past victims . Iwazaru , a man in a bondage suit , and Travis Bell , the killer7 's first target , are the main remnant psyches who aid them throughout the game . The primary antagonist is an old friend of Harman 's named Kun Lan . He has the " Hand of God " , a supernatural power that produces the Heaven Smile virus .
= = = Story = = =
The game opens with a conversation between Garcian Smith and Christopher Mills about a new job for the killer7 . The assassins battle their way to the top of a building which has become infested with Heaven Smiles . Harman confronts the source of the Smiles , an angel @-@ like figure , but she is merely Kun Lan 's puppet . Harman and Kun Lan discuss the current state of the world before the mission ends . In the subsequent missions , the killer7 target a number of individuals on behalf of the US government or for personal reasons . They kill Andrei Ulmeyda , a Texan postal worker who established a successful company based on the Yakumo , when he becomes infected with the Heaven Smile virus . Dan Smith confronts Curtis Blackburn , his former mentor and murderer , when Mills informs the group that Blackburn is running an organ trafficking business that targets young girls . Their penultimate mission pits them against the " Handsome Men " , a group of sentai rangers who assassinate a US politician .
The central plot arc concerns the true nature of US – Japan relations . To distance itself from Japan , the US fires a volley of two hundred intercontinental ballistic missiles at Japan and contracts the killer7 to eliminate Toru Fukushima , the head of the UN Party . However , an assassin posing as Fukushima 's secretary kills him first in an attempt to reclaim the Yakumo document for the Liberal Party , believing its wisdom would help the party to regain political power . Shortly thereafter , Kenjiro Matsuoka ( nicknamed " Matsuken " ) kills two senior members of the UN Party to become its new leader , under the influence of Kun Lan . In the end , the killer7 defeat the two UN Party members who had been reanimated by Kun Lan as Japan is destroyed by the missiles .
In their final mission , the killer7 seek Matsuken , who leads the 10 million UN Party members who live in the US . The government fears that if they converge on a single state , they could win a seat in the United States Senate . Garcian travels to Coburn Elementary School near Seattle , Washington and discovers tapes that reveal the school as a front for the UN Party to train children as assassins . The tapes focus on Emir Parkreiner , a gifted killer trained at the school . Garcian encounters Matsuken , who claims that Japan has used Coburn to control the course of US politics since its founding in 1780 . The assassins battle a group of invincible Smiles and all but Garcian are incapacitated . Garcian travels to the Union Hotel where he witnesses visions of the other members being killed in their rooms . At the top , he discovers that his true identity is Emir Parkreiner , the one who killed the killer7 at the Union Hotel over 50 years ago . Following that incident , Harman absorbed Emir as a persona and Emir 's memories were lost .
Three years later , Garcian arrives at Battleship Island in Japan to destroy the last Heaven Smile . He meets with Matsuken , who presents Garcian with a choice : let him live , which allows Japan to mount an assault on the US ; or kill him , which lets the US discover Japan 's role in rigging American elections — US forces destroy Japan 's last stronghold , Battleship Island , in retaliation and wipe Japan off the map . Regardless of the player 's choice , Garcian finds that the last Heaven Smile is Iwazaru , whose real identity is Kun Lan , and kills him . However , Harman and Kun Lan are revealed to be immortal beings , representing a dialectic struggle between opposites , which persists a century in the future in Shanghai as they continue their eternal battle .
= = Development = =
Development for Killer7 began in mid @-@ 2002 as part of the Capcom Five , a set of games overseen by Shinji Mikami and intended to be exclusive to the Nintendo GameCube . Capcom produced the games to bring new intellectual property to the video game industry , which the company viewed as stagnant . Killer7 's gameplay mechanics were finalized late in development because most resources went to story and visual work . Director Suda51 wrote the scenario based on a plot he conceived together with Mikami , and later decided on the unconventional control scheme as a deconstruction of how gamers play and to " create new expression " . Complex controls and combos were omitted to present a system that fosters easy progression for the player . Producer Hiroyuki Kobayashi described the controls as " intuitive " and stated that the team wanted players to " think when they are playing " so they can enjoy the mystery in the story . The long development process culminated in several delays , the last of which was due to an artistic desire to release the game on July 7 ( 7 / 7 ) .
Suda51 drew influence from film noir , particularly the theme of multiple personality disorder , and called Killer7 a " hardboiled action @-@ adventure " . Hiro Sugiyama , Peter Saville , and American comic book artists , such as Adrian Tomine , inspired the artistic design and aesthetic . Suda51 noted the inclusion of cel animation in Western and Japanese anime styles was meant to legitimize video games as an art form by competing with traditional art forms in their stage . Kobayashi commented that Killer7 is " styled more as an interactive story than a traditional game . " Suda also drew from yakuza film Battles Without Honor and Humanity : Hiroshima Deathmatch . His experience as an undertaker had a powerful effect on the portrayal of death in his games . The game reflects his interest in professional wrestling ; Suda51 included a luchador character , MASK de Smith , and conducted interviews and attended promotional events while wearing a lucha libre mask . Reflecting on his work , Suda51 considers Killer7 his proudest achievement .
= = Reception = =
Killer7 received divisive reviews and sparked debates about depictions of sex and violence in video games and the status of video games as art . James Mielke of 1UP.com likened the game 's high @-@ contrast art style to noir and neo @-@ noir film such as Se7en . He found that despite poor pacing and stilted gameplay , the " quirky scripting and edgy plot " were strong draws , and called Killer7 one of " most artfully designed footnotes in gaming history " . Edge magazine 's reviewers echoed this sentiment and predicted that the game would " [ pave the way ] for future creative leeway " , crediting the director with an unwavering artistic vision . Eurogamer 's Kristan Reed was keenly aware of the game 's limited appeal , calling it " a concept game , an arthouse game , a simple game , an often beautiful game , but most certainly never an everyman 's game " . Yahtzee Croshaw of The Escapist commends the game for " showing exactly what can be done when you flaunt all established convention and just start exploring what can really be done with gaming as an art form " .
Virtually all aspects of the game had their proponents and detractors . Greg Kasavin of GameSpot praised the unity of " great @-@ looking camera work with simple controls " and compared its " thought @-@ provoking " storyline to Metal Gear Solid , while a GamePro reviewer criticized those features , calling the controls limited , the cel @-@ shading dull , and the story incoherent . Kasavin complimented the game 's eclectic soundtrack , excellent voice acting , and distinctive sound effects , while the GamePro reviewer panned them as minimalist and irritating . IGN 's Matt Casamassina likened the control scheme to " old @-@ school adventure games like Myst and Snatcher " and commended Suda51 for making a " cult hit " , " erupting with style , mood and undiluted craziness " . Casamassina was also impressed by the quality of the anime @-@ style cutscenes featured in the latter half of the game .
The IGN , GameSpot , and GameSpy reviews noted the GameCube version features superior graphics , substantially faster loading times , and more responsive controls than the PlayStation 2 version , resulting in lower scores for the latter . Nevertheless , IGN called it the 94th best PlayStation 2 game . Nintendo Power claimed that Killer7 is a " highly rewarding " experience for dedicated gamers . Nintendo World Report writer Karl Castaneda also remarked that , despite repetitive gameplay , it was " still fun " . Charles Herold of The New York Times was less forgiving and commented that the lack of new features beyond the first hour made the remaining experience boring and annoying .
Despite its mixed reception , a number of video game publications recognized Killer7 's unconventional gameplay and innovative style . At GameSpot 's " Best and Worst of 2005 " awards , the game was nominated for Best Story , Best GameCube Game , Most Outrageous Game , Most Gratuitous Use of F------ Swearing , and won Best New Character ( Harman Smith ) and Most Innovative Game . IGN GameCube similarly nominated it for Game of the Year , Most Innovative Design , and Best Artistic Design and awarded it Best Adventure Game , Best Story , and Best Game No One Played . IGN later named Killer7 the 20th best GameCube game of all time . The game had a large presence at the 2005 Nintendo Power Awards , winning Best New Character ( Harman Smith ) .
In August 2005 , Jack Thompson , an activist who campaigns against video games , demanded that the Entertainment Software Rating Board ( ESRB ) change its rating for Killer7 from " M " ( for Mature , ages 17 and up ) to " AO " ( for Adults Only , ages 18 and up ) . He cited Casamassina 's review of the game at IGN , claiming that " full @-@ blown sex sequences " present in the game would be harmful to minors . Casamassina rebutted that the scene in question involved two fully clothed adults and that a similar scene in a film would garner " only a PG @-@ 13 or , worst , R @-@ rating " .
= = Legacy and related media = =
Reviewers quickly identified Killer7 as a cult game with limited appeal . IGN lamented that its experimental style was not conducive to high sales , naming it GameCube 's Best Game No One Played in their 2005 awards . IGN 's Casamassina later placed it fourth in his Top 10 Tuesday : Underrated and Underappreciated Games feature . Despite modest sales , Killer7 's cult success prompted the development of remakes of Suda51 's older Japan @-@ only games , The Silver Case and Flower , Sun , and Rain . In 2007 , Grasshopper Manufacture released Suda51 's No More Heroes to critical and commercial success . In addition to an original soundtrack and comic book adaptation , Capcom published Hand in killer7 , a companion book that explains the plot in more depth . Kinetic Underground , the company that handled the comic book , also released a number of figurines depicting characters from the game .
= = = Music = = =
Killer7 Original Sound Track was released on June 20 , 2005 by Sony Music Entertainment . It features 55 compositions by Masafumi Takada and 6 by Jun Fukuda across two discs . Takada put a large emphasis on ambient music due to the genre 's ability to draw in the player . He called his soundtrack a " translation of the text " of the game and sought to retell the story through music . Carolyn Gudmundson of GamesRadar praised the soundtrack 's varied style , a " moody , atmosphereric base punctuated with spikes of manic energy " . She singled out " Rave On " , a track heard before mini @-@ boss battles , as an excellent example of the latter . GameSpy 's Phil Theobald had similar compliments for " Rave On " and other more subdued pieces that slowly " work [ their ] way into your mind " .
Tracklist
= = = Comic book = = =
In 2006 , Devil 's Due Publishing released a comic book adaptation of Killer7 , written and drawn by Kinetic Underground staff . The planned 12 @-@ issue limited series was cancelled after four issues . Players who preordered Killer7 through EB Games received a special " Issue # 0 " as a bonus , and " Issue # ½ " was available at the 2005 San Diego Comic @-@ Con. Writer Arvid Nelson described the story as a " mutant cross @-@ breeding of John Woo and Quentin Tarantino " , and Devil 's Due President Josh Blaylock commented that Killer7 's style was perfect for the comic book medium . In adapting the game , Nelson admitted that the plot was streamlined to maintain a comprehensible story , but noted that the " video game doesn 't spoon @-@ feed you information ... That 's how the comic 's going to be , too " .
= Cold Comfort ( Inside No. 9 ) =
" Cold Comfort " is the fourth episode of the second series of the British dark comedy anthology television programme Inside No. 9 . The episode , which was written and directed by Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith , was first broadcast on 16 April 2015 on BBC Two . Most of " Cold Comfort " is composed of a stream from a fixed camera on the desk of Andy , the protagonist , with smaller pictures on the side of the screen , in the style of a CCTV feed . " Cold Comfort " was filmed over two and a half days in Twickenham , and was , like " A Quiet Night In " from Inside No. 9 's first series , highly experimental . It was Pemberton and Shearsmith 's directorial debut .
The episode starred Pemberton , Shearsmith , Jane Horrocks , Nikki Amuka @-@ Bird and Tony Way as volunteers at Crisis Support Line , a crisis hotline . The story follows Andy ( Pemberton ) , who is starting at the call centre . After taking a particularly disturbing call from Chloe , a suicidal teenage girl , Andy begins to struggle , but he is offered support by his supervisor George ( Shearsmith ) , the gossipy Liz ( Horrocks ) and the officious Joanne ( Amuka @-@ Bird ) . Andy is later joined by Michael ( Way ) . Vilma Hollingbery , Vicky Hall and members of the comedy group Gein 's Family Giftshop ( Edward Easton , Kath Hughes and James Meehan ) voiced various callers , with the Gein 's Family Giftshop comedians also appearing as on @-@ screen extras , playing unnamed call centre volunteers .
The television critics Andrew Billen and David Chater ( both writing for The Times ) and John Robinson ( writing for The Guardian ) characterised " Cold Comfort " as somewhat weaker than other episodes of the series , but other critics , including Patrick Mulkern ( writing for Radio Times ) , the comedy critic Bruce Dessau and writers for The Sunday Times were complimentary . Commentators praised the format , the writing and the performances , especially Horrocks 's , but offered differing views about the episode 's conclusion , plot and atmosphere .
= = Production = =
The second series of Inside No. 9 written in 2014 , and then filmed from the end of 2014 into early 2015 . The idea for " Cold Comfort " began with the call centre , with Pemberton having kept a newspaper article on the subject from 2005 as a potential inspiration . Once the writers had the idea for the setting , they allowed the story to grow out of this . The pair visited a large number of locations — including a number of colleges — before settling on the one used , which was in Twickenham , rejecting many because they did not look enough like offices . They had three days at the location , but completed filming in two and a half .
= = = Casting = = =
" Cold Comfort " stars Pemberton as Andy , a new volunteer , and Shearsmith as George , Andy 's supervisor . According to Shearsmith , he and Pemberton do not typically write Inside No. 9 scripts with particular actors in mind for roles , and nor do they typically write roles specifically for themselves . They were unsure , for a long time , on which characters they should take , initially considering having Shearsmith play Andy and Pemberton play George . Shearsmith said that this felt like the more " obvious " option , but the characters were switched as they " thought it would be slightly more unusual " to have it that way around .
As each episode of Inside No. 9 features new characters , the writers were able to attract actors who might have been unwilling to commit to an entire series . Jane Horrocks , Nikki Amuka @-@ Bird and Tony Way star respectively as Liz , Joanne and Michael , other volunteers at the call centre . The characters of Liz and Joanne have strongly differing approaches to their roles as volunteers , with Joanne focussing on detachment and Liz on involvement . Both approaches , for Pemberton , have advantages and disadvantages . Jane 's desk is adorned with various trinkets , including ornaments and pictures . These were Horrocks 's idea , and , for Pemberton and Shearsmith , served to make viewers suspicious of her from the start . Horrocks was chosen because she would be able to add humour while still keeping to the tight timings necessary for the episode ; many of her lines were improvised . The character of Michael begins to work at the centre during the episode . Pemberton and Shearsmith considered having it mentioned that he had been sent by " Pauline from Wood Green " , a reference to the stage version of The League of Gentlemen 's Pauline , who had been based at Wood Green . However , this was not included in the final episode .
Edward Easton , Vilma Hollingbery , Kath Hughes , James Meehan and Vicky Hall provide the voices of various people who call in to the centre . Some of the voice actors were drawn from the comedy group Gein 's Family Giftshop , the performing members of which are Hughes , Easton and Meehan . After watching a Gein 's Family Giftshop performance , Pemberton and Shearsmith had invited the members to star in Inside No. 9 . The comedians then suggested that they also appear on @-@ screen as extras , playing unnamed call centre volunteers . Hollingberry , who voiced " Ivy " , an old woman caller , had previously starred in Pemberton and Shearsmith 's Psychoville as Mrs Wren / Mrs Ladybirdface . She was one of the few actors whom Pemberton and Shearsmith used in both series .
= = = Direction = = =
Pemberton and Shearsmith , in addition to writing and starring in " Cold Comfort " , directed the episode . This episode — one of two in the second series that they jointly directed — was their directorial debut . The pair did not know , while writing for the series , which episodes they would be directing , meaning that their writing was unlikely to be influenced by the knowledge . Pemberton and Shearsmith had always intended to try directing , and the second series of Inside No. 9 offered them the opportunity . David Kerr , who had directed all of the episodes in the first series , was unable to return for the second . Guillem Morales and Dan Zeff each took on directorial duties for two episodes , while Pemberton and Shearsmith decided to direct the remaining two .
Shearsmith said in an interview that the pair had considered directing episodes in which they did not appear much , but scheduling concerns left them with " Cold Comfort " and " Nana 's Party " ; episodes which feature the writers quite heavily . By contrast , Pemberton said that he and Shearsmith , knowing that they were going to be directing two episodes , deliberately chose " Cold Comfort " because the fixed cameras made filming a lot simpler , though Shearsmith said that the filming was more complex than they initially anticipated . For Horrocks , it was " lovely to be directed " by Pemberton and Shearsmith , as she " really [ liked ] their choices and ... [ loves ] their work " . Shearsmith said that he found directing the episode " exhausting " ; he found little time to rest during filming , as if he was not directly involved in filming , he was involved in making directorial decisions .
= = = Picture and sound = = =
The episode progresses mostly through footage streamed from a fixed camera in booth nine of the call centre setting . Streams from other cameras are displayed on the side of the screen , in the style of a CCTV feed . The idea was inspired by a clip of a serial killer 's interview with the CIA which Shearsmith had seen online ; this , too , had a main feed with three smaller feeds giving different views of the scene . The writers felt that the multiple screens both served a narrative function and raised the tension . For much of the episode , viewers simply watch characters taking calls . Exras are seen moving back and forth in the smaller screens , with Pemberton having initially been keen for things to be happening away from the main feed . However , he was somewhat frustrated with the result , with the same extra moving on numerous occasions throughout the episode . Shearsmith felt that a whole series filmed in the same manner " would be a bit wearing on the eye " , but that the style could be used for a single episode .
The format presented certain technical difficulties . The episode was filmed in very long takes — some as long as five or six minutes — without any cuts . This meant that the actors could not make any errors , but the result was " something you don 't normally see " . Pemberton said that the episode would " either be brilliantly tense or incredibly boring " . Timing during filming had to be precise , though scenes could be cut earlier or start later than was anticipated . For example , an earlier introduction of Joanne was cut in the final episode . Other unused versions of scenes included a more violent version of George 's attack on Liz and a version of the final scene with a gunshot . The gunshot was removed on the recommendation of Jon Plowman , Inside No. 9 's executive producer , which led to some debate ; Shearsmith , for example , preferred the original version .
Alex Thompson , the episode 's sound recordist , arranged the phones so that the actors could speak to each other in real @-@ time . Pemberton and Shearsmith wanted this so that the voices would not have to be recorded in a studio later and added in ADR . The voice of " Chloe " — the identify of whom is key to the story — presented a particular technical challenge , as the writers wanted to ensure that her identity was not revealed the first time her voice is heard . First , the production team recorded Shearsmith playing George @-@ as @-@ Chloe , and then a number of actresses recorded their versions of Shearsmith playing George @-@ as @-@ Chloe . Of these , one — Hall — was chosen to lend her voice to Chloe . Shearsmith then re @-@ recorded his voice , imitating Hall 's version of George @-@ as @-@ Chloe . Hall and Shearsmith 's respective performances of George @-@ as @-@ Chloe could then be merged together for the final episode . The first time viewers hear " Chloe " , her voice is mostly Hall 's ; as the episode progresses , more of Shearsmith 's voice is audible . For Shearsmith , this did not represent the production team cheating the viewers , as viewers ' experiences are filtered through Andy 's experiences . The first time viewers hear Chloe , they — like Andy — experience her as a teenage girl . As most of the episode was filmed in real @-@ time , George is visible making calls as Chloe , meaning that he hides in plain sight . Footage of Shearsmith playing George @-@ as @-@ Chloe in George 's office — used in the final episode — was filmed separately to the rest of the episode , as a camera set @-@ up in George 's office would have been visible on one of the main cameras .
Pemberton compared " Cold Comfort " to " A Quiet Night In " , the second episode of the first series of Inside No. 9 , a sentiment echoed by some critics . Both episodes were highly experimental — " A Quiet Night In " being mostly silent and " Cold Comfort " being filmed mostly from a fixed camera — something which the writers felt suits anthology format . On the other hand , according to Pemberton , as " Cold Comfort " is " static and all about listening " , it is , in a sense , the " polar opposite " of " A Quiet Night In " . Though all episodes in the series were very different in tone , Pemberton felt that " Cold Comfort " was " the most extreme experiment " .
= = Plot = =
Andy starts to volunteer at the Comfort Support Line ( CSL ) , a crisis hotline , after the death of his sister . His supervisor George takes him through the procedure for calls , and Andy chats to the more experienced Liz . He finds his first few calls difficult , and Joanne , a volunteer who shares a mutual distaste with Liz , advises him not to get emotionally invested in the callers . Andy takes a call from Chloe , a 16 @-@ year @-@ old girl with problems at home . Chloe says that she has taken a drug overdose , and Andy sings " Shine " by Take That to her , but , when he finishes , Chloe is no longer on the line . He immediately takes a call from an elderly woman distraught that her cat has died , but responds insensitively , and hangs up .
The following day , George thinks Liz is breaking the rules by taking a personal call ; he gets angry and wrestles the handset from her . Later , Andy is upset that he listened to Chloe in her final moments , and Liz , who has made a complaint about George 's conduct , tells him that she took a call from an ex @-@ soldier , in tears because his mother committed suicide following the death of her cat . Andy realises that the man 's mother is the caller from the previous night . George advises that Andy will not face any repercussions , and asks Andy to help Michael , new to the centre , with his first call . Chloe calls in and speaks to Michael , again claiming that she has taken an overdose . Andy snatches the phone and shouts at Chloe , hanging up on her .
Following her argument with George , Liz is asked to leave CSL , and a small party is held in the workspace . During the party , Chloe calls the helpline again , asking to speak to Andy . Andy tells Chloe that her hoax call caused an old woman 's death , but Chloe says that this was Andy 's fault . She repeats what Andy had said to the old woman about her cat . Andy stays late in his cubicle and goes to George 's office , realising that " Chloe " must be someone who works at CSL . He accuses Joanne , who has just arrived , but she says she came back for her bag . He plans to get evidence from the CCTV footage and contact the police . Looking through CCTV footage , he and Joanne discover that it is George who made the calls . Unbeknownst to them , George is approaching the office ; he hastily leaves when he sees Andy and Joanne inside .
George does not arrive for work the next day . Joanne shows in a new volunteer , Glen , who is replacing Liz . Having found out that George has made similar calls to CSL for years , Andy plans to go to the police . Andy answers the phone , and it is George . In Chloe 's voice , George says that he just wanted someone to listen to him , then warns that he has told the dead woman 's son where Andy works . In the background , Glen stands , and points a gun at Andy 's head .
= = Reception = =
Critics responded positively to " Cold Comfort " , though several characterised it as weaker than previous episodes in the series . David Chater , writing in The Times , described " Cold Comfort " as " a breather " after the " small masterpieces " of " The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge " and " The 12 Days of Christine " . He said that " Cold Comfort " offers " a promising set @-@ up , but ... doesn 't unfold with the same simple , logical elegance as others in the series " . Andrew Billen , also writing for The Times , gave the episode three out of five stars , considering it weaker than is typical for Inside No. 9 . John Robinson , who reviewed the episode for The Guardian , felt that though " the episode has the tools to ratchet up the suspense " , it " lacks both the plausibility and element of surprise that characterise the best of this series " .
Patrick Mulkern , on the other hand , who was writing for the Radio Times , described " Cold Comfort " as " warped brilliance " . He said that " any real helpline volunteers watching this episode may well wince , but it remains gripping throughout " . Reviewers in The Sunday Times called the episode " another corker " , and the freelance journalist Dan Owen called the episode " easily the funniest " since " La Couchette " , awarding it three out of four stars . He characterised it as mostly successful in its aims , and summarised it as a " memorable " and " well @-@ executed " comedy @-@ drama .
Robinson felt that the writers had " dial [ ed ] back the celebrity guests " for the episode , while Phoebe @-@ Jane Boyd , writing for the entertainment website Den of Geek , said that the episode " had another set of fantastic guest stars " . The comedy critic Bruce Dessau praised the performances in the episode ; Billen said that Horrocks 's performance was " particularly good " , and critics in The Sunday Times said that Horrocks was " on fine form " . Commentators also commended the episode 's writing , though Owen felt that the plot took a while to " get going " .
The television critic Julia Raeside discussed the unusual style of " Cold Comfort " , saying that " You could argue [ that the writers ] are at the stage in their careers where they don 't need to experiment . No one else makes television like them and yet still they push themselves . " For Clare Murphy , writing in the Daily Mirror , the episode " makes great use of CCTV split @-@ screen footage " . Dessau said that the set @-@ up gave the episode " its haunting flavour " . Viewers do not just see Andy , but also streams from other cameras , which , for Dessau , " makes the viewer both intrigued and anxious " . Boyd , too , claimed that the episode played on the " inherent creepiness " of CCTV footage . She said that the split @-@ screen set @-@ up increased the tension , and that the " gimmick is a good one " ; though it could " have worked well as a pleasing novelty on its own , [ it ] also makes this ' whodunit ' / ' who 's doing it ' a refreshingly inventive take on the genre " .
Critics writing for The Sunday Times said that set @-@ up " proves very effective for the denouement " , which Mulkern described as " a creepy pay @-@ off " . Chris Bennion of The Independent said that the ending was testament to the fact that the writers " know how to play their audience like a fiddle " . Billen was less impressed , saying that " the ultimate twist in the tale was crude , and the insight that those who offer help need it most just a little banal - by this series ' standards , at least " . Owen , similarly , found the motives of " Chloe " unconvincing , and considered " the surprisingly nihilistic final shot perhaps not fully earned or plausible " , but confessed that the episode was able to " outmanoeuvre [ sic ] " him , as he did not foresee the ending .
= = = Cited sources = = =
Pemberton , Steve ; Shearsmith , Reece ( 2015 ) . Cold Comfort ( episode commentary ) . Steve & Reece IN9 ( via SoundCloud ) . Retrieved 20 March 2016 .
= Barbeyella minutissima =
Barbeyella minutissima is a slime mould species of the order Echinosteliales , and the only species of the genus Barbeyella . First described in 1914 from the Jura mountains , its habitat is restricted to montane spruce and spruce @-@ fir forests of the Northern Hemisphere , where it has been recorded from Asia , Europe , and North America . It typically colonises slimy , algae @-@ covered logs that have lost their bark and have been partially to completely covered by liverworts . The sporangia are roughly spherical , up to 0 @.@ 2 mm in diameter , and supported by a thin stalk up to 0 @.@ 7 mm tall . After the spores have developed , the walls of the sporangia split open into lobes . The species is one of the smallest members of the Myxogastria and is considered rare .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
The species was first described in 1914 by Charles Meylan on the basis of a collection made at an altitude of 1 @,@ 400 metres ( 4 @,@ 600 ft ) from the Swiss Jura in September the year before . Meylan thought the species warranted a new genus based on the unique mode of dehiscence and the makeup of the capillitium . The genus was named for the Swiss botanist William Barbey ( 1842 – 1914 ) . It and the genus Clastoderma together make up the family Clastodermataceae . Studies of the ultrastructure of the sporocarps suggests that Barbeyella occupies a systematic position intermediate between Echinosteliales and the Stemonitales .
= = Characteristics = =
The protoplasmodium , a microscopic , undifferentiated granular mass with a slime sheath , is transparent and colourless . A single sporangiophore ( the fruiting structure ) is produced from the semispherical protoplasmodium , which is approximately one and a half times the diameter of mature sporangia . It acquires dark spots as it matures and the centre of the protoplasm later becomes dark . Then , the transparent and milk @-@ white protoplasmodium climbs along the stem to the top , where first the capillitium and peridium and finally the spores are produced . At room temperature , this process lasts roughly one day .
The long @-@ stemmed , blackish @-@ brown or blackish @-@ purple , barely translucent sporangia of Barbeyella are spherical , 0 @.@ 15 to 0 @.@ 2 mm in diameter and together with the stem measure 0 @.@ 3 to 0 @.@ 7 mm long . They are usually scattered on the substrate , but also often grouped in loose , large colonies . The hypothallus ( the tissue upon which the sporangiophore rests ) has a diameter of at least 0 @.@ 7 mm . Although not visible on mosses , it has a reddish @-@ brown color when growing on wood . The brownish @-@ black stem is up to 0 @.@ 1 mm thick , thinning to 5 µm towards the top and is filled with protoplasmatic scrap material . The columella – arising from the stem tip – matures at the upper end at roughly half the height of the sporangiophore into 7 to 13 simple or occasionally bifurcated , 1 to 4 µm large , dark @-@ brown capillitium strands . Usually individual , occasionally in pairs , these are firmly fused with the lobed segments of the peridium , which are round in cross @-@ section . When the spores mature , the sporangium splits and empties into the peridium towards the base . This prevents the lobes of the peridium from detaching and provides spore dispersal over a longer period , similar to a dehiscing capsule . The sporangia are filled towards the top with plasmatic granules , which diminish increasingly towards the base . Depending on the size of the plasmatic granules , the sporangia appear papillate or smooth .
The mass of spores is blackish brown , or brown if viewed under polarised light . The surface texture ranges from almost smooth to warty , and the spores measure 7 – 9 µm in diameter . Material collected from Oregon , however , varies from European material in several ways : the fruit body is brown ; the branching of the capillitium from the columella differs ( having primary and secondary branches instead of radiating branches from an expanded tip ) ; the spore mass is tan , and individual spores measure 10 – 12 µm .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Barbeyella minutissima is considered rare . Its habitat corresponds to the mountainous spruce @-@ fir forests of the Northern Hemisphere . It is largely restricted to altitudes between 500 and 2 @,@ 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 and 8 @,@ 200 ft ) , occasionally appearing as low as sea level and as high as 3 @,@ 500 metres ( 11 @,@ 500 ft ) . It has been found in Europe ( Finland , Germany , Switzerland , Poland , Romania , Latvia , and Russia ) , in west and east North America ( Washington , Oregon , California , and Mexico ; North and South Carolina and Virginia ) , in the Indian Himalayas as well as in Japan . It is relatively common in fir forests on high @-@ altitude Mexican volcanoes , suggesting that air @-@ borne spore dispersal is effective .
= = Ecology = =
The species grows only on slightly to heavily rotten and barkless deadwood in coniferous forests in cool , moist areas . The wood is about 40 to 100 % over
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1990s . By 1987 , there were more than a hundred Christian metal bands , and their records were sold at both Christian bookstores and non @-@ Christian retails . By 1988 , the four largest Christian metal bands ( excluding the mainstream success Stryper ) were Bloodgood , Barren Cross , Whitecross , and Leviticus . The Kentucky @-@ based band Bride initially played speed metal , particularly on Live to Die , and reached a wider audience when they released Snakes in the Playground ( 1992 ) . Despite being criticized for their abrupt changes in style in favor of what 's " hot " , are still considered " a primeval force at the centre of Christian heavy metal . "
In 1989 , the Orange County group X @-@ Sinner released its debut album Get It , and was one of the most talked about bands within the white metal scene at the time . Noted for a classic metal sound similar to AC / DC , X @-@ Sinner has managed to stay at the head of the Christian classic metal scene .
Glam metal band Holy Soldier , another group hailing from California , released its self @-@ titled debut on Word and A & M Records ( Myrrh imprint ) in 1990 to critical and commercial acclaim . Two years later , the band followed up their debut with Last Train , another critical success , leading to 60 city world tour . The band Guardian achieved some mainstream attention for its album Fire and Love , and one of the videos was included in the MTV 's Headbangers Ball rotation . The heavy metal band Angelica introduced vocalist Rob Rock , who also achieved initial fame as the vocalist for guitar virtuoso Chris Impellitteri 's band Impellitteri during the 1980s and 1990s and then went solo with his Rage of Creation album .
In the early 1990s , the rising musical styles , especially grunge , began to take their places as the dominant styles in the mainstream , which resulted in heavy metal music losing popularity and going underground for a decade . Many Christian metal musicians began to play extreme metal , and soon death metal replaced thrash metal in popularity . Audiences in many underground metal scenes began favoring more extreme sounds and disparaging the popular styles . As with other glam metal acts of the time , Stryper lost popularity and split up in 1993 .
Bruce Moore writes in the e @-@ book Metal Missionaries that during mid @-@ 1990s Christian metal " ceased to play catch up ( replicating secular bands ) and began to assimilate into its rightful place in the Extreme music scene and the artists who played became influential in helping to define this relatively new , but growing genre . " With risen musical quality and more street @-@ credibility , Christian metal and hardcore bands were signed to record labels such as Tooth and Nail , Solid State , Facedown Records as well as secular labels Metal Blade and Victory Records . Christian metal was available through non @-@ Christian outlets ; " For the first time Extreme Christian music moved from the dusty back bin of the Christian book stores to the front racks at super retailers like Best Buy , Circuit City , FYE and even giant retailers like Wal @-@ Mart , Target and Hot Topic . " The German secular metal label Nuclear Blast Records also released Christian metal . Torodd Fuglesteg of Norway 's Arctic Serenades Records has claimed : " The owner of Nuclear Blast was a committed Christian and he was pushing everything with that religious agenda through Nuclear Blast . Mortification and Horde were pushed like mad by Nuclear Blast when other labels were pushing pure satanic stuff . "
= = = 2000s = = =
In the first decade of the 21st century some groups reached mainstream popularity . There are Christian metal bands that perform virtually every subgenre of metal . The Christian metal movement has spread worldwide since it emerged in the early 1980s , and there are now hundreds of active Christian metal bands . Inspired by the metal revival , many 1980s bands have made comebacks including Saint , Bloodgood and Stryper . In October 2004 , Doug Van Pelt brought Heaven 's Metal back as its own fanzine . The Internet has had a significant role on the revival of Christian metal as well . Many websites and online communities are dedicated to discussions about Christian metal 's music , events , and bands .
For the first time since Stryper 's success in the 1980s , certain Christian metal artists found mainstream acceptance selling millions of albums to both Christian and non @-@ Christian fans , including Underoath and P.O.D. The latter became the most successful Christian metal band when their 2001 album Satellite went multi @-@ platinum , while the former 's 2006 album , Define the Great Line , ranked No. 2 on the Billboard 200 . Metalcore features many popular Christian bands , including such crossover bands such as Underoath , As I Lay Dying , August Burns Red , Blessthefall , Norma Jean , Haste the Day , The Devil Wears Prada , Disciple and Demon Hunter . As I Lay Dying have entered the Billboard 200 charts ( No. 8 ) for its record sales and were nominated for the " Best Metal Performance " Grammy for the single " Nothing Left " from the 2007 album An Ocean Between Us . The album made its debut on Metal Blade Records , charting at No. 19 in Canada . In the United States , nearly 40 @,@ 000 units were sold in its first week . The second week after it was released , it charted at No. 39 in both the United States and Canada . Other Top 200 debuts around the world include a No. 117 in the United Kingdom and No. 154 in Japan . In 2015 , August Burns Red was given " Best Metal Performance " at the Grammys for their song " Identity " , off their Found in Far Away Places album .
In its 2006 in Review issue ( February 2007 ) , Revolver magazine dubbed Christian metal the phenomenon of the year . Editor in Chief Tom Beaujour interviewed the lead vocalists of As I Lay Dying , Demon Hunter , Norma Jean , and Underoath ( Tim Lambesis , Ryan Clark , Cory Brandan Putman , and Spencer Chamberlain , respectively ) as the front @-@ page article for the issue . Tooth and Nail Records , P.O.D. , Zao , War of Ages , Still Remains , and He Is Legend were also mentioned .
= = Christian bands in metal subgenres = =
= = = Thrash metal = = =
Some notable American Christian thrash metal groups include Deliverance , Believer , Vengeance ( frontman , vocalist and last remaining member Roger Martinez currently against Christianity ) and Tourniquet . Allmusic states that Vengeance Rising 's first two albums " were huge successes in the world of Christian music , making them one of the few bands in the genre to cross over into the secular music scene . " Tourniquet was called " arguably the greatest Christian metal band in history " by Cross Rhythms in 1996 . Tourniquet 's Psycho Surgery was ranked as the second most influential Christian metal album of all time by HM Magazine . Deliverance 's 1990 music video for the title track of Weapons of Our Warfare album received some airplay on MTV . Allmusic wrote about Believer 's Sanity Obscure album : " Before 1990 , the Christian heavy metal genre rarely strayed from generic riffing and poor lyrics . Bands like Petra and Sacred Warrior never broke through to the mainstream for this very reason . With low expectations , Believer released this massive slab of molten metal . Although it never really became popular , several mainstream magazines praised the album . "
The British bands Seventh Angel and Detritus introduced Christian thrash metal to Europe . Seventh Angel were considered to be thrash metal pioneers , and their albums achieved mainstream distribution through the Music for Nations label . Cross Rhythms states that for a long time Seventh Angel were considered to be the best metal act in the UK . Seventh Angel also has included aspects of doom metal on some recordings . In the 1990s , New Mexico based Ultimatum and Oklahoman group called Eternal Decision gained some attention , the latter with its thrash and groove metal style . The 1997 album Eternal Decision hit the record stores in the U.S. and 16 other countries , achieving considerable acclaim and providing the band with even more notice .
= = = Death metal = = =
In 1990 , the Australian group Mortification became the first widely recognized Christian death metal band . Their 1992 album Scrolls of the Megilloth garnered the band some attention from the heavy metal underground , according to Allmusic .
At roughly the same time , the band Living Sacrifice was creating thrash and death metal , particularly on the albums Nonexistent ( 1992 ) and Inhabit ( 1994 ) , with Allmusic commenting that " the term Christian death metal seems like one of music 's most comical oxymorons . " Later they " evolved from their early death metal @-@ inspired rumblings into a crushing , staccato @-@ driven , heavily percussive metallic behemoth that pummels listeners with intense riffage and a decidedly personal , though nevertheless , often evangelical lyrical viewpoint . " The Minneapolis @-@ based Crimson Thorn is described by Allmusic as " one of the world 's most extreme @-@ sounding Christian metal bands . " Norwegian band Extol 's 1998 album Burial was called " Revolutionary . This release may have single @-@ handedly been responsible for the revival of the Christ @-@ centered extreme metal . " The band was popular among both Christian and general metal fans , mostly touring with well @-@ known non @-@ Christian bands .
= = = Unblack metal = = =
Horde is widely considered to be the first unblack metal ( also called Christian black metal ) band . As a one @-@ man band with only one release ( in 1994 ) , Horde initiated controversy within the extreme metal community , opposing the more common lyrical themes of Satanism and evil . The title of Horde 's only release – Hellig Usvart – means " Holy Unblack " , which is now often used by Christians to refer to Christian black metal , in order to avoid the negative connotations of the term " black metal " .
Antestor ( then called Crush Evil ) existed prior to the release of Hellig Usvart but their music was a death / doom style , and was not yet musically considered black metal . During the early 1990s when the band was known as Crush Evil , Euronymous , guitarist for the seminal black metal band Mayhem , was planning to stop Crush Evil from continuing . However , this never took place .
The release of Antestor 's The Return of the Black Death on the British black metal label Cacophonous Records in 1998 " set the standard for Christian black metal " . Swedish Crimson Moonlight 's The Covenant Progress , HM Magazine stated , " rivals the best any other band ( Christian or secular ) in this subgenre can offer . " While the unblack scene is not part of the traditional black metal scene , several musicians from both have co @-@ operated : Stian Aarstad of Dimmu Borgir produced Vaakevandring 's eponymous EP , and Jan Axel Blomberg of Mayhem played drums for Antestor 's The Forsaken ( 2005 ) album .
= = = Power metal and progressive metal = = =
Sacred Warrior preceded Christian power metal in the United States . The German group Seventh Avenue , formed in 1989 , was one of more notable Christian power metal bands in the 1990s . They released Rainbowland in 1995 , and after that the band was signed to Treasure Hunt Records . Their first release on this label , Tales of Tales , topped at 18 on the Japanese Heavy Metal Charts .
Later in the 1990s , the Swedish group Narnia made contributions to Christian power metal history , having signed with Nuclear Blast Records , Germany , and Pony Canyon Records , Japan . Later there appeared more notable European groups such as the German bands Chrystyne and Lightmare , and the Swedish groups XT , Divinefire , Harmony , and Heartcry .
Among the progressive metal representatives were Balance of Power , whose album When the World Falls Down was picked by Japanese label Pony Canyon . Jacobs Dream was signed to Metal Blade Records . HM wrote of the Athens , Georgia based Theocracy 's self @-@ titled debut album that " Not only did this release gain [ the then @-@ sole member ] Matt a lot of notoriety in the small Christian power / prog scene but the much larger secular power / prog secene embraced this as well . " Later turned to a full band , their sophomore 2008 album Mirror of Souls " defines excellence in current Christian metal . "
= = = Other = = =
In 1987 , the Swedish group Veni Domine started playing progressive and symphonic doom metal and released its first album Fall Babylon Fall in 1992 , ranked as the 38th most influential Christian metal album of all time by HM . HM Magazine wrote that Paramaecium , with its 1993 album Exhumed of the Earth , " essentially delivered the most powerful and moving death / doom recording in the history of Christian metal . " Saviour Machine 's Saviour Machine I was called " amazing accomplishment " by HM and that " their gothic @-@ tinged , progressive metal was quite unique to the scene when it was released in 1993 . "
The alternative metal style 's leading groups included the nu metal bands P.O.D. , Thousand Foot Krutch , Disciple , and Pillar . Zao was a pioneer of metalcore , paving way for bands such as Underoath and Norma Jean . The California @-@ based group Mortal is cited as one of the first Christian bands that represented the industrial metal style . Cross Rhythms wrote that when Mortal 's second album Fathom hit the scene in 1993 " there was nothing else quite like it " and that it is " truly a musical milestone . "
Another 1990s reputive Christian industrial metal band was Circle of Dust . The band received MTV exposure with a music video for " Telltale Crime " , and a part of the song " Deviate " was used as the intro @-@ song for a long time in the now defunct MTV Sports show .
Argyle Park , an underground supergroup of Christian industrial metal , received some success with the album Misguided ( 1995 ) as did , to some extent , LVL and Klank with Still Suffering in 1997 . Klank 's second album Numb was somewhat successful because the song " Blind " became a hit single . The Australian industrial metal band called Screams of Chaos was known for its bizarre style that combined several extreme metal influences with industrial . The late 1990s and early first decade of the 21st century popular American shock rock group Rackets & Drapes was known to have elements of industrial metal , and received a following .
= = Christianity in mainstream metal = =
There are notable mainstream acts that feature or have featured Christian members . While these bands may or may not have had lyrics using Christian themes or symbolism , some have caused controversy in their claims to Christianity , such as Tom Araya of Slayer . Others , such as Alice Cooper Killswitch Engage , Linkin Park , Iron Maiden and Megadeth also have members who are Christian and often use spiritual themes .
= = Evangelistic subculture = =
While not uncommon in predominantly Catholic cultures , Christian metal is rooted in evangelical Protestantism , beginning as a means of evangelism among the non @-@ Christian metal scene . Over the years the focus changed because of the increased secularization of Christianity in the West during the 1990s . Moberg ( 2008 ) notes that the current scene seems to have very little interest in evangelism , especially in Northern Europe . Instead , it is argued that the current Christian metal music scene ultimately provides its core members with important resources for the shaping of an alternative and complementary form of religious expression and practice and an alternative Christian identity . Thus , Moberg states that Christian metal serves four main purposes : an alternative form of religious expression and identity ; as a legitimate form of religious expression ; as an effective means of evangelism and fighting and standing up for the Christian faith ; as a positive alternative to non @-@ Christian metal .
In a 2006 interview with HM Magazine , Steve Rowe of Mortification , one of the best known figures in the scene , implies that evangelism is of secondary importance and that Christian metal should first and foremost bring " spiritual encouragement " for its Christian listeners . Moberg ( 2006 ) suspects that Christian metal music may suggest dissatisfaction with traditional forms of worship among today 's young Christians : " They may not feel comfortable with just going to church and singing hymns , they need an alternative means to express the same faith . " Apart from evangelism , Christian metal may also provide a means " to get away from the image of Christianity as something rigid and boring " .
Luhr ( 2009 ) states that Christian metal expresses feeling of isolation and rebellion just like non @-@ Christian metal - but in a completely different way . Christian metal 's rebellion is about " Christian opposition to the perceived sinfulness and immorality of a late modern society and culture in which traditional family values have been eroded through such things as the legalization and increasing acceptability of abortion and pornography and the rise of gay rights and feminist movements . " Causes for the feeling of isolation can be explained with the fundamental Christian struggle of being in the world but not of it . Bloodgood and Barren Cross inverted the meaning of rebellion by declaring that in Western society and culture the Christian faith is true rebellion . As in non @-@ Christian metal , fans are encouraged to stand up for their faith , think for themselves and not blindly follow authorities , including religious ones .
According to Moberg ( 2008 ) , Christian metal has developed scenes in countries with long @-@ standing metal subcultures : United States , Brazil , Mexico , Germany , Netherlands , Norway , Sweden and Finland . Despite its seemingly marginal niche audience , as Christian metal fans are counted in the thousands and the non @-@ Christian metal fans in the millions , the Christian metal scene is one of the few transnational Christian communities that do not have any leaders or creed - only music connects its attendees . Just like non @-@ Christian metal , the Christian metal scene has developed its own infrastructure of record labels , promotion and distribution channels , specialized media , discussion forums , attitude , rhetorics , slogans such as " Turn or Burn ! " , " Faster for the Master ! " and " Support the War against Satan ! " , webstores and festivals . Brazil and Mexico have tiny parishes of Christian metal fans . Finland in particular , with metal being more mainstream there than anywhere in the world , has held popular Metal Masses picked up by the Lutheran former state church since 2006 .
Most Christian metalheads also listen to non @-@ Christian metal ; Christian metal merely offers counterbalance for the dark message of non @-@ Christian metal , and most Christian metalheads only avoid the most satanic bands , if even them , since some ignore the issue altogether . Some differences in concert gestures have been noticed : Los Angeles Times reported in 1985 that in Stryper shows the audience were seen " poking stubby ' one way ' fingers heavenward — a refutation of the double @-@ fingered devil horns salute of many metal groups " .
= = Controversy = =
Certain Christian groups , most notably those in some King James Only denominations , consider all types of rock and metal music to be opposition to their faith , regardless of lyrical content or the lifestyles of the band members . However , fans and artists see metal as another genre of music , parallel to such genres as blues , classical , jazz , punk , and hip @-@ hop . Bands such as Showbread and Antestor believe that the instrumentation of the music is simply a medium of art , while the person creating the music as well as the lyrics being presented provide the message . Therefore , Christian metal is created when Christians compose metal music in a way that reflects their faith in Christ .
Keith Kahn @-@ Harris states in the book Extreme Metal that sometimes fans of metal consider Christian faith and adherence in Church a membership of an established authority , and therefore Christian metal bands are seen as " posers " and the use of Christian lyrics to be opposed to the " true " purpose of metal , which values individualism and ignoring the opinions or rejection of religion .
Christian metal groups such as Barnabas and Extol have criticized bands within the industry for a lack of innovation and for isolating bands within the industry . Pastor Bob Beeman of Sanctuary International stated that this is a compliment to secular music , as it lets people to listen to the music they enjoyed without feeling like they are giving up on the style they love and allows bands to crossover into mainstream success .
Some groups within the Christian metal movement have criticized bands within the industry for isolating the genre from general industry too avidly . For example , Christer Espevoll of Extol stated in 2003 : " I wish the scenes were more together . For a long time there has been a huge – and still growing – distance between Christian and secular music industries . This is the situation peculiarly in the US but also in Scandinavia . In my opinion this kind of polarization is not a good thing . Music is first and foremost about music so why should every band or artist that represents a religion or lack of it have its own industry ? Music has no religious borders . " However , most Christian bands today oppose to being isolated in the Christian music industry and have become mainstream successes , such as Virgin Black .
= = Christian metal radio = =
Since Christian metal is very much a counterculture of the Christian music scene , it has never had any major corporate radio outlets , as opposed to the more accepted CCM @-@ associated Christian music formats . Nevertheless , it has remained culturally significant in the genre , primarily enduring the test of time through word of mouth and through the help of pioneering Christian rock and metal broadcasters . Despite the lack of commercial radio support , Christian metal broadcasters have managed to hit the airwaves on public radio , campus radio , Internet radio , and in recent years through podcasting via the Internet . As digital broadcasting technology becomes more accessible , the number of Christian metal broadcasters has steadily increased . Some of today 's largest non @-@ commercial Christian alternative radio stations such as RadioU , Call FM , and Effect Radio have some Christian metal programing late nights and on weekends . However , as a whole these larger stations generally maintain a GMA @-@ prescribed format . Other stations such as Almighty Metal Radio , Savage Rock Radio , Reign Radio , Metal Blessing Radio , The Cross Stream , The Refinery Rock Radio , www.theBlast.fm , and FuelRadio.FM have been able to maintain twenty @-@ four @-@ hour Christian metal formats through Internet radio . Some notable Christian metal radio DJs , shows and podcasts include : " Jesus Solid Rock " Show ( ' 74 - ' 80 ) hosted by Pastor Bob Beeman , " Intense Radio " ( ' 95 - present ) founded by Pastor Bob Beeman and Sanctuary International , " HM Podcast " with HM Magazine founder & publisher Doug Van Pelt , " The Full Armor of God Broadcast " ( ' 97 - present ) hosted by Bro Scotland Kubinski ( Kuba " The Demon Slayer " ) , " Radio U Hardcore " and ( ' 02 - present ) hosted by Jaddeus Dempsey ( A.K.A. " Jad " ) , and " The Nation of Rockwell " .
= = Record labels = =
Blood and Ink Records
Facedown Records
Flicker Records
Intense Records
Nightmare Records
Pluto Records
R.E.X. Records
Retroactive Records
Rivel Records
Rottweiler Records
Rowe Productions
Rugged Records
Solid State Records
Tooth & Nail Records
= = Christian metal festival = =
Cornerstone Festival 1984 – 2012 ( U.S. )
Elements of Rock 2004 – present ( Switzerland )
Nordic Fest 2002 – 2011 ( Norway )
Blast of Eternity 2008 – present ( Germany )
Bobfest
Dikaion Fest ( Ecuador )
Call for Eternity / Call for Eternity Extreme 2009 – present ( Slovakia )
Admonishment ( New Zealand )
Rock Alive ( the Netherlands )
= Fifteen ( song ) =
" Fifteen " is a country pop song performed by American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift . Swift self @-@ penned the song and co @-@ produced it along with Nathan Chapman . " Fifteen " was released on August 30 , 2009 by Big Machine Records , as the fourth single from Swift 's second studio album , Fearless ( 2008 ) . The song was inspired by Swift 's freshman year of high school at Hendersonville High School , where she first encountered heartbreak , along with her best friend Abigail Anderson . After writing it , Swift asked Anderson for authorization to record the song ( due to personal references in the song ) ; Anderson affirmed and it was ultimately included on Fearless . " Fifteen " is a ballad , which has Swift reminiscing on events that occurred to her and her best friend at the age of 15 and cautioning young girls to not fall in love easily .
" Fifteen " peaked at number 23 on the Billboard Hot 100 and sold over a million digital downloads in the United States . The music video for " Fifteen " was directed by Roman White . It was filmed using a green screen and is heavily accentuated with special effects . The video features Swift walking through a garden , where she relives many memories with Anderson . It received a nomination for the Best Female Video category at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost to Lady Gaga 's " Bad Romance " . " Fifteen " was promoted with live performances , including many that were part of Swift 's first and second headlining tours , the Fearless Tour ( 2009 — 10 ) and the Speak Now World Tour ( 2011 – 12 ) . Swift partnered with electronics retailer Best Buy for @ 15 , a program that allowed teens to help decide how funds would be distributed among various charities .
= = Background = =
Swift began writing " Fifteen " with the lyric " And Abigail gave everything she had to a boy / Who changed his mind / We both cried " , which eventually became the song 's bridge , and continued writing everything else in a backwards manner . The song was written about Swift 's freshman year of high school at Hendersonville High School , where she met her best friend Abigail Anderson . " I just decided I really wanted to tell that story about our first year of high school because I felt in my freshman year , I grew up more than any year in my life so far " , Swift stated . The events it focused on were how both Swift and Anderson fell in love for the first time , but both suffered of heartbreaks . Aside from reminiscing on the events she and Anderson experienced , Swift wrote cautionary lyrics , intended to target teenage girls entering or already in their freshman year of high school . She described it as incorporating things she wished someone would have told her in a song when she was younger . " The thing about high school , you don 't know anything . You don 't know anything , but you think you know everything " , Swift said .
After the completion of composing " Fifteen " , Swift became very nervous to show Anderson the song , for she did not know how her friend would respond . " It was a really personal song , especially from her angle of it . " However , when Swift performed the song for Anderson and asked whether she was comfortable with the song , Anderson confirmed : " She said , ' Does it bother you that your name is in a song that 's so personal ? ' And it really doesn 't just because of the way Taylor and I feel about it . If one girl can kind of learn from it or connect to a song like that , it 's totally worth it . " With Anderson 's consent , Swift recorded " Fifteen " with producer Nathan Chapman , who produced all but one track on Swift 's 2006 eponymous debut album , Taylor Swift . Recording the highly personal track caused Swift to cry . Swift attributed the event to the fact that she is most likely to cry over when her loved ones undergo pain , as she witnesses it , rather than her own experiences . She went to say " Fifteen " usually gets her every time .
= = Composition = =
" Fifteen " is a country pop song with a length of four minutes and 55 seconds . It is set in common time and has a moderate tempo of 96 beats per minute . The track is categorized as a ballad . It is written in the key of G major and Swift 's vocals spans a little over two octaves , from G3 to C5 . It follows the chord progression Gsus2 – Csus2 – Em – Csus2 . It concludes with an outro that consists of Swift singing " la la la " and rephrasing the song 's opening lines .
The lyrics of " Fifteen " have Swift narrating about multiple events . In the first verse , Swift details first entering high school with intentions of merely staying out of her peers ' way . The second verse bears Swift meeting Anderson and gossiping about the school 's queen bees with her . Successively , Swift describes first dates and falling in love for the first time . However , Swift and Anderson become heartbroken , revealing that Anderson " gave everything she had " to someone who later changed his mind . The song 's refrains have Swift cautioning young girls to not fall in love easily and acknowledging that she came to the realization of being able to accomplish more than dating a football team member .
= = Critical reception = =
Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone believed " Fifteen " was exemplary in that " Swift is a songwriting savant with an intuitive gift for verse @-@ chorus @-@ bridge architecture " . Rosen compared her songwriting in the track to that of producers Dr. Luke and Max Martin , who he referred to as " Swedish pop gods " . He continued , " Her music mixes an almost impersonal professionalism — it 's so rigorously crafted it sounds like it has been scientifically engineered in a hit factory — with confessions that are squirmingly intimate and true . " Jonathon Keefe of Slant Magazine considered the bridge one of the nicer moments of Fearless , but was unimpressed with Swift 's singing , particularly in the outro . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic found " Fifteen " , in which Swift portrayed the role of a big sister instead of a big star , to be one of the best and the most personal song on Fearless . Ken Tucker of Billboard magazine believed " Fifteen " could appeal with teenagers looking for hope and adult women reminiscing the past . Leah Greenbelt of Entertainment Weekly stated , " When she sings about sexuality , she sounds like a real teen , not some manufactured vixen @-@ Lolita " .
Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said " Fifteen " was one of Swift 's best @-@ written songs . James Reed of The Boston Globe believed " Fifteen " was one of Fearless 's most interesting songs and stated he could visualize the lyrics of the song scribbled in a diary that chronicled Swift 's freshman year in high school . Sean Dooley of About.com named it the best track on Fearless and said it showcased Swift 's growth as a songwriter . Josh Love of The Village Voice called the song a " standout " on the album and found it a refreshing contradiction to typical , idealistic country songs . Prior to its single release , Kate Kiefer of Paste magazine suggested for the song be released as a single from Fearless , adding that she loved it . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian called the track a fantastically good song that broadened " her potential market from teenage girls to anyone who used to be a teenage girl " . Petridis continued , " You applaud her skill , while feeling slightly unsettled by the thought of a teenager pontificating away like Yoda . " Aidan Vaziri of San Francisco Chronicle ranked it twelfth on his top 12 singles of 2009 list , commenting , " Damn it if this song isn 't too sweet , too vulnerable and just too real to ignore . "
= = Chart performance = =
Following the release of Fearless , on the week ending November 29 , 2008 , " Fifteen " debuted at number seventy @-@ nine on the Billboard Hot 100 Its appearance , along with six other songs , on the chart tied Swift with Hannah Montana ( Miley Cyrus ) for the female act to have the most songs charting on the Billboard Hot 100 in the same week , a record later surpassed by Swift herself when she charted eleven songs at once in 2010 . It re @-@ entered at number ninety @-@ four on the week ending October 3 , 2009 , after its single release . On the week ending December 19 , 2009 , " Fifteen " reached its peak at number twenty @-@ three on the Billboard Hot 100 , and , on the week ending February 6 , 2010 , spent its last week at number forty , after twenty @-@ one weeks on the chart . The song is one of thirteen songs from Fearless charted within the top forty of the Billboard Hot 100 , breaking the record for the most top forty entries from a single album . The single was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . As of November 2014 , " Fifteen " has sold over 1 @,@ 323 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
" Fifteen " debuted at number forty @-@ one on Billboard Hot Country Songs . It jumped at number thirty @-@ one on its second week and on the week @-@ ending November 7 , 2009 , it entered the top ten at number ten . Six weeks later , it reached its peak at number seven on the week @-@ ending December 12 , 2009 . The single became her second single that did not reach the top three of Billboard Hot Country Songs since her debut single " Tim McGraw " . " Fifteen " also peak at number ten on Billboard Pop Songs , number twelve on Billboard Adult Contemporary , and at number fourteen at Billboard Adult Pop Songs .
On the week ending January 23 , 2010 , the song peaked at number nineteen in Canada . It was certified gold by Music Canada for sales of 40 @,@ 000 digital downloads . " Fifteen " peaked at number forty @-@ eight in Australia on the week ending December 13 , 2009 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Fifteen " was directed by Roman White , who previously directed Swift 's music video " You Belong with Me " . White began with the intention of creating a video different than others Swift did in the past . To do so , he believed he needed to set the video outside of high school . White explained , " Well , I think I really wanted this video to kind of be an evolution for Taylor [ ... ] I actually said to her , ' I don 't think we should shoot in a high school . ' And I don 't think she wanted to either . " White conceptualized the video 's setting by taking into account the literal meaning of the song and transforming into something new . He conceptualized the setting to be new world where Swift could revisit her memories , as they manifest around her . " Let 's take the literal meaning of this song and watch it evolve in front of us ... almost as a memory in your head . And create this world , somewhere you walk in on this desolate desert and you start to sing about all these great memories you have ... of everything you love blooming around you , and so we literally grew this garden around her " , White said . The world moved from one situation to the next . White decided to annex surreal elements to create a cross between a garden and the heart of the memories . He intertwined Swift 's emotions with the growth of the garden . The garden grew when Swift felt happy , but at the sight of pain and negative emotions , clouds appear and the garden dies , which also symbolized Anderson 's broken heart .
Swift 's friend , Anderson , portrayed herself in the video . The love interests of both Swift and Anderson were cast by Swift after she received images of them via e @-@ mail . The video was filmed in two days . The first day consisted of actors , including Swift and Anderson , filming before a green screen . On the set , White presented Swift with caricature drawings depicting the music video , in order to guide herself . Swift was impressed by Anderson 's acting skills , considering her lack of experience , and called it " prolific " . On the second day , scenes at a high school were filmed ; artificial rain was made . Afterward , White and a team of visual effect artists created the setting . " If you watch just the offline edit of this video , it 's just green . It 's just Taylor walking around a giant green screen . And to think that every single thing in that video was created is amazing , ' cause a lot of people worked really hard on it " , White said . The visual effects team were at work for the video for some time , sometimes staying overnight in the office to produce the video . The direction was to make the video seem " magical " . Some of the props used when filming were recreated using digital animation , such as the door and the desks . Because extras were filmed separately , White was meticulous to find the right shots to make the scene more cohesive . White believed the finished product had a sense of innocence .
The video begins with Swift , barefoot and clad in a white sundress , approaching a tall , arched doorway which materializes in the middle of a barren landscape . Swift looks at a photograph of herself and her friend tucked into the arch and , then , passes through the doors . On the other side of the arch , animated flowers and vines grow across the scenes . People and objects from a high school fade in and out of view . Swift walks through the memories and begins to play an acoustic guitar beneath a tree . Afterward , Anderson appears , sitting at a desk before a chalkboard in the field of flowers . Swift sits down beside her and two begin to whisper and laugh to each other . In the next scene , Swift plays guitar while Anderson goes on her first date ; she kisses her date , but pushes him away when he tries to go further . Her love interest and all surroundings dissolve to show Anderson sitting alone on a stone bench . Swift approaches her and hugs her tightly as the field around them turns dark and stormy . The video then alternates between Swift singing in the rain and hugging her friend . After the landscape deteriorates , the video transitions to reality , where Swift , wearing a black trench coat , stands in the rain , across the street from a high school . Swift then sees a student at the entrance ; the two make eye contact and the video concludes . To date , the video has over 108 million views on YouTube .
= = = Video reception = = =
The music video premiered on October 9 , 2009 on CMT . Peter Gicas of E ! thought the video was " sweet " and said , " And while the visuals here — Taylor walking in and out of various animated scenes — are certainly nice to look at , they nevertheless take a back seat to the country star 's cuteness . " Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly graded the video a B. Greenblatt believed the video was reverential and painterly , but criticized it by saying " Fifteen " ' s most powerful lyrics were outdone by the dreamy design . Jocelyn Vena of MTV wrote , " Taylor Swift is ' Fifteen ' all over again in the new music video for her song of the same name . " At the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards , the video was nominated for the MTV Video Music Award for Best Female Video , but lost to Lady Gaga 's video for " Bad Romance " ( 2009 ) .
= = Live performances = =
Swift first performed " Fifteen " , as a duet with pop singer Miley Cyrus , at the 51st Grammy Awards . The duo sat on wooden stools for the acoustic performance , with Swift wearing a baggy beige dress layered over a tight black outfit and playing an acoustic guitar . Swift has also performed the song at We 're All for the Hall , a benefit concert organized by Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum , the 2009 CMA Music Festival , the 2009 V Festival , the Australian charity concert Sydney Sound Relief , and the Country Music Association Awards . In the United Kingdom , Swift performed " Fifteen " on Later ... with Jools Holland and The Paul O 'Grady Show . Swift performed the song on all venues in 2009 and 2010 of her first headlining concert tour , the Fearless Tour . The performances of " Fifteen " set on a small platform located at the opposite end , parallel to the stage in the arena . Swift , dressed in a pastel sundress , sat on a wooden stool while performing with wooden 12 @-@ string acoustic guitar strapped to her shoulder . Nicole Frehsee of Rolling Stone favored Swift 's performance of " Tim McGraw " at the August 27 , 2009 concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City . Frehsee described the entire concert as an " elaborate spectacle that doesn 't slow down , even when the singer hauls her acoustic guitar into the audience to play a sweet , stripped down set of tunes including ' Fifteen ' . " " Fifteen " served as a performance on the setlist of Swift 's second concert tour , the Speak Now World Tour ( 2011 ) ; the performances featured Swift sitting and playing an acoustic guitar , wearing a blue cocktail dress .
= = @ 15 = =
Swift partnered with electronics retailer Best Buy for @ 15 , a program that allowed teens to help decide how Best Buy 's " @ 15 Fund " would be distributed among various charities . Swift taped a Public Service Announcement ( PSA ) , called a " Teen Service Announcement " by Best Buy , for @ 15 . Within the PSA , which was released on February 9 , 2009 , scenes of Swift reminiscing on high school and encouraging originality and uniqueness were inter @-@ cut with scenes of her singing " Fifteen " . In June 2009 , @ 15 became a partner for Swift 's Fearless Tour . The announcement was shown at each stop during the North American leg of the tour . In fifteen tour stops , @ 15 donated forty concert tickets and a guitar autographed by Swift to local teen @-@ oriented charity groups , such as chapters of Boys & Girls Clubs of America and Big Brothers Big Sisters .
= = Track listings = =
CD single / Digital download
" Fifteen " ( Album Version ) – 4 : 54
" You Belong with Me " ( Radio Mix ) – 3 : 50
Australia Pop Mix Edit Digital Download
" Fifteen " ( Pop Mix Edit ) – 4 : 01
= = Charts = =
= Wario World =
Wario World ( ワリオワールド , Wario Wārudo ) is a platform beat ' em up game developed by Treasure and published by Nintendo for the GameCube . It was released in Europe on June 20 , 2003 , in North America on June 23 , 2003 , in Australia on July 10 , 2003 , and in Japan on May 27 , 2004 . The game 's plot centers on Wario and his quest to regain his treasure and his castle from Black Jewel , an evil gem .
The game was fairly well received by reviewers . They praised the gameplay but criticized the game for being too short . Wario World has sold over 142 @,@ 000 copies in Japan and over 256 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . In 2004 , the game was re @-@ released as a Player 's Choice title .
= = Gameplay = =
Wario World 's gameplay centers mainly on combating enemies , although it requires some platform navigation similar to Super Mario 64 and Super Mario Sunshine . The controls are simple , and are only used to jump , run , dash , perform fighting moves , and use the " Hyper Suction " ability to collect nearby coins . The level designs are platform @-@ based with combat elements , and have an overall linear design . The levels contain trapdoors , which lead to special platforming or puzzle @-@ oriented challenges . Throughout the game , small forest sprites known as " Spiritelings " give Wario advice if they are rescued from imprisonment .
During combat , Wario can grab enemies and either spin them around , throw them , or piledrive them into the ground . Enemies drop coins when defeated , and tend to regenerate if the area is left and returned to later . The coins are used to purchase items , such as life @-@ restoring garlic , and to return to life . If Wario does not have enough money to return to life , the game is over . A new feature in Wario World are the spherical " glue globes " , in which Wario is stuck to if he touches it , allowing the player to reach otherwise inaccessible areas . Along the way , Wario can re @-@ collect his lost treasures , which are hidden in treasure chests , and collect pieces of golden Wario statues , which increases Wario 's life meter by one half . In order to advance in the game , the player must collect a certain amount of red diamonds in each level . If the player collects all the treasure in the various levels , minigames from the Game Boy Advance title WarioWare , Inc . : Mega Microgames ! are unlocked , and they can be played by using the Nintendo GameCube – Game Boy Advance link cable .
= = Plot = =
The game begins with Wario enjoying his newly built castle , which is filled with treasures that he has collected from earlier adventures . An evil gem called Black Jewel , hidden amongst Wario 's treasure collection , suddenly awakens and takes over Wario 's castle . Black Jewel turns Wario 's treasure into monsters , and transforms the castle into four worlds called Excitement Central , Spooktastic World , Thrillsville and Sparkle Land , each consisting of two levels and a boss fight . A central area allows access to the different worlds , as well as to the Treasure Square , where the Huge Treasure Box inside of which Black Jewel is hiding can be found . Wario proceeds through the areas controlled by Black Jewel , recovering his treasure and rescuing Spritelings ( the creatures had sealed Black Jewel away in the past ) , then obtains the key to the Huge Treasure Box and engages Black Jewel in a battle . Wario 's subsequent victory allows him to regain control of his castle .
During the game 's ending , Wario 's new castle quality depends on the number of Spiritelings rescued . The worst @-@ case scenario sees Wario with nothing but a campsite with his throne in a dark jungle , but if all 40 Spritelings were rescued , Wario is given a palace even grander than his previous one .
= = Development = =
Wario World was first shown at E3 2002 as a technical demo . At the next E3 in 2003 , it was shown with new levels of gameplay polish and tweaking , which the previous E3 demo was lacking . On August 22 , 2002 , at Nintendo 's Gamer 's Summit , Wario World 's North American release date was set to November 11 , 2002 . The game was later going to be released on May 26 , 2003 , but was further delayed by one month till June 23 .
It was uncertain who was developing Wario World , until April 22 , 2003 , when Nintendo of America officially revealed that Treasure , the company behind the successful titles Gunstar Heroes and Ikaruga , was developing the game . After the successful development collaboration Treasure and Nintendo shared with the Nintendo 64 title , Sin and Punishment , the two companies wanted to work together again . The R & D1 team wanted to continue their co @-@ development juncture with a 3D installment of the Wario franchise . Wario World 's music was composed by Norio Hanzawa and Minako Hamano . Wario was voiced by Charles Martinet , who also voices Mario and Luigi in the Mario series .
= = Reception = =
Wario World was a commercial success , selling over 142 @,@ 000 copies in Japan . In 2004 , the game was re @-@ released alongside Mario Golf : Toadstool Tour and F @-@ Zero GX as part of the Player 's Choice line , a selection of games with high sales sold for a reduced price .
Wario World received fairly positive reviews . The US version of Play magazine gave the game a perfect score , and the reviewer commented that Wario World " pays off every second [ he is ] holding the controller , and that , to [ him ] , is greatness " . Nintendo Power said that the game was " tons of fun " . GamePro stated that Wario World " stays addictive by weight of sheer design innovation " . The American @-@ based publication Game Informer praised the game for including " droves of awesome boss battles " . Matt Casamassina of IGN declared that Wario World had " some great control mechanics and inventive level work " . Electronic Gaming Monthly 's Greg Ford said , " Wario [ World ] delivers a great time while it lasts and is well worth checking out . Just don 't expect a Mario @-@ quality adventure " . Worthplaying gave the game 9 out 10 , stating that " Treasure has done itself proud with this title , and Wario himself can lift his head up high . At least in my book , he 's got at least one game that 's better than Mario 's . "
Wario World received criticism for its length , with some reviewers stating that the game was shorter than the average console title . Tom Bramwell of Eurogamer compared Wario World to Luigi 's Mansion , a game also criticized for its length , and said that the game was like Luigi 's Mansion " all over again " . GameSpy stated that Wario World " offers little above and beyond the standard 3D platform romp , and what is offered turns out to be very short and repetitive " . GameSpot commented that " the final product is too short and simplistic to hold your attention for more than a day " .
= Middlesex ( novel ) =
Middlesex is a Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning novel by Jeffrey Eugenides published in 2002 . The book is a bestseller , with more than three million copies sold by May 2011 . Its characters and events are loosely based on aspects of Eugenides ' life and observations of his Greek heritage . It is not an autobiography ; unlike the protagonist , Eugenides is not intersex . The author decided to write Middlesex after he read the 1980 memoir Herculine Barbin and was dissatisfied with its discussion of intersex anatomy and emotions .
Primarily a coming @-@ of @-@ age story ( Bildungsroman ) and family saga , the novel chronicles the effect of a mutated gene on three generations of a Greek family , causing momentous changes in the protagonist 's life . According to scholars , the novel 's main themes are nature versus nurture , rebirth , and the differing experiences of what society constructs as polar opposites — such as those found between men and women . It discusses the pursuit of the American Dream and explores gender identity . The novel contains many allusions to Greek mythology , including creatures such as the Minotaur , half @-@ man and half @-@ bull , and the Chimera , a monster composed of various animal parts .
Narrator and protagonist Cal Stephanides ( initially called " Callie " ) is an intersex man of Greek descent with a condition known as 5 @-@ alpha @-@ reductase deficiency , which causes him to have certain feminine traits . The first half of the novel is about Cal 's family and depicts his grandparents ' migration from Bursa , a city in Asia Minor , to the United States in 1922 . It follows their assimilation into American society in Detroit , Michigan , then a booming industrial city . The latter half of the novel , set in the late 20th century , focuses on Cal 's experiences in his hometown of Detroit and his escape to San Francisco , where he comes to terms with his modified gender identity .
Entertainment Weekly , the Los Angeles Times , and The New York Times Book Review considered Middlesex one of the best books of 2002 , and some scholars believed the novel should be considered for the title of Great American Novel . Generally , reviewers felt that the novel succeeded in portraying its Greek immigrant drama and were also impressed with Eugenides ' depiction of his hometown of Detroit — praising him for his social commentary . Reviewers from the medical , gay , and intersex communities mostly praised Middlesex , though some intersex commentators have been more critical . In 2007 , the book was featured in Oprah 's Book Club .
= = Conception , research , and publication = =
After publishing his first novel , The Virgin Suicides , in 1993 , Jeffrey Eugenides started on his next project Middlesex . He was inspired by having read Herculine Barbin , the diary of a 19th @-@ century French convent schoolgirl who was intersex . Eugenides had first read the memoir a decade earlier and believed it evaded discussion about the anatomy and emotions of intersex people . He intended Middlesex to be " the story [ he ] wasn 't getting from the memoir " .
Eugenides worked on Middlesex for nine years . He started writing during his short @-@ term residence at MacDowell Colony in New Hampshire , United States , and finished the novel in Berlin , Germany ; he had accepted a grant from the German Academic Exchange Service in 1999 . Eugenides spent the first few years trying to establish the narrative voice for his novel . He wanted to " [ tell ] epic events in the third person and psychosexual events in the first person " . According to Eugenides , the voice " had to render the experience of a teenage girl and an adult man , or an adult male @-@ identified hermaphrodite " .
Although Eugenides sought expert advice about intersex , sexology , and the formation of gender identity , he refrained from meeting with intersex people , saying , " [ I ] decided not to work in that reportorial mode . Instead of trying to create a separate person , I tried to pretend that I had this [ physical feature ] and that I had lived through this as much as I could " . Eugenides read books , sifted through many sheets of microfiche , and combed through videotapes and newsletters that dealt with the subject . He visited the New York Public Library 's Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture to search for the sole copy of a book about an " elusive historical figure " . He discovered details of what he considered a vivid intersex condition while browsing Columbia University 's medical library .
After discovering in his library research 5 @-@ alpha @-@ reductase deficiency , an autosomal recessive condition manifested primarily in inbred , isolated population groups , his perception of the novel significantly changed . Rather than a " slim fictional autobiography " of an intersex individual , the novel would be epic in scope , tracing the lives of three generations of Greek Americans . Eugenides lived in Brooklyn when he began his first draft of the novel . He went through a lengthy brainstorming process . He would write 50 pages in one voice , restart in a different voice with 75 pages , and then pursue a different narrative angle . He wanted the novel to be an " intimate " portrayal of protagonist Cal 's transformation , so he wrote a draft in the first @-@ person narrative in Cal 's voice . He could not , however , portray Cal 's grandparents intimately , so he completely abandoned his preceding year 's draft in favor of writing the book in the third @-@ person . He gradually violated his narrative convention by restoring the first @-@ person voice amid the third @-@ person narration to depict the mindsets of both Cal and Cal 's grandparents . During the writing process , Eugenides moved from Brooklyn to Manhattan and later returned to Brooklyn . Worried about the narrative 's sounding forced , he added instances of " self @-@ reflexivity " to Cal 's voice . After several years of struggling with the narrative voice , Eugenides finally seated himself at his desk and wrote Middlesex 's initial page , " 500 words that contained the DNA for the protein synthesis of the entire book " .
Middlesex was published for the North American market in September 2002 by Farrar , Straus and Giroux in the United States and Vintage Canada for Canada . A month later , it was released in the United Kingdom by Bloomsbury Publishing . The novel has been translated into 34 languages ; the Spanish @-@ language edition was translated by Benito Gómez Ibáñez and released in 2003 after the publisher , Jorge Herralde , had acquired the rights in a " tough auction " .
= = Plot summary = =
The novel starts with a narration by its protagonist , Cal ( his masculine identity ) , also known as Calliope ( feminine ) : He recounts how 5 @-@ alpha @-@ reductase deficiency , a recessive condition , caused him to be born with female characteristics . The book continues with accounts of his family 's history , starting with his paternal grandparents in their home village and ending with his father 's funeral . These accounts cover the conception of Cal , his teenage years , and the discovery of his intersex condition . Throughout the book , Cal weaves his opinion of the events in hindsight and of his life after his father 's funeral . Eugenides sets Middlesex in the 20th century and interjects historical elements , such as the Balkan Wars , the Nation of Islam , the 1967 Detroit riot , and the Watergate scandal in the story .
The accounts of Cal 's family history start in 1922 . His grandfather , Eleutherios " Lefty " Stephanides , lives in Bithynios , a village in Asia Minor . Eugenides places the village high on the slope of Mount Olympos , above the city of Bursa , and describes incestuous marriages between cousins as a quietly accepted custom among the villagers . Lefty makes a living selling silkworm cocoons harvested by his sister , Desdemona . The siblings are orphans ; their parents are victims of the ongoing Greco @-@ Turkish War . As the war progresses , Lefty and Desdemona develop a romantic relationship . Fleeing the chaos brought by the war , they board a ship amid the Great Fire of Smyrna and set sail for the United States . Their histories unknown to the other passengers , they marry each other on board the vessel .
After arriving in New York , they locate their cousin , Sourmelina " Lina " Zizmo , in Detroit , Michigan , and go to stay with her . Lina is a closeted lesbian and the only person there to know of the siblings ' incestuous relationship . Starting a new life , Lefty takes on a job at Ford Motor Company , but is later retrenched . He unknowingly joins Lina 's husband , Jimmy , in bootlegging . Desdemona gives birth to a son , Milton , and later a daughter , Zoe . Lina gives birth to a daughter , Theodora or " Tessie " . The relationship between Lefty and Desdemona declines after she learns that there is an increased chance of genetic disease for children born from incest . In 1924 , after Milton 's birth , Lefty opens a bar and gambling room , calling it the Zebra Room .
Milton and Tessie marry in 1946 . They have two children , Chapter Eleven and Calliope ( " Callie " ) . Prior to Callie 's birth , Desdemona predicts the child to be a boy , although the parents prepare for a girl . Chapter Eleven is a biologically " normal " boy ; however , Callie is intersex . Her family members are unaware of her situation for many years , so they raise Callie as a girl . Elements of family life are portrayed against the rise and fall of industrial Detroit , where so many struggled . The family gets caught up in the 1967 Detroit riot resulting from racial tensions , after President Johnson authorizes the use of federal troops . The family home is raided during this period , to the shock of the parents . After this harrowing experience , the family moves to a house on Middlesex Boulevard , Grosse Pointe .
When she is 14 years old , Callie falls in love with her female best friend , whom Callie refers to as the " Obscure Object " . In separate encounters , Callie has her first sexual experiences with a woman , the Obscure Object , and with a man , the Obscure Object 's brother . After Callie is injured by a tractor , a doctor discovers that she is intersex . She is taken to a clinic in New York and undergoes a series of tests and examinations . After learning about the syndrome and facing the prospect of sex reassignment surgery , Callie runs away and assumes a male identity as Cal . He hitchhikes cross @-@ country and reaches San Francisco , where he joins a burlesque show as Hermaphroditus .
Cal is arrested by the police during a raid on his workplace . He is released into Chapter Eleven 's custody and learns of their father 's death . The siblings return to their family home on Middlesex . In a private moment , Desdemona recognizes Cal 's condition , associating it with stories from her old village about children born of incest . She confesses to Cal that her husband , Lefty , is also her brother . As Milton 's funeral takes place at the church , Cal stands in the doorway of his family home , assuming the male @-@ only role in Greek traditions to keep his father 's spirit from re @-@ entering the family home .
Several years later , Cal becomes a diplomat stationed in Berlin . He meets Julie Kikuchi , a Japanese @-@ American woman , and tentatively starts a relationship with her .
= = Autobiographical elements = =
Reporters and critics noted that many characters and events in Middlesex parallel those in Eugenides ' life . The author denied writing the novel as an autobiography . In an interview by National Public Radio in 2002 , he commented on the similarities :
Because the story is so far from my own experience , I had to use a lot of details from my own life to ground it in reality , to make it believable for me and then hopefully for the reader , as well . So I would use my own physical appearance . I would use details from my grandparents ' life , the streets they lived on , the kinds of places they lived . And all this made it real for me because it was a tall order to write such a story .
Eugenides blended fact and fiction in his book . Like Cal , the author was born in 1960 ; unlike his creation , he is not intersex . His family moved to a house on Middlesex Road in Grosse Pointe after the Detroit riot in 1967 . Eugenides studied at University Liggett School , a private institution that served as a model for Callie 's Baker and Inglis School for Girls . He tapped into his own " locker room trauma " , an adolescent experience of being naked among many other nude bodies , and used it to develop Callie 's self @-@ discovery of her body during puberty . He based the name of the character the " Obscure Object " on a Brown University classmate whom he found alluring and to whom he gave that nickname . Eugenides married a Japanese @-@ American artist , Karen Yamauchi , and moved to Berlin .
Eugenides is of Greek heritage , albeit only through his father 's side . Although his paternal grandparents were not siblings like the Stephanides , they were silk farmers like their fictional counterparts . Cal 's learning of Greek customs to better understand his grandparents mirrored Eugenides
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up as a girl but who decides to become a boy . Cal 's condition is also reflected in his choice of locale to narrate the novel : Berlin is a city formerly of " two halves or sexes " ( East and West ) .
= = Themes = =
= = = Rebirth = = =
Following the Great Fire of Smyrna , Lefty and Desdemona must start life anew . When she is 14 years old , Callie experiences a second birth to become Cal . To become a male , Callie peregrinates across the United States and becomes a midwife of her new life by teaching herself to forget what she has learned as a female . Likewise , Cal 's grandparents undergo a transformation , becoming husband and wife instead of brother and sister . Middlesex delves into the concept of identity , including how it is formed and how it is administered . The immigrant predicament is a metaphor and synecdoche for Calliope 's hermaphroditic condition ; Callie 's paternal grandparents become Americanized through the amalgamation of the elements of heredity , cultural metamorphoses , and probability . Callie 's maternal grandfather , Jimmy Zizmo , undergoes a rebirth when he transforms from a bootlegger into Farrad Mohammad , a Muslim minister .
= = = American Dream = = =
Middlesex traces the trials and adversity faced by the Stephanides family as they pursue the American Dream . Beginning with Lefty and Desdemona , Cal 's grandparents , fleeing from their homeland to Ellis Island and the United States , the novel later depicts the family living in a suburban vista at Grosse Pointe , Michigan . After they immigrate to the United States , Lefty and Desdemona find themselves in a blissful America on the brink of economic collapse . They dream about a perfect America where effort and morals will lead to good fortune . However , they must seek to attain this perfection during a period characterized by Prohibition and xenophobic anti @-@ immigration legislation . Middlesex depicts the tribulations of attaining an identity , especially while dealing with the revelation that the American Dream is a delusion that has already disappeared .
= = = Race relations = = =
Middlesex portrays the race relations between people of different cultures ; Mendelsohn considered the handling of this theme " preachy and nervous " . In the United States , a strongly nativist country in the 1920s , Greek immigrants must suffer numerous humiliations at the hands of prejudiced whites . When Cal 's grandfather Lefty , a recent Greek immigrant , is working at one of Henry Ford 's automobile factories , Ford investigators attempt to Americanize him . They visit his house to ascertain that he has been living as a typical American . For example , during his first English @-@ language lesson , Lefty is taught that " [ e ] mployees should use plenty of soap and water in the home " . The narrow @-@ minded nativists believe that immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe are unaware of the value of soap and water .
According to scholar Robert Zecker , the novel depicts African @-@ American poverty but does not illustrate its causes . None of the characters think about how 500 @,@ 000 African @-@ Americans were placed in cramped living areas of only 25 square blocks and the bitterness and rage that stems from such conditions . The African Americans do not forget the years of oppression they have endured . However , the Greek Americans , like other whites , fail to remember that the African Americans were assaulted by whites in 1943 and faced over two decades of oppression after that . Instead , Zecker noted that the characters in the novel believe that the 1967 Detroit riots are " inexplicable cataclysms that came out of nowhere " .
The novel skims over the brutal attacks , lasting a week , on blacks in Detroit during World War II . Years later , in 1967 , Lefty is incorrectly told that that year 's Detroit riots were started by a black man raping a white woman ; this falsehood is never rectified . However , despite this misinformation , Lefty denies service to a number of white customers who partook in the riots . One dismissed customer even yells at him , " [ w ] hy don 't you go back to your own country ? " , returning the spotlight of racial prejudice on him .
The relationship between the Greek Americans and the African Americans is fraught with prejudice . For example , during the Depression , Desdemona is shocked and humiliated that she will have to work in the Black Bottom , a predominantly black neighborhood . When African Americans are beaten or taken advantage of by whites , the characters in Middlesex " suddenly are nearsighted " to the racial prejudice . Despite being in the United States for only 10 years and having experienced racism herself , she can , Zecker noted , " recite at heart the slights at blacks as lazy , dirty , sexually promiscuous , and incapable of self @-@ help " . She and other whites , including immigrants whites , feel rage because they are " convinced they were somehow forced out of Detroit following 1967 " . While walking through the neighborhood , a group of African @-@ American men loafing in front of a barbershop wolf @-@ whistle to Desdemona and make lascivious comments , thus confirming the racial stereotype .
Zecker remarked that in an ironic twist , immediately after the riots , Desdemona 's family is shamed by a white realtor who " doubts their fitness ( whiteness ) " to live in the rich city Grosse Point . In the 1970s , African Americans , instead of Mediterraneans , were discriminated against through redlining . Zecker opined that by framing African Americans as the " eternal destroyers " and white ethnics as " yet again the oppressed innocents " , Eugenides " captures perfectly the dominant narrative of urban decline in the early twenty @-@ first century American Zeitgeist " . Insurance settlement from the damage caused at the riots allows the Stephanides to purchase a home away from the African Americans . The family participates in the white flight from the city to avoid the racial desegregation in the public schools , sends Cal to a private school .
= = = Ethnic identity = = =
When Lefty and Desdemona are forced to immigrate to the United States , they have different mindsets . Whereas Lefty embraces his new country 's customs , Desdemona is adamant that she will follow her old country 's ways . For example , she is angered that her " immigrant hair " is chopped off because she does not want to " look like an Amerikanidha " and decides to regrow her hair immediately . Lefty attempts to assimilate into American culture by zealously learning English . Lina , the cousin of Lefty and Desdemona , is the paragon of immigrant integration . Cal noted : " In the five years since leaving Turkey , Sourmelina had managed to erase just about everything identifiably Greek about her . "
Cal 's father , Milton , and his friends and family cherish their Sunday gatherings . They debate and tell stories to each other , attempting to regain their ethnic roots . A " contrarian " , Milton enjoys debating Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger and lamenting the steep cost of church candles . Eugenides repeatedly returns the gathering prior to Cal 's conception to " manufacture a psychology that drives his narration " . As the immigrants attempt to maintain their identity , the stage is set for Cal 's writing even before he is conceived .
Middlesex delves into the schism and reconciling of two opposites by contrasting the experiences and opinions of males and females ; Greek Americans and White Anglo @-@ Saxon Protestants ; Greeks and Turks ; and , African Americans and White Americans . Critic Raoul Eshelman noted that despite these conflicts , the narrator is able to achieve " ethnic reconciliation " when he moves to Berlin and lives with the Turks , people who had murdered his forebears in the early 20th century and who had indirectly allowed his grandparents to consummate their incestuous relationship . Alkarim Jivani opined on BBC Television 's current affairs broadcast Newsnight that " [ o ] nly a child of the Diaspora can do that , because we stand on the threshold of two rooms . " The novel also demonstrates that love and family are vital not only to people with unambiguous genders , but also hermaphrodites .
The Greek immigrant family experiences a three @-@ phase acculturation that occurs to immigrant families , according to scholar Merton Lee 's research about sociologist George A. Kourvetaris ' work . Each generation identifies with different nationalities and cultures . In the first generation , the family members classify themselves as having a Greek nationality . In the second generation , the children classify themselves with an American nationality and Greek Orthodox religion . In the third generation , the grandchildren , who comprise the most acculturated group , characterize themselves with " Greek @-@ immigration status as a class " .
The Stephanides lineage is from Bithynios , a village in Asia Minor where the Greek middleman minority is inclined to be in uneasy relations with the Turkish majority . The people of the middleman minority do not assimilate because of their small mercantile businesses and because their host country is antagonistic towards them . Desdemona , a first @-@ generation Greek immigrant , reflects a fixation with not assimilating . She tells her husband Lefty that she does not want to become an " Amerikanidha " and is frightened that her cousin Lina 's husband , Jimmy Zizmo , is a Pontian Greek . Desdemona considers Pontians to be adulterated Greeks because Pontians inhabited Turkey , where some became Muslims and did not follow the Greek Orthodox religion .
Daniel Soar opined that Olympus , a parallel to Bithynios , served well as the starting point of a debacle ( the eventual birth of an intersex person ) that is the " story 's catalyst " . In Mount Olympus during Justinian 's days , silkworm eggs were contraband transported from China to Byzantium by missionaries . A parallel is drawn when Desdemona , a raiser of silk cocoons , attempts to bring them to Detroit . Because the silkworm eggs are considered parasites by the immigration officials , Desdemona must dispose of them . Soar noted that " for the three generations of Greek Americans who people Middlesex , the mulberry trees of Mount Olympus are an appropriately antique beginning : they are the egg inside which everything began " .
= = = Greek mythical allusions = = =
Middlesex has several allusions to Greek classical myths ; for example , the protagonist is named after Calliope , the muse of heroic poetry . Eugenides was partly inspired by the explorations of hermaphrodism in Greek myths to write the novel about an intersex man . In Middlesex , Cal acts out the story of Hermaphroditus , the Greek deity of bisexuality and effeminacy , while eking out a living in San Francisco . While narrating , Cal enters his ancestors ' thoughts and empathizes with them , an ability possessed by Hermaphroditus . The protagonist compared himself to another mythical figure — Tiresias , the blind prophet of Thebes ; the omniscient seer lived seven years as woman because of a curse .
Eugenides and several critics compared Cal 's condition to mythical creatures described by the ancient Greeks . The author alluded his protagonist 's nature and heritage to the Minotaur , the half @-@ man and half @-@ bull creature . Cal 's father is conceived after his grandparents ' attendance of a theatric play entitled The Minotaur . The puzzle of Cal 's genetic identity is akin to the creature 's labyrinth and the thread that leads out of the maze is held here by his paternal grandmother , a former silk farmer . Frances Bartkowski , a scholar of English , named Callie in her puberty as a chimera . The mythical monster is an analogy for a complex personality , a mixture of body parts from various animals that each represents a human aspect or characteristic . Similarly , adolescent Callie is an amalgamation of her genes , neither male nor female , neither adult nor child , and yet all of them at the same time .
In her book column for Detroit Free Press , Marta Salij said that Cal 's identity crisis resembles Odysseus 's fate . Whereas the mythical hero is troubled by Poseidon and succored by Athena , the intersex protagonist is affected by his chromosomes in a similar manner . John Sykes , Professor of English and Religion Education , noted another Greek @-@ hero reference . In a manner similar to Oedipus 's fulfillment of Pythia 's prophecy to slay his father and marry his mother , Callie validates the prediction her grandmother made before her birth by adopting a male identity . Eugenides also used the allusions to Greek mythology and modern pop music to show the passing of familial traits and idiosyncrasies from one generation to the next .
= = = Nature versus nurture = = =
The novel examines the nature versus nurture debate in detail . At the beginning of the novel , Cal writes , " Sing now , O Muse , of the recessive mutation on my fifth chromosome . " He then apologizes , saying , " Sorry if I get a little Homeric at times . That 's genetic , too . " This is an allusion to the poet Homer , who was also captivated with the nature versus nurture debate . In fact , Cal himself confesses , " If you were going to devise an experiment to measure the relative influences of nature versus nurture , you couldn 't come up with anything better than my life . "
Callie inherited the mutation for a gene that causes 5 @-@ alpha @-@ reductase deficiency , which impedes the conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone . While the former hormone causes the brain to become masculine , it is the latter that molds male genitals . When Callie reaches puberty , her testosterone levels increase significantly , resulting in the formation of a larger Adam 's apple , the broadening of her muscles , the deepening of her voice , and the augmentation of her clitoris to resemble a penis . Doctors determine that Callie has the XY chromosomes of a male after inspecting Callie 's genitalia . Callie 's parents bring her to New York City to see Dr. Peter Luce , a foremost expert on hermaphroditism , who believes she should retain her female identity . Luce plans a gender reassignment surgery to make her a female . However , Callie knows that she is sexually attracted to females , and decides to run away to pursue a male identity . When Cal has a sexual relationship with the Japanese @-@ American photographer Julie at the end of the book , he is able to love " without the need to penetrate the object of his desire " .
Mark Lawson of The Guardian noted that the cause of Cal 's hermaphroditic condition is an inherited recessive gene . According to UC Riverside psychology professor Sonja Lyubomirsky , the novel examines how an individual 's traits are due neither solely to nature nor solely to nurture . Similarly , Cal 's gender cannot be defined solely as male or female . Rather , it is both male and female . Addressing how genetic determinism may have renewed the antediluvian beliefs about destiny , Eugenides refutes the post @-@ Freudian beliefs that a person 's traits are mainly due to nurture . Thus , the novel pits evolutionary biology against free will . Eugenides sought to find a compromise between these two views . Explaining that gender is a " very American concept " , he believes that " humans are freer than we realize . Less genetically encumbered " .
= = = Gender identity and intersex status = = =
Raised as a girl , Cal views himself as a girl who likes other girls . His ability to have a " feminine gender schema " despite his having male genes , substantiates the constructionist position that gender identity is fully dependent on outer influences . However , when Callie discovers that he could have been raised as a boy , he renounces his female gender , recognizing his chosen gender identity as a male . Disowning the female gender before he learned about masculine traits bolsters the argument for the " essentialist ideology of identity " . Cal 's embrace of his inherent male identity and renunciation of his childhood female gender identity is articulated when he reflects , " I never felt out of place being a girl , I still don 't feel entirely at home among men . "
Cal exhibits many masculine characteristics when he is a child . He writes , " I began to exude some kind of masculinity , in the way I tossed up and caught my eraser , for instance . " In another incident , Cal discusses how his penchants were masculine . While his female classmates are turned off by the blood in The Iliad , Cal is " thrilled to [ read about ] the stabbings and beheadings , the gouging out of eyes , the juicy eviscerations " . Cal ponders his gender identity and how males and females associate with each other , reflecting , " Did I see through the male tricks because I was destined to scheme that way myself ? Or do girls see through the tricks , too , and just pretend not to notice ? "
Cal also exhibits feminine characteristics , which allows Dr. Luce to classify her as possessing a female gender identity . In a home video taken when Cal was a child , his mother gives him a doll and he nurses it with a milk bottle . Luce carefully observes Callie 's actions and diagnoses them as feminine , which causes him to determine that Callie has a feminine gender identity . Luce then concludes that gender identity is nurtured and etched into children at their young ages .
Determining sex is paradoxical because the characters believe that the outward view of genitalia identifies one 's sex ; Cal 's transformation into a male shatters this belief and the methodology behind determining gender . Eugenides addresses how difficult it was for humans to devise a " universal classification for sex " . Through Cal , scholar Angela Pattatucci Aragon stated , Eugenides opines that the 1876 system devised by Edwin Klebs that used gonad tissue to determine sex provides the most accurate answer .
According to intersex activist and academic Morgan Holmes , Eugenides posits that a person 's sexual attraction determines his or her gender . Cal 's wish to become male because he desires females demonstrates a link between gender identity and sexuality . While Callie is not permitted to love the Obscure Object openly , Cal can freely love Julie . Holmes believed that the depiction of Callie " denies the legitimate place of lesbian desire and rewrites it as male heterosexuality " . Book reviewer Georgia Warnke has a similar view . She wrote that by making these choices in the novel , Eugenides agrees with the belief that being attracted to females is " masculine " and thus it is " more natural " for a male to be attracted to a female than a female be attracted to a female . Daniel Mendelsohn of The New York Review of Books argued that Callie does not have to be a male in order to be drawn towards females ; she could be gay . As an adult , Cal brags , " Breasts have the same effect on me as on anyone with my testosterone level . " Mendelsohn noted that this assertion will astonish " Eugenides 's ( presumably testosterone @-@ rich ) gay male readership " . Scholar Rachel Carroll agreed , writing that teenage Callie 's erotic interest in girls is " retroactively explained and legitimized , by the discovery of his ' true biological nature ' " . Cal 's gender identity postdates rather than predates his sexual interests . Carroll posited that Cal 's inability to form heterosexual relationships as an adult is founded not upon his being intersex , but on his rejection of the sexual ambiguities that form his sexual interests as a youth .
When Callie is in New York , she goes to the New York Public Library and searches for the meaning of the word " hermaphrodite " ; she is shocked when the dictionary entry concludes with " See synonyms at MONSTER " . Callie is not a Frankenstein ; she is more like Bigfoot or the Loch Ness Monster . Bartkowski stated that Eugenides ' message is " we must let our monsters out — they demand and deserve recognition — they are us : our same , self , others . " Morgan Holmes , formerly of ISNA , describes how the book constructs an intersex character whose life reproduces " social fascination with the monstrous and the deviant . "
Sarah Graham wrote in Ariel , a journal published by University of Calgary , that Eugenides ' " persisen [ t ] " use of the word " hermaphrodite " , instead of " intersex " , alludes to Hermaphroditus . Hermaphroditus , a young man , is chased by the nymph Salmacis . She begs the Gods to bind her and Hermaphroditus together , and the Gods literally fulfill her wish . Hermaphroditus ' name is a compound of his parent 's names — Hermes and Aphrodite . He instantaneously turns into someone of both sexes . Devastated because he is no longer fully male , he " curses " the location where he first met Salmacis . Graham stated that the use of " hermaphrodite " carries negative connotations :
Based on this origin story , the hermaphrodite 's lot is miserable , associated with disempowerment , the theft of identity and an unhappy dual existence . In addition , the term " hermaphrodite " may be deemed problematic because it alludes to an impossible state of being : no @-@ one can be equally male and female and the preferred term " intersex " indicates a blended rather than divided state . While the modern term might indicate the possibility of redefining sexual ambivalence , Cal is associated in the novel with the mythic term and all it connotes . His connection to this tragic figure is confirmed by his performance as " Hermaphroditus " in a sex show at the age of fourteen , just as he is beginning his female to male transition .
Writing that he belongs to the Intersex Society of America , Cal notes that he has not participated in any of the group 's rallies because he is not a " political person " . While discussing political activism , Cal uses the word " intersex " , though in other parts of the novel , he uses the word " hermaphrodite " . In the 1920s , Bernice L. Hausman described " intersexuality " as a " continuum of physiological and anatomical sex differences " , contesting the notion of a " true sex " concealed in the tissues of the body . Though " hermaphrodite " is burdened by the implications of the anomaly , " intersexuality " is a neologism that tries to " naturalize various sexes , which themselves are naturally occurring " . Because Cal uses " hermaphrodite " , he indicates that the sole normal genders are the classifications of male and female . Eugenides was asked by an Oprah 's Book Club member why he used the term " hermaphrodite " despite its usage being " either terribly ignorant or unforgivably callous " . Eugenides replied that he reserved " hermaphrodite " for a literary character : Hermaphroditus . He further stated : " When speaking about real people , I should — and I do my best to — use the term ' intersex ' . " Noting that one of the initial sources he consulted was the journal Hermaphrodites with Attitude published by the Intersex Society of North America , he said that those writers have " co @-@ opted " the term " hermaphrodite " . Their action is reminiscent , Eugenides wrote , of how some members of the gay community have " reclaimed " the term " queer " . Eugenides stated that it is no surprise that Cal uses " hermaphrodite " and further elaborated : " It 's paradoxical : Cal can say ' hermaphodite ' but I can 't . Or shouldn 't . "
= = = Incest and intersex = = =
Incest and intersex is another theme in Middlesex . Eugenides examines the passionate feelings that siblings living in seclusion experience for each other . Milton and Tessie , second cousins , are conceived during the same night , hinting to the incest of Desdemona and Lefty . Desdemona and Lefty 's incestuous relationship is a transgression of a powerful taboo , indicating that someone will suffer for their wrongs ; in a way , Cal 's intersex condition symbolizes this Greek hubris . In another incestuous relationship , Milton makes love to Tessie using a clarinet which he lovingly rubs against her ; their incestuous relationship enables them to contribute mutated genes to their child Cal . Cal 's mother interferes with fate by attempting to make her second child a daughter . Cal believes this interference was a factor in his being a hermaphrodite . Conversely , Cal 's relationship with his brother , Chapter Eleven , is indicative of the possible dissimilarities that are products of the biosocial .
Thea Hillman , an intersex activist and board member for ( the now defunct ) Intersex Society of North America ( ISNA ) , wrote in the Lambda Book Report , 2002 , that the combination of incest and intersex is " inaccurate and misleading " . Noting that incest is a loathed social taboo that has " shameful , pathological and criminal repercussions " , she criticized Eugenides for underscoring that Cal 's intersex condition is due to incest . Hillman stated that this adds to the fallacious belief that intersex people are " shameful and sick " and a danger to society 's wellbeing .
Sarah Graham agrees with Hillman and Holmes , writing that Cal is paralleled with the tragic Greek mythological characters Hermaphroditus , Tiresias , and the Minotaur . She opined that other " deviant " characters in the novel such as Lefty and Desdemona are spared the " tragic or monstrous " allusions even though there are numerous examples of incest in Greek mythology . She listed the marriage of Oedipus and his mother Jocasta , as well as the son Adonis produced by the incest between Theias and his daughter Smyrna as examples . Therefore , Graham stated that comparing Cal , a hermaphrodite , to people who were " mythological monsters " is " complicit with [ the ] exploitation " of intersex people .
= = Reception = =
= = = Honors and adaptation = = =
In 2003 , Middlesex was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction . The Pulitzer Board wrote in their report that Middlesex is a " vastly realized , multi @-@ generational novel as highspirited as it is intelligent . . . Like the masks of Greek drama , Middlesex is equal parts comedy and tragedy , but its real triumph is its emotional abundance , delivered with consummate authority and grace . " Eugenides was attending the Prague Writers ' Festival when Middlesex won the Pulitzer Prize . When a young Associated Press photographer notified him about winning the award , Eugenides was dubious , noting that " [ i ] t seemed very unlikely that he would be the messenger of such news . " At the time , Eugenides was with the Canadian author Yann Martel who confirmed the photographer 's words after checking on the hotel 's computer . A waiter brought champagne to Eugenides , and Greek women started kissing him . When journalists called Eugenides , he declined to take their calls , saying in an interview later that he wanted to " celebrate the moment instead of leaping immediately into the media maelstrom " .
The novel received the Ambassador Book Award , Spain 's Santiago de Compostela Literary Prize , and the Great Lakes Book Award . In 2003 , it was a finalist in the fictional category of the National Book Critics Circle Award . Middlesex was also a finalist for the Lambda Literary Award , which is given to LGBT literature . In 2003 , the novel was shortlisted for but did not win the International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award . Entertainment Weekly , the Los Angeles Times , and The New York Times Book Review considered Middlesex to be one of the best books in 2002 . In 2007 , Oprah Winfrey chose Middlesex to be discussed in her book club . Eugenides was a guest on Oprah 's show with several intersex individuals who told stories about their lives . In 2011 , Eugenides was interviewed by University College London English professor John Mullan in The Guardian Book Club .
The audiobook version of Middlesex was released by Macmillan Audio in September 2002 . Read by Kristoffer Tabori , the audiobook has 28 sides , each side having a unique style of introductory music that complements the atmosphere and plot of the saga . In 2003 , the audiobook received an Audie Award in the " unabridged fiction " category .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Some critics were dissatisfied with the scope of the novel . Daniel Mendelsohn of The New York Times Book Review wrote that thematically , there was no reason that a Greek should be an intersex or vice versa and that Eugenides had two disconnected stories to tell . Caly Risen of Flak Magazine believed that the immigrant experience was the " heart of the novel " , lamenting that it minimized the story of Callie / Cal who is such a " fascinating character that the reader feels short @-@ changed by his failure to take her / him further " . Risen wished to read more about the events between Cal 's adolescence and adulthood , such as Cal 's experience in college as an intersex person as well as the relationships he had . The Washington Post 's Lisa Zeidner opined that Eugenides purposefully devised this asymmetry . Stewart O 'Nan of The Atlantic also felt that the brief description of Callie 's childhood was lacking ; the book " gloss [ es ] over " how her mother did not recognize that Callie had male genitalia when she was washing or clothing Callie . Further , O 'Nan characterized Cal 's relationship with the Japanese @-@ American photographer Julie as " underdeveloped " , causing the reader not to experience its entirety . Michelle Vellucci of People had the same view about the novel 's end , writing that the conclusion felt " rushed " .
Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly called the novel a " big @-@ hearted , restless story " and rated it an A minus . Lisa Zeidner of the Washington Post opined that Middlesex " provides not only incest à la Ada and a Lolita @-@ style road trip , but enough dense detail to keep fans of close reading manically busy . " Tami Hoag of People concurred , writing that " this feast of a novel is thrilling in the scope of its imagination and surprising in its tenderness " . Andrew O 'Hehir of Salon agreed , praising Middlesex as an " epic and wondrous " novel filled with numerous characters and historical occurrences . Mendelsohn praised Middlesex for its " dense narrative , interwoven with sardonic , fashionably postmodern commentary " . However , he criticized the novel as a disjointed hybrid . He wrote Eugenides was successful with the story of the Greek immigrants , which he described as " authenti [ c ] " , but mishandled the hermaphrodite material , which Mendelsohn characterized as " unpersuasiv [ e ] " . The Economist review stated that a more concise , concentrated depiction of hermaphroditism would have made the book more " fun to read " . Jeff Zaleski of Publishers Weekly praised Eugenides ' portrayal of the girl , Callie , and the man Cal . Zaleski wrote that " [ i ] t 's difficult to imagine any serious male writer of earlier eras so effortlessly transcending the stereotypes of gender . " Paul Quinn of Contemporary Literary Criticism commended the novel , writing : " That Eugenides manages to move us without sinking into sentiment shows how successfully he has avoided the tentacles of irony which grip so many writers of his generation . " Christina McCarroll of The Christian Science Monitor wrote that " Eugenides wrangles with a destiny that mutates and recombines like restless chromosomes , in a novel of extraordinary flexibility , scope , and emotional depth . "
Marta Salij of the Detroit Free Press was impressed with the book 's depiction of Detroit , writing " [ a ] t last Detroit has its novel . What Dublin got from James Joyce — a sprawling , ambitious , loving , exasperated and playful chronicle of all its good and bad parts — Detroit has from native son Eugenides in these 500 pages . " David Kipen of the San Francisco Chronicle agreed , opining " [ a ] mong so many other things , this praiseworthy , prize @-@ worthy yarn succeeds as a heartbroken mash note to the Detroit of Eugenides ' birth , a city whose neighborhoods he sometimes appears to love — as he loves his characters — less for their virtues than for their defects . Any book that can make a reader actively want to visit Detroit must have one honey of a tiger in its tank . " .
Several critics have nominated the book for the title of " Great American Novel " . Tim Morris , a professor at the University of Texas at Arlington , wrote that the novel was " the latest in a long line of contenders for the status of Great American Novel " , and compared Cal to Huckleberry Finn , the narrator of Invisible Man , and J. Sutter in John Henry Days . Alexander Linklater of the Evening Standard commented that American publishers chose Middlesex as the next Great American Novel to generate progress for American fiction and that Eugenides is considered the " next stepping stone along from Jonathan Franzen " . Dan Cryer of Newsday wrote that with the publication of Middlesex , " [ f ] inally , Detroit has its very own great American novel " .
David Gates of Newsweek contrasted Eugenides ' debut novel The Virgin Suicides with Middlesex , writing that the first novel was " ingenious " , " entertaining " , and " oddly moving " , but that Middlesex is " ingenious " , " entertaining " , and " ultimately not @-@ so @-@ moving " . Despite this criticism , Gates considered Middlesex to be the novel where Eugenides " finally plays his metafictional ace " . Commenting that Middlesex is " more discursive and funnier " than The Virgin Suicides , Laura Miller of Salon wrote that the two novels deal with disunity . Max Watman of The New Criterion concurred , noting that Middlesex is " funny , big , embracing , and wonderful " , unlike Eugenides ' first novel . Mark Lawson of The Guardian praised Middlesex for having the same unique qualities as The Virgin Suicides , commenting that Middlesex had " an ability to describe the horrible in a comic voice , an unusual form of narration and an eye for bizarre detail " . Lawson noted that whereas Middlesex deals with the " links " among gender , life , and genes , The Virgin Suicides deals with the " connections " between gender and death .
According to Olivia Banner of Signs , medical journals generally had positive reviews of the novel for its depiction of the inner lives of intersex people . Writing in Archives of Disease in Childhood , Simon Fountain @-@ Polley praised the novel , writing : " All clinicians , and families who have faced gender crises or difficult life @-@ changing decision [ s ] on identity should read this book ; delve into an emotional trip of discovery — where the slightest direction change could lead to myriad different lives " . Abraham Bergman wrote in the Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine : " Yes , it is fiction , but I cannot imagine a more authentic and sensitive voice . Because our interactions usually take place in limited and structured setting such as offices and hospitals , pediatricians have scant opportunity to learn how our young patients think . One way to sharpen our awareness is to listen to children 's voices as they are expressed in books . In Middlesex , the voice is loud and clear . " Banner noted that most of the reviews in intersex and queer publications praised Middlesex . She posited that the problematic issues of a " heteromasculine @-@ identified narrator " and the " fact that it was authored by a heterosexual man " may have been outweighed by the necessity for an appropriate reading that " destigmatizes ambiguous sex " .
Eugenides ' third novel , The Marriage Plot , was published in 2011 . Reviewer William Deresiewicz contrasted The Marriage Plot and Middlesex , writing that the former was " far more intimate in tone and scale " . The Marriage Plot follows two years in the lives of three characters , fourth @-@ year Brown University students in 1982 , whereas Middlesex follows the lives of three generations of characters . Deresiewicz preferred the 2011 novel , writing that " [ t ] he books are far apart in quality " . He criticized Middlesex for its " [ c ] lanking prose , clunky exposition , transparent devices , telegraphed moves " , " a hash of narrative contrivances with very little on its mind " . On a more positive note , Deresiewicz lauded Eugenides ' colorful depiction of " young love " across his three novels . In The Virgin Suicides , Eugenides resplendently portrayed the intense fear during virginal sex , as well as Gabriel García Márquez , the 1982 Nobel Prize in Literature laureate ; in Middlesex , the single event in which the novel " comes to life " is Eugenides ' depiction of Callie 's liaison with her adolescent lover ; and in The Marriage Plot , the novel was exceptional in its " sweet banter of courtship " and the " doormat nice @-@ boy role " the character Mitchell assumes in his interplay with his darling , Madeleine .
= = = Sales = = =
From the book 's publication until the early months of 2003 , its sales were unsatisfactory , according to Bill Goldstein of The New York Times . In the week following April 7 , 2003 , the day Middlesex won the Pulitzer Prize , the book sold 2 @,@ 700 copies . The book later made the best @-@ selling fiction list and kept its position for five weeks . In June 2007 , the novel ranked seventh on USA Today 's Best @-@ Selling Books list . In the same month , after Eugenides appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show to discuss the novel , Middlesex placed second on The New York Times best @-@ selling paperback fiction list . The Pulitzer award nearly propelled Middlesex to The New York Times Best Seller list , which in 2003 published only the top 15 bestsellers ; in the week after Middlesex was announced the winner of the Pulitzer Prize , the novel placed 17th on the " expanded list " . In 2007 , 1 @.@ 3 million copies of the book had been sold . The same year , the book placed ninth on the Library Journal bestsellers list , which ranks " the books most borrowed in U.S. libraries " . By May 2011 , over three million copies of Middlesex had been sold .
= Utah State Route 202 =
State Route 202 ( SR @-@ 202 ) is a 1 @.@ 907 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 069 km ) long state highway in the U.S. state of Utah that serves as a connector , linking SR @-@ 201 to Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) in rural Salt Lake County . The road has existed since at least 1937 , when it connected U.S. Route 40 ( US @-@ 40 ) and US @-@ 50 via the Garfield Cut @-@ Off Road . It also serves as the eastbound on @-@ ramp for I @-@ 80 .
= = Route description = =
Located entirely in Salt Lake County , Utah , SR @-@ 202 begins at an intersection with SR @-@ 201 and 11500 West northwest of Magna , Utah . The road travels northwesterly , bordered on the east by a large tailing pond owned by Kennecott Utah Copper and part of the former Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad rail line , which is now owned by the Union Pacific Railroad ( UP ) . The parallel rail line intersects a pair of east – west rail lines , the southern line being UP main line , and the northern line being the Feather River Route of the former Western Pacific Railroad , which is now owned by UP . After crossing the rail lines , SR @-@ 202 intersects with I @-@ 80 near the Great Salt Lake State Park and comes to a terminus at the I @-@ 80 frontage road , which provides access to the Great Salt Lake State Park and to the Saltair resort . Kennecott Utah Copper owns all of the land surrounding SR @-@ 202 , except for the right @-@ of @-@ way for the railroad , and the highway itself .
SR @-@ 202 serves as the eastbound ramp from SR @-@ 201 onto Interstate I @-@ 80 , because at its intersection with I @-@ 80 , the SR @-@ 201 ( which is the southern terminus of SR @-@ 202 ) traffic only has the option to continue on I @-@ 80 westbound , and does not have an offramp to eastbound I @-@ 80 . Traffic on SR @-@ 202 has increased 12 % between 2002 and 2007 , with a daily average of 735 cars per day using SR @-@ 202 in 2007 , compared to 475 cars per day in 2002 . Half of the traffic on SR @-@ 202 consists of buses and trucks .
= = History = =
Two other roads have been designated Utah State Route 202 in the past . From 1939 to 1953 , the name was used by the road that formed the eastern approach to Mercur , Utah and later became part of SR @-@ 73 . From 1961 to 1967 , the name was used by Main Street between SR @-@ 201 ( 2100 South ) and SR @-@ 171 in downtown Salt Lake City , which is now part of Utah State Route 186 .
The road that currently carries the SR @-@ 202 designation has existed since 1937 , when it connected US @-@ 40 and US @-@ 50 along the Garfield Cut @-@ Off Road . The Utah State Legislature designated the road SR @-@ 202 in 1969 , thus taking responsibility of maintaining the road from the county . No changes or alterations have been made to SR @-@ 202 , except for the legal definition of the road , which has changed twice since it was formed .
On September 26 , 2008 , a sulfuric acid spill occurred , reported by people in vehicles traveling on Interstate 80 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Salt Lake County .
= Lifesong =
Lifesong is the second studio album by American Christian rock band Casting Crowns , released on August 30 , 2005 by Beach Street Records and Reunion Records . Produced by Mark A. Miller , Lifesong was the follow @-@ up to the band 's self @-@ titled debut album . Although the unexpected success of the first album led to tremendous demand for new music from Casting Crowns , lead vocalist Mark Hall was advised by Steven Curtis Chapman ( a co @-@ producer of the debut album ) and Mac Powell not to worry about commercial expectations . Lifesong , which has a pop rock and adult contemporary sound , focuses on challenging believers and indicting piousness and hypocrisy in the Christian church . Worship themes are also prominent in the album .
Lifesong was received positively by music critics . Many critics praised the album 's songwriting , although others felt the album 's sound was derivative . The album and its singles were nominated for many awards , with the album winning the Grammy Award for Best Pop / Contemporary Gospel Album at the 48th Grammy Awards and the Dove Award for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year at the 37th GMA Dove Awards . It debuted and peaked at number nine on the Billboard 200 and number on the Billboard Christian Albums chart , selling 71 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The 15th best @-@ selling Christian album of the 2000s in the United States , Lifesong has been certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and has sold 1 @.@ 4 million copies in the United States . All of the album 's singles topped the Billboard Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts .
= = Background and recording = =
Following the unexpected success of their first album , there was tremendous demand for new music from Casting Crowns . Although lead vocalist Mark Hall , who either wrote or co @-@ wrote all the songs on the album , felt " a little worried " about the band 's follow @-@ up album , fellow recording artists Steven Curtis Chapman ( who co @-@ produced the band 's first album ) and Mac Powell of Christian rock band Third Day encouraged Hall to " say what God wants you to say " . They also advised him to not worry about commercial expectations or whether " people are going to like it " . Ultimately , Hall " absorbed " the feedback their first record had received , using it as inspiration . Lifesong focuses mainly on the " truth @-@ can @-@ be @-@ a @-@ tough @-@ pill @-@ to @-@ swallow message " that " there are broken people within arm ’ s reach of the church , and if there is any hope of healing , it begins with people who will be the hands and feet of Jesus " . Hall responded to critics who felt the band 's material was " preaching to the choir " by saying " How can writing songs that challenge the church , songs that ask Christians to consider their actions , be a bad thing ? After all , it ’ s the message that matters ... Everybody is passionate about what they do , about what they feel called to , so for one to say the other ’ s ministry is more or less meaningful or spiritual or anything is ridiculous " . Hall also felt that there were " too many walls in Christian music " and said " I think people listen to you if you ’ re transparent ... People want to hear the truth . You just hang around church for a while , and you ’ ll see . People don ’ t want you to talk around it . They want you to tell it like it is , even if it hurts " . Hall ultimately wrote songs such as " Does Anybody Hear Her " and " Stained Glass Masquerade " , which " challenge believers " . According to Hall , he was trying to say that he didn 't think it bothers the world if people in the church sin . Rather , he felt that the world is bothered when Christians act like they don 't sin .
Lifesong was produced by Mark A. Miller , with recording and mixing done by Sam Hewitt at Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee . Additional recording was done at Lifesong Studio in McDonough , Georgia . The album was mastered by Richard Dodd and engineered by Dale Oliver and John Lewis Lee III . The strings on the album were arranged by Bobby Huff and were recorded at Little Big Studio by Boeho Shin and Daewoo Kim .
= = Composition = =
Musically , Lifesong is influenced by adult contemporary and pop rock music . The album also has influence from worship music in the vein of U2 , with songs building into " sweeping choruses and dramatic climaxes " . Much of the album 's lyrical content is devoted to challenging the Christian church and indicting hypocrisy and piousness within the church . Songs such as the title track and " Father , Spirit , Jesus " have worshipful lyrics while others such as " Stained Glass Masquerade " note the inability of church congregations to share their burdens openly . " Does Anybody Hear Her " condemns the church 's focus on judging rather than realizing pain and gives the message than condemning other people is wrong . " Set Me Free " is set from the perspective of " the demon @-@ possessed man " , who is calling to Jesus for relief . It also incorporates more of a rock sound than Casting Crowns normally uses .
= = Critical reception and accolades = =
Lifesong received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Kim Jones of About.com gave it five out of five stars , saying " Bottom line - my hat goes off to Casting Crowns for a job well done , once again . This is one band that doesn 't soft @-@ pedal their message , even if it is one that people enjoying a " comfort @-@ zone " may not want to hear " . Jared Johnson of AllMusic gave the album four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , opining " One of the brightest spots on the CCM map in 2005 , Lifesong was powered by a second dose of Mark Hall 's earnestly challenging worship themes and a penchant for reflective pop ... From start to finish , the album showcases songwriting that is consistent , polished , and potent , furthering the septet 's reputation as one of Christian music 's most popular acts of the 21st century " . Deborah Evans Price of Billboard said that " there is no sophomore letdown here for Casting Crowns ... This is intelligent , soulful music that goes beyond mere entertainment to something deeper " . David McCreary of CCM Magazine gave Lifesong an A- , opining " staying true to their approach of assimilating crisp melodies , forthright lyrics and stout vocals , the Crowns effectively blend uptempo worship anthems and emotive ballads for another well @-@ balanced set " . Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today gave the album three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , calling the music " derivative " , said that " [ Casting Crowns ] fans will find much to love , while others continue to ponder the secret of this band 's success . All can probably agree that Lifesong is a sequel in the truest sense , offering more of the same to the delight of those so touched and inspired by the music of Casting Crowns the first time " .
Simon Eden of Cross Rhythms gave the album ten out of ten squares , saying " With ' Lifesong ' being officially [ Casting Crowns ' ] second release , the pressure is on to see if they can deliver . The simple answer is quite probably yes as the band use a refreshing formula that challenges the Church instead of serving up milk and cookies " . John DiBiase of Jesus Freak Hideout gave it three out of five stars , opining " Overall , Lifesong is musically an assortment of experimentation and familiarity , as the band continues to offer songs with relatable messages to the church body . Frontman and chief songwriter Mark Hall 's strained , shouting @-@ style vocals is [ sic ] still an acquired taste , along with his straightforward and often simplistic lyrics , but Lifesong is a noteworthy second chapter in an already impressive career for this young band " . Brian Mansfield of USA Today gave the album two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars , commenting " [ Casting Crowns ] comes from the school of U2 @-@ influenced modern @-@ worship music , so its songs predictably build to sweeping choruses and dramatic climaxes . The band 's message is more distinctive , calling out the " happy plastic people under shiny plastic steeples " to offer themselves to the lonely , the grieving , the desperate " .
Lifesong and its singles received various awards and nominations . At the 48th Grammy Awards , it received the Grammy Award for Best Pop / Contemporary Gospel Album . It received the Dove Award for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year award at the 37th GMA Dove Awards . The album 's title track won the Dove Award for Pop / Contemporary Song of the Year and was nominated for the Dove Award for Song of the Year at the 37th GMA Dove Awards . " Praise You In This Storm " won the Dove Award for Pop / Contemporary Song of the Year at the 38th GMA Dove Awards and was nominated for the Dove Award for Worship Song of the Year at the 39th GMA Dove Awards .
= = Release and promotion = =
Lifesong was released on August 30 , 2005 . It sold 71 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , debuting at number nine on the Billboard 200 and Billboard Christian Albums chart . It spent a total of two weeks atop the Christian Albums chart and later appeared on the Billboard Catalog Albums chart in 2007 , peaking at number thirty @-@ four . By April 1 , 2006 , Lifesong had sold 503 @,@ 000 copies . It had sold 950 @,@ 000 copies by August 25 , 2007 and , as of December 5 , 2009 , it has sold a total of 1 @.@ 2 million copies . As of March 2014 , the album has sold 1 @.@ 4 million copies .
Three official singles ( " Lifesong " , " Praise You In This Storm " , " Does Anybody Hear Her " ) were released in promotion of Lifesong . All of the singles topped the Billboard Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts . An additional song , " Set Me Free " , was released to Christian CHR radio , and peaked at number 23 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Mark Hall except where noted .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits lifted from the album liner notes of Lifesong .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Barry Bonds =
Barry Lamar Bonds ( born July 24 , 1964 ) is an American former professional baseball left fielder who played 22 seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) with the Pittsburgh Pirates and San Francisco Giants . Bonds received seven NL MVP awards and 14 All @-@ Star selections , and is considered to be one of the greatest baseball players of all time . Bonds is currently the co @-@ hitting coach for the Miami Marlins along with Frank Menechino .
Bonds was regarded as an exceptional hitter , and finished his regular season career with a very high on @-@ base percentage ( .444 ) and isolated power ( .309 ) . He holds many MLB hitting records , including most career home runs , most home runs in a single season ( 73 , set in 2001 ) and most career walks . He also received eight Gold Gloves for his defense in the outfield . He is ranked second in career Wins Above Replacement among all major league position players by both Fangraphs and Baseball @-@ Reference.com , behind only Babe Ruth .
Bonds led a controversial career , notably as a central figure in baseball 's steroids scandal . In 2007 , he was indicted on charges of perjury and obstruction of justice for allegedly lying to the grand jury during the federal government 's investigation of BALCO . The perjury charges against Bonds were dropped , and he was also initially convicted of obstruction of justice , but that was overturned in 2015 .
Bonds has not been elected into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in his first four years of eligibility .
Before the 2016 MLB Season , it was announced that Bonds would become the hitting coach for the Miami Marlins .
= = Early life = =
Born in Riverside , California to former major leaguer Bobby Bonds and the former Patricia Howard , Bonds grew up in San Carlos , California and attended Junípero Serra High School in San Mateo , California and excelled in baseball , basketball and football . He played on the junior varsity team during his freshman year and the remainder of his high school career on the varsity team . He batted for a .467 batting average his senior year , and was named prep All @-@ American . The Giants drafted Bonds in the second round of the 1982 MLB draft as a high school senior , but the Giants and Bonds were unable to agree on contract terms when Tom Haller 's maximum offer was $ 70 @,@ 000 ( $ 171 @,@ 645 today ) and Bond 's minimum to go pro was $ 75 @,@ 000 , so Bonds instead decided to attend college .
= = College career = =
Bonds attended Arizona State University , hitting .347 with 45 home runs and 175 runs batted in ( RBI ) . In 1984 he batted .360 and had 30 stolen bases . In 1985 he hit 23 home runs with 66 RBIs and a .368 batting average . He was a Sporting News All @-@ American selection that year . He tied the NCAA record with seven consecutive hits in the College World Series as sophomore and was named to All @-@ Time College World Series Team in 1996 . He graduated from Arizona State in 1986 with a degree in criminology . He was named ASU On Deck Circle Most Valuable Player ; other winners include Dustin Pedroia , Willie Bloomquist , Paul Lo Duca , and Ike Davis . During college , he played part of one summer in the amateur Alaska Baseball League with the Alaska Goldpanners .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Draft and minor leagues = = =
The Pittsburgh Pirates drafted Bonds as the sixth overall pick of the 1985 Major League Baseball draft . He joined the Prince William Pirates of the Carolina League and was named July 1985 Player of the Month for the league . In 1986 , he hit .311 in 44 games for the Hawaii Islanders of the Pacific Coast League .
= = = Pittsburgh Pirates ( 1986 – 92 ) = = =
Before Bonds made it to the major leagues in Pittsburgh , Pirate fan attendance was low , with 1984 and 1985 attendance below 10 @,@ 000 per game for the 81 @-@ game home schedule . Bonds made his major league debut on May 30 , 1986 . In 1986 , Bonds led National League ( NL ) rookies with 16 home runs , 48 RBI , 36 stolen bases and 65 walks , but he finished 6th in Rookie of the Year voting . He played center field in 1986 , but switched to left field with the arrival of centerfielder Andy Van Slyke in 1987 .
In his early years , Bonds batted as the leadoff hitter . With Van Slyke also in the outfield , the Pirates had a venerable defensive tandem that worked together to cover a lot of ground on the field although they were not close off the field . The Pirates experienced a surge in fan enthusiasm with Bonds on the team and set the club attendance record of 52 @,@ 119 in the 1987 home opener . That year , he hit 25 home runs in his second season , along with 32 stolen bases and 59 RBIs .
Bonds improved in 1988 , hitting .283 with 24 home runs . The Pirates broke the record set the previous year with 54 @,@ 089 attending the home opener . Bonds now fit into a highly respected lineup featuring Bobby Bonilla , Van Slyke and Jay Bell . He finished with 19 homers , 58 RBIs , and 14 outfield assists in 1989 , which was second in the NL . Following the season , rumors that he would be traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers for Jeff Hamilton and John Wetteland , but the team denied the rumors and no such trade occurred .
Bonds won his first MVP Award in 1990 , hitting .301 with 33 home runs and 114 RBIs . He also stole 52 bases , which were third in the league , to become a first @-@ time member of the 30 – 30 club . He won his first Gold Glove Award and Silver Slugger Award . That year , the Pirates won the National League East title for their first postseason berth since winning the 1979 World Series . However , the Cincinnati Reds ( whose last post @-@ season berth had also been in 1979 ; they lost to the Pirates in that year 's NLCS ) defeated the Pirates in the NLCS en route to winning the World Championship .
In 1991 , Bonds also put up great numbers , hitting 25 homers and driving in 116 runs , and obtained another Gold Glove and Silver Slugger . He finished second to the Atlanta Braves ' Terry Pendleton ( the NL batting champion ) in the MVP voting . The Pirates slugging outfield of Bonds , Bonilla and Van Slyke performed miserably in the 1990 and 1991 playoffs hitting .190 in 1990 ( 12 for 63 ) and .200 in 1991 ( 15 for 75 ) .
In March 1992 , Pirates general manager Ted Simmons agreed to a deal with Atlanta Braves counterpart John Schuerholz to trade Bonds , in exchange for Alejandro Peña , Keith Mitchell , and a player to be named later . Pirates manager Jim Leyland opposed the trade vehemently , and the proposal was rescinded . Bonds stayed with Pittsburgh and won his second MVP award that season . While hitting .311 with 34 homers and 103 RBIs , he propelled the Pirates to their third straight National League East division title . However , Pittsburgh was defeated by the Braves in a seven @-@ game National League Championship Series . Bonds participated in the final play of Game 7 of the NLCS , whereby he fielded a base hit by Francisco Cabrera and attempted to throw out Sid Bream at home plate . But the throw to Pirates catcher Mike LaValliere was late and Bream scored the winning run . For the third consecutive season , the NL East Champion Pirates were denied a trip to the World Series . Following the loss , Bonds and star teammate Doug Drabek were expected to command salaries too high for Pittsburgh to again sign them .
= = = San Francisco Giants ( 1993 – 2007 ) = = =
= = = = 1993 season = = = =
In 1993 , Bonds left the Pirates to sign a lucrative free agent contract worth a then @-@ record $ 43 @.@ 75 million ( $ 71 @.@ 7 million today ) over six years with the Giants , with whom his father had spent the first seven years of his career , and with whom his godfather Willie Mays played 22 of his 24 Major League seasons . The deal was at that time the largest in baseball history , in terms of both total value and average annual salary .
Once he signed with the Giants , Bonds had intended to wear 24 , his number during most of his stay with the Pirates , and after receiving Mays ' blessing the Giants were willing to unretire it until the public commotion from fans and media became too much . To honor his father , Bonds switched his jersey number to 25 , as it had been Bobby 's number in San Francisco .
Bonds hit .336 in 1993 , leading the league with 46 home runs and 123 RBI en route to his second consecutive MVP award , and third overall . As good as the Giants were ( winning 103 games ) , the Atlanta Braves won 104 in what some call the last great pennant race ( due to the Wild Card being instituted shortly after ) .
= = = = 1994 season = = = =
In the lockout @-@ shortened season of 1994 , Bonds hit .312 with 37 home runs and a league @-@ leading 74 walks , and he finished 4th in MVP voting .
= = = = 1995 season = = = =
In 1995 , Bonds hit 33 homers and drove in 104 runs , hitting .294 but finished only 12th in MVP voting . In 1994 , he appeared in a small role as himself in the television film Jane 's House , starring James Woods and Anne Archer .
= = = = 1996 season = = = =
In 1996 , Bonds became the first National League player and second ( of the current list of four ) major league player ( s ) to hit 40 home runs and steal 40 bases in the same season . The other members of the 40 – 40 club are José Canseco – 1988 , Alex Rodriguez – 1998 , and Alfonso Soriano – 2006 ; his father Bobby Bonds was one home run short in 1973 when he hit 39 home runs and stole 43 bases .
Bonds hit his 300th and 301st home runs off the Florida Marlins ' John Burkett on April 27 . He became the fourth player in history to join the 300 – 300 club with 300 stolen bases and 300 home runs for a career , joining Willie Mays , Andre Dawson , and his father . Bonds ' totals for the season included 129 runs driven in , a .308 average and a then @-@ National League record 151 walks . He finished fifth in the MVP balloting .
= = = = 1997 season = = = =
In 1997 Bonds hit .291 , his lowest average since 1989 . He hit 40 home runs for the second straight year and drove in 101 runs , leading the league in walks again with 145 . He tied his father in 1997 for having the most 30 / 30 seasons , and he again placed fifth in the MVP balloting .
= = = = 1998 season = = = =
With two outs in the 9th inning of a game against the Arizona Diamondbacks on May 28 , 1998 , Bonds became only the fifth player in baseball history to be given an intentional walk with the bases loaded . Nap Lajoie ( 1901 ) , Del Bissonette ( 1928 ) and Bill Nicholson ( 1944 ) were three others in the 20th century who received that rare honor . The first to receive one was Abner Dalrymple in 1881 . During a game against the Philadelphia Phillies on August 2 , Bonds was hit by a pitch thrown by Ricky Bottalico , leading to Bonds charging the mound and triggering a bench @-@ clearing brawl .
On August 23 , Bonds hit his 400th career home run . By doing so , he became the first player ever to enter the 400 – 400 club by having career totals of 400 home runs and 400 stolen bases . The milestone home run came off Kirt Ojala , who , like Burkett , was pitching for the Marlins . For the season , he hit .303 with 37 home runs and drove in 122 runs , winning his eighth Gold Glove , He finished 8th in the MVP voting .
= = = = 1999 season = = = =
Bill James ranked Bonds as the best player of the 1990s . He added that the decade 's second @-@ best player , Craig Biggio , had been closer in production to the decade 's 10th @-@ best player than to Bonds . In 1999 , with statistics through 1997 being considered , Bonds ranked Number 34 on The Sporting News ' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players , making him the highest @-@ ranking active player .
When the Sporting News list was redone in 2005 , Bonds was ranked 6th behind Babe Ruth , Willie Mays , Ty Cobb , Walter Johnson , and Hank Aaron . Bonds was omitted from 1999 's Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team , to which Ken Griffey , Jr. was elected . James wrote of Bonds , " Certainly the most unappreciated superstar of my lifetime . ... Griffey has always been more popular , but Bonds has been a far , far greater player . " In 1999 , he rated Bonds as the 16th @-@ best player of all time . " When people begin to take in all of his accomplishments " , he predicted , " Bonds may well be rated among the five greatest players in the history of the game . "
= = = = 2000 season = = = =
In 2000 , the following year , Bonds hit .306 with career bests through that time in both slugging percentage ( .688 ) and home runs ( 49 ) in just 143 games . He also drew a league @-@ leading 117 walks .
= = = = 2001 season = = = =
The next year , Bonds ' offensive production reached even higher levels , breaking not only his own personal records but several major league records . In the Giants ' first 50 games in 2001 , he hit 28 home runs , including 17 in May — a career high . This early stretch included his 500th home run hit on April 17 against Terry Adams of the Los Angeles Dodgers . He also hit 39 home runs by the All @-@ star break ( a major league record ) , drew a major league record 177 walks , and had a .515 on @-@ base average , a feat not seen since Mickey Mantle and Ted Williams over forty years earlier . Bonds ' slugging percentage was a major league record .863 ( 411 total bases in 476 at @-@ bats ) , and , most impressively , he ended the season
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with a major league record 73 home runs .
On October 4 , Bonds tied the previous record of 70 set by Mark McGwire – which McGwire set in the 162nd game in 1998 – by homering off Wilfredo Rodríguez in the 159th game of the season . He then hit numbers 71 and 72 the following night off Chan Ho Park . Bonds added his 73rd off Dennis Springer on October 7 . The ball was later sold to toy manufacturer Todd McFarlane for $ 450 @,@ 000 . He previously bought Mark McGwire 's 70th home run ball from 1998 . Bonds received the Babe Ruth Home Run Award for leading MLB in homers that season .
= = = = 2002 season = = = =
Bonds re @-@ signed with the Giants for a five @-@ year , $ 90 million contract in January 2002 . He hit five home runs in the Giants ' first four games of the season , tying Lou Brock 's 35 @-@ year record for most home runs after four games . He won the NL batting title with a career @-@ high .370 average and struck out only 47 times . He hit 46 home runs in 403 at @-@ bats .
Despite playing in nine fewer games than the previous season , he drew 198 walks , a major @-@ league record ; 68 of them were intentional walks , surpassing Willie McCovey 's 45 in 1969 for another Major League record . He slugged .799 , then the fourth @-@ highest total all time . Bonds broke Ted Williams ' major league record for on @-@ base average with .582 . Bonds also hit his 600th home run , less than a year and a half after hitting his 500th . The home run came on August 9 at home against Kip Wells of the Pirates .
= = = = 2002 postseason = = = =
Bonds batted .322 with 8 home runs , 16 RBI , and 27 walks in the postseason en route to the 2002 World Series where the Giants lost the series 4 – 3 to the Anaheim Angels .
= = = = 2003 season = = = =
In 2003 , Bonds played in just 130 games . He hit 45 home runs in just 390 at @-@ bats , along with a .341 batting average . He slugged .749 , walked 148 times , and had an on @-@ base average well over .500 ( .529 ) for the third straight year . He also became the only member of the career 500 home run / 500 stolen base club by stealing second base on June 23 off of pitcher Éric Gagné in the 11th inning of a tied ball game against the Los Angeles Dodgers ( against whom Bonds had tallied his 500th home run ) . Bonds scored the game @-@ winning run later that inning .
= = = = 2004 season = = = =
In 2004 , Bonds had perhaps his best season . He hit .362 en route to his second National League batting title , and broke his own record by walking 232 times . He slugged .812 , which was fourth @-@ highest of all time , and broke his on @-@ base percentage record with a .609 average . Bonds passed Mays on the career home run list by hitting his 661st off of Ben Ford on April 13 , He then hit his 700th off of Jake Peavy on September 17 . Bonds hit 45 home runs in 373 at @-@ bats , and struck out just 41 times , putting himself in elite company , as few major leaguers have ever had more home runs than strikeouts in a season . Bonds would win his fourth consecutive MVP award and his seventh overall . His seven MVP awards are four more than any other player in history . In addition , no other player from either league has been awarded the MVP four times in a row . ( The MVP award was first given in 1931 ) . The 40 @-@ year @-@ old Bonds also broke Willie Stargell 's 25 @-@ year record as the oldest player to win a Most Valuable Player Award ( Stargell , at 39 years , 8 months , was National League co @-@ MVP with Keith Hernandez in 1979 ) . On July 4 , he tied and passed Rickey Henderson 's career bases on balls record with his 2190th and 2191st career walks .
As Bonds neared Aaron 's record , Aaron was called on for his opinion of Bonds . He clarified that he was a fan and admirer of Bonds and avoided the controversy regarding whether the record should be denoted with an asterisk due to Bonds ' alleged steroid usage . He felt recognition and respect for the award was something to be determined by the fans . As the steroid controversy received greater media attention during the offseason before the 2005 season , Aaron expressed some reservations about the statements Bonds made on the issue . Aaron expressed that he felt drug and steroid use to boost athletic performance was inappropriate . Aaron was frustrated that the media could not focus on events that occurred in the field of play and wished drugs or gambling allegations such as those associated with Pete Rose could be emphasized less . In 2007 , Aaron felt the whole steroid use issue was very controversial and decided that he would not attend any possible record @-@ breaking games . Aaron congratulated Bonds through the media when Bonds broke Aaron 's record .
= = = = 2005 season = = = =
Bonds ' salary for the 2005 season was $ 22 million , the second @-@ highest salary in Major League Baseball ( the Yankees ' Alex Rodriguez earned the highest , $ 25 @.@ 2 million ) . Bonds endured a knee injury , multiple surgeries , and rehabilitation . He was activated on September 12 and started in left field . In his return against the San Diego Padres , he nearly hit a home run in his first at @-@ bat . Bonds finished the night 1 @-@ for @-@ 4 . Upon his return , Bonds resumed his high @-@ caliber performance at the plate , hitting home runs in four consecutive games from September 18 to September 21 and finishing with five homers in only 14 games .
= = = = 2006 season = = = =
In 2006 , Bonds earned $ 20 million ( not including bonuses ) , the fourth highest salary in baseball . Through the 2006 season he had earned approximately $ 172 million during his then 21 @-@ year career , making him baseball 's all @-@ time highest paid player . Bonds hit under .200 for his first 10 games of the season and did not hit a home run until April 22 . This 10 @-@ game stretch was his longest home run slump since the 1998 season . On May 7 , Bonds drew within one home run of tying Babe Ruth for second place on the all @-@ time list , hitting his 713th career home run into the second level of Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia , off pitcher Jon Lieber in a game in which the Giants lost to the Philadelphia Phillies . The towering home run — one of the longest in Citizens Bank Park 's two @-@ season history , traveling an estimated 450 feet ( 140 m ) — hit off the facade of the third deck in right field .
On May 20 , Bonds tied Ruth , hitting his 714th career home run to deep right field to lead off the top of the 2nd inning . The home run came off left @-@ handed pitcher Brad Halsey of the Oakland A 's , in an interleague game played in Oakland , California . Since this was an interleague game at an American League stadium , Bonds was batting as the designated hitter in the lineup for the Giants . Bonds was quoted after the game as being " glad it 's over with " and stated that more attention could be focused on Albert Pujols , who was on a very rapid home run pace in early 2006 .
On May 28 , Bonds passed Ruth , hitting his 715th career home run to center field off Colorado Rockies pitcher Byung @-@ Hyun Kim . The ball was hit an estimated 445 feet ( 140 m ) into center field where it went through the hands of several fans but then fell onto an elevated platform in center field . Then it rolled off the platform where Andrew Morbitzer , a 38 @-@ year @-@ old San Francisco resident , caught the ball while he was in line at a concession stand . Mysteriously , radio broadcaster Dave Flemming 's radio play @-@ by @-@ play of the home run went silent just as the ball was hit , apparently from a microphone failure . But the televised version , called by Giants broadcaster Duane Kuiper , was not affected .
On September 22 , Bonds tied Henry Aaron 's National League career home run record of 733 . The home run came in the top of the 6th inning of a high @-@ scoring game against the Milwaukee Brewers , at Miller Park in Milwaukee , Wisconsin . The achievement was notable for its occurrence in the very city where Aaron began ( with the Milwaukee Braves ) and concluded ( with the Brewers , then in the American League ) his career . With the Giants trailing 10 – 8 , Bonds hit a blast to deep center field on a 2 – 0 pitch off the Brewers ' Chris Spurling with runners on first and second and one out . Though the Giants were at the time clinging to only a slim chance of making the playoffs , Bonds ' home run provided the additional drama of giving the Giants an 11 – 10 lead late in a critical game in the final days of a pennant race . The Brewers eventually won the game , 13 – 12 , despite Bonds ' going 3 for 5 , with 2 doubles , the record @-@ tying home run , and 6 runs batted in .
On September 23 , Bonds surpassed Aaron for the NL career home run record . Hit in Milwaukee like the previous one , this was a solo home run off Chris Capuano of the Brewers . This was the last home run Bonds hit in 2006 . In 2006 , Bonds recorded his lowest slugging percentage ( a statistic that he has historically ranked among league leaders season after season ) since 1991 with the Pittsburgh Pirates .
In January 2007 , the New York Daily News reported that Bonds had tested positive for amphetamines . Under baseball 's amphetamine policy , which had been in effect for one season , players testing positive were to submit to six additional tests and undergo treatment and counseling . The policy also stated that players were not to be identified for a first positive test , but the New York Daily News leaked the test 's results . When the Players Association informed Bonds of the test results , he initially attributed it to a substance he had taken from the locker of Giants teammate Mark Sweeney , but would later retract this claim and publicly apologize to Sweeney .
= = = = 2007 season = = = =
On January 29 , 2007 , the Giants finalized a contract with Bonds for the 2007 season . After the commissioner 's office rejected Bonds ' one @-@ year , $ 15 @.@ 8 million deal because it contained a personal @-@ appearance provision , the team sent revised documents to his agent , Jeff Borris , who stated that " At this time , Barry is not signing the new documents . " Bonds signed a revised one @-@ year , $ 15 @.@ 8 million contract on February 15 and reported to the Giants ' Spring training camp on time .
Bonds resumed his march to the all @-@ time record early in the 2007 season . After an opening game in which all he had was a first @-@ inning single past third base against a right @-@ shifted infield ( immediately followed by a stolen base and then a base @-@ running misjudgment that got him thrown out at home ) and a deep out to left field late in the game , Bonds returned the next day , April 4 , with another mission . In his first at @-@ bat of the season 's second game at the Giants ' AT & T Park , Bonds hit a Chris Young ( of the San Diego Padres ) pitch just over the wall to the left of straightaway center field for career home run 735 . This home run put Bonds past the midway point between Ruth and Aaron .
Bonds did not homer again until April 13 , when he hit two ( 736 and 737 ) in a 3 for 3 night that included 4 RBI against the Pittsburgh Pirates . Bonds splashed a pitch by St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Ryan Franklin into McCovey Cove on April 18 for home run 738 . Home runs number 739 and 740 came in back to back games on April 21 and April 22 against the Arizona Diamondbacks .
The hype surrounding Bonds ' pursuit of the home run record escalated on May 14 . On this day , Sports Auction for Heritage ( a Dallas @-@ based auction house ) offered US $ 1 million to the fan that caught Bonds ' record @-@ breaking 756th @-@ career home run . The million dollar offer was rescinded on June 11 out of concern of fan safety . Home run 748 came on Father 's Day , June 17 , in the final game of a 3 @-@ game road series against the Boston Red Sox at Fenway Park , where Bonds had never previously played . With this homer , Fenway Park became the 36th major league ballpark in which Bonds had hit a home run . He hit a Tim Wakefield knuckleball just over the low fence into the Giant 's bullpen in right field . It was his first home run off his former Pittsburgh Pirate teammate , who became the 441st different pitcher to surrender a four @-@ bagger to Bonds . The 750th career home run , hit on June 29 , also came off a former teammate : Liván Hernández . The blast came in the 8th inning and at that point tied the game at 3 – 3 .
On July 19 , after a 21 at @-@ bat hitless streak , Bonds hit 2 home runs , numbers 752 and 753 , against the Chicago Cubs . He went 3 – 3 with 2 home runs , 6 RBIs , and a walk on that day . The struggling last place Giants still lost the game , 9 – 8 . On July 27 , Bonds hit home run 754 against Florida Marlins pitcher Rick VandenHurk . Bonds was then walked his next 4 at @-@ bats in the game , but a 2 @-@ run shot helped the Giants win the game 12 – 10 . It marked the first time since he had hit # 747 that Bonds had homered in a game the Giants won . On August 4 , Bonds hit a 382 foot ( 116 m ) home run against Clay Hensley of the San Diego Padres for home run number 755 , tying Hank Aaron 's all @-@ time record . Bonds greeted his son , Nikolai , with an extended bear hug after crossing home plate . Bonds greeted his teammates and then his wife , Liz Watson , and daughter Aisha Lynn behind the backstop . Hensley was the 445th different pitcher to give up a home run to Bonds . Ironically , given the cloud of suspicion that surrounded Bonds , the tying home run was hit off a pitcher who 'd been suspended by baseball in 2005 for steroid use . He was walked in his next at bat and eventually scored on a fielder 's choice .
On August 7 at 8 : 51 PM PDT , Bonds hit a 435 foot ( 133 m ) home run , his 756th , off a pitch from Mike Bacsik of the Washington Nationals , breaking the all @-@ time career home run record , formerly held by Hank Aaron . Coincidentally , Bacsik 's father had faced Aaron ( as a pitcher for the Texas Rangers ) after Aaron had hit his 755th home run . On August 23 , 1976 , Michael J. Bacsik held Aaron to a single and a fly out to right field . The younger Bacsik commented later , " If my dad had been gracious enough to let Hank Aaron hit a home run , we both would have given up 756 . " After hitting the home run , Bonds gave Bacsik an autographed bat .
The pitch , the seventh of the at @-@ bat , was a 3 – 2 pitch which Bonds hit into the right @-@ center field bleachers . The fan who ended up with the ball , 22 @-@ year @-@ old Matt Murphy from Queens , New York ( and a Mets fan ) , was promptly protected and escorted away from the mayhem by a group of San Francisco police officers . After Bonds finished his home run trot , a ten @-@ minute delay followed , including a brief video by Aaron congratulating Bonds on breaking the record Aaron had held for 33 years , and expressing the hope that " the achievement of this record will inspire others to chase their own dreams . " Bonds made an impromptu emotional statement on the field , with Willie Mays , his godfather , at his side and thanked his teammates , family and his late father . Bonds sat out the rest of the game .
The commissioner , Bud Selig , was not in attendance in this game but was represented by the Executive Vice President of Baseball Operations , Jimmie Lee Solomon . Selig called Bonds later that night to congratulate him on breaking the record . President George W. Bush also called Bonds the next day to congratulate him . On August 24 , San Francisco honored and celebrated Bonds ' career accomplishments and breaking the home run record with a large rally in Justin Herman Plaza . The rally included video messages from Lou Brock , Ernie Banks , Ozzie Smith , Joe Montana , Wayne Gretzky and Michael Jordan . Speeches were made by Willie Mays , Giants teammates Omar Vizquel and Rich Aurilia , and Giants owner Peter Magowan . Mayor Gavin Newsom presented Bonds the key to the City and County of San Francisco and Giants vice president Larry Baer gave Bonds the home plate he touched after hitting his 756th career home run .
The record @-@ setting ball was consigned to an auction house on August 21 . Bidding began on August 28 and closed with a winning bid of US $ 752 @,@ 467 on September 15 after a three phase online auction . The high bidder , fashion designer Marc Ecko , created a website to let fans decide its fate . Subsequently , Ben Padnos , who submitted the ( US ) $ 186 @,@ 750 winning bid on Bonds ' record @-@ tying 755th home run ball also set up a website to let fans decide its fate . Of Ecko 's plans , Bonds said " He spent $ 750 @,@ 000 on the ball and that 's what he 's doing with it ? What he 's doing is stupid . " 10 million voters helped Ecko decide to brand the ball with an asterisk and send it to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum . Padnos sold 5 @-@ year ads on a website , www.endthedebate.com , where people voted by a two to one margin to smash the ball .
Bonds concluded the 2007 season with a .276 batting average , 28 home runs , and 66 RBIs in 126 games and 340 at bats . At the age of 43 , he led both leagues in walks with 132 .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
On September 21 , 2007 , the San Francisco Giants confirmed that they would not re @-@ sign Bonds for the 2008 season . The story was first announced on Bonds ' own web site earlier that day . Bonds officially filed for free agency on October 29 , 2007 . His agent Jeff Borris said : " I 'm anticipating widespread interest from every Major League team . "
There was much speculation before the 2008 season about where Bonds might play . However , no one signed him during the 2008 or 2009 seasons . If he had returned to Major League Baseball , Bonds would have been within close range of several significant hitting milestones : needing just 65 hits to reach 3 @,@ 000 , 4 runs batted in to reach 2 @,@ 000 , and 38 home runs to reach 800 . He would have needed 69 more runs scored to move past Rickey Henderson as the all @-@ time runs champion , and 37 extra base hits to move past Hank Aaron as the all @-@ time extra base hits champion .
As of November 13 , 2009 , Borris maintained that Bonds was still not retired . On December 9 , however , Borris told the San Francisco Chronicle that Bonds has played his last major league game . Bonds announced on April 11 , 2010 that he was proud of McGwire for admitting his use of steroids . Bonds said that it was not the time to retire , but he noted that he was not in shape to play immediately if an interested club called him .
Bonds has not had a jersey number retired by either the Pirates or Giants , although there have been calls by fans of both teams to retire their respective uniform numbers held by Bonds . However , his number 24 with the Pirates remains in circulation , most prominently worn by Brian Giles from 1999 to 2003 and by Pedro Alvarez from 2011 to 2015 . The Giants have not reissued Bonds ' number 25 .
On December 15 , 2011 , Bonds was sentenced to 30 days of house arrest , two years of probation and 250 hours of community service , for an obstruction of justice conviction stemming from a grand jury appearance in 2003 . However , U.S. District Judge Susan Illston then delayed the sentence pending an appeal . In 2013 his conviction was upheld on appeal by a three judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit . However , the full court later granted Bonds an en banc rehearing , and on April 22 , 2015 , an 11 @-@ judge panel of the Ninth Circuit voted 10 @-@ 1 to overturn his conviction .
On March 10 , 2014 , Bonds began a seven @-@ day stint as a roving Spring training instructor for the Giants .
On December 4 , 2015 , he was announced as the new hitting coach for the Miami Marlins .
= = Controversies = =
= = = BALCO scandal = = =
Since 2003 , Bonds has been a key figure in the Bay Area Laboratory Co @-@ operative ( BALCO ) scandal . He was under investigation by a federal grand jury regarding his testimony in the BALCO case , and was indicted on perjury and obstruction of justice charges on November 15 , 2007 . The indictment alleges that Bonds lied while under oath about his alleged use of steroids .
In 2003 , Bonds first became embroiled in a scandal when Greg Anderson of the Bay Area Laboratory Co @-@ operative ( BALCO ) , Bonds ' trainer since 2000 , was indicted by a federal grand jury in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California and charged with supplying anabolic steroids to athletes , including a number of baseball players . This led to speculation that Bonds had used performance @-@ enhancing drugs during a time when there was no mandatory testing in Major League Baseball . Bonds declared his innocence , attributing his changed physique and increased power to a strict regimen of bodybuilding , diet and legitimate supplements .
During grand jury testimony on December 4 , 2003 , Bonds said that he used a clear substance and a cream that he received from his personal strength trainer , Greg Anderson , who told him they were the nutritional supplement flaxseed oil and a rubbing balm for arthritis . This testimony , as reported by Lance Williams and Mark Fainaru @-@ Wada , has frequently been misrepresented . Later reports on Bonds ' leaked grand @-@ jury testimony contend that he admitted to unknowingly using " the cream " and " the clear " .
In July 2005 , all four defendants in the BALCO steroid scandal trial , including Anderson , struck deals with federal prosecutors that did not require them to reveal names of athletes who may have used banned drugs .
= = = = Perjury case = = = =
On November 15 , 2007 , Bonds was indicted on four counts of perjury and one count of obstruction of justice as it relates to the government investigation of BALCO .
On February 14 , 2008 a typo in court papers filed by Federal prosecutors erroneously alleged that Bonds tested positive for steroids in November 2001 , a month after hitting his record 73rd home run . The reference was meant instead to refer to a November 2000 test that had already been disclosed and previously reported . The typo sparked a brief media frenzy .
His trial for obstruction of justice was to have begun on March 2 , 2009 , but jury selection was postponed due to 11th @-@ hour appeals by the prosecution . The trial commenced on March 21 , 2011 , in U. S. District Court , Northern District of California , with Judge Susan Illston presiding . He was convicted on April 13 , 2011 on the obstruction of justice charge , for giving an evasive answer to a question under oath . His sentence did not include prison . The conviction was initially upheld by a three judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in 2013 , but a larger panel of the court voted 10 @-@ 1 to overturn the conviction on April 22 , 2015 .
= = = Players ' Union = = =
Bonds withdrew from the MLB Players Association 's ( MLBPA ) licensing agreement because he felt independent marketing deals would be more lucrative for him . Bonds is the first player in the thirty @-@ year history of the licensing program not to sign . Because of this withdrawal , his name and likeness are not usable in any merchandise licensed by the MLBPA . In order to use his name or likeness , a company must deal directly with Bonds . For this reason he does not appear in some baseball video games , forcing game @-@ makers to create generic athletes to replace him . For example , Bonds is replaced by " Jon Dowd " in MVP Baseball 2005 .
= = = Game of Shadows = = =
In March 2006 the book Game of Shadows , written by Lance Williams and Mark Fainaru @-@ Wada , was released amid a storm of media publicity including the cover of Sports Illustrated . Initially small excerpts of the book were released by the authors in the issue of Sports Illustrated . The book alleges Bonds used stanozolol and a host of other steroids , and is perhaps most responsible for the change in public opinion regarding Bonds ' steroid use .
The book contained excerpts of grand jury testimony that is supposed to be sealed and confidential by law . The authors have been steadfast in their refusal to divulge their sources and at one point faced jail time . On February 14 , 2007 , Troy Ellerman , one of Victor Conte 's lawyers , pleaded guilty to leaking grand jury testimony . Through the plea agreement , he will spend two and a half years in jail .
= = = Love Me , Hate Me = = =
In May 2006 , former Sports Illustrated writer Jeff Pearlman released a revealing biography of Bonds entitled Love Me , Hate Me : Barry Bonds and the Making of an Anti @-@ Hero . The book also contained many allegations against Bonds . The book , which describes Bonds as a polarizing insufferable braggart with a legendary ego and staggering ability , relied on over five hundred interviews , except with Bonds himself .
= = = Bonds on Bonds = = =
In April 2006 and May 2006 , ESPN aired a few episodes of a 10 @-@ part reality TV ( unscripted , documentary @-@ style ) series starring Bonds . The show , titled Bonds on Bonds , focused on Bonds ' chase of Babe Ruth 's and Hank Aaron 's home run records . Some felt the show should be put on hiatus until baseball investigated Bonds ' steroid use allegations . The series was canceled in June 2006 , ESPN and producer Tollin / Robbins Productions citing " creative control " issues with Bonds and his representatives .
= = Personal life = =
Bonds met Susann ( " Sun " ) Margreth Branco , the mother of his first two children ( Nikolai and Shikari ) , in Montreal , Quebec in August 1987 . They eloped to Las Vegas February 5 , 1988 . The couple separated in June 1994 , divorced in December 1994 , and had their marriage annulled in 1997 by the Catholic Church . The divorce was a media affair because Bonds had his Swedish spouse sign a prenuptial agreement in which she " waived her right to a share of his present and future earnings " and which was upheld . Bonds had been providing his wife $ 20 @,@ 000 / month in child support and $ 10 @,@ 000 in spousal support at the time of the ruling . During the hearings to set permanent support levels , allegations of abuse came from both parties . The trial dragged on for months , but Bonds was awarded both houses and reduced support . On August 21 , 2000 , the Supreme Court of California , in an opinion signed by Chief Justice Ronald M. George , unanimously held that " substantial evidence supports the determination of the trial court that the [ prenuptial ] agreement in the present case was entered into voluntarily . "
In 2010 , Bonds ' son Nikolai , who served as a Giants batboy during his father 's years playing in San Francisco and always sat next to his dad in the dugout during games , was charged with five misdemeanors resulting from a confrontation with his mother , Sun . Barry accompanied him to San Mateo County Superior Court .
After the end of his first marriage , Bonds had an extensive intimate relationship with Kimberly Bell from 1994 through May 2003 . Bonds purchased a home in Scottsdale , Arizona for Kimberly .
On January 10 , 1998 , Bonds married his second wife , Liz Watson , at the San Francisco Ritz @-@ Carlton Hotel in front of 240 guests . The couple lived in Los Altos Hills , California , with their daughter Aisha during their ten and a half years of marriage before Watson filed for Legal Separation on June 9 , 2009 , citing irreconcilable differences . On July 21 , 2009 , just six weeks later , Watson announced that she was withdrawing her Legal Separation action . The couple were reconciled for seven months before Watson formally filed for divorce in Los Angeles on February 26 , 2010 . On June 6 , 2011 , Bonds and Watson filed a legal agreement not to take the divorce to trial and instead settle it in an " uncontested manner " , effectively agreeing to take the proceedings out of the public eye and end the marriage privately at an unspecified later date without further court involvement .
Several of Bonds ' family and extended family members have been involved in athletics as either a career or a notable pastime . Bonds has a younger brother , Bobby , Jr . , who was also a professional baseball player . His paternal aunt , Rosie Bonds , is a former American record holder in the 80 meter hurdles , and competed in the 1964 Olympics . In addition , he is a distant cousin of Hall of Famer Reggie Jackson .
Among Bonds ' many real estate properties is a home he owns in the exclusive gated community of Beverly Park in Beverly Hills , California .
= = Career distinctions = =
Besides holding Major League career records in home runs ( 762 ) , walks ( 2 @,@ 558 ) , and intentional walks ( 688 ) , at the time of his retirement , Bonds also led all active players in RBI ( 1 @,@ 996 ) , on @-@ base percentage ( .444 ) , runs ( 2 @,@ 227 ) , games ( 2 @,@ 986 ) , extra @-@ base hits ( 1 @,@ 440 ) , at @-@ bats per home run ( 12 @.@ 92 ) , and total bases ( 5 @,@ 976 ) . He is 2nd in doubles ( 601 ) , slugging percentage ( .607 ) , stolen bases ( 514 ) , at @-@ bats ( 9 @,@ 847 ) , and hits ( 2 @,@ 935 ) , 6th in triples ( 77 ) , 8th in sacrifice flies ( 91 ) , and 9th in strikeouts ( 1 @,@ 539 ) , through September 26 , 2007 .
Bonds is the lone member of the 500 – 500 club , which means he has hit at least 500 home runs ( 762 ) and stolen 500 bases ( 514 ) . He is also one of only four baseball players all @-@ time to be in the 40 – 40 club ( 1996 ) , which means he hit 40 home runs ( 42 ) and stole 40 bases ( 40 ) in the same season ; the other members are José Canseco , Alex Rodriguez and Alfonso Soriano .
= = = Records held = = =
Home runs in a single season ( 73 ) , 2001
Home runs ( career ) ( 762 )
Home runs against different pitchers ( 449 )
Home runs since turning 40 years old ( 74 )
Home runs in the year he turned 43 years old ( 28 )
Consecutive seasons with 30 or more home runs ( 13 ) , 1992 – 2004
Slugging percentage in a single season ( .863 ) , 2001
Slugging percentage in a World Series ( 1 @.@ 294 ) , 2002
Consecutive seasons with .600 slugging percentage or higher ( 8 ) , 1998 – 2005
On @-@ base percentage in a single season ( .609 ) , 2004
Walks in a single season ( 232 ) , 2004
Intentional walks in a single season ( 120 ) , 2004
Consecutive games with a walk ( 18 )
MVP awards ( 7 — closest competitors trail with 3 ) , 1990 , 1992 – 93 , 2001 – 04
Consecutive MVP awards ( 4 ) , 2001 – 04
National League Player of the Month selections ( 13 — 2nd place : 8 – Frank Thomas ; 2nd place ( N.L. ) – George Foster , Pete Rose and Dale Murphy )
Oldest player ( age 38 ) to win the National League batting title ( .370 ) for the first time , 2002
= = = Records shared = = =
Consecutive plate appearances with a walk ( 7 )
Consecutive plate appearances reaching base ( 15 )
Tied with his father , Bobby , for most seasons with 30 home runs and 30 stolen bases ( 5 ) and are the only father @-@ son members of the 30 – 30 club
Home runs in a single post @-@ season ( 8 ) , 2002
= = = Other accomplishments = = =
5 @-@ time SF Giants Player of the Year ( 1998 , 2001 – 04 )
7 @-@ time Baseball America NL All @-@ Star ( 1993 , 1998 , 2000 – 04 )
3 @-@ Time Major League Player of the Year ( 1990 , 2001 , 2004 )
3 @-@ Time Baseball America MLB Player of the Year ( 2001 , 2003 – 04 )
8 @-@ Time Gold Glove winner for NL Outfielder ( 1990 – 94 , 1996 – 98 ) .
12 @-@ Time Silver Slugger winner for NL Outfielder ( 1990 – 94 , 1996 – 97 , 2000 – 04 )
14 @-@ time All @-@ Star ( 1990 , 1992 – 98 , 2000 – 04 , 2007 )
3 @-@ Time NL Hank Aaron Award winner ( 2001 – 02 , 2004 )
Babe Ruth Home Run Award ( 2001 )
Listed at # 6 on The Sporting News ' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players , the highest @-@ ranked active player , i n 2005 .
Named a finalist to the Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team in 1999 , but not elected to the team in the fan balloting .
Rating of 352 on Baseball @-@ Reference.com 's Hall of Fame monitor ( 100 is a good HOF candidate ) ; 9th among all hitters , highest among hitters not in HOF yet .
Only the second player to twice have a single @-@ season slugging percentage over .800 , with his record .863 in 2001 and .812 in 2004 . Babe Ruth was the other , with .847 in 1920 and .846 in 1921 .
Became the first player in history with more times on base ( 376 ) than official times at bats ( 373 ) in 2004 . This was due to the record number of walks , which count as a time on base but not a time at @-@ bat . He had 135 hits , 232 walks , and 9 hit @-@ by @-@ pitches for the 376 number .
With his father Bobby ( 332 , 461 ) , leads all father @-@ son combinations in combined home runs ( 1 @,@ 094 ) and stolen bases ( 975 ) , respectively through September 26 , 2007 .
Played minor league baseball in both Alaska and Hawaii . In 1983 , he played for the Alaska Goldpanners of Fairbanks in the Alaska Baseball League , and in 1986 , he played for the Hawaii Islanders in the Pacific Coast League .
Featured on the cover of Sports Illustrated . He has appeared as the main subject on the cover eight times in total ; seven with the Giants and once with the Pirates . He has also appeared in an inset on the cover twice . He was the most recent Pirate player to appear on the cover , until Jason Grilli was featured in SIs July 22 , 2013 edition .
= Interactions ( The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man ) =
" Interactions " is the second episode of the animated television series The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man , based on the comic book character Spider @-@ Man created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko . The episode sees Spider @-@ Man confronting the supervillain Electro , whose body was corrupted with electricity after a freak lab accident .
Directed by Troy Adomitis , " Interactions " was written by Kevin Hopps , who researched all the available comic books he had that featured Electro . The character 's appearance in the episode draws on his traditional comic book style , though designer Victor Cook emphasized the color green and removed the character 's customary star @-@ shaped mask . His voice actor , Crispin Freeman , sought to reflect the character 's declining sanity in his vocal style .
" Interactions " first aired March 8 , 2008 , on the Kids ' WB block of The CW network , following the first episode . Its 1 @.@ 4 / 4 Nielsen rating was higher than that of the pilot , " Survival of the Fittest " . The episode received mixed reviews ; IGN commented that " [ w ] hile not as strong as the pilot , the episode had some notable moments " .
= = Plot summary = =
The episode opens in Dr. Connors 's laboratory , where Connors demonstrates to his interns Peter , Gwen , and Eddie a new potential source of clean energy : genetically modified eels . After Gwen and Peter leave , an electrician , Max Dillon , attempts to upgrade the lab 's electrical filters , but gets electricuted and is sent to the hospital . There , he is found to be emitting strong electrical fields and is placed in quarantine . Max is further angered when a doctor explains that , although he is stable , he must wear a special suit to contain this emitted bioelectricity .
Peter , meanwhile , is assigned to tutor a popular girl named Liz Allan . He is attempting to teach her science in a café when an angry Max enters and accidentally short circuits the power . Max leaves ; Peter , believing him to be dangerous , pursues him as Spider @-@ Man . Peter manages to photograph Max and remove his mask ; Max , enraged , attacks , but flees while Peter is distracted by a phone call from Aunt May .
The following day Peter discovers that his photographs have not developed properly , but is still able to identify the man he fought as Max . He meets with Dr. Connors , Eddie , and Gwen to seek a way to contain Max , who has meanwhile been attacked by the police and has decided to seek help from the lab . On arrival , though , Max becomes aggressive and threatens Connors 's wife , Martha . Eddie distracts him long enough for Peter to lead the girls to safety and return as Spider @-@ Man : Max , declaring himself " Electro , " begins to fight with Spider @-@ Man . The battle leads the pair out from the lab into the rain , where Spider @-@ Man spots a radio tower beside a pool : he knocks Electro into the water , causing him to short circuit into unconsciousness .
At school the next day Peter talks to Liz in the hall ; she is complimenting his tutoring when the popular students approach , making her change her attitude , act rudely , and walk away . In the lab , Dr. Connors picks up a vial of lizard DNA that Electro had electrified , and leaves with his wife .
= = Production = =
" Interactions " was written by Kevin Hopps and directed by Troy Adomitis . Hopps , who had previously written for animated series such as Buzz Lightyear of Star Command , Justice League , and Darkwing Duck , researched for the episode by re @-@ reading every available comic book that featured Electro . Hopps notes that he " like [ s ] the humanity " of Electro : " Here 's a person who didn 't ask to be a villain , but found himself thrust into that role . "
The radio tower scene initially called for Electro to climb to the very top of the structure , a concept the crew found " clunky " throughout the storyboarding and directing process . Victor Cook , a producer and developer for The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man , observed " He 's gonna climb the whole tower ? It just seems kind of weird . " Before release , the scene was altered to have Electro gradually propel himself up the tower with several electrical blasts .
Cook retained the " classic silhouette " of Electro 's suit from the original comics , but removed his star @-@ shaped mask . Cook made green the key color in the Electro design , noting that " In the 1960s it seems like the majority of Spider @-@ man 's rogues gallery had green as part of their costumes . " In Cook 's broader color scheme for the cartoon green is used to symbolize negative situations in Peter 's life , while positive settings and occurrences , such as Peter 's biology class , feature other key colors like yellow .
Electro was voiced by Crispin Freeman , who sought to reflect in his vocal style the psychological decline brought on by the character 's new powers : " It never occurred to me before how that would have an effect on his character – to be dealing with that curse and blessing . And when you think about it , that 's also Peter Parker 's core issue . " The episode 's title , " Interactions , " expands the series theme " The Education of Peter Parker " chosen by developer Greg Weisman . Episodes in the early season one arc all shared a naming scheme based on the biological sciences .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Interactions " originally aired on March 8 , 2008 , on the Kids ' WB block of The CW Network , following the show 's pilot , " Survival of the Fittest . " Disney XD aired the episode on March 23 , 2009 , between " Survival of the Fittest " and " Natural Selection " . The episode 's initial broadcast garnered a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 4 / 4 , which is considered high for American television and was the network 's 2007 – 08 highest rating for the 10 : 30 a.m. timeslot . It beat the previous episode 's rating of 1 @.@ 2 / 3 ( the highest for the 10 : 00 a.m. timeslot for the same season ) and represented a 75 % increase in the share of viewers aged 2 to 11 and a 200 % increase in viewers aged 2 to 5 . " Interactions " rated the highest of the season for kids and boys aged 9 to 14 .
The episode received mixed reviews from television critics . Eric Goldman of IGN thought the episode " wasn 't as strong as the pilot " and rated it at 7 @.@ 4 ( " Decent " ) . Goldman wrote that Electro 's redesigned costume retained " some nice visual nods to the Electro many of us grew up with . " Liz Allan 's characterization , though , he found confusing , with the character 's accent and background unclear , and the scene where Peter fought Electro while conducting a phonecall with Aunt May " just a bit too much " : " Come on , Aunt May isn 't freaking out hearing [ that ] ? " Nonetheless , Goldman praised the episode 's humorous scenes and the introduction of Dr. Conner 's limb regeneration experiments .
Rob M. Worley of the entertainment website Mania said that Freeman " charges up " the series with his role , writing that he " steps away from his luminary status in the world of anime and video game voiceovers . " Ultimate Disney reviewer Luke Bonanno did not include the episode among his top five episodes of The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man 's first season , but " feel [ s ] obligated to point out that the uniform excellence of the lot [ makes ] this a challenging task . " DVD Talk reviewer Todd Douglass Jr. described Electro 's design as " [ incorporating ] some sharp edges and dynamic plays " to an " old " character .
= Phillips ' Sound Recording Services =
Phillips ' Sound Recording Services was a studio in the house of Percy Francis Phillips ( 1896 – 1984 ) and his family at 38 Kensington , Kensington , Liverpool , England . Between the years of 1955 and 1969 , Phillips recorded numerous tapes and acetate discs for Liverpool acts , people and businesses in a small room behind the shop his family owned .
Phillips first sold bicycles and motorbikes , but later started selling and recharging batteries in a shop in the front room of his house in 1925 . After a decline in demand for batteries in the early 1950s , he started selling electrical goods and popular records . In 1955 , Phillips set up a recording studio called Phillips ' Sound Recording Services .
In 1958 , The Quarrymen ( John Lennon , Paul McCartney , George Harrison , John ' Duff ' Lowe and Colin Hanton ) recorded " That 'll Be The Day " , and " In Spite of All the Danger " in the studio . Other clients included Billy Fury , Ken Dodd , and Marty Wilde . Phillips died in 1984 . The Quarrymen recording and the site of the studio was commemorated in 2005 , when a Blue Plaque was unveiled by two of The Quarrymen ( Lowe and Hanton ) on the front of the house .
= = Early years = =
Percy Phillips was born in March 1896 , in Warrington , Lancashire . He was a veteran of the First World War , and left the British Army ( Loyal North Lancashire Regiment ) at the rank of Corporal in 1918 , since he was wounded before the war ended .
After the war , he started selling bicycles and motorbikes in a small shop in Brunswick Street , in the Kensington Fields area of Liverpool . He began selling and recharging batteries in 1925 , opening a shop in the front room of his family 's three @-@ storey Georgian terraced house , called Phillips ’ Battery Charging Depot , and had to install large accumulators in the cellar . Phillips ran the business for 30 years , even during WWII , but due to a decline in demand for batteries in the early 1950s ( most people having electricity by then ) he started selling household electrical goods . By late 1954 , the shop was only selling records and record players ; customers would buy recordings of American Country and Western , and Big Band music . As Phillips had supplied batteries to the Burtonwood air base during the war , he could buy and sell the latest records from America via his contacts there .
= = Studio = =
In 1955 , several customers asked if Phillips could make demo discs , so he bought a 1 / 4 inch tape recorder ( replaced in 1963 with a Vortexion portable ) , an MSS ( Marguerite Sound Studios - after the owner 's wife ) disc cutting machine , an amplifier , a 4 @-@ track mixer , three microphones ( a Reslo , an HMV ribbon microphone , and an AKG ) , and three pairs of headphones for £ 400 , while on a trip to London to visit his son Frank , who was there for a sound recording course at EMI Electronics .
Phillips set up the equipment behind his shop in the ( 12 square feet ) middle living room , with a piano and an overturned tin bath in the cellar as a reverb chamber , with a speaker and microphone linked to the studio above . The recordings would normally be on tape , and then transferred to disc , although the tape was recorded over again during the next session . Because of trams , trucks , and horses going up and down Kensington , Phillips had to hang heavy blankets over the studio door and a rear window to minimise the noise . Phillips ' first recording was of himself singing " Bonnie Marie of Argyle " , ( unaccompanied ) and a few days later he recorded " Unchained Melody " , with local dance band singer Betty Roy . The first disc he cut in the studio was on 7 August 1955 , with his eight @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Carol , singing , " Mr Sandman " . All the discs had " Play with a light @-@ weight pick @-@ up " on the label , as this would increase the life of the disc , which would eventually wear out .
Phillips advertised the studio as Phillips ' Sound Recording Services ( also advertised as P. F. Phillips ' Professional Tape & Disc Recording Service ) , and his business cards read : " PF Phillips , 38 Kensington , Liverpool , 7 . Television and Battery Service . Gramophone Record Dealer . Professional Tape and Disc Recording Studio . " He started cutting discs for members of the public , as well as for actors from the Liverpool Playhouse , who often stayed in the first @-@ floor boarding rooms above the studio , who were sometimes asked by Phillips to record monologues and poems . These included the actors John Thaw , Richard Briers , and the ventriloquist Ray Alan .
For the first couple of years , Phillips made music compilation discs for local businesses such as the local ice rink or cinema , men singing songs for loved ones , children playing an instrument , or even a neighbour ’ s dog howling along to piano accompaniment . As the record shop and studio took over the business , he had a brass plate made which he put on the wall just outside the front door , and had labels made for the discs , but changed the design of the disc label every year . By 1957 , Phillips was recording more and more groups of young men with guitars , basses , washboards and drums , who played skiffle .
Ron Wycherly ( a.k.a. Billy Fury ) recorded several songs onto disc in the studio , including , " I 'm Left You 're Right She 's Gone " , " Playin ' For Keeps " , " Paralyzed " and "
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December 2009 , with Ivo Josipović ( SDP ) picking up 32 @.@ 4 % of votes , followed by Milan Bandić ( independent ) , Andrija Hebrang ( HDZ ) and Nadan Vidošević ( independent ) receiving 14 @.@ 8 % , 12 @.@ 0 % and 11 @.@ 3 % of the votes respectively . The second round of voting was held on 10 January 2010 , when Josipović defeated Bandić , receiving 60 @.@ 3 % of the vote . The first round of the most recent presidential election was held on 28 December 2014 , where Josipović won 38 @.@ 46 % of the votes , followed by Kolinda Grabar @-@ Kitarović ( HDZ ) who received 37 @.@ 22 % of ballots . The third was an independent candidate , Ivan Vilibor Sinčić who received 16 @.@ 42 % of votes , and Milan Kujundžić ( Croatian Dawn – Party of the People ) who was supported by 6 @.@ 3 % of the votes . The runoff was held on 11 January 2015 , and Grabar @-@ Kitarović won by a margin of approximately one percentage point .
= = = History = = =
The Socialist Republic of Croatia within SFR Yugoslavia was led by a group of communist party officials , who formed a collective Presidency with the president of the Presidency at its head . The first democratic elections of 1990 did not elect members of the Presidency directly . Rather , the parliament was tasked with filling these positions as it had done in the socialist period . The HDZ won the elections and its leader Tuđman assumed the presidency on 30 May 1990 . On 25 July of the same year , the parliament passed several constitutional amendments , including amendment LXXI , which created the position of President and Vice @-@ Presidents . The Christmas Constitution , passed on 22 December 1990 , established the government as a semi @-@ presidential system and called for presidential elections .
Tuđman won the presidential elections in 1992 , and was inaugurated on 12 August 1992 . He was reelected in 1997 , and the Constitution of Croatia was amended the same year . After his death in 1999 , the constitution was amended and much of the presidential powers were transferred to the parliament and the government , creating a parliamentary system . Mesić won two consecutive terms in 2000 on the HNS ticket and in 2005 , the maximum term permitted by the constitution . Josipović , an SDP candidate , won the presidential elections held in 2009 – 2010 . Grabar @-@ Kitarović won the elections of 2014 – 15 and she was voted to become the first woman president of Croatia .
= = Immunity and impeachment = =
The President of Croatia enjoys immunity — the president may not be arrested , nor can any criminal proceedings be instituted against the president without prior consent from the Constitutional Court . The only case in which immunity does not apply is if the president has been caught in the act of committing a criminal offense , which carries a penalty of imprisonment for more than five years . In such a case the state body that has detained the president must notify the President of the Constitutional Court immediately .
The President of Croatia is impeachable for any violation of the Constitution committed in performance of duty . Impeachment proceedings may be initiated by the Parliament of Croatia by a two @-@ thirds majority vote of all members of the parliament . The impeachment of the president is then decided by the Constitutional Court , by a two @-@ thirds majority vote of all its judges . If the Constitutional Court impeaches the president , the president 's term is terminated .
= = Vacancy or incapacity = =
In case of brief incapacitation to execute the office of the President of Croatia due to absence , illness or vacations , the president may transfer his powers to the Speaker of the Croatian Parliament to act as a deputy . The president decides on the revocation of this authority and his return to the office . If the president is prevented from performing his duties for a longer period of time due to illness or other form of incapacitation , and especially if the president is unable to decide on a transfer of powers to a deputy , the Speaker of the parliament becomes the acting president , assuming presidential duty pursuant to a decision of the Constitutional Court , made upon request of the Government .
In case of death or resignation submitted to the President of the Constitutional Court and communicated to the Speaker of the parliament , or in cases when the Constitutional Court decides to terminate the presidential term through impeachment , the Speaker of the parliament becomes acting president . In those circumstances , new legislation is countersigned by the prime minister instead of the president and a new presidential election must be held within 60 days . This situation occurred after the death of Franjo Tuđman on 10 December 1999 , when Vlatko Pavletić became the acting president . After the parliamentary elections of 2000 , the role was transferred to Zlatko Tomčić , who filled the office until Stjepan Mesić was elected President of Croatia in 2000 .
= = Symbols = =
Legislation defines the appearance and use of the Presidential Standard of Croatia as a symbol of the President of Croatia , and the appearance and use of the presidential sash as a symbol of honour of the office of the president . The presidential standard is a square , blue field with a thin border of alternating red and white squares on each side . In the centre of the blue field is the main shield of the coat of arms of Croatia with the historical arms of Croatia surrounding the main shield . From left to right , these are the oldest known coats of arms of Croatia , the Republic of Dubrovnik , Dalmatia , Istria and Slavonia , adorned with bands of gold , red and white stripes extending down vertically . Atop the shield there is a Croatian tricolour ribbon with golden letters RH that stand for the Republic of Croatia , executed in Roman square capitals . The presidential standard is flown on buildings of the Office of the President of Croatia , the residence of the president , transportation vehicles when in use by the president , and in other ceremonial occasions . The presidential standard was designed by Miroslav Šutej in 1990 .
The presidential sash is a Croatian tricolour band , trimmed with gold and adorned with the coat of arms of Croatia , which is placed in a white field , with the tricolour at the front . The arms are bordered by oak branches on the left and olive branches on the right . The sash is worn diagonally , over the right shoulder , and is fastened using a square clasp trimmed with golden Croatian interlace . The sash is adorned with the arms used on the presidential standard , although without the ribbon used in the arms . The constitution specifies that the sash is worn on Statehood Day , during awards ceremonies , during the acceptance of letters of credence and in other ceremonial occasions . The presidential sash was not in use since 2000 inauguration of Stjepan Mesić .
= = Post @-@ presidency = =
Former presidents of the Republic of Croatia are provided with an office and two staff members paid by the state once they leave the office . In addition , former presidents are assigned a driver , an official car and bodyguards . The government of Croatia is required to provide these benefits within 30 days following the end of the term of president , upon a president 's personal request . Stjepan Mesić 's office is located in Grškovićeva Street in Zagreb . The office employs a public @-@ relations advisor and a foreign policy advisor . The office was established in 2010 and assigned an annual budget of 1 @.@ 3 million kuna ( c . 175 @,@ 000 euro ) . According to Mesić himself , his new office of the former president shall be at the disposal of Croatian companies to help them expand their market . Since the office has been established , former president Mesić also receives foreign diplomats and visits abroad where he meets officials and delivers lectures on occasion .
The rights of the former presidents are defined by a parliamentary Act enacted in 2004 , during the first term of Stjepan Mesić . Before that act was enacted , the constitution provided that the former presidents shall become members of the Chambers of Counties of the Parliament of Croatia for life , unless otherwise requested by the president . This was never exercised in practice , since Franjo Tuđman died in office and the Chamber of Counties was abolished before the end of the first term of Stjepan Mesić .
= = Living former Presidents = =
There are two living former Croatian Presidents :
Living former Presidents
= = Timeline of Presidents = =
This is a graphical timeline listing of the Presidents of Croatia since 1990 . Currently there are two living former presidents : Stjepan Mesić ( 2000 @-@ 2010 ) and Ivo Josipović ( 2010 @-@ 2015 ) . There is also one living former acting president : Zlatko Tomčić ( 2000 ) .
= Bill Brown ( cricketer ) =
William Alfred " Bill " Brown , OAM ( 31 July 1912 – 16 March 2008 ) was an Australian cricketer who played 22 Tests between 1934 and 1948 , captaining his country in one Test . A right @-@ handed opening batsman , his partnership with Jack Fingleton in the 1930s is regarded as one of the finest in Australian Test history . After the interruption of World War II , Brown was a member of Don Bradman 's Invincibles , who toured England in 1948 without defeat . In a match in November 1947 , Brown was the unwitting victim of the first instance of " Mankading " .
Raised in New South Wales , Brown initially struggled in both work and cricket , before gradually rising through the cricket ranks . He made his first @-@ class debut for New South Wales in the 1932 – 33 season and forced his way into the national side during the 1934 tour of England . When long @-@ term openers Bill Ponsford and Bill Woodfull retired at the end of the tour , Brown and his state opening partner Fingleton took over . After poor form made his selection for the 1938 tour of England controversial , Brown responded with a total of 1 @,@ 854 runs , including an unbeaten 206 that saved Australia from defeat in the second Test , and was honoured as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year .
The outbreak of the Second World War cost Brown his peak years , which he spent in the Royal Australian Air Force . Cricket resumed in 1945 – 46 and Brown , in Bradman 's absence , captained an Australian eleven in a match that was retrospectively awarded Test status . Brown missed the entirety of the following season because of injury . Upon his return , he was unable to repeat his previous success and was ousted from the opening positions by Arthur Morris and Sid Barnes . Selected for the Invincibles tour , he performed reasonably well in the tour matches but , with Morris and Barnes entrenched as openers , he batted out of position in the middle order during the first two Tests . He struggled and was dropped from the Test team , never to return . Upon returning to Australia , Brown continued playing for Queensland until the end of the 1949 – 50 season .
In retirement , Brown briefly served as a Test selector and sold cars and , later , sports goods . In 2000 , he was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia for his services to cricket . At the time of his death in 2008 , he was Australia 's oldest Test cricketer .
= = Early years = =
The son of a dairy farmer and hotel owner , Brown was born in Toowoomba , Queensland . Aged three , business failure hit the family , and they moved to Marrickville in inner Sydney . The family 's poor financial position meant that they lived in a one @-@ bedroom home , with Brown and his brother sharing a bed . Educated at Dulwich Hill and Petersham High Schools in Sydney , Brown started playing cricket as a wicket @-@ keeper , before changing his focus to opening the batting . He left high school after two years , but was unable to find regular full @-@ time work amid the Great Depression . In 1929 – 30 , Brown played grade cricket for Marrickville Cricket Club , but was unable to hold down a regular place . He was on the verge of leaving Sydney when an innings of 172 for his Shire team reinvigorated his career . He progressed through the grades and reached the club 's First XI , where he performed steadily to earn selection for New South Wales in 1932 – 33 .
= = Pre @-@ war career = =
Making his first @-@ class debut for New South Wales in a Sheffield Shield match against Queensland on 11 November 1932 , Brown was run out for a duck without facing a ball , while opening with Jack Fingleton. however , the match ended happily with Brown 's team winning decisively by an innings and 274 runs . The highlights of Brown 's first season were his 79 against South Australia , and 69 against Douglas Jardine 's England . However , neither Harold Larwood nor Bill Voce , the Bodyline spearheads , played in the match . During his first season , Brown earned the ire of Don Bradman , who was displeased with Brown 's poor communication with batting partners when running between the wickets , with the ensuing risk of falling foul of run outs . Brown ended his debut season with 269 runs at 29 @.@ 88 .
The following season , in the opening match of the season against Queensland at Brisbane in November 1933 , Brown made 154 , partnering Bradman in a stand of 294 in just three hours . This set up at total of 4 / 494 declared and an innings victory . He followed this with 205 in an opening stand of 340 against Victoria . Brown amassed two further half @-@ centuries to end with 878 runs for the season at an average of 67 @.@ 53 , which placed him second behind Bradman in the first @-@ class run @-@ scoring aggregates . When the selectors met to discuss the tour party for the 1934 tour of England , Brown and Fingleton had similar figures , but with the incumbent Victorian opening pair of Bill Ponsford and captain Bill Woodfull firmly in place , there was only one spot available for a reserve opener . The selectors asked Bradman — Australia 's leading batsman — for advice . Bradman nominated Brown , believing that his style was better suited to English pitches . A disappointed Fingleton disagreed and wrote to Woodfull , saying " You have chosen chaps who do not like fast bowling " . Brown justified his selection before departure with a pair of 90s in two matches for a combined Australian XI against Tasmania .
Brown missed selection for the tour opener against Worcestershire — in which Australia traditionally fielded its first @-@ choice XI — before making his debut in the second match against Leicestershire . He made a century against Cambridge University in his second tour match , making 105 in the middle order . Batting at number 3 against Lancashire in the final tour match before the Tests , Brown scored 119 . After compiling 351 runs at 43 @.@ 88 in the opening tour matches , Brown was selected for the Test side . Playing in all five Tests , Brown made his debut at Trent Bridge , Nottingham and scored 22 in his first innings . After Australia lost three early wickets in the second innings , Brown scored 73 to help secure a winning lead . Brown then made a century while opening the batting against Northamptonshire , and an unbeaten 62 in the second innings , guiding Australia to an eight @-@ wicket victory over the Gentlemen of England . He was promoted to open in the Second Test at Lord 's with Woodfull , after Ponsford was unavailable due to illness . At the home of cricket , Brown made his maiden Test century , scoring 105 in the first innings . His innings was an unhurried one ; he tended to wait for the ball to come onto the bat rather than attacking the leather . However , he was unable to prevent Australia from being forced to follow @-@ on and made two the match ended in an innings defeat . He was retained as opener upon Ponsford 's return for the Third Test , with Woodfull dropping down the order in a reshuffled batting line @-@ up . Brown made 72 and a duck . The match ended in a draw after both teams passed 490 in the first innings .
It was the start of a barren month for Brown , who passed 30 only once in 11 first @-@ class innings , totalling 171 runs at 15 @.@ 55 . He ended the unproductive sequence with an unbeaten 100 against Nottinghamshire . This came after Bill Voce had bowled Bodyline at the start of the Australian innings , in contravention of a prior agreement . After an Australian protest , Voce missed the remainder of the match and Brown 's innings was punctuated by angry heckling by the local supporters .
He was unable to pass 20 in the final two Tests and ended the series with 300 runs at 33 @.@ 33 . Despite his inability to make a substantial contribution , Australia won the Fifth Test by 562 runs to reclaim the Ashes 2 – 1 . Brown scored three consecutive half @-@ centuries after the Tests and ended with 1287 first @-@ class runs at 36 @.@ 77 .
Brown 's strong form continued upon returning to Australia , compiling 683 runs at 45 @.@ 53 , including three centuries , to be the second highest run @-@ scorer for the 1934 – 35 domestic season . He started the season with the testimonial match for Woodfull , who retired upon returning to Australia . Brown scored 102 in the second innings to help Woodfull 's men defeat Victor Richardson 's XI by seven wickets . He started the Sheffield Shield season with 11 in an innings victory over South Australia , and scored fifties in three consecutive matches , before rounding off the season with 116 in the final match against Western Australia .
= = Opening in Tests with Fingleton = =
With the retirement of Woodfull and Ponsford after the tour of England , Brown and his state partner Fingleton became Australia 's opening pair for the 1935 – 36 tour of South Africa . It was one of the most productive phases of both men 's career . In Australia 's warm @-@ up match against Western Australia before sailing across the Indian Ocean , Brown struck 55 in an innings win .
Brown started the tour consistently , scoring 148 , 58 , 31 and 28 not on out in the three warm @-@ up matches . In the first match of the tour against Natal , both Brown and Fingleton made centuries ; the first two matches were won by an innings and the third by ten wickets .
Brown scored three consecutive half @-@ centuries in the first two Tests in Durban and Johannesburg . Australia won the first by nine wickets and were 124 runs from victory with eight wickets in hand in the second when bad light stopped play . In the Third Test at Cape Town , the pair set a new Australian opening record of 233 , which laid the foundation for a large Australian total and an innings victory . It was Australia 's first double @-@ century opening stand in Test cricket , and remains an Australian Test record for the first wicket against South Africa . Brown posted 121 , his highest Test score at the time . He scored 34 and 84 in Australia 's only innings of the Fourth and Fifth Tests in Johannesburg and Durban , making solid opening stands with Fingleton , who scored three consecutive centuries . The pair laid the platform for two further innings victories , as Australia took the five @-@ Test series 4 – 0 . His compiled 417 runs at 59 @.@ 57 for the series . Brown scored a further four fifties in the remaining tour matches to end with 1065 runs at 62 @.@ 65 .
In 1936 , Brown accepted a coaching position and employment as a car salesman to move back to Queensland , representing his state of birth from 1936 – 37 onwards . He was appointed captain the following season . Brown started the new season strongly , scoring 111 for Victor Richardson 's XI in a testimonial match against Bradman 's XI , in the opening match of summer . In November , Brown played for an Australian XI and Queensland in two matches against the touring England team , scoring 71 and 74 the two drawn matches .
His 1936 – 37 season was interrupted by injury and he appeared in only the Third and Fourth Tests against England . They were relatively unsuccessful , yielding only 95 runs at 23 @.@ 75 in four innings without passing fifty . Nevertheless , Australia won the two matches . His debut season for Queensland was moderately successful , with 557 runs at an average of 37 @.@ 13 , including one century and four fifties . Brown did not taste victory with his home state during the season ; the closest Queensland came was a one @-@ wicket loss to New South Wales .
= = Wisden Cricketer of the Year = =
Brown 's form started to deteriorate in 1937 – 38 ; he scored only 400 runs at 36 @.@ 36 for the season . Queensland played five matches under his watch , losing three , and went without victory . Of the two draws , one was washed out and in the other , Queensland hung on with two wickets in hand when time ran out . Although Brown compiled two centuries , he was only twelfth in the aggregates during an Australian season with no international tours . As a result , his selection for the 1938 tour to England was criticised in some quarters .
Brown started the tour patchily , although Australia won their first four matches by an innings . In his first four innings , Brown passed five only once , scoring 72 against Oxford University . He returned to form with an unbeaten 194 against Northamptonshire , helping to set up an innings win , before adding another 96 in the next match against Surrey . Brown entered the Tests with 504 runs at 56 @.@ 00 in the lead @-@ in tour matches .
After adding 48 in Australia 's first innings of 411 , Brown scored 133 in the second innings of the First Test at Nottingham after the tourists were forced to follow @-@ on , helping Bradman ( 144 not out ) to save the Test . The Australians reached 6 / 427 in the second innings when the match ended in the draw .
Brown 's most celebrated innings came in the Second Test at Lord 's , carrying his bat to score 206 in the first televised Test match . England batted first and amassed 494 , largely on the back of Wally Hammond 's 240 . Brown featured in an opening stand of 69 before Fingleton was dismissed . Hedley Verity then bowled Bradman for 18 , leaving the score at 101 , before Stan McCabe fell after a quickfire 38 with the score at 3 / 152 . Brown registered his century in 193 minutes , during an innings highlighted by his driving on both sides of the wicket . After Lindsay Hassett was dismissed for 56 following a 134 @-@ run partnership , Australia reached stumps at 5 / 299 , with Brown on 140 . The following day , Brown set about ensuring that Australia would avoid the follow on , featuring in an aggressive eighth @-@ wicket stand with tailender Bill O 'Reilly . The pair added 85 runs in just 46 minutes , with Brown recalling " It was a nice day , and a nice wicket . O 'Reilly came in , and I told him I 'd take the quicks — Wellard and Farnes — and Tiger [ O 'Reilly ] took Verity . " Brown continued past his double century and remained unbeaten on 206 from just 375 minutes when his last partner fell , leaving Australia all out for 422 . Brown 's innings was the 100th century by an Australian against England , and the highest Test score for batsman carrying his bat ; it stood until Glenn Turner made an unbeaten 223 in 1972 . Ray Robinson quipped that Brown 's performance " did not cause smoke to rise from the back of those [ television ] sets but the charm of his style gave viewers a favourable impression of Australian batsmanship " . They went on to draw the match , which was crucial in Australia 's eventual retention of the Ashes . Brown 's uninterrupted batting meant that he was on the field from the first morning until late on the fourth day .
Immediately after making his highest Test score at Lord 's , Brown recorded his highest first @-@ class score of 265 not out against Derbyshire , in six hours of batting . Australia amassed 4 / 441 declared and won by an innings and 234 runs . He then made it three centuries in a row , scoring 101 against Warwickshire , setting up another innings win .
The Third Test was washed out without a ball being bowled , and Australia won the Fourth Test by five wickets in a low @-@ scoring match to retain The Ashes . Brown made 22 and nine as Australia scored 242 and 5 / 107 . It was the start of a quiet month for the opener , who scored only 194 runs in eight completed innings . He was the top Australian scorer in both innings of the Fifth Test at The Oval , scoring 69 and 15 . This was the match in which Len Hutton scored a world Test record 364 and England compiled 7 / 903 , before winning by an innings and 579 runs , which remains a world record winning margin in a Test match . Throughout the Tests , Brown aggregated 512 runs at 73 @.@ 14 , totaling 1854 runs at 59 @.@ 57 in all first @-@ class matches for the tour . This placed Brown second to Bradman in both aggregates and average . He was named as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year for his performances in 1938 . Wisden described him as a " cricketer of remarkable powers " who batted with " a charming skill , coolness , thoughtfulness and certainty " .
Upon returning to Australia , Brown scored 1 @,@ 057 runs at 105 @.@ 70 in the 1938 – 39 Australian season , including 990 at 110 @.@ 00 in six Sheffield Shield matches . Brown started the season well , scoring 84 as Queensland amassed 501 against New South Wales . His old state were still 27 runs from making Queensland bat again , but time ran out with one wicket intact , with Brown yet to taste victory with his new state . Nevertheless , he continued to perform strongly as passed 50 in each of his first four innings . In the fourth of these , he was out for 99 and then declared at 5 / 510 to leave Victoria a victory target of 319 . Brown then narrowly missed out on a milestone for the second time in the match when Victoria scraped home by three wickets to deny him a maiden victory with his home state . In the next match , he carried his bat to make an unbeaten 174 against South Australia at the Adelaide Oval , as his team fell to an innings defeat .
After twelve matches for his state of origin , Brown was still to end up on the winning side . This changed in the next match against New South Wales . After their opponents had made 214 , Brown top @-@ scored with 95 as Queensland replied with 200 . New South Wales made 264 to leave Brown 's men 279 for victory . The captain led the way , combining with Geoff Cook in Queensland 's then record first @-@ wicket partnership of 265 . Brown was out for 168 , but his team held on to secure an eight @-@ wicket victory over New South Wales . It was Brown 's first win in Queensland colours . He then scored 81 in a ten @-@ wicket defeat to South Australia , before adding a second victory , this time over Victoria . Brown ended the season by amassing 215 as Queensland reached 7 / 575 declared before completing an innings win . Brown topped the aggregates with 1 @,@ 057 runs and was the only player to pass 1 @,@ 000 runs for the season .
Brown had another strong campaign in the following year , netting 857 runs at 61 @.@ 21 , including three centuries . Despite this , Queensland had another poor season , losing five of their six matches . Brown started the season strongly , scoring 87 and 137 , but he was unable to stop New South Wales winning the opening match by three wickets . After a seven @-@ wicket loss to Victoria , Brown made 156 , but was unable to prevent an innings defeat to South Australia . After an innings loss to New South Wales , he made 111 to steer Queensland to its only win of the season , a two @-@ wicket victory over South Australia . He finished the season with 35 and 97 as The Rest of Australia lost to New South Wales by two wickets .
= = Second World War and post @-@ war career = =
Due to World War II , cricket in Australia was scaled down and in a shortened season in 1940 – 41 , Brown made 307 runs at 30 @.@ 70 in five matches , with two half @-@ centuries . In 1941 – 42 , he played one match , his last first @-@ class fixture during the war , scoring 56 and 69 in a narrow 19 @-@ run win over New South Wales .
Brown was a flight lieutenant with the Royal Australian Air Force , serving in New Guinea and the Philippines during the Second World War , losing his prime years from the age of 27 to 33 . During the pre @-@ war years , he had averaged 49 @.@ 02 in Test cricket .
First @-@ class cricket resumed in 1945 – 46 after the Allied victory , and Brown began the post @-@ war phase of his career with a steady season , scoring 604 runs at 46 @.@ 46 with five half @-@ centuries in seven matches . This placed him second to Sid Barnes in the run @-@ scoring aggregates . His best effort was a 98 against South Australia , denied a century by a run out . Queensland lost more than they won , with two victories and three losses . At the end of the season , Brown captained an Australian side on a tour of New Zealand , and all five matches resulted in convincing victories .
Australia played its inaugural Test against New Zealand in Wellington , a match that was retrospectively given Test status . The uncertain status of the tour saw the players wearing blazers that were labelled ABC ( Australian Board of Control ) , rather than the Australian coat of arms . Brown led from the front , topping the tour aggregates and averages , with 443 runs at 73 @.@ 83 in five matches . In the opening tour match against Auckland , Brown elected to bat and opened with 68 as Australia amassed 579 and took victory by an innings and 180 runs . This was followed by a match against Canterbury in Christchurch , in which Brown top @-@ scored with 137 . This laid the foundation for a total of 8 / 415 and another innings victory . Brown made his second consecutive century in the third match against Otago at Carisbrook in Dunedin , again top @-@ scoring with 106 in an eight @-@ wicket victory . Brown made 34 in the final tour match as Australia defeated Wellington in another innings victory .
The tour culminated in a match against New Zealand at the Basin Reserve in Wellington . With regular captain Don Bradman missing , Brown led a team that included seven Test debutants . The hosts won the toss and elected to bat first on a wet wicket , which came about after a week of rain before the match . New Zealand managed to reach 4 / 37 at lunch , before the sun emerged and caused the wicket to turn into a sticky with unpredictable bounce . Leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly — in his last Test — and debutant Ernie Toshack , took 5 / 14 and 4 / 12 respectively as New Zealand were bowled out for only 42 , losing their last six wickets for five runs . In reply , Australia were 1 / 9 when Ken Meuleman was dismissed . Having been dropped on 13 , Brown then combined in a 109 @-@ run first @-@ wicket stand with Barnes , before falling for the innings top @-@ score of 67 . It was the only partnership for the Test that went beyond 32 . Barnes ' dismissal triggered a collapse of 6 / 57 , prompting Brown to declare Australia 's innings closed at 8 / 199 . Australia then dismissed New Zealand for 54 in the second innings in just two hours , resulting in victory by an innings and 54 runs in just two days . As the hosts ' batsmen fell quickly , many of the Australian bowlers had limited opportunities . With one wicket left in the match , Brown used the toss of a coin to determine which of the debutants Colin McCool and Ian Johnson would bowl in Tests for the first time . McCool was given the ball and ended the match on his second delivery . Brown 's solitary Test as captain makes him the first and the only native Queenslander to have led Australia .
Brown missed the entire 1946 – 47 Test series against England due to a thumb injury . This allowed young New South Wales opener Arthur Morris to make his Test debut . Morris ' performance in the series eventually displaced Brown from his position as a first @-@ choice opening batsman alongside Barnes . The injury meant that Brown was unable to play a single match for Queensland .
= = Mankad = =
Brown returned to first @-@ class cricket in 1947 – 48 , scoring 192 runs at 38 @.@ 40 in the first three matches of the season . The season saw an Indian tour of Australia . The selectors initially dropped Barnes to pair Brown with Morris to open the batting . Apart from two Tests during the 1936 – 37 season against England , Brown had not played Test cricket on Australian soil . He had only one opportunity with the bat in the First Test in Brisbane , making 11 as India fell to an innings defeat . It was to be his only innings and Test match on his home ground . Brown 's participation in the series was overshadowed by his controversial run out by Indian left arm orthodox spinner Vinoo Mankad in the Second Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground in December 1947 . Brown was run out for 18 , when in the act of delivering the ball , Mankad held on to it and whipped the bails off at the non @-@ striker 's end . Brown was well out of his crease while he was backing @-@ up the striker , so that he could get a head start in case he attempted a run . This was the second time during the season that Mankad had dismissed Brown in this fashion — as he had previously done so a match against an Australian XI in November . On that occasion , Mankad had warned Brown before running him out . The local press strongly accused Mankad of being unsportsmanlike , although some Australians — including Bradman — defended Mankad 's actions . For his part , Brown took full blame and made light of the incident through humorous gestures in later matches , which referred to the event . After this incident , if a batsman is given out this way , he is said to have been " Mankaded " .
The dismissal ended another low @-@ scoring innings , and Australia batted only once in a shortened match . Brown was omitted from the team in favour of Barnes for the next two Tests . Morris — who had established himself as one of Australia 's first @-@ choice opening batsmen during Brown 's injury layoff during the previous season — was rested for the Fifth Test as the Australian Board trialled potential candidates for the 1948 tour of England . Morris was omitted after losing a coin toss to Barnes . Brown partnered Barnes , making 99 in the first innings before being run out . Brown had survived a confident appeal for caught behind before he had scored , and Barnes was convinced that his partner had edged the ball . Barnes claimed that had Brown failed to make an impact in the innings , he would have been overlooked for the 1948 tour .
During the first innings , Brown captained Australia while Bradman was absent with fibrositis . The tourists fell for 331 , with debutants Sam Loxton and Doug Ring taking three wickets apiece . India eventually fell to another innings defeat , so Brown did not have another opportunity to score a Test century on home soil . His Test aggregate in Australia stood at 223 runs at only 33 @.@ 86 , in contrast to his away average of 1 @,@ 369 runs at 50 @.@ 70 . His first @-@ class batting average of 43 @.@ 58 for the season was inferior to that of Barnes and Morris , both of whom averaged more than 50 .
= = Invincibles tour = =
In any case , Brown had done enough to be chosen to tour England with the Invincibles in 1948 , although Barnes and Morris were the first @-@ choice opening combination . Brown made a strong start in the tour matches preceding the Tests . In the fifth fixture , which was against Cambridge University , Brown top @-@ scored with 200 in an innings victory . In the following match against Essex , Brown combined with Bradman in a second @-@ wicket partnership of 219 in 90 minutes , ending with 153 as Australia scored a world @-@ record 721 runs in one day . Australia proceeded to another innings victory , and Brown completed his third century in as many innings with 108 against Oxford University . He preceded to add a fourth century in less than three weeks , with 122 against Nottinghamshire , and made an unbeaten 81 against Hampshire . In contrast , middle @-@ order batsman Neil Harvey had struggled in the initial stages of his first tour of England , failing to pass 25 in his first six innings . Thus , Brown gained selection in the First Test at Trent Bridge , batting out of position in the middle order , whereas Harvey was dropped despite making a century in Australia 's most recent Test against India .
Brown made 17 in his only innings as Australia won by eight wickets . Between Tests , Brown scored 113 in a slow innings against Yorkshire to retain his middle @-@ order position for the Second Test at Lord 's . He was unable to replicate the Test centuries he made in the preceding tours , scoring 24 and 32 . It was to be his last Test , as Sam Loxton top @-@ scored with 159 not out against Gloucestershire in the match before the Third Test , ousting Brown from his middle @-@ order position . Barnes was injured in the Third Test , but Brown was not recalled for the Fourth Test ; instead , Lindsay Hassett was promoted to open with Morris , while the teenaged Harvey came into the middle @-@ order and struck 112 . Brown then scored 140 against Derbyshire immediately after the Fourth Test , in a dour display that displeased spectators , and then scored consecutive centuries against Kent and the Gentlemen of England after the Tests . He ended with eight centuries and a total of 1 @,@ 448 runs on the tour at an average of 57 @.@ 92 , behind only Bradman , Hassett and Morris , with the 200 against Cambridge University his highest score . Brown took 4 / 16 against the South of England in his only bowling assignment of the tour . It was his best career bowling figures , having amassed only six wickets in his first @-@ class career . In three visits to England , Brown scored 18 centuries .
Upon returning to Australia , Bradman retired and Barnes took a break from cricket , thereby opening two vacancies in the Test team . Brown had a reasonable domestic season in 1948 – 1949 to press his claim for a Test recall . He scored 626 runs at 41 @.@ 73 , the sixth highest aggregate of the season , with a century and three fifties . Queensland won two and lost three games . Despite this , the 37 @-@ year @-@ old Brown was not named in the touring party for the Test tour of South Africa in 1949 – 50 . In the absence of the Test players , Brown scored 507 runs at 50 @.@ 70 in the Sheffield Shield season , with a top score of 190 , making him the third highest run @-@ getter . In their first five matches of the season , Queensland lost three times , before Brown 's 190 in the last match against South Australia set up a nine @-@ wicket win . It was his only century of the season after previously falling for 94 twices .
With his opportunities diminishing , he retired after captaining the Australian Second XI to New Zealand on an end @-@ of @-@ season tour , during which the team went undefeated . Most of the matches were not first @-@ class but Brown scored his final first @-@ class century against Otago , scoring 184 in an innings victory . He had been less effective in his later years , averaging 38 @.@ 29 in Tests following World War II .
= = Style = =
Brown was regarded as a cautious starter who was reluctant to use his full array of strokes . He had an upright stance and was known for his trademark leg glancing and placement of the ball . He hooked occasionally and scored the majority of his off @-@ side runs with the cut shot . Johnnie Moyes said that " even when slow , he never wearied , as some do , because his style was cultured and free from jarring faults " . Moyes felt that Brown 's superior record on English soil was a result of the crowd attitude , which was more respectful . At Australian grounds , impatient spectators who disliked Brown 's cautious batting frequently heckled him , blaming Brown for delaying Bradman 's arrival to the crease . Moyes felt that the more serene English gallery allowed Brown to play to his game plan without hastening to placate impatient spectators . " A placid chap was Brown , and he liked to play in peaceful surroundings . When on the job he was as emotionless as a stoic . " Moyes said that Brown was " always cool and thoughtful , he preferred finesse to force " . The English journalist Neville Cardus commented " His cricket is perpetually keeping an appointment leisurely with moments to spare . Does the bat have an engagement this over with a half @-@ volley ? Very well , then , put it down in the book . We 'll be there for it . Plenty of time . " Bradman also noted Brown 's ability to quickly get into position to play the ball , writing " One hallmark of good batting is that the player appears to have plenty of time in which to play his strokes . Bill Brown was an outstanding case of one who never seemed to be in a hurry for any stroke . " Ray Robinson said that Brown was " the most serene batsman I ever saw play for Australia " . Robinson said that " for artistry , Brown 's leg @-@ glancing could be mentioned in the same breath as Archie Jackson 's " . Brown 's placid nature extended to his observations of modern cricket — he disliked the emotional displays made by contemporary players .
Brown 's partnership with Fingleton was regarded as one of the great opening pairings in Australian Test cricket history . In ten Tests as an opening combination , the pair averaged 63 @.@ 75 for the first wicket , higher than any other Australian duo with more than 1000 runs . Brown was known for his self @-@ effacing nature and was well liked among teammates and opponents alike . Of his batting , Brown joked that " My wife said you could always tell when I was batting by the number of people leaving the ground " . During a domestic match at the Adelaide Oval in December 1938 , he deflected a ball onto his stumps without dislodging a bail . He added a further 147 runs to end unbeaten on 174 , eternally apologising for his luck .
In addition to his batting , Brown was a highly regarded fieldsman known for his fitness . He developed his skills through persistent training with professional sprinters in order to improve his anticipation and speed off the mark . Brown often fielded at slip or in the covers . With Australia boasting the leg spin pairing of O 'Reilly and Grimmett in the 1930s , close @-@ catchers were frequently used . Along with Fingleton , Brown often fielded in the leg trap position .
= = Off the field = =
In 1940 , Brown married Barbara Hart , a receptionist . The couple had three sons , whom Brown self @-@ deprecatingly noted were " well spaced ... like my centuries " . Outside cricket , Brown worked in a variety of jobs . When Bradman relocated from New South Wales to South Australia in 1935 , Brown took his job at the men 's clothing store FJ Palmer . Following his relocation to Queensland , Brown was a Brisbane car salesman , selling Chevrolets for Egars , later running a sports store .
Brown was a Queensland selector from 1950 – 51 to 1959 – 60 , and an Australian selector in 1952 – 53 after defeating New South Wales ' Chappie Dwyer in an election . He was the first Queenslander in 23 years to serve as a national selector . His brief tenure as a national selector was marked by abuse and harassment from parochial Queenslanders , upset that he did not include his fellow statesmen in the Test team . Brown 's sports store was vandalised and he resigned as a selector within a year . In 1992 , Brown was elected a life member of the Queensland Cricket Association , and in 2000 was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia for his services to cricket .
Upon Bradman 's death in February 2001 , Brown became the oldest living Australian Test cricketer , greatly amused by the fame that came with the title . Highly regarded by Australian cricketers of the modern era , Steve Waugh invited Brown to present Test debutant Adam Gilchrist with his baggy green . The humble Brown was surprised , thinking himself an unworthy choice . Waugh disagreed , opining that " Bill is a baggy green icon who represents all that is good about playing for your country . He is humble , self @-@ effacing and respectful , proud to have been afforded the honour of being an Australian Test cricketer , and a man who always looks for the positive in people . " In March 2008 , Brown died in Brisbane at the age of 95 . He was the last surviving Invincible to have played Test cricket before World War II and his death leaves only four living members of Bradman 's 1948 team .
In 2009 Brown was inducted into the Queensland Sport Hall of Fame .
= = Test match performance = =
Key : * – not out
= Shaun Goater =
Leonard Shaun Goater MBE ( born 25 February 1970 ) is a Bermudian footballer who is now retired . He played as a striker for a number of English clubs in the 1990s and 2000s . He is currently assistant manager at New Mills .
Goater 's first professional club was Manchester United , but he did not reach the first team , making his League debut in 1989 after moving to Rotherham United . He played for Rotherham for seven years before moving to Bristol City in 1996 . Two years later he moved to Manchester City for a fee of £ 400 @,@ 000 .
He is most well known for his time at Manchester City , where he scored over 100 goals between 1998 and 2003 , finishing as the club 's top scorer for four consecutive seasons . After leaving City , Goater had spells with Reading , Coventry City and Southend United , before retiring in May 2006 . He represented Bermuda 36 times , scoring 32 goals .
= = Early life = =
Goater was born in the Bermudian capital Hamilton , living with his mother Lynette , his grandmother and two aunts . His introduction to English football came in April 1987 when he was invited to join the Saltus Grammar School football and basketball tour . He spent two weeks playing against various English high school teams , including the Leicester City youth team . At the age of 17 , he left home to further his education in the United States , where he had a soccer scholarship at Columbia High School , New Jersey . Whilst home in Bermuda during his Thanksgiving break , Goater was spotted by scouts from Manchester United , who invited him to England for a trial . With encouragement from his mother , who was a former football player herself , Goater accepted , forfeiting his scholarship by doing so . At this time , Goater did not play as a striker , but instead played as a creative midfielder .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Goater 's trial resulted in the offer of a professional contract , but he did not break into the first team . In 1989 , Goater signed for Rotherham United in order to play first team football . At this time , Goater suffered homesickness , finding it difficult to adapt to the English climate : " It took me a good two years to get used to life in England . At first I thought the sun never shone and it wasn 't for me . " However , he gradually got used to living in England , and over the course of seven seasons at Rotherham he gained a reputation as a reliable lower division striker , scoring 86 goals in 262 appearances , with a winner 's medal for the 1996 Auto Windscreens Shield the highlight . A 1992 League Cup tie against Everton gave Goater his first experience of playing against a Premier League team . In the first leg , Goater scored the only goal of the game as Rotherham won 1 – 0 . However , Everton won the return leg 3 – 0 and Rotherham were eliminated . In 1993 , Goater also had a brief loan spell at Notts County , though he made only one appearance for the Nottingham club due to a work permit problem . Towards the end of the 1995 – 96 season , Goater had a disagreement with Rotherham manager Archie Gemmill , and decided his future lay elsewhere .
In the 1995 – 96 close season , Goater received offers from Spanish club Osasuna and newly formed South Koreans Suwon Samsung Bluewings , but having recently married , he decided to stay in England . Shortly after , he moved to Bristol City for a fee of £ 175 @,@ 000 . Goater 's Bristol City debut came against Gillingham . Goater scored , but Bristol City lost 3 – 2 . City finished the season in fifth , qualifying for the playoffs , but lost to Brentford . The following season Bristol City were pushing for promotion into the First Division , and Goater scored regularly , eventually being named in the PFA Team of the Year for the division . In a little under two years with the Bristol City , he scored 45 goals in 81 appearances . On 26 March 1998 , transfer deadline day , Goater signed for Manchester City , who paid Bristol City £ 400 @,@ 000 for his services .
= = = Manchester City = = =
Goater joined Manchester City at a turbulent point in their history , with newly appointed manager Joe Royle battling to save the club from relegation to Second Division . Goater scored three goals in the seven remaining matches of the 1997 – 98 season , but this was not enough to prevent the club from being relegated to the third tier of English Football for the first time ever . Fans were initially sceptical as to Goater 's ability , but as goals were scored supporters were gradually won over , creating a song in his honour , " Feed The Goat And He Will Score " ( to the tune Cwm Rhondda ) . The 1998 – 99 season saw Goater score 21 goals , finishing the season as Manchester City 's top goalscorer . The last of these was the winning goal in a play @-@ off semi @-@ final against Wigan Athletic , sending Manchester City to Wembley Stadium for a playoff final which saw City promoted after a penalty shootout .
The 1999 – 2000 season was even more successful for Goater . He was the club 's top goal score again , this time with 29 goals , and was named Manchester City 's Player of the Year by the supporters after Manchester City were promoted for the second successive year . In the summer , Goater was awarded the freedom of Bermuda , with 21 June declared as " Shaun Goater Day " on the island . The following season , Goater made his first appearance in top flight football at the age of 30 , though injury and the presence of new signings Paulo Wanchope and former World Player of the Year George Weah meant he had to wait three months to do so . Again established in the first team , Goater was Manchester City 's top goalscorer for the third consecutive season , but his 11 goals could not save the team from relegation .
During the 2000 – 01 close season , upheaval took place at Manchester City , with manager Royle departing to be replaced by Kevin Keegan . In the 2001 – 02 season , Goater became the first Manchester City player since Francis Lee in 1972 to score more than 30 goals in a season . City were promoted as champions , and he was the club 's top scorer for the fourth time in a row , as well as being the top scorer in the division .
Over the summer of 2001 – 02 , there was speculation that Goater would be transferred , as Manchester City had twice broken their transfer record by buying strikers Jon Macken and Nicolas Anelka . Goater stayed , but opportunities were limited . He started just 14 games , but scored seven goals , including his 100th for the club , which came in a derby match against local rivals Manchester United . In February 2003 , Goater struck against the same opposition to score the fastest goal by a substitute in Premier League history , just 9 seconds after coming onto the pitch . He also scored a goal that would have won City the match , but it was disallowed .
Shortly before the end of the 2002 – 03 season , Goater announced his intention to leave Manchester City when the season finished in order to seek regular first team football . In his final match for Manchester City , he was asked to captain the side in Manchester City 's final game at Maine Road . In total , Goater scored 103 goals in 212 appearances for Manchester City . Since ending his footballing career , Goater has been critical of both Kevin Keegan , who he claims never praised him and Nicolas Anelka , who he feels wanted to be ' the daddy ' of Manchester City .
= = = Later career = = =
Goater moved to Reading on 1 August 2003 . Reading chairman John Madejski described the transfer as " the biggest in Reading Football Club 's history " , but Goater 's time there was not a happy one . Shortly after Goater 's arrival , Reading manager Alan Pardew left for West Ham United , and Pardew 's replacement , Steve Coppell , did not regard Goater as part of his plans . In his second and final season at Reading , Goater played just four times , and was loaned to Coventry City . Goater then considered retirement , but instead moved to League One club Southend United for a final season as a professional . The move , a free transfer , was completed on 3 August 2005 . At Southend , Goater acted as a mentor for young striker Freddy Eastwood , and contributed towards a second successive promotion for the Shrimpers , scoring 11 goals . His final appearance before retirement was on 6 May 2006 , when Southend played Bristol City , one of Goater 's former clubs . The crowd included an estimated 400 Manchester City fans who travelled to Southend to mark the occasion .
After retiring , Goater returned to Bermuda , receiving an official welcome from the Premier of Bermuda Alex Scott on his arrival . A week later , Southend played the Bermuda national team in an appreciation game for their former striker . Goater has expressed a wish to enter coaching following his retirement , and studied for the UEFA B coaching licence in 2005 . Since 2003 , Goater has organised the annual Shaun Goater Grass @-@ roots Soccer Festival , a football coaching event for children in Bermuda . On 14 September 2006 , Goater and the United Soccer Leagues announced that Bermuda would receive a professional football team that would play in the third division of American football , the USL Second Division . Goater had roles as both a director and player of the team , the Bermuda Hogges . Goater left Bermuda Hogges in 2008 , to concentrate on youth coaching with North Village Rams in his home town .
Goater and three other partners in the Bermuda @-@ based East End Group Limited announced an amalgamation with Telecommunications Networks Limited ( now renamed East End Telecom ) on 9 November 2007 , which added to the group 's two other business subsidiaries , East End Asphalt and East End Aviation . Goater serves as the group 's Business Development Manager .
When in England , Goater has made regular appearances in local media covering the Manchester area . These have included a column entitled " Read the Goat " in the official Manchester City match programme , and a regular guest spot on the BBC Radio Manchester programme Blue Tuesday .
On 8 August 2015 , it was announced that Goater would join Northern Premier League Division One North club New Mills A.F.C. as assistant manager to Andy Fearn . In September 2015 , Fearn and Goater resigned from New Mills after nine defeats in nine games .
= = International career = =
Goater has also played for the Bermudian national team 36 times , scoring 32 goals , though due to Bermuda 's lowly standing in world football he never played in a major international tournament . He made his first international appearance at the age of 17 against Canada .
During the 1992 – 93 season , Goater missed eight weeks of the club season in order to represent his country in qualifying for the 1994 World Cup . However , Bermuda finished bottom of a group containing El Salvador , Canada and Jamaica . His final appearance was in June 2004 against El Salvador .
When playing for Bermuda , Goater was often the only professional player in the team . Bermudian journalist Chris Gibbons described the difference between Goater and his team @-@ mates : " He 's a class above every other player on the island . Before he went to England he was just quick , but now he 's a totally different player , a lot more aggressive and a much better header of the ball . The problem has been that he sets up chances for the others without them being on the same wavelength . " However , Goater noted that this had a detrimental aspect : " My fitness dropped off while I was with Bermuda . It was like being on holiday . The team just ate what they liked . I kept to my professional diet for about two or three weeks until peer pressure took over . "
= = Personal life = =
Goater is married to Anita , his childhood sweetheart , and has two daughters , Amaya and Anais ( born 3 October 2000 in Wythenshawe , Manchester ) . He was awarded the MBE in 2003 for services to sport and young people in Bermuda . His autobiography , Feed the Goat : The Shaun Goater Story was published in September 2006 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = International goals = = =
Scores and results list Bermuda 's goal tally first .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Rotherham United
Football League Trophy : 1995 – 96
Manchester City
Football League Second Division play @-@ offs : 1998 – 99
Football League First Division : 2001 – 02
Southend United
Football League One : 2005 – 06
= = = Individual = = =
Football League First Division Top Scorer : 2001 – 02
PFA Team of the Year : 1997 – 98 , 2001 – 02
= Carlton Hill , Brighton =
Carlton Hill is an inner @-@ city area of Brighton , part of the English city and seaside resort of Brighton and Hove . First developed in the early and mid @-@ 19th century on steeply sloping farmland east of central Brighton , it grew rapidly as the town became a fashionable , high @-@ class destination . Carlton Hill 's population was always poor , though , and by the early 20th century the area was Brighton 's worst slum : overcrowding , crime and disease were rife . Extensive slum clearance in the mid @-@ 20th century introduced high @-@ density tower blocks , but some old buildings remain : in 2008 , Brighton and Hove City Council designated part of Carlton Hill as the city 's 34th conservation area . The area now has housing of various styles and ages , large offices and small @-@ scale industry ; there are also churches , a school and some open space .
Carlton Hill 's pattern of development was defined by the long @-@ established structure of land ownership around Brighton , whereby land was divided into long , narrow strips with many different owners . This encouraged the development of terraced housing — the predominant housing pattern until the council undertook large @-@ scale demolition and high @-@ density rebuilding in the mid @-@ 20th century . This work introduced more open space and varied land uses : Brighton Art College was able to expand into the area , and American Express opened a large , visually dominant headquarters .
Buildings lost during the 20th century include schools and several chapels serving various Christian denominations . The former St John the Evangelist 's Anglican church was declared redundant and sold to Brighton 's Greek Orthodox community ; meanwhile , a distinctive Modernist church was built in the 1960s for Spiritualists . A cluster of historic early 19th @-@ century houses and other structures survived the redevelopment , and several were awarded listed status by English Heritage . These buildings and their surroundings were afforded further protection in 2008 when the city council designated the Carlton Hill conservation area .
= = Location = =
Carlton Hill stands on high ground immediately east of the centre of Brighton . Its western boundary , Grand Parade , is part of the main road to London ; Edward Street , a major road leading towards Kemp Town and the eastbound coast road , forms the southern boundary ; the Queen 's Park residential area is to the east ; and the densely populated terraced housing of Hanover lies to the north . The main road through the area runs from west to east and is also called Carlton Hill . Albion Hill , another steeply sloping west – east road , forms the northern boundary between Hanover and Carlton Hill ; the area north of Sussex Street is sometimes referred to as Albion Hill . The high ground of the area reaches a summit of 230 feet ( 70 m ) at Windmill Terrace , between Albion Hill and Richmond Street . The latter was Brighton 's steepest road until redevelopment in the 1960s severed it : its 1 : 5 gradient necessitated a full @-@ width wall halfway along , to intercept runaway handcarts and other vehicles .
The area is not prominent on Brighton 's skyline , but good views are possible from its streets , especially westwards and southwestwards towards the sea and across the valley floor in which Old Steine and the old town are situated . Tarner Park , an open space in the centre of the conservation area , offers long views through nearly 180 ° .
= = History = =
Brighton 's origins lie in the Saxon fishing and agricultural village of Bristelmestune . The English Channel formed its southern limit , but on all other sides was farmland divided into open fields called laines . These were further subdivided into furlongs — wide parallel strips — and paul @-@ pieces , which were much narrower strips . Despite their small size , neighbouring paul @-@ pieces often had different owners . Wide paths ( leakways ) ran at right @-@ angles to the furlongs , separating them . This ancient land @-@ use pattern , which survived until the 18th century despite its unsuitability for contemporary farming methods , significantly influenced the pattern of urban development in 18th- and 19th @-@ century Brighton .
Hilly Laine was one of Brighton 's five laines . It was northeast of the Steine ( later called Old Steine ) , the centre of fashionable society in the 18th century , and rose steeply eastwards from an area of sheltered flatter land close to the Steine . Some fields were used for small @-@ scale activities such as limeburning and market gardening , but most were farmed by individuals . The laine had several furlongs ; the second of these , which now forms the heart of the conservation area , was separated from its neighbours by leakways which became Carlton Hill ( the road ) and Sussex Street . Much of the land in this area was owned by Dr Benjamin Scutt , whose landholdings extended into the neighbouring village of Hove ( the Brunswick estate was built on land he sold in the 1820s ) . Starting around 1800 , the land was gradually sold to developers ; Edward Street was laid out in 1804 and quickly experienced a " mini building boom " with inns , stables and small workshops . John Street , on the first ( westernmost ) furlong of Hilly Laine , was built up by 1810 : its developer , John Hall , laid out plots for 11 by 15 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m × 4 @.@ 6 m ) houses and started building and selling them in 1805 . Carlton Street , by another developer , followed by 1807 . Meanwhile , development continued slowly on the second furlong : four paul @-@ pieces were occupied with buildings by 1819 .
Scutt 's land sales helped him fund the development of Carlton Place , an architectural set @-@ piece consisting of a 20 @-@ house terrace surrounding a riding school , the Royal Circus ; the development took place between 1806 and 1808 . Named after Carlton House , the Prince Regent 's London home , the development was on a larger scale than the rest of Carlton Hill 's houses : each plot measured 17 by 60 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m × 18 @.@ 3 m ) . Each cost about £ 410 ( £ 30 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) to build , and proved to be profitable : one sold for £ 700 ( £ 51 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) in 1806 to a local vicar , who later bought two more to rent out . A survey of the town 's housing by the Brighton Town Commissioners in 1814 valued Carlton Place within the top 25 % of all houses in Brighton . Scutt laid out three more streets nearby at the same time : Carlton Mews , Carlton Row and Woburn Place were narrow roads crowded with small houses , stables and workshops . Meanwhile , a farmhouse was built at an unknown time in the early 19th century on nearby Mighell Street ; it may have moved from agricultural to residential and commercial use later that century , and has an obscure early history .
Built as Patriot Place in the mid @-@ 1810s , Tilbury Place ( renamed in the 1860s ) and its five houses stood next to the farm and formed a pocket of high @-@ class residential development in a mostly working @-@ class area of small houses . Number 1 , also called St John 's Lodge , was the largest , and was built for Edward Tarner ( a merchant ) and his wife Laetitia , whose maiden name was Tilbury . It passed through the family until 1933 , when Laetitia Tilbury Tarner , a descendant , left it to Brighton Corporation for charitable purposes . It was converted into Tarner Home , a nursing and care institute for poor people , and later became a hostel .
Apart from some land north of Sussex Street that remained agricultural until the 20th century , the whole hillside was covered with ( mostly terraced ) houses , small workshops and industrial structures , inns and other modest buildings by the mid @-@ 19th century . As early as 1840 , the area was considered to be affected by poverty and its high population density . Brighton Corporation undertook some slum clearance in the 1880s , when White and Blaker Streets were laid out between Carlton Hill and Edward Street . By this time , Carlton Hill was known as Brighton 's " foreign quarter " , where many Italian and French street vendors — who sold food of various types on Brighton beach , in the town centre and from door to door — settled . Brighton 's fishing industry still thrived into the early 20th century , and many fishermen lived in Carlton Hill and used its workshops and warehouses to cure and smoke their herring catches . A contemporary writer , quoted by Brighton historian Clifford Musgrave , observed that " an aromatic and appetising pall would envelop the entire neighbourhood , kippering both fish and residents alike " .
In the late 19th century and early 20th century , Carlton Hill 's notoriety as a slum increased . Poverty , drunkenness , disease and low living standards were rife . Brighton 's reputation was damaged by a disparaging article in The Lancet in 1882 : making reference to Carlton Hill , it criticised the town 's poor standards of health . Assisted by government funding , Brighton Corporation undertook extensive slum clearance from 1928 until the start of World War II , transforming the area 's appearance . Two large blocks of flats — Brighton Corporation 's first council flats — were built to rehouse many of the displaced residents . The Milner Flats , a long four @-@ storey block , stand on the
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equal a troy pound ( 373 g ) , although the avoirdupois pound ( 454 g ) was more commonly used for base metals .
The Mint 's chief engraver , James B. Longacre , was instructed to prepare designs for pattern coins . Initially , Longacre worked with Liberty head designs such as were common at the time , but Snowden asked that a flying eagle design be prepared . This occurred as Booth 's experiments continued ; the first cent patterns with the flying eagle design were about the size of a quarter . To promote the new alloy , the Mint had 50 half cents struck in it , and had them sent to Washington for Treasury officials to show to officials and congressmen . In early November 1856 , Longacre prepared dies in what would prove to be the final design , depicting a flying eagle on the obverse and a wreathed denomination on the reverse , in the size sought by Booth .
The Mint struck at least several hundred patterns using Longacre 's flying eagle design in the proposed composition . In an effort to secure public acceptance of the new pieces , these were distributed to various congressmen and other officials , initially in November 1856 . Two hundred were sent to the House Committee on Coinage , Weights and Measures , while four were given to President Franklin Pierce . At least 634 specimens were distributed , and possibly several thousand ; extra were available on request . This was the origin of the highly collectable 1856 Flying Eagle cent , which is considered by numismatists as part of the Flying Eagle series although it was actually a pattern or transition piece , not an official coin , as congressional approval had not yet been granted . Additional 1856 small cents were later struck by Snowden for illicit sale , and to exchange for pieces the Mint sought for its coin collection .
In December 1856 , Snowden wrote to Missouri Representative John S. Phelps , hoping for progress with the legislation , and stating that he was already " pressed on all hands , and from every quarter , for the new cent — in fact , the public are very anxious for its issue " . When the legislation , amended to include the weight and alloy the Mint had decided on , was debated in the House of Representatives on December 24 , it was opposed by Tennessee Congressman George Washington Jones over the legal tender provision ; Jones felt that under the Constitution , only gold and silver should be made legal tender . Phelps defended the bill on the ground that Congress had the constitutional power to regulate the value of money , but when the bill was brought back up to be considered on January 14 , 1857 , the legal tender provision had been removed . This time , the bill was opposed by New York Congressman Thomas R. Whitney , who objected to a provision in the bill that legalized the Mint 's practice of designing and striking medals commissioned by the public , feeling that the government should not compete with private medallists . The provision was removed , and the bill passed the following day . The House version was then considered by the Senate , which debated it on February 4 , and passed it with a further amendment allowing the redemption of the Spanish coins for a minimum of two years . The House agreed to this on February 18 , and President Pierce signed the bill on the 21st . The act made foreign gold and silver coins no longer legal tender , but Spanish dollars were redeemable at their nominal value for two years in exchange for the new copper @-@ nickel cents . The half cent was abolished . The new pieces would be the same size ( 19 mm ) , though somewhat heavier , than cents are today .
In anticipation of the success of the legislation , most of the 333 @,@ 456 large cents struck in 1857 never left the Philadelphia Mint , and were later melted . Snowden purchased a new set of rollers and other equipment so that the Mint could produce its own cent planchets , the first time it had done so in over 50 years . Although the legislation was still a day from final passage , Snowden recommended Longacre 's designs to Guthrie on February 20 . Guthrie approved them on the 24th , though he requested that the edge of the coin be made less sharp ; Snowden promised to comply . Flying Eagle cents were struck beginning in April 1857 and were held pending official release . The Mint stored the pieces pending accumulation of a sufficient supply ; in mid @-@ May , Snowden notified Philadelphia newspapers that distribution would begin on May 25 .
= = Design = =
Longacre 's obverse of an eagle in flight is based on that of the Gobrecht dollar , struck in small quantities from 1836 to 1839 . Although Gobrecht 's model is not known with certainty , some sources state that the bird in flight was based on Peter the eagle , a tame bird fed by Mint workers in the early 1830s until it was caught up in machinery and killed . The bird was stuffed , and is still displayed at the Philadelphia Mint .
Despite its derivative nature , Longacre 's eagle has been widely admired . According to art historian Cornelius Vermeule in his book on U.S. coins , the flying eagle motif , when used in the 1830s , was " the first numismatic bird that could be said to derive from nature rather than from colonial carving or heraldry " . Vermeule described the Flying Eagle cent 's replacement , the Indian Head cent , as " far less attractive to the eye than the Peale @-@ Gobrecht flying eagle and its variants " . Sculptor Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens , when commissioned in 1905 to provide new designs for American coinage , sought to return a flying eagle design to the cent , writing to President Theodore Roosevelt , " I am using a flying eagle , a modification of the device which was used on the cent of 1857 . I had not seen that coin for many years , and was so impressed by it that I thought if carried out with some modifications , nothing better could be done . It is by all odds the best design on any American coin . " Saint @-@ Gaudens did return the flying eagle to American coinage , but his design was used for the reverse of the double eagle rather than the cent .
The wreath on the reverse is also derivative , having been previously used on Longacre 's Type II gold dollar of 1854 , and the three @-@ dollar piece of the same year . It is composed of leaves of wheat , corn , cotton and tobacco , thus including produce associated with both the North and the South . The cotton leaves are sometimes said to be maple leaves ; the two types are not dissimilar , and maple leaves are more widely known than cotton leaves . An ear of corn is also visible .
= = Release , production , and collecting = =
The Philadelphia Mint released the new cents to the public on May 25 , 1857 . In anticipation of large popular demand , Mint authorities built a temporary wooden structure in the courtyard of the Philadelphia facility . On the morning of the date of release , hundreds of people queued , one line for those exchanging Spanish silver for cents , the other for those bringing in old copper cents and half cents . From 9 am clerks paid out cents for the old pieces ; outside the Mint precincts , early purchasers sold the new cents at a premium . Snowden wrote to Guthrie , " the demand for them is enormous ... we had on hand this morning $ 30 @,@ 000 worth , that is three million pieces . Nearly all of this amount will be paid out today . " The 1856 specimen became publicly known about the time of issuance , and had the public checking their pocket change ; 1856 small cents sold for as much as $ 2 by 1859 . The public interest in the new cents set off a coin collecting boom : in addition to seeking the rare 1856 cent , some tried to collect sets of large cents back to 1793 , and found they would have to pay a premium for the rarer dates .
The Mint had trouble striking the new design . This was due to the hard copper @-@ nickel alloy and the fact that the eagle on one side of the piece was directly opposite parts of the reverse design ; efforts to bring out the design more fully led to increased die breakage . Many Flying Eagle cents show weaknesses , especially at the eagle 's head and tail , which are opposite the wreath . In 1857 , Snowden suggested the replacement of the eagle with a head of Christopher Columbus . Longacre replied that as there had been objections to proposals to place George Washington on the coinage , there would also be to a Columbus design . Despite the difficulties , the 17 @,@ 450 @,@ 000 Flying Eagle cents struck at Philadelphia in 1857 constituted the greatest production of a single coin in a year at a U.S. mint to that time .
In 1858 , the Mint tried to alleviate the breakage problem using a new version of the cent with a shallower relief . This attempt led to the major variety of the series , as coins of the revised version have smaller letters in the inscriptions than those struck earlier . The two varieties are about equally common , and were probably struck side by side for some period as the Mint used up older dies . Efforts to conserve dies were the probable cause of another variety , the 1858 / 7 , as 1857 @-@ dated dies were overstruck to allow them to be used in the new year .
The Mint prepared pattern coins with a much smaller eagle in 1858 , which struck well , but which officials disliked . Snowden directed Longacre to prepare various patterns that he could select from for a new piece to replace the Flying Eagle cent as of January 1 , 1859 . The Mint produced between 60 and 100 sets of twelve patterns showing various designs ; these were circulated to officials and also were quietly sold by the Mint over the next several years . Longacre 's design showing Liberty wearing an Indian @-@ style headress was adopted , with a wreath with lower relief for the reverse of the Indian Head cent , solving the metal flow issues . On November 4 , 1858 , Snowden wrote to the Treasury Department , stating that the Flying Eagle cent had proved " not very acceptable to the general population " as they felt the bird was not true to life , and that the Native American design would " giv [ e ] it the character of America " .
By September 1857 , the volume of Spanish silver coming to the Mint had been so large that Snowden gave up the idea of being able to pay for it just with cents , authorizing payment with gold and silver coins . On March 3 , 1859 , the redemption of the foreign pieces was extended for an additional two years . As commerce was choked with the new cents , Congress repealed this provision in July 1860 , though Snowden continued the practice for more than a year without authorization from Congress . Bankers Magazine for October 1861 reported the end of the exchange , and quoted the Philadelphia Press : " the large issue of the new nickel cents has rendered them almost as much of a nuisance as the old Spanish currency " . According to Breen , " the foreign silver coins had been legal tender , receivable for all kinds of payments including postage stamps and some taxes ; the nickel cents were not . They quickly filled shopkeepers ' cashboxes to the exclusion of almost everything else ; they began to be legally refused in trade . " The glut was ended by the hoarding of all federal coinage in the wake of the economic upset caused by the Civil War .
After the war , the hoarded Flying Eagle cents re @-@ entered circulation . Many remained there only a few years , being pulled out from among the new bronze cents in Treasury Department redemption programs in the 1860s and 1870s — thirteen million copper @-@ nickel cents were retired by exchange for other base @-@ metal coinage . By the 1880s , it was a rarity in circulation . Today , Flying Eagle cents are relatively inexpensive in well @-@ worn grades . The 2015 edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins lists the 1857 , 1858 large letters , and 1858 small letters each at $ 28 in Good @-@ 4 condition , the lowest collectable grade . The 1856 is $ 7 @,@ 000 in that grade , rising to $ 22 @,@ 000 in uncirculated MS @-@ 63 . The 1858 / 7 starts at $ 75 in G @-@ 4 , rising to $ 10 @,@ 000 in MS @-@ 63 . An 1856 cent in MS @-@ 66 condition sold at auction in January 2004 for $ 172 @,@ 500 .
= Looking After Our Own =
" Looking After Our Own " is the second episode of the British espionage television series Spooks . It first aired on BBC One in the United Kingdom on 20 May 2002 . The episode was written by series creator David Wolstencroft , and directed by Bharat Nalluri . The episode focuses on MI5 's efforts in bringing down right @-@ wing leader Robert Osbourne ( Kevin McNally ) , who is believed to be planning a series of race riots across the UK .
The storyline was originally slated for the finale of the first series , but was pushed forward when the producers were pressured to deliver the story to the BBC . Filming took two weeks , around December 2001 . After its original broadcast , the episode was viewed by over eight million Britons , a decline of one million from the first episode , but was still the strongest performer in its time slot . The episode marked the death of a main character , Helen Flynn ( Lisa Faulkner ) , which was met with considerable controversy due to its perceived violence ; at 250 complaints , it marked the highest number of complaints for a television programme in 2002 .
= = Plot = =
MI5 suspect that right @-@ wing leader Robert Osbourne is planning a series of race riots in the UK . A team led by Danny Hunter ( David Oyelowo ) attempts to bug his home , only to find it impossible because of the home 's high @-@ tech countersurveillance equipment . What MI5 does find is that Osbourne abuses his wife Claire ( Debra Stephenson ) ; believing Claire is vulnerable for recruitment , Section D start " Operation Greensleeves " and tasks a " runner " to befriend her before recruiting . However , vetting did not pick up on the runner 's alcoholism after she becomes involved in a road traffic accident while inebriated . Harry Pearce ( Peter Firth ) appoints Tom Quinn ( Matthew Macfadyen ) and junior administrative officer Helen Flynn ( Lisa Faulkner ) to step in and pose as a married couple who are substitute tutors at the same Romford community college Claire is attending .
The two initially succeed , and are invited to dinner with Osbourne at his home . However , during their visit , Osbourne catches Helen out by addressing Tom as her boyfriend rather than husband ; Helen 's improvising makes Osbourne more suspicious of the two . Later , one of Osbourne 's contacts , Nick Thomas ( Tom Goodman @-@ Hill ) , is revealed to be freelance journalist Kieran Harvey . When Osbourne discovers this , he has Harvey murdered . Tom and Helen gain Claire 's trust and recruit her ; she agrees to help the two in exchange for a £ 600 @-@ a @-@ week account and transport to anywhere in the world .
In the meantime , a cargo of illegal immigrants from Chechnya is intercepted by HM Customs and Excise ; the traffickers throw their cargo overboard , drowning them . Believing the traffickers will change their routes , Tessa Phillips ( Jenny Agutter ) and Zoe Reynolds ( Keeley Hawes ) investigate and discover a link between the shipment and Osbourne . With the information gathered from " Greensleeves " , they discover that Osbourne intends to choke the asylum system by overcrowding the holding centres , and after his followers stir up the race riots , Osbourne would encourage independent Member of Parliament ( MP ) Bill Watson ( Jasper Jacob ) to raise the issue of asylum seekers in the House of Commons .
Tom and Helen prepare to move out , but are kidnapped by Osbourne 's gang and taken to the kitchen of his waste management plant for interrogation . Knowing they are MI5 officers , Osbourne demands everything Tom knows about their operation ; when Tom fails to cooperate , Osbourne forces Helen 's hand , followed by her head into a deep fryer , before shooting her . Before Tom can suffer the same fate , Claire throws a cigarette into the vat , which ignites , buying Tom time to escape and return to Thames House . However , Tom and Harry are disgusted to hear that the powers @-@ that @-@ be will take no action against Osbourne , in order to track the movements of all far @-@ right groups . At the end of the episode . Harry has Osbourne assassinated . Bill Watson receives photographs of the dead refugees washed up on a beach , presumably sent by MI5 , along with a note reading " are you happy with your wash ? "
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and pre @-@ production = = =
The episode 's storyline , including Helen 's death , was meant to be in the first series finale . However , by then , the second episode was not yet written , and series producer Kudos were due to deliver the story to the BBC in one month . As a result , the episode was brought forward to the second slot . Since the first episode began Spooks " with a bang " , series creator and writer David Wolstencroft , was under pressure to top the efforts of the first episode with the second , but not by much . During the writing stage , he introduced a story arc involving Danny Hunter and his obsession with money and spending , apparently mirroring the writer ; the arc was created for the temptations that the officers may have . In the original screenplay , Danny was to spend on his mother .
Wolstencroft included some suggestions from his friends and girlfriend . An early scene was to take place in a shower room , but was rewritten when the producers thought it would be " too racy " for a 9 : 00 p.m. audience . In another instance , a long sequence would take place at sea concerning the smugglers dropping off illegal immigrants into the water ; the scenes were cut before filming due to time constraints . Also , before deciding on waste disposal , Osbourne was originally going to head a security company . The funeral scene towards the end of the episode was inspired by The Godfather II . In the end , the script was rewritten four times before the BBC took the final version of the episode .
Kevin McNally was cast as the antagonist Robert Osbourne ; McNally was chosen because the producers thought he would be perfect to play the part , as is the case with Debra Stephenson , who portrayed his wife . Child actor Daniel Chenery , who played the part of their son , Sammy , was chosen due to his likeness of a younger version of McNally . Also , Simon Crawford Collins 's wife made a cameo appearance as a BT operator .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming took place over a 13 to 14 days period in December 2001 . It was not filmed on order of the script ; the scenes set around the Osbourne residence for instance , were all filmed at once , during two to three days , though during the episodes , the scenes took place in separate parts of the episode . Parts of the introduction scenes , where Danny 's team break into Osbourne 's house , was actually filmed on the Grid set . Parts of the sequence were originally filmed without sound ; the sound would later be added during post production . The footage of the drowned immigrants found at the shore were shot by the second unit headed by producer Simon Crawford Collins on a pebbled courtyard in Kensington to double as a beach .
Some of the exterior scenes at night were filmed with the street wet down so that the lights could kick off the ground . Also in the episode , the editing suite , where the series was edited , was used as a set . The West12 shopping centre in Shepherd 's Bush , London was used in one scene as an airport , as well as the shopping centre itself in another . The Chadford Community College was filmed at a rugby club . The safe house Tom and Helen were appointed to was filmed in two separate locations . One of those locations was used before in the Mary Kane interrogation scene in the pilot episode " Thou Shalt Not Kill " . In one scene where Tom was driving to the operation the car was in fact towed ; an error was made in the episode where the car looked taller than the other cars on the road during the shoot .
= = = Helen Flynn death scene = = =
Wolstencroft wrote the death scene with the intention of giving the audience the impression that no one in the series is safe . According to producer Jane Featherstone , the idea to kill off a main character involved a female getting " her head set on fire " later in the series , but she decided " let 's move the most dramatic thing you 've got to episode two and kill off the only actress the audience recognise [ Faulkner was considered the only recognisable cast member when the series was introduced ] and then you 've got them hooked . " Matthew Macfadyen stated that the shooting of the death scene , although not emotionally draining , was rather tough , and gruelling to perform . The part where Osbourne forces Flynn 's arm into the fryer was done with a rubber arm made to double Faulkner 's arm . Furthermore , the " oil " was in fact cold tea with food colour .
Director Bharat Nalluri wanted as little of the torture to be seen as possible , because he wanted the sequence to be more psychological to make it easier to frighten the audience , since they know the physicality of being burnt , whereas if Helen was shot , not as many would . Producer Stephen Garrett wanted to show a more realistic sense of violence , rather than a fantastical " cartoon violence " " in which blows to the head with iron bars leave small bruises rather than crushed skulls , gunshot wounds leave neat abrasions in conveniently fleshy parts of the anatomy rather than eviscerating their victims ; and fights that would hospitalise Mike Tyson are walked away from with barely a mark . "
= = Broadcast , reception and controversy = =
The episode was first broadcast on 20 May 2002 , during the 9 to 10 pm time slot . It achieved overnight viewing figures of 7 @.@ 8 million , with a 35 per cent audience share . Ratings were down over one million from the pilot episode the previous week . Regardless " Looking After Our Own " won its time slot ; the finale episode of ITV1 drama Helen West came second , with 4 @.@ 9 million viewers and a 21 per cent share . The final numbers posted on the Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board website went up slightly to 8 @.@ 1 million viewers , making the episode the ninth most viewed BBC One broadcast , and the nineteenth most viewed broadcast in total the week it aired .
The episode attracted controversy following the demise of Helen Flynn after her hand and head were forced into a deep fryer . The death scenes attracted over 250 complaints , 154 of them to the television watchdog , the Broadcasting Standards Commission , the highest number of complaints for a television programme in 2002 . In the wake of the complaints , BBC insiders had admitted that the scenes " clearly disturbed " some of the viewers , but also defended their decision to show the scene as it would show the audience " the kind of threat which might be faced by agents engaged in the fight against terrorism . " The Broadcasting Standards Commission stated that despite the shocking content ; " in the context was acceptable and important for the later narrative , " however the watchdog still criticised the BBC for failing to warn viewers of the violence to come . Garrett refuted this , stating : " Not only was there a clear warning before the programme began , but for anyone who missed that , the subject matter of the episode ( a conspiracy to stir up inter @-@ racial violence perpetrated by a man who clearly beat his wife ) was hardly the stuff of which chirpy little bucolic fantasies are made . "
Wolstencroft stated that after watching the episode with his friends , they both commended and criticised his work : " I got some angry phone calls from my friends the next day saying ' how could you , but well done , but how could you , but she was so nice , but how could you , but well done ' . " Oyelowo also responded to the controversy , believing that it came from a result of Faulkner 's male fans . Comedian Charlie Brooker however , commended the scene , as well as the series in general , stating in his Guardian column : " The moment her head was forced into the deep @-@ fat @-@ fryer , viewers reared on the formulaic , it 'll @-@ be @-@ alright @-@ in @-@ the @-@ end blandness of cookie @-@ cutter populist dramas like Casualty and Merseybeat sat up and blinked in disbelief : here was a major BBC drama series that actually had the nerve to confound expectation . " In a January 2010 poll , fans of the show voted Helen 's death as the " most shocking death scene " in the series , drawing 49 % of the votes .
= Do or Die ( Thirty Seconds to Mars song ) =
" Do or Die " is a song by American rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars , featured on their fourth studio album Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams ( 2013 ) . Written and produced by lead vocalist Jared Leto , " Do or Die " explores the feeling of standing up and living one 's dreams . The song is styled in electronic rock and imbued with elements of arena rock . It was serviced to mainstream radio in July 2013 in Europe , and was released as a promotional single in the United States in March 2014 . A version of the song remixed by Dutch music producer Afrojack was digitally released in March 2014 and later included on the deluxe edition of Afrojack 's debut studio album Forget the World ( 2014 ) .
" Do or Die " received positive reviews from music critics , who hailed its musical diversity and its grand and euphoric nature . It charted in some nations due to digital sales from the parent album . The accompanying music video , directed by Leto , features live footage of Thirty Seconds to Mars onstage as well as stories from their fans , personally interviewed by Leto . The video garnered general acclaim from critics , who lauded its atmosphere and simplicity . The song was included in the setlist of the band 's Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams Tour and the subsequent Carnivores Tour .
= = Recording and composition = =
" Do or Die " was written and produced by Jared Leto . It was engineered by Jamie Reed Schefman and mixed by Serban Ghenea . John Hanes engineered it for mixing at Mixstar Studios in Virginia Beach , Virginia . The song was recorded at The International Centre for the Advancement of the Arts and Sciences of Sound in Los Angeles , California and mastered by Howie Weinberg and Dan Gerbarg at Howie Weinberg Mastering . Thirty Seconds to Mars unveiled six songs from their fourth studio album Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams , including " Do or Die " , during a preview event held at the Electric Lady Studios in New York City on March 14 , 2013 .
" Do or Die " is an electronic rock song with influences and elements from arena rock . It opens with a female voiceover introducing the song 's title in the Chinese language , after which there is an electronic introduction . This is followed by the sound of guitars , drum beats and synthesizers . After the first verse , the pre @-@ chorus follows , with Leto voicing the line , " I will never forget the moment " . The full @-@ throated chorus then follows , which features heavy use of synthesizers and drums . The song includes a contribution from the band 's fans , credited as the Knights of the White Shadow , who provide additional vocals recorded at the band 's studio .
In an interview with PureVolume , Leto explained that the song is " about standing up and living out your dreams " . Markos Papadatos , in his review for Digital Journal , called it an " upbeat " song which " deals with one taking their own stance on their beliefs , and living life to the fullest " . In a preview of the record , Jeff Benjamin from Fuse described the song by saying that the band goes " the synthy dance route on the track 's intro before fire @-@ alarm guitars and pummeling drums roar in and smash the Korg keyboards to bits " .
= = Release = =
" Do or Die " was released as a promotional single in Europe in July 2013 through Virgin Records . The song debuted at number 98 on the Ultratip chart of Belgium 's Flemish region on August 24 . The following week , it jumped to number 73 and peaked at number 40 on September 21 . On August 30 , 2013 , it debuted at number 75 on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 . In the Czech Republic , the song entered the national airplay chart at number 91 on the week ending October 20 , 2013 . In Slovakia , it debuted at number 67 on September 22 , 2013 and eventually peaked at number 29 on January 26 , 2014 . Polydor Records released " Do or Die " in the United Kingdom on September 9 , 2013 . It entered the UK Rock Chart at number 38 . After four weeks , the song peaked at number seven on the issue dated September 28 , 2013 . " Do or Die " was used by Major League Baseball as the theme song for the 2013 Major League Baseball Postseason .
In March 2014 , it was announced that Dutch music producer Afrojack and Thirty Seconds to Mars had collaborated on a remixed version of the song . It became commercially available for download in March 2014 and was later included on the deluxe edition of Afrojack 's debut studio album Forget the World . Leto described the collaboration by saying , " It was a lot of fun , and it 's kind of our little summer song . I think it 's good to do things that are unexpected . It keeps it exciting and collaboration is always an interesting thing . " The remixed version of " Do or Die " entered the Dutch Top 40 at number 53 on April 19 , 2014 . After five weeks , it peaked at number 42 . The song debuted at number 46 on US Dance / Electronic Songs and reached a peak of number 33 on June 7 , 2014 .
In the United States , " Do or Die " was sent to modern rock radio on March 17 , 2014 , after the release of " City of Angels " . It entered the Billboard Alternative Songs chart at number 39 and peaked at number 20 on the issue dated October 11 , 2014 . It debuted on the Billboard Hot Rock Songs chart at number 40 on August 9 .
= = Critical reception = =
" Do or Die " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Emily Zemler , of Billboard , wrote that between the album 's " eclectic experimentation " and " voiceless soundscapes " , the band " slotted in this propulsive rocker , an arena @-@ ready anthem " . She considered " Do or Die " to be one of the album 's " most straightforward tracks " . Dan Slessor of Alternative Press praised it as one of the album 's highlights , in which Thirty Seconds to Mars exercises their capacity for writing " titanic choruses full of sweeping drama in a manner that is almost untouchable " . Brent Faulkner from PopMatters gave a mixed response , writing that the song " relies on a familiar beat as well as liberal layering " . Writers for Contactmusic commended " Do or Die " as one of the standout songs on Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams and a " slow @-@ burning hit of epic , synth @-@ heavy electronica " .
Kaitlyn Hodnicki from Stature magazine was impressed with the song , calling it one of the album 's more upbeat tracks , which " blooms into another epic soundscape led by [ Leto 's ] vocals and some brilliantly used electronic elements " . She felt that the fans ' vocal contribution to the song harks back to previous album This Is War without sounding " cliché or overdone " . Sarah O ' Hara from Lowdown also responded positively to the track , writing that " glorious chants fuel the uplifting ' Do or Die ' " . In a mixed review , John Watt from Drowned in Sound called the song " half @-@ baked synth @-@ rock . " Markos Papadatos from Digital Journal rated it an A and wrote that " the band soars as whole on this tune " , calling Leto 's vocals " raw , powerful and captivating . "
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The music video for " Do or Die " was directed by Leto , who was credited as pseudonym Bartholomew Cubbins . Leto developed its concept as a companion piece to the music video of " Closer to the Edge " ( 2010 ) , shot during the Into the Wild Tour . " Do or Die " was filmed in the summer of 2013 , during a European leg of the Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams Tour and features live footage of Thirty Seconds to Mars onstage as well as fan commentary . It premiered on August 5 , 2013 .
Leto personally interviewed the band 's fans , termed as the Echelon , who shared stories about the importance of music in their lives , some personal struggles and their own dreams . In an interview with MTV News , the frontman explained that he was inspired by the will to document the personal changes experienced by the band and its audience . " Most of the interviews " , Leto explained , " I did myself , so they 're really intimate . It 's me , it 's them , and it 's the camera . What I 've found is , that if you talk to everybody long enough , you find an incredible story . Every single person has a moment in their life , something that they 've found a solution for , a story to tell . Some are funny , some are really intriguing , and if you ask the right questions , you get interesting answers . "
The music video begins with a German boy who Leto had previously met in Berlin . He spoke about the loss of his father and how he had played a Thirty Seconds to Mars song at the funeral . After Leto again met the German fan again at a concert in Austria , he asked him to share his story on camera . Leto explained , " At the show in Austria , where there were tens of thousands of people , and I ran into him and interviewed him ; he was the first interview of the summer , and he shared this story about losing his father , and what it taught him , it was really an organic and serendipitous and beautiful way to begin . He shared a really personal part of himself and we 're really grateful to him , and that continued throughout all the interviews . "
= = = Reception = = =
Upon its release , the video received general acclaim from critics and fans . James Montgomery from MTV described it as a love @-@ letter to the band 's fans and a document of life on the road . He also considered it the " spiritual sequel to their stirring 2010 live clip " for " Closer to the Edge " . Karen Bliss of Noisecreep was impressed with the video and opened her review by writing , " Thirty Seconds to Mars never fails to impress with what they can do within the confines of a music video . " She believed that its simplicity turned out to be " impactful , touching and uniting " . Garon Cockrell from The Pratt Tribune gave the video a positive review , calling it " excellent " . John Walker from MTV felt that throughout the fans ' personal struggles " music has helped these individuals persevere and continue to enjoy life . Likewise , Thirty Seconds to Mars seem so moved by the audience 's emotions every time they perform live , ' Do or Die 's concept seems to be that they want to return the favor . "
Writers for MuchMusic noticed the band 's tradition for producing unconventional music videos and praised " Do or Die " calling it " another epic " short film . Markos Papadatos of Digital Journal found it " compelling and visually striking " , noticing real @-@ life people from all over the world telling their " moving stories " about their aspirations and dreams . Sean Fitz @-@ Gerald , writing for Mashable , called the video " an inspiring anthem featuring heartfelt , fan @-@ filmed messages " .
= = Live performances = =
" Do or Die " was first performed at special concerts , dubbed as Church of Mars , in May 2013 , shortly before the release of the album . The song later became a set @-@ fixture of the Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams Tour , usually appearing as the penultimate song before " Up in the Air " . However , after the festival tour in June 2013 , which saw the band travel to Rock am Ring and Rock im Park as headline act , the song was moved to the middle of the setlist , usually played before Leto 's acoustic B @-@ stage set . " Do or Die " was also included in the Carnivores Tour , which Thirty Seconds to Mars co @-@ headlined with Linkin Park , and usually appeared approximately halfway through the set . Reviewing a concert , Payal Patel from AXS called " Do or Die " a " sweeping rock anthem " , while Ben Jolley of the Nottingham Post described a performance of the song as energetic and inspirational .
On September 23 , 2014 , Thirty Seconds to Mars performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , featuring a ten @-@ person choir . During the performance , Leto swung a flag bearing messages in support of certain social goals , and invited the audience to join the band on stage towards the finale , as confetti fell from the ceiling . Markos Papadatos , writing for Digital Journal , commented that the performance was another indication that Jared Leto is one of the " most charismatic live performers " in contemporary rock and that Thirty Seconds to Mars " is always able to put on a high @-@ energy show " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Performed by Thirty Seconds to Mars
Written and produced by Jared Leto
Recorded at The International Centre for the Advancement of the Arts and Sciences of Sound , Los Angeles , California
Additional vocals by Knights of the White Shadow
Audio engineering by Jamie Reed Schefman
Mixed by Serban Ghenea
Engineered for Mix by John Hanes at Mixstar Studios , Virginia Beach , Virginia
Mastered by Howie Weinberg and Dan Gerbarg at Howie Weinberg Mastering , Los Angeles , California
Credits adapted from Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Illmatic =
Illmatic is the debut studio album by American rapper Nas , released on April 19 , 1994 , by Columbia Records . After signing with the label with the help of MC Serch , Nas recorded the album in 1992 – 1993 at Chung King Studios , D & D Recording , Battery Studios , and Unique Recording Studios in New York City . Its production was handled by DJ Premier , Large Professor , Pete Rock , Q @-@ Tip , L.E.S. and Nas himself . Styled as a hardcore hip hop album , Illmatic features multi @-@ syllabic internal rhymes and inner @-@ city narratives based on Nas 's experiences in Queensbridge , New York .
The album debuted at # 12 on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart , selling 59 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . However , its initial sales fell below expectations and its five singles failed to achieve significant chart success . Despite the album 's low initial sales , Illmatic received rave reviews from most music critics , who praised its production and Nas ' lyricism . On January 17 , 1996 , the album was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America , and on December 11 , 2001 it earned a Platinum certification after shipping one million copies in the United States .
Since its initial reception , Illmatic has been recognized by writers and music critics as a landmark album in East Coast hip hop . Its influence on subsequent hip hop artists has been attributed to the album 's production and Nas ' lyricism . It also contributed to the revival of the New York City rap scene , introducing a number of stylistic trends to the region . The album is widely regarded as the greatest hip hop album of all time , appearing on numerous best album lists by critics and publications .
= = Background = =
As a teenager , Nas wanted to pursue a career as a rapper and enlisted his best friend and neighbor , Queensbridge , Queens @-@ native Willy " Ill Will " Graham , as his DJ . He initially went by the nickname " Kid Wave " before adopting the alias " Nasty Nas " . At 15 , he met producer Large Professor from Flushing , and was introduced to his group Main Source . Nas made his recorded debut with them , performing the opening verse on " Live at the Barbeque " from their 1991 album Breaking Atoms . Nas subsequently made his solo debut on his 1992 single " Halftime " for the soundtrack to the film Zebrahead . The single added to the buzz surrounding Nas , earning him comparisons to influential golden age rapper Rakim . Despite his buzz in the underground scene , Nas did not receive an offer for a recording contract , being rejected by major rap labels such as Cold Chillin ' and Def Jam Recordings . Nas and Ill Will continued to work together , but their partnership was cut short when Graham was murdered by a gunman in Queensbridge on May 23 , 1992 ; Nas 's brother was also shot that night , but survived . Nas has cited that moment as a " wake @-@ up call " for him .
In mid 1992 , MC Serch , whose group 3rd Bass had dissolved , began working on a solo project and approached Nas . At the suggestion of producer T @-@ Ray , Serch collaborated with Nas for " Back to the Grill " , the lead single for Serch 's 1992 solo debut album Return of the Product . At the recording session for the song , Serch discovered that Nas did not have a recording contract and subsequently contacted Faith Newman , an A & R executive at Sony Music Entertainment . As Serch recounted , " Nas was in a position where his demo had been sittin ' around , ' Live at the Barbeque ' was already a classic , and he was just tryin ' to find a decent deal ... So when he gave me his demo , I shopped it around . I took it to Russell first , Russell said it sounded like G Rap , he wasn 't wit ' it . So I took it to Faith . Faith loved it , she said she 'd been looking for Nas for a year and a half . They wouldn 't let me leave the office without a deal on the table . "
Once MC Serch assumed the role of executive producer for Nas 's debut project , he attempted to connect Nas with various producers . Based on his buzz at the time , numerous New York @-@ based producers were eager to work with him and went to Power House Studios with Nas . Among those producers was DJ Premier , recognized at the time for his raw , aggressive production with jazz @-@ based samples and heavy scratching , and for his work with rapper Guru as a part of hip hop duo Gang Starr . After his production on Lord Finesse & DJ Mike Smooth 's Funky Technician ( 1990 ) and Jeru the Damaja 's The Sun Rises in the East ( 1994 ) , Premier began recording exclusively at D & D Studios in New York City before working with Nas on Illmatic .
= = Recording = =
Prior to recording , DJ Premier had listened to Nas 's debut single , later stating " When I heard ' Halftime ' , that was some next shit to me . That 's just as classic to me as ' Eric B For President ' and ' The Bridge ' . It just had that type of effect . As simple as it is , all of the elements are there . So from that point , after Serch approached me about doing some cuts , it was automatic . You 'd be stupid to pass that up even if it wasn 't payin ' no money . " Serch later noted the chemistry between Nas and DJ Premier , recounting that " Primo and Nas , they could have been separated at birth . It wasn 't a situation where his beats fit their rhymes , they fit each other . " While Serch reached out to DJ Premier , Large Professor contacted Pete Rock to collaborate with Nas on what became " The World Is Yours " . Shortly afterwards , producers Q @-@ Tip and L.E.S. chose to work on the album . Nas 's father , Olu Dara , also contributed with a cornet solo on " Life 's a Bitch " , which features rapper AZ .
In an early promotional interview , Nas claimed that the name " Illmatic " ( meaning " beyond ill " or " the ultimate " ) was a reference to his incarcerated Queensbridge friend , Illmatic Ice . Nas later described the title name as " supreme ill . It 's as ill as ill gets . That shit is a science of everything ill . " At the time of its recording , expectations in the hip hop scene were high for Illmatic . In a 1994 interview for The Source , which dubbed him " the second coming " , Nas spoke highly of the album , saying that " this feels like a big project that 's gonna affect the world [ ... ] We in here on the down low [ ... ] doing something for the world . That 's how it feels , that 's what it is . For all the ones that think it 's all about some ruff shit , talkin ' about guns all the time , but no science behind it , we gonna bring it to them like this . " AZ recounted recording on the album , " I got on Nas ' album and did the ' Life 's a Bitch ' song , but even then I thought I was terrible on it , to be honest . But once people started hearing that and liking it , that 's what built my confidence . I thought , ' OK , I can probably do this . ' That record was everything . To be the only person featured on Illmatic when Nas is considered one of the top men in New York at that time , one of the freshest new artists , that was big . " During the sessions , Nas composed the song " Nas Is Like " , which he later recorded as a single for his 1999 album I Am … .
Concerning the recording of the album 's opening song " N.Y. State of Mind " , producer DJ Premier later stated " Nas — he 's one of our saviors now . When we did ‘ N.Y. State of Mind , ’ at the beginning when he says , ‘ Straight out the dungeons of rap / Where fake niggas don ’ t make it back , ’ then you hear him say , ‘ I don ’ t know how to start this shit , ’ ’ cause he had just written it . He 's got the beat running in the studio , but he doesn ’ t know how he 's going to format how he 's going to convey it . So he 's going , ‘ I don ’ t know how to start this shit , ’ and I ’ m counting him in [ to begin his verse ] . One , two , three . And then you can hear him go , ‘ Yo , ’ and then he goes right into it . " DJ Premier later discussed the unexpectedness of Nas 's delivery during the recording , stating " He didn ’ t know how he was gonna come in , but he just started going because we were recording . I ’ m actually yelling , ‘ We ’ re recording ! ’ and banging on the [ vocal booth ] window . ‘ Come on , get ready ! ’ You hear him start the shit : Rappers … . And then everyone in the studio was like , ‘ Oh , my God ’ , ’ cause it was so unexpected . He was not ready . So we used that first verse . And that was when he was up and coming , his first album . So we was like , ' Yo , this guy is gonna be big . ' "
= = Themes = =
Illmatic contains discerning treatment of its subject matter : gang rivalries , desolation , and the ravages of urban poverty . Nas , who was twenty years old when the album was released , focuses on depicting his own experiences , creating highly detailed first @-@ person narratives that deconstruct the troubled life of an inner city teenager . One writer describes the theme of the album as a “ [ S ] tory of a gifted writer born into squalor , trying to claw his way out of the trap . It 's somewhere between The Basketball Diaries and Native Son … . ” The narratives featured in Illmatic originate from Nas 's own experiences as an adolescent growing up in Queensbridge , as the lyrics allude to the housing projects located in the Long Island City @-@ section of Queens , New York . Nas said in an interview in 2001 : “ When I made Illmatic I was a little kid in Queensbridge trapped in the ghetto . My soul was trapped in Queensbridge projects . ” In a 2012 interview , he explained his inspiration for exploring this subject matter :
" [ W ] hen my rap generation started , it was about bringing you inside my apartment . It wasn 't about being a rap star ; it was about anything other than . I want you to know who I am : what the streets taste like , feel like , smell like . What the cops talk like , walk like , think like . What crackheads do — I wanted you to smell it , feel it . It was important to me that I told the story that way because I thought that it wouldn 't be told if I didn 't tell it . I thought this was a great point in time in the 1990s in [ New York City ] that needed to be documented and my life needed to be told . "
When depicting life in the projects , Nas alternates from moments of pain and pleasure to frustration and braggadocio . The columnist for OhWord.com wrote : " [ His ] narrative voice swerves between personas that are cynical and optimistic , naïve and world @-@ weary , enraged and serene , globally conscious and provincial " . Music writer Jeff Weiss of Pitchfork describes the " enduring image " often associated with Nas 's narrated stream of consciousness : " [ A ] baby @-@ faced Buddha monk in public housing , scribbling lotto dreams and grim reaper nightmares in dollar notebooks , words enjambed in the margins . The only light is the orange glow of a blunt , bodega liquor , and the adolescent rush of first creation . Sometimes his pen taps the paper and his brain blanks . In the next sentence , he remembers dark streets and the noose . " Critic and blogger Kenny Waste comments on the significance of Queensbridge as a setting in Illmatic , writing , “ The songs are made up largely of recollections or Nas describing his emotions , which range from feeling trapped to overt optimism about his abilities to escape the ' hands of doom ' . But they always remain within the walls of his Queensbridge home . ”
Along with its narratives , Illmatic is also distinct for its many portrayals and descriptions of places , people , and interactions . In his songs , Nas often depicts the corners and boulevards of Queensbridge , while mentioning the names of streets , friends , local crews and drug dealers , and utilizing vernacular slang indigenous to his hometown . Poet and author Kevin Coval describes this approach to songwriting as that of a “ hip @-@ hop poet @-@ reporter ... rooted in the intimate specificity of locale . ” Commenting on Nas 's use of narrative , Sohail Daulatzai , Professor of Film and Media Studies at University of Southern California , compares the album to cinema , citing its " detailed descriptions , dense reportage , and visually stunning rhymes ... " In Born to Use Mics : Reading Nas 's Illmatic , he writes : " Like the 1965 landmark masterpiece film The Battle of Algiers , which captured the Algerian resistance against French colonialism , Illmatic brilliantly blurred the lines between fiction and documentary , creating a heightened sense of realism and visceral eloquence for Nas 's renegade first @-@ person narratives and character @-@ driven odes . ”
= = = Drug violence = = =
Many of the themes found in Illmatic revolve around Nas ’ s experience living in an environment where poverty , violence , and drug use abound . Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s , residents of Queensbridge experienced intense violence , as the housing development was overrun by the crack epidemic . Illmatic contains imagery inspired by this prevalence of street crime . In " N.Y. State of Mind " , Nas details the trap doors , rooftop snipers , street corner lookouts , and drug dealers that pervade his urban dreamscape . Sohail Daulatzai describes this language as " chilling " and suggests that it “ harrowingly describes and imagines with such surreal imagery , with so much noir discontent and even more fuck @-@ you ambition , the fragile and tenuous lives of ghetto dwellers … ” Author Adam Mansbach interprets Nas 's violent aesthetics as a metaphoric device meant to authenticate the rough edges of his persona : " Nas 's world and worldview are criminal and criminalized . Hence , he uses metaphoric violence as a central trope of his poetic . ” Writer and musician Gregory Tate regards this violent imagery as part of a trend towards dark subject matter that came to prevail among East Coast rappers in the hardcore hip hop scene . He writes , “ [ S ] ome of the most memorably dark , depressive but flowing lyrics in hip hop history were written by Nas , Biggie , and members of the Wu @-@ Tang Clan on the death knell of the crack trade .
Other writers , such as Mark Anthony Neal , have described these lyrical themes as a form of “ brooding introspection ” , disclosing the tortured dimensions of drug crime and its impressions on an adolescent Nas . Critic Sam Chennault wrote , " Nas captures post @-@ crack N.Y.C. in all its ruinous glory ... [ r ] ealizing that drugs were both empowering and destructive , his lyrics alternately embrace and reject the idea of ghetto glamour " . According to Steve Juon of RapReviews.com , Nas " illustrates the Queensbridge trife life of his existence [ sic ] , while at the same time providing hope that there is something greater than money , guns and drugs . " Richard Harrington of The Washington Post described Nas 's coming @-@ of @-@ age experience as " balancing limitations and possibilities , distinguishing hurdles and springboards , and acknowledging his own growth from roughneck adolescent to a maturing adult who can respect and criticize the culture of violence that surrounds him .
= = = Artistic credibility = = =
The content of Illmatic is also informed by notions of artistic authenticity . The promotional press sheet that accompanied the album 's release implied Nas ’ s refusal to conform to commercial trends , stating : “ While it 's sad that there 's so much frontin ' in the rap world today , this should only make us sit up and pay attention when a rapper comes along who 's not about milking the latest trend and running off with the loot . ” At the time of the album 's release , the hip hop community was embroiled in a debate about artistic authenticity and commercialism in popular music . Rapper Common , describes in the preface to Born to Use Mics : Reading Nas 's Illmatic the concerns that were felt by him and his contemporaries : “ It was that serious for so many of us . We didn ’ t just grow up with hip hop ; we grew up with hip @-@ hop as hip @-@ hop was also growing , and so that made for a very close and intimate relationship that was becoming more and more urgent – and we felt it . Our art was being challenged in many ways as the moneymen began to sink their teeth into us . ”
In the context of this debate , music writers have interpreted Illmatic as an admonishment for hip hop purists and practitioners . In the opening track , " The Genesis " , Nas bemoans the lack of legitimacy among other MCs in the projects , insisting that he has " Been doin ' this shit since back then . " Citing songs such as “ Life 's a Bitch ” , Guthrie Ramsay Jr. argues that Nas “ set a benchmark for rappers in an artistic field consumed by constantly shifting notions of ' realness ' , authenticity , and artistic credibility . " Sohail Daulatzai writes : " Though Illmatic was highly anticipated release , far from under the radar , Nas 's taking it back to ' the dungeons of rap ' was … a kind of exorcism or purging ( ' where fake niggas don ’ t make it back ' ) that was at the very least trying to claim a different aesthetic of resistance and rebellion that was all too aware of hip @-@ hop 's newfound mainstream potential . "
= = = Musical endowment = = =
In addition to its lyrical content , many writers have commented on the thematic significance of Illmatic 's musical endowments . “ Drawing on everything from old school hip @-@ hop , to blues , to fairly avant @-@ garde jazz compositions , ” writes music blogger Kenny Waste , “ the sampling choices within Illmatic reflect an individual with not only a deep appreciation for but also a deep knowledge of music . ” Musicologist and pianist Guthrie Ramsay Jr. describes Illmatic as “ an artistic emblem ” that “ anchors itself in the moment while reminding us that powerful musical statements often select past material and knowledge for use in the present and hope for the future . ” Kevin Coval considers the sampling of artists Craig G and Biz Markie in ' Memory Lane ' as an attempt to build upon the hip hop tradition of Queens , most notably the Juice Crew All Stars . These samples are intended to serve as tributes to “ Nas 's lyrical forebearers [ sic ] and around @-@ the @-@ way influences . He is repping his borough ’ s hip hop canon . ” The involvement of older artists , including Nas ’ s father , has also been cited as a formative influence in the making of Illmatic . Author Adam Mansbach argues , “ It 's the presence of all these benevolent elders – his father and the cadre of big brother producers steering the album – that empowers Nas to rest comfortably in his identity as an artist and an inheritor of tradition , and thus find the space to innovate . ”
Music writers have also characterized the album 's contents as a commentary on hip @-@ hop 's evolution . As Princeton University professor Imani Perry writes , Illmatic “ embodies the entire story of hip @-@ hop , bearing all of its features and gifts . Nas has the raw lyrics of old schoolers , the expert deejaying and artful lyricism of the 1980s , the slice of hood life , and the mythic ... The history of hip @-@ hop up to 1994 is embodied in Illmatic . ” In the song , " Represent " , Nas alludes to the Juice Crew 's conflict with Boogie Down Productions , which arose as a dispute over the purported origins of hip hop . Princeton University professor Eddie S. Glaude Jr. claims that this " situates Queensbridge and himself within the formative history of hip @-@ hop culture . " The opening skit , ' The Genesis , ' also contains an audio sample of the 1983 film , Wild Style , which showcased the work of early hip @-@ hop pioneers such as Grand Master Flash , Fab Five Freddy , and the Rock Steady Crew . After the music of Wild Style is unwittingly rejected by one of his peers , Nas admonishes his friend about the importance of their musical roots . Kenny Waste suggests that embedded deep within this track " is a complex and subtle exposition on the themes of Illmatic . ” Similarly , Professor Adilifu Nama of California State University Northridge writes , “ ’ [ T ] he use of Wild Style ... goes beyond a simple tactic to imbue Illmatic with an aura of old @-@ school authenticity . The sonic vignette comments on the collective memory of the hip hop community and its real , remembered , and even imagined beginning , as well as the pitfalls of assimilation , the importance of history , and the passing of hip @-@ hop 's ' age of innocence ' . ”
= = Lyricism = =
Illmatic has been noted by music writers for Nas 's unique style
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s was a secondary school whose facilities , in addition to classrooms , included an assembly hall , bungalows for teachers , and science laboratories . Over twenty internees occupied each bungalow , which was built for one family , and more than that occupied each science laboratory , living between partitions of sacking and old blankets . Almost all the buildings in the camp were used for housing .
Certain buildings and areas on the prison grounds had specific functions :
The Prison Officers ' Club was used for multiple functions ; it was used as a canteen , a kindergarten , Catholic church , and recreation centre .
Two main divisions of quarters existed – the Warders ' Quarters and the Indian Quarters . Before the war , the Warders ' Quarters housed European warders , with large flats designed for one family each , and the Indian Quarters housed Indian prison guards , built with smaller flats . An average of thirty internees lived in each Warders ' Quarters flat , and an average of six internees lived in each Indian Quarters flat .
A building which had housed single Indian warders before the war was turned into a hospital called Tweed Bay Hospital .
Two houses , originally used as homes for the prison superintendent and the prison doctor , were turned into the Japanese headquarters for the camp .
The cemetery on the grounds became a popular spot for quiet relaxation as well as a place for intimate meetings between male and female internees .
= = Life at camp = =
The internees numbered at 2 @,@ 800 , where an estimated 2 @,@ 325 to 2 @,@ 514 were British . The adult population numbered at 1 @,@ 370 men and 858 women , and children 16 years of age or younger numbered at 286 , with 99 of whom were below the age of 4 . The camp was under the control of the Japanese Foreign Affairs Department , but according to historian Geoffrey Charles Emerson , the Japanese forces had not made plans for dealing with enemy civilians in Hong Kong . As such , the camp was provided with few necessities , and the internees were left to govern the camp themselves . Committees were formed for such matters as housing , food , and medical care . The national groups remained mostly independent of each other except for matters of welfare and medical care . Very few government servants were selected to serve on these committees , due to anti @-@ government sentiments ; most internees blamed the government for the quick surrender of Hong Kong .
The biggest concern was food ; ensuring there was enough food occupied most of the internees ' time . Little food was provided by the Japanese authorities , and it was of poor quality – frequently containing dust , mud , rat and cockroach excreta , cigarette ends , and sometimes dead rats . Everyday , the internees were served rice congee at 8 am , and meals consisting of rice with stew at both 11 a.m. and 5 p.m. Additionally , they relied on food mailed from friends or relatives in the city , Red Cross aid , garden @-@ grown vegetables , and bought food from the canteen or the black market .
Another concern was the health and medical care of the internees . Although medical facilities were inadequate , the internees counted amongst them about 40 doctors , 2 dentists , 6 pharmacists , 100 trained nurses , and a large number of volunteer auxiliary nurses . Because of this , according to historian G. B. Endacott , no major epidemic occurred . The most common sickness amongst the internees were malaria , malnutrition and its associated diseases , beriberi , and pellagra . The shortage of medical supplies and equipment posed a challenge for those in charge of medical care , with the lack of soap and disinfectant being a particularly troublesome concern .
The women and children contributed to a sense of normality as their presence provided conventional social , family , and gender relations . The internees believed the children 's presence made them less selfish , as it forced them to think of the latter 's welfare . The women organised Christmas and birthday celebrations . Other diversions such as musicals , plays , recitals , and variety shows were also staged . Although the camp lacked books and educational equipment , the teachers and educational administrators amongst the internees were able to provide lessons for the children at the primary and secondary levels . Additionally , extensive adult education was available for the adults : language courses for Chinese , Malay , and French , and also lectures on photography , yachting , journalism , and poultry @-@ keeping . In addition to the personal diaries kept by internees , many of them now held by the Imperial War Museum , a record of life in the camp was created using a double bed sheet . The Day Joyce Sheet was embroidered and appliquéd with 1100 names , signs and figures including a diary in code .
= = Deaths = =
Records show that 121 internees died in the camp , mostly due to illness , with half the deaths being of internees over the age of 50 . There were also a few accidental deaths . Two internees died from falls and one child had drowned . The worst camp accident occurred on 16 January 1945 , when an American plane accidentally bombed Bungalow 5 at St. Stephen 's College , killing 14 internees . These internees were buried at Stanley Military Cemetery .
Another seven internees were executed by the Japanese authorities . These internees had possessed a radio set which they used to pass messages in and out of camp . The radio was discovered by the Japanese and the internees were arrested . The other internees were forced to watch their public torture . Military trials were subsequently held and on 29 October 1943 , some of the internees were executed by being shot and at least one , John Fraser , was beheaded . Aside from this , the Japanese authorities had executed by decapitation , three Chinese policemen for bringing cigarettes and tobacco to the camp 's internees .
= = Escape attempts = =
A number of factors made escape attempts daunting for the internees ; they would have to navigate through Japanese @-@ occupied territory , find food , and , as few internees actually spoke Cantonese , they would also have to deal with language difficulties in Hong Kong if they succeeded in escaping . Despite the difficulties , there were three major escape attempts , with two being successful in March 1942 . One group of eight internees escaped on a small boat to neighbouring Macau . Another group , consisting of two internees , escaped through the New Territories and into mainland China . The third group , four policemen , in April 1942 managed to escape the camp grounds but were caught within a few miles of camp . They were subsequently imprisoned and released back to camp after a few weeks .
= = Early Repatriations = =
Repatriation was one of the two most talked @-@ about subject at camp ( the other being the subject of food ) . On 6 May 1942 , the Japanese authorities informed the internees repatriation for the Americans would take place on 15 June . Japanese treatment of the American internees improved during this period before the actual repatriation took place ; more and better food was given to them , and they were allowed contacts with Chinese friends outside of camp . American journalists were interviewed by a Japanese news agency and asked questions about the war and the camp . The internees came to find out later the interview became war propaganda for the Japanese , in the form of an article claiming that American journalists had complimented the Japanese military and the camp itself , stating the camp was " probably the most comfortable in the world . " It was not until 29 June that repatriation for the Americans finally took place , after Japanese and Thai citizens held in the US and South America boarded ships in late June in preparation for exchange of internees . Those being repatriated were given smallpox vaccination , cholera inoculation , and thorough medical examinations . No books , bibles , diaries , or addresses were allowed to leave with the Americans , but the remaining internees were each allowed to write a 150 @-@ word letter for the Americans to take with them . The American internees boarded the ship , the Asama Maru , along with other Americans who had been allowed to stay in Hong Kong outside of the camp . After picking up Americans for repatriation from other locations in Asia , the Asama Maru arrived at Maputo , Mozambique ( then called Lourenço Marques ) on 22 July , where the Americans and Japanese exchanged internees . The Americans were to finally reach New York City on 25 August . Reportedly a total of 377 Americans were repatriated from Hong Kong .
Repatriation of Canadian internees and remaining American internees were announced in August 1943 ( not all American internees had been repatriated in June 1942 ) . Preparations similar to the prior repatriation were made , including messages and reports to be delivered . The ship , the Teia Maru , reached Hong Kong on 23 September , taking on board 73 Canadian internees , 24 American internees , and 13 Latin American internees . The ship sailed to Goa , where an exchange of prisoners and internees with Japan took place .
There were indications and notices to the British internees that their repatriation was possible ; Gimson told them a Swiss Red Cross representative had spoken " encouragingly " about repatriation , the Japanese authorities twice informed them ( on 24 May 1943 and 2 November 1943 ) that they would be repatriated , and 25 May 1943 issue of the Hong Kong News reported negotiations for repatriation were " going on rather smoothly " . Despite this , the British internees were not repatriated until the end of the war .
= = Freedom = =
The internees were freed on 16 August 1945 , the day after Emperor Hirohito broadcast his acceptance of the Potsdam Proclamation in surrender . About two weeks later , the British fleet came for the internees , and several weeks after that , the camp was closed . Many internees went back to the city and began to adjust back to their former lives , and many others , particularly those of poor health , remained on the camp grounds to await for ships to take them away . Historian Geoffrey Charles Emerson wrote the " probable " reason the British internees were not repatriated before the end of the war was related to the Allied forces refusing to release Japanese nationals held in Australia . These nationals were the only sizeable group of Japanese nationals held by the Allies after the repatriation of the American and Canadian internees . They had been pearl fishermen in Australia before the war , and knew the Australian coastline well . Their knowledge would have been " militarily important " to the Japanese if an invasion of Australia was attempted , hence the Allied refusal to release them .
= = Compensation = =
In 1948 , the US government , through the War Claims Act , authorised the payment of US $ 60 for every month an adult spent in an internment camp , and US $ 25 per month for child internees . Some also received US $ 1 per day for " missed meals " . In the UK , from 1952 to 1956 , about 8 @,@ 800 British internees , specifically those who normally resided in the UK when the war began , received a sum of ₤ 48 @.@ 50 as reparation . Payments for American and British internees were made from the proceeds of Japanese assets seized per the Treaty of San Francisco . Dutch internees each received a sum of US $ 100 , with the payments funded by a separate agreement signed between the Dutch and the Japanese in 1957 .
The rise of Japan as an economic power and the opening of World War II files at the UK 's Public Record Office created a sentiment in the 1990s that not enough had been done to redress the suffering of internees and prisoners @-@ of @-@ war . In November 2000 , the British government announced a compensation scheme for British civilians who had been interned in World War II . The scheme called for a package of £ 167 million , and by February 2001 , the first raft of payments of £ 10 @,@ 000 were being made . Initially , the plan excluded British persons who had no " bloodlink " to Britain , a point of distinction that was made between those who were " British citizens " and those who were " British subjects " .
In reaction to this , former Stanley internee Diana Elias launched a civil action case against the British government , alleging the distinction of " bloodlink " made by the compensation scheme was discriminatory , and that the Japanese authorities had made no such distinction in their treatment of the internees . Elias ' family , including her parents and her grandparents , were all holders of British passports . The " bloodlink " distinction , however , made her ineligible for compensation because she is of Iraqi Jewish ancestry . In July 2005 , the High Court in London ruled in her favour , and was subsequently backed by the Court of Appeals when the Ministry of Defence appealed the High Court 's decision . This allowed for hundreds of surviving civilian internees to collect the compensation earlier denied to them by the " bloodlink " distinction .
= = Post @-@ war = =
St. Stephen 's College was re @-@ opened in 1945 after the war . St. Stephen 's Chapel was built on the grounds of the school in 1950 ; the memorial window over its west door was a donation , serving to remember the suffering at Stanley Internment Camp .
= = Notable internees = =
Sir C. Grenville Alabaster – Attorney General of Hong Kong
Morris Abraham Cohen
Kenelm Hutchinson Digby
Elly Kadoorie
Sir Atholl MacGregor – Chief Justice of Hong Kong
Lewis Morley
Hilda Selwyn @-@ Clarke
Francis Arthur Sutton
= Monster Cable =
Monster Inc. is an American company that manufactures and markets 6 @,@ 000 different products , but is best known for audio and video cables . It also produces speakers , headphones , power strips , mobile accessories and audio devices for automobiles . The company was founded by an audiophile and engineer , Noel Lee , in 1979 by experimenting with different ways to build audio cables . It grew by doing demonstrations to convince the industry that audio cables made a difference in audio quality and by establishing relationships with retailers that were attracted to the cable 's profit margins .
Over the years it created new divisions like Monster Music , Monster Game , Monster Mobile , Monster Photo and Monster Power . In the 2000s , Monster had legal trademark disputes regarding other companies or products that have " Monster " in their name , such as Monster.com and the film Monsters , Inc . Monster said it needed to defend its premium brand , while critics said it was pursuing litigation against companies that do not have confusingly similar products . It began manufacturing headphones in a partnership with Dr. Dre in 2008 , which ended in 2012 , and it created other celebrity branded or Monster @-@ branded headphone products .
Several tests done by audiophile publications , news reporters and academics have conflicting viewpoints on whether more expensive audio or video cables like those from Monster make a difference in audio or video quality when compared to generic cables . Instead of advertising , Monster offers incentives to retailers and their salespeople to sell the cables . Retailers bundle high profit @-@ margin cables with larger purchases that have smaller margins in order to improve profitability .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Monster was founded in 1979 by Noel Lee as Monster Cable Products . Lee , an audiophile and engineer , was experimenting with different copper qualities , wire constructs and winding methods of audio cables in his family 's garage and comparing them while listening to Tchaikovsky 's 1812 Overture . He became convinced that audio cables could be engineered to improve audio quality by conducting electricity more efficiently . Using a borrowed portion of somebody 's booth at the 1978 Consumer Electronics Show , he did demonstrations of his cables in comparison to standard wires . After a positive reception at CES , he quit his job at Lawrence Berkeley Lab and started Monster Cable Products with $ 250 @,@ 000 in bank financing . Monster 's first cables were manufactured by Lee by hand and sold door @-@ to @-@ door .
Initial sales were slow , because at the time electronics retailers provided low @-@ cost lamp cords to consumers for free or at low prices and audiophiles didn 't believe audio cables made a difference in the sound . Monster is credited with creating the market for high @-@ end audio cables in the 1980s through Lee 's " marketing prowess . " He did demonstrations comparing the audio of standard cables to Monster cables for retailers and trained their salespeople to do the same for customers .
= = = Diversification = = =
In 1980 , Monster Cable Products moved out of Lee 's garage and into a San Francisco facility . It also introduced its second audio cable , Interlink . The company grew through word @-@ of @-@ mouth and an increasing number of retailers that carried Monster products . It attempted to enter the market for audio devices for automotive briefly , but withdrew to focus on home entertainment . Its first product intended for the mass @-@ market was introduced in 1987 .
Monster re @-@ entered the auto audio market in the early 1990s with a new line of speaker cables and its first speaker product , the Persona One . Its high @-@ end M @-@ series product line was introduced in 1992 . It also expanded internationally , especially in Asia . Monster had a Taiwanese distributor file its trademark in the region , which led to the distributor continuing to sell products under the Monster brand after their agreement with Monster was terminated . This led to a lengthy legal battle and eventually a settlement . Monster acquired the Entec in @-@ car audio brand in 1998 .
Monster 's program for retailers was formalized in 1993 as the M4 Dealer Success Program . The " M4 " stands for four " M " s : Mix ( product mix ) , Merchandising ( displays ) , Monsterization ( training ) and Management commitment . In the 1990s , the business grew from $ 20 million in annual revenues to $ 100 million . By 1998 , Monster was producing 1 @,@ 000 different products out of a distribution and manufacturing center in Brisbane , California that was established that year . It had created a record label company , Monster Music , in 1989 , which was followed by Monster Power for power products such as power cords and surge protectors , in 1998 , Monster Game for video game accessories in 2000 and the Monster Mobile division which markets cell phone and digital camera accessories in 2001 . A Monster Photo product line was created in 2003 that includes power cells , cables and bags for digital cameras , followed by Monster Signature Series Power . In 2004 , it created a spin @-@ off called M @-@ Design , run by Lee 's son , which sells furniture with electronics built in .
= = = Recent history = = =
In September 2004 , Monster paid $ 6 million in an agreement with the San Francisco 49ers and the city of San Francisco to rename the football team 's home stadium from Candlestick Park to Monster Park for four years . $ 3 million of it was given to the football team and the other $ 3 million to the San Francisco Recreation and Parks Department . Critics of local politician Matt Gonzales said it was inappropriate for the city to sell the name of a public facility to a corporation and a ballot was passed ensuring that the name of the park reverted back to Candlestick Park in 2008 .
Monster 's first wireless products , a receiver and transmitter for connecting televisions and devices was introduced in 2008 . In 2012 , the company changed its name from " Monster Cable Products " to just " Monster Inc . " .
= = = = Trademark disputes = = = =
As of 2004 , Monster owned about 300 trademarks , 70 of which are related to the word " Monster " . By 2009 , the company had made 190 filings with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office . Most filings were to delay potentially infringing trademark applications so Monster could study them . Some were formal oppositions and about 30 have resulted in lawsuits . Most lawsuits were settled with non @-@ disclosed terms . Critics and defendants say that Monster is too aggressive in pursuing trademark protections against companies that do not have confusingly similar products and that it is trying to own a common word , not protect a brand . Monster representatives say they are doing what most " premium " brands do to protect their marks and that their products include things like clothes , mints and music .
In the 2000s , Monster had legal disputes over its trademarks with the Discovery Channel for its show Monster Garage . Monster also had trademark disputes with Bally Gaming International over its slot machines , Monster Slots , with Hansen Beverage Co. for its Monster Energy drink , and the Chicago Bears , who use the nickname " Monsters of the Midway . " Other trademark disputes include a 2001 lawsuit against The Walt Disney Company for products related to the film Monsters , Inc . , and a claim against an online used clothing retailer , MonsterVintage LLC . In 2004 , Monster filed a complaint about the trademark application from Snow Monsters , a video website with skiing content for kids . The Snow Monsters owner initiated a lawsuit against Monster pre @-@ emptively . It has also had a trademark dispute with the job site , Monster.com.
In 2006 Monster brought a suit against Monster Mini Golf , a company selling franchise Mini Golf locations throughout the US . After an unsuccessful legal mediation , Monster Mini Golf launched a grassroots campaign against Monster Cable on the Internet . As a result , Monster received more than 200 complaints from the public . Monster Cable dropped the lawsuit and agreed to pay up to $ 200 @,@ 000 of Monster Mini Golf 's legal fees . In 2009 Monster Cable CEO Noel Lee said on Fox Business that the company has had to balance their trademark protection efforts with the public 's point @-@ of @-@ view .
= = = = Headphones = = = =
Monster established a partnership with rap artist Dr. Dre and Interscope Records in 2007 to design and manufacture the Beats Electronics line of headphones called " Beats by Dr. Dre " . This led to a trend among headphone manufacturers to create celebrity @-@ endorsed products . Monster created similar partnerships with Lady Gaga for the Heartbeats brand of headphones in 2009 , PDiddy 's Diddybeats in May 2010 and LeBron James later that year . In 2010 , Monster began developing a series of products for the Chinese market that were co @-@ branded with basketball player Yao Ming . According to analyst firm NPD Group , the Beats brand that Monster distributed exclusively grew to own 53 percent of a $ 1 billion headphones market . A 51 percent interest in Beats was sold to HTC in August 2011 . At the end of the five @-@ year agreement between Monster and Dr. Dre in 2012 , Dre decided not to renew . According to Bloomberg , both parties said the separation was " amicable " but they had disagreements on who deserves credit and the share of revenues . The partnership was responsible for a substantial portion of Monster 's revenues . After the split , Monster created its own headphones product line and other celebrity @-@ branded headphones with music groups Earth , Wind & Fire and Miles Davis .
= = Products = =
Monster manufactures 6 @,@ 000 different products , including headphones , speakers , surge protectors , televisions , and accessories for cars and mobile devices . The company is best known for its speaker cable . It created the market for high @-@ end audio cables in the 1980s . According to a reporter from SoundStage Network , it " has retained a huge lead " for high @-@ end audio cables ever since .
Monster also makes cables for TVs , DVDs , computers , printers , gaming consoles , cameras and for audio equipment in cars . As high @-@ definition televisions grew in popularity , the company expanded into HDMI and high @-@ def cables , including a lower @-@ cost HDMI Basic and HDMI cables with five different speed ratings . It also produces cables intended for specific gaming consoles and Apple products .
Monster began manufacturing and marketing USB and ethernet cables as well as power strips and power management products in 2009 . It 's been producing its own line of headphones since 2012 and also manufactures celebrity @-@ branded headphones . Monster sells speakers under the Clarity and Katana brands and mobile accessories like an iPod dock and a line @-@ up of Tron @-@ branded products .
In the 2000s , it entered into markets for " lifestyle products " like amplifiers , speakers and furniture with electronics built @-@ in , as well as wireless products .
= = Pricing and performance questions = =
Many audiophiles and reporters disagree on whether more expensive cables have an effect on audio quality . In 1980 Speaker Builder said that Monster audio cables were " a reasonable investment " and that they out @-@ perform generic 24- or 18- gauge cables . Tests by Stereo Review Magazine in 1983 concluded that Monster cables did not make a difference in the sound and were " indistinguishable " from 16 @-@ gauge lamp cord . Smaller gauge numbers equate to larger wire , so this is a comparison to heavier ( 16 gauge ) wire than 18 or 24 gauge speaker wires . The same publication in 1990 said that whether the cables are worth it depends on the application and the user 's willingness to pay a premium .
Whether someone can hear the difference varies from person to person . Many reporters and audiophiles have done double @-@ blind a / b listening tests and are unable to hear the difference . The New York Times and PC World have reported not hearing a difference in the sound , while USA Today said Monster had " a slight edge . " According to PC Magazine , Monster is " often accused of selling over @-@ priced cables that you can buy elsewhere for a fraction of the price . "
Gizmodo tested Monster @-@ branded HDMI cables and compared them to generic cables using a Digital Serial Analyzer . They found that the cables performed relatively equally over a short distance of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , but inexpensive cables experienced distortion when ran over longer distances . WIRED also said Monster 's HDMI cables made a difference over 10 @-@ metre ( 33 ft ) distances , but that , " with Monster , you pay a staggering premium for durability and good looks . " In tests by PC World , Monster 's M500CV video cables had the least distortion out of all the cables tested , being within 1 ohm of the standard 75 ohm impedance .
Monster CEO Noel Lee claims the average consumer may not be able to tell the difference on @-@ screen , but that Monster 's video cables have higher bandwidth , are future @-@ proofed , are more durable and that they perform better over long distances . Many reviewers stress in turn that Monster cables are not needed for lower @-@ resolution televisions or over short distances and that the difference in audio quality is not substantial enough .
= = Relationship with retailers = =
Monster Cable and similar " boutique " cables are a substantial source of revenue for retailers of electronics , such as DVD players and TVs . While the profit margins of DVD players and TVs may be low , the profit margins of Monster Cables and similar products provide supplemental revenue for these retailers . Employees of such retailers are trained to market and bundle Monster Cable and similar products in order to increase profitability .
According to The New York Times , profit margins for retailers can be 40 percent or more and The Consumerist reported that one retailer was selling some cables at an 80 percent markup . This has led to criticisms that sales staff are motivated to sell high @-@ end cable products to customers that don 't need them and to be aggressive in order to obtain incentives . Monster has responded by saying that markups are determined by the retailer and are usually less than those found on clothing , jewelry and furniture .
As of 1998 , Monster spent $ 13 million a year in training and incentive programs for salespeople . The sales staff are provided data on their performance in selling the cables and top @-@ performers are sent on all @-@ expenses @-@ paid vacations . Monster also hosts its Retailer Awards at CES each year , which the Las Vegas Sun called , " one of the biggest events on the CES party circuit . "
= SummerSlam ( 2007 ) =
SummerSlam ( 2007 ) was the twentieth annual SummerSlam professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . It was presented by THQ 's Stuntman Ignition . It took place on August 26 , 2007 , at the Continental Airlines Arena in East Rutherford , New Jersey and featured talent from each of WWE 's three brands : Raw , SmackDown , and ECW . Tickets for SummerSlam went on sale December 30 and sold out in forty minutes .
The main feud , a staged rivalry between wrestlers , heading into the event from the Raw brand was between John Cena and Randy Orton . On the July 23 episode of Raw , Jonathan Coachman announced Orton as the number one contender to the WWE Championship . Over the proceeding weeks , Orton provoked Cena by interfering and attacking him during his matches . From SmackDown , the predominant feud was between The Great Khali and Batista . After Khali defeated Batista and Kane in a Triple Threat match , a match between three wrestlers contested under standard rules , Theodore Long booked Khali to defend the World Heavyweight Championship against Batista at SummerSlam . The primary feud from ECW was between John Morrison and CM Punk . By defeating Morrison in a 15 Minutes of Fame match , Punk became the number one contender to the ECW Championship at SummerSlam .
Several of the existing feuds carried on after the event . Notably , CM Punk continued to face John Morrison , defeating him for the ECW Championship the following month on ECW on Sci Fi . The day after SummerSlam , Orton , as part of the scripted events , interfered in a match between Cena and King Booker and intensified the feud by attacking Cena 's father . Khali and Batista faced each other at Unforgiven , the following pay @-@ per @-@ view , as part of a Triple Threat match ; Batista was victorious in this match and won the World Heavyweight Championship .
= = Background = =
World Wrestling Entertainment had originally planned a storyline between the cast of the Jackass TV series and Umaga , with the conclusion in a match at SummerSlam . It was scheduled to begin at the previous pay @-@ per @-@ view event , The Great American Bash , but was canceled after the Jackass cast dropped out due to the negative media attention surrounding the Chris Benoit double murder and suicide .
The main staged rivalry heading into SummerSlam on the Raw brand was between John Cena and Randy Orton over the WWE Championship . At The Great American Bash , Cena defeated Bobby Lashley to retain the WWE Championship . The next night on Raw , one of three main television programs of WWE ( along with WWE SmackDown and ECW on Sci Fi ) , after a Handicap match involving Cena , Orton came out and executed an RKO on Cena . Shortly thereafter , Executive Assistant Jonathan Coachman announced Orton as the new number @-@ one contender to the WWE Championship . Before that , Orton claimed that he had never faced Cena in a one @-@ on @-@ one WWE Championship match . On the July 30 episode of Raw , Carlito defeated Cena in a non @-@ title match after Orton interfered and distracted Cena . Three weeks later , on the August 18 episode of Saturday Night 's Main Event , Cena faced off against Carlito in another non @-@ title match , which Cena won . After the match , Orton came out and attacked Cena , which led to a RKO from Orton through a steel chair .
The main storyline on the SmackDown brand was between The Great Khali and Batista over the World Heavyweight Championship . On the July 6 episode of SmackDown , Khali issued an open challenge for a match at The Great American Bash , which was accepted by Batista later that night . On SmackDown the following week , the match between Khali and Batista was made official after a contract signing . That same night , then @-@ World Heavyweight Champion Edge , who was scheduled to face Kane for the title at The Great American Bash , suffered a real injury — a left pectoral muscle tear — after Kane interrupted his Mardi Gras style celebration . On the July 20 episode of SmackDown , Edge was forced to vacate the World Heavyweight Championship due to the severity of his injury . He later commented-
I ’ m still the rightful champion . My pectoral muscle is hanging on by a single fiber ; literally hanging from the bone . Theodore Long comes out and strips me of what I ’ ve worked for my entire career — from childhood until now . My mood is obviously not great right now . I ’ m disgusted .
I go out there and put my body through hell . I ’ ve broken my neck , dislocated my shoulder twice , torn my other pec , my elbows are mush , I have two protruding discs in my lower back . I even got bit by a brown recluse spider that turned into a flesh @-@ eating disease — the list goes on . I still go out there and prove that I am the best .
Why do I still do this ? Not for them . I do it for my pride . I don 't give a rat 's ass what the fans think . I never have . That 's not how I operate . I know that fans will be happy with this , and that pisses me off . I 've come to the realization that our fans never will appreciate me . But they had to live with me as their champion , and when I return and become a four @-@ time World Champion , they 'll have to deal with me again .
SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long then announced that there would be a 20 @-@ man Battle Royal later that night to determine a new World Heavyweight Champion . Khali won the Battle Royal and became the new World Heavyweight Champion by last eliminating Kane and Batista . Khali defeated the two and retained the title at The Great American Bash . Five days later on SmackDown , Batista interrupted Khali 's celebration and challenged him to a match at SummerSlam . The next week , on the August 3 episode of SmackDown , Long announced that Khali would defend his title against Batista at SummerSlam .
Another main rivalry on the Raw brand heading into SummerSlam was between the returning Triple H against King Booker . At New Year 's Revolution , during a World Tag Team Championship match between Rated @-@ RKO ( Edge and Randy Orton ) and D @-@ Generation X ( Shawn Michaels and Triple H ) , Triple H suffered a legitimate torn right quadriceps during the match that left him out of action . On July 16 , Booker T , who is referred as King Booker after winning the 2006 King of the Ring tournament started using Triple H 's entrance music " King of Kings " . King Booker declared that neither Triple H nor Jerry Lawler could be known as " The King " . On August 6 episode of Raw , King Booker defeated Lawler in a match where the loser had to crown the winner the next week . When the time came , Lawler refused , declaring that Triple H was still a king and announcing that King Booker would face Triple H at SummerSlam . Booker then attacked Lawler , throwing him into the ring post and hitting him with a TV monitor .
The predominant staged rivalry from the ECW brand was between John Morrison and CM Punk over the ECW Championship . Morrison won the title at Vengeance : Night of Champions , the pay @-@ per @-@ view two months before SummerSlam by defeating CM Punk . At the following pay @-@ per @-@ view , The Great American Bash , Morrison defeated Punk to retain the ECW Championship . On the July 31 episode of ECW on Sci Fi , Punk defeated Tommy Dreamer and Elijah Burke in a Triple threat match to earn a 15 Minutes of Fame match with Morrison . The following week , on ECW on Sci Fi , Punk defeated Morrison by pinfall after executing a GTS ( Go To Sleep ) . As a result of this victory , Punk earned himself a championship match against Morrison at SummerSlam .
One of the primary preliminary matches was a standard one @-@ on @-@ one match between Rey Mysterio and Chavo Guerrero . Their storyline first began in July 2006 at The Great American Bash . Guerrero interfered in Mysterio 's World Heavyweight Championship match with King Booker by hitting Mysterio with a steel chair . Guerrero defeated Mysterio the following month at SummerSlam 2006 , winning the match after performing a frog splash At No Mercy , the pay @-@ per @-@ view two months after SummerSlam , Mysterio defeated Guerrero in a Falls Count Anywhere match , pinning him after performing a crossbody off a guard rail . Two weeks later , Guerrero defeated Mysterio in an " I Quit " match forcing him to quit after hitting his left knee repeatedly with a steel chair . During the match , Mysterio suffered a real injury — an ACL and patella tendon tear in his left knee . Ten months later , on the August 3 episode of SmackDown ! , a match between Mysterio and Guerrero was booked for SummerSlam .
= = Event = =
Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , World Tag Team Champions Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch defeated Paul London and Brian Kendrick in a dark match .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match that aired was between Kane and Finlay . Kane controlled the opening minutes of the match , performing a variety of moves including a scoop slam and a big boot . After some back and forth action , Finlay was able to hit Kane with a shillelagh in the ribs . Kane kicked out of the pin attempt and executed a chokeslam , pinning him afterwards for the win .
Next was a Triple Threat match for the WWE Intercontinental Championship that involved Umaga , Carlito , and Mr. Kennedy . Kennedy attempted to form an alliance with Carlito in the beginning , but Umaga quickly turned the match in his favor . Kennedy and Carlito soon gained the upper hand after Carlito dropkicked Umaga to the outside . Shortly thereafter , Carlito turned on Kennedy and attempted to pin him with a roll @-@ up . After a back and forth match between the three , Umaga regained control and performed a Samoan Spike on Kennedy , which led to Umaga pinning Kennedy for the win and successfully retaining the WWE Intercontinental Championship .
The third match was Rey Mysterio versus Chavo Guerrero , which was Mysterio 's first match since Guerrero injured his knee in October 2006 . Mysterio gained the early advantage when he was able to perform an arm drag and a plancha on Guerrero . Mysterio then performed a low dropkick to Guerrero 's left knee , followed by a diving hurricanrana . Towards the end of the match , Guerrero was able to perform a Gory Bomb on Mysterio after Mysterio had missed a crossbody . Mysterio kicked out of the pin attempt and performed a 619 followed by a springboard splash for the pinfall victory .
Next was an Interpromotional Divas Battle Royal involving Beth Phoenix , Melina , Mickie James , Jillian Hall , and Maria from Raw , Michelle McCool , Torrie Wilson , Kristal Marshall , and Victoria from SmackDown , and Kelly Kelly , Layla , and Brooke from ECW . Shortly after the match began , Phoenix threw Brooke over the top rope . Soon after , Hall eliminated Maria and Layla was thrown out by Melina . Kristal then eliminated Victoria , but was then thrown over the ropes by James and accidentally knocked off the apron by McCool . Shortly after , Phoenix and Hall eliminated Kelly , and Hall and James began pulling each other over the ropes . Wilson threw Hall out to the floor whilst Melina knocked James off the apron . McCool and Wilson then worked together to eliminate Melina . The two continued their alliance , but Phoenix was able to get the upper hand , first eliminating Wilson , followed by throwing McCool over the ropes to win the match and a future WWE Women 's Championship match .
Shortly after the match ended , WWE United States Champion Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) came to the ring and challenged Matt Hardy to a beer drinking contest . Hardy declined and named a replacement , Stone Cold Steve Austin . Austin came out and mocked MVP by doing several warm @-@ up exercises similar to those MVP does before a match . As the contest was set to start , Austin delivered a Stone Cold Stunner to MVP and left the ring .
Next on the card was John Morrison versus CM Punk for the ECW Championship . Punk gained early control when he was able to perform a scoop slam as well as a springboard dropkick ; however , Morrison was able to counter a shoulder block attempt into a neckbreaker on the ring apron . After Morrison controlled the match for several minutes , Punk was able to put the match back in his favor after performing a diving crossbody followed by an enzuigiri . Morrison , however , countered a Frankensteiner attempt into a pin @-@ cover while using the ropes for leverage . He got the win , thus retaining the ECW Championship .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The sixth match of the event was between the returning Triple H and King Booker , who was accompanied by Queen Sharmell . Triple H gained the early advantage as the match began ; however , Booker was able to gain control after performing a low dropkick . Triple H regained control after countering Booker and performing a variety of moves , which included a corner clothesline and a spinebuster . Booker put the match back in his favor after reversing a clothesline attempt into a Book End , which was followed by a sidewalk slam . After Booker missed a diving somersault leg drop , Triple H was able to recover and perform a Pedigree . Triple H pinned Booker afterwards to gain the victory .
The World Heavyweight Championship match between champion The Great Khali and challenger Batista was next . Khali controlled most of the match and performed a variety of moves , which included a brain chop , a big boot , and multiple clotheslines . Batista won the match after Khali intentionally disqualified himself by hitting him with a steel chair . Since a championship cannot change hands via countout or disqualification , Khali retained the title .
Next was the main event , which saw John Cena defend the WWE Championship against Randy Orton . After back and forth action in the opening minutes , Orton gained the advantage over Cena after Cena missed a flying shoulder block attempt . Orton followed up by applying a reverse chinlock and attacking Cena 's leg . After Orton controlled the match for several minutes , Cena gained the advantage and performed various maneuvers , which included a twisting belly to belly side slam and the Five Knuckle Shuffle ; Orton , however , was able to counter an FU attempt into an inverted headlock backbreaker . Cena countered a running punt attempt into the STFU submission hold . Orton , however , got to the bottom rope , and performed an RKO . Cena kicked out of the pin attempt and performed an FU for the pinfall victory , thus retaining the WWE Championship .
= = Aftermath = =
During the event , John Cena provoked his feud with Randy Orton . On the August 27 episode of Raw , Cena faced King Booker in a non @-@ title match . When Cena appeared close to winning , Randy Orton interfered and attacked him , causing Booker to lose by disqualification . After the match ended , Orton attacked Cena 's father , who was sitting at ringside , and kicked him in the head . The two faced each other in a rematch at Unforgiven for the WWE Championship . Cena was disqualified in the match for continuously punching Orton . Orton won the match but not the title . Afterwards , Cena 's father kicked Orton in the head , in the same way Orton had kicked his one @-@ month prior .
On the August 31 episode of SmackDown , Rey Mysterio , Finlay , Kane , and Batista participated in a four @-@ man Championship Competition tournament . Mysterio defeated Batista and Finlay and became the number @-@ one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship at Unforgiven . On the September 7 episode of SmackDown , Mysterio defeated Chavo Guerrero in an " I Quit " match . After the match , The Great Khali attacked Mysterio until Batista came out and executed a spear on Khali . Batista was then included in the one @-@ on @-@ one title match at Unforgiven , making it a Triple Threat match . At the event , Batista won the championship for a third time .
The feud between Matt Hardy and Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) continued when they were forced to team up against Deuce ' n Domino on the August 31 episode of SmackDown . They won the match and the WWE Tag Team Championship . The following month at Unforgiven , MVP and Hardy defeated Deuce ' n Domino to retain the WWE Tag Team Championship . That October , at No Mercy , Hardy defeated MVP in a pizza @-@ eating contest . On the November 16 episode of SmackDown , MVP and Hardy lost the WWE Tag Team Championship to the team of The Miz and John Morrison .
Umaga lost the WWE Intercontinental Championship to Jeff Hardy on the September 3 episode of Raw . Afterwards , Umaga started a feud with Triple H and faced off against him in a Street Fight two months later at Cyber Sunday . At Unforgiven , Candice Michelle defeated Beth Phoenix to retain the WWE Women 's Championship . Phoenix , however , later defeated Candice at No Mercy to win the title . On the September 4 episode of ECW on Sci Fi , CM Punk defeated John Morrison to win the ECW Championship . At Cyber Sunday , Punk retained the title by defeating The Miz . The following month , at Survivor Series , Punk defeated Morrison and The Miz in a Triple Threat match to retain the ECW Championship .
= = = Reception = = =
The event grossed over US $ 1 million in ticket sales from an attendance of 17 @,@ 441 out of a 17 @,@ 040 maximum capacity building . Due to the production of the event , however , the capacity of the arena was set at a lower standard , and as a result the arena reached its maximum capacity . This was confirmed by the ticket sales and by WWE 's official website on August 28 , 2007 . According to a press release by WWE in late @-@ 2007 , the event received 537 @,@ 000 buys , which was higher than the previous year 's SummerSlam buys of 529 @,@ 000 . The buys from SummerSlam helped the promotion 's revenue , which was $ 18 @.@ 8 million , a sum lower than the prior year of $ 19 @.@ 7 million . Canadian Online Explorer and its professional wrestling section rated the entire event a 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The rating was higher than the previous year 's SummerSlam rating , a 5 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The main event from the Raw brand was rated a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 ; while the main event from the SmackDown brand was rated a 1 out of 10 . The event had 537 @,@ 000 buys , up slightly on the SummerSlam 2006 figure of 529 @,@ 000 buys .
The event was released on DVD on September 25 , 2007 . The DVD was distributed by the label , Genius Products . The DVD reached a peak position of first on Billboard 's Weekly Video Sales chart for the week of October 27 , 2007 . The DVD remained on the charts for twelve consecutive weeks ; though , after the week of October 27 , 2007 , the DVD ranked lower . During its final week on the chart , January 18 , 2008 , it ranked 19th . The DVD also received reviews from customers , as the average customer rating from Amazon.com was a 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 . The average customer rating however , from CD Universe was a 5 out of 5 stars .
= = Results = =
= Magia ( Shakira album ) =
Magia ( English : Magic ) is the debut album by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira . It was released in June 1991 by Sony Music Colombia , with whom she signed a three @-@ album recording contract . The record is a collection of pop ballads Shakira wrote since she was eight years old , with themes inspired from the experience hanging out with males , adventure stories , and dreams of living on the coast .
The album 's live performances helped Shakira receive attention on Colombian media , and the LP earned her an award at the Viña del Mar International Song Festival . However , it was not a commercial success , with sales estimated at between 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 200 copies . By Shakira 's request , Magia and its follow @-@ up Peligro ( 1993 ) were removed from music markets . " Magia " was released as promotional single in 1991 .
= = Development and composition = =
Born in Barranquilla , Colombia , Shakira began writing songs at the age of eight years , her first one being " Tus Gafas Oscuras " . Her performances at local competitions led to a meeting with local theater producer Monica Ariza , who later held an audition for her in Bogotá . She performed three songs for executives of Sony Music Columbia , who were impressed enough to sign her , at the age of 13 , to record three albums , which were Magia , Peligro and Pies Descalzos .
The low @-@ budget Magia was put in almost three months of pre @-@ production , which involved choreography of live performances for the album , singing lessons for Shakira , and arranging the songs . The concept of the music still reflected her personality , despite the fact that it was managed by the record label . The tracks deal with emotions of a person 's first time falling in love , and range from a love poem ( " Sueños " ) to a celebration of dance ( " Esta noche voy contigo " ) . These were influenced from experiences with males such as her ex @-@ boyfriend Oscar Pardo , stories told by her father , and dreams of living on the coast . In the book Shakira : Woman Full of Grace , Ximena Diego wrote that the album " demonstrated her [ Shakira 's ] indisputable potential . "
Magia is a collection of songs written by Shakira between the ages of 8 and 12 , and mainly consists of pop ballads . It was produced by Miguel E. Cubillos and Pablo Tedeschi , and recorded at Aga Studios in Bogotá , when Shakira was 13 . A Sony Music Columbia representative said that the recording process was simple and went perfectly fine . But for Shakira , the process was problematic , as she had no ability to decide which tracks would be included and no input into the rhythmic structure or artistic production of the songs .
= = Release and promotion = =
To promote the launch of the album , as a suggestion from Shakira , live performances were held in locations such as Teatro Amira de la Rosa , Cartagena , Santa Marta , Riohacha , Medellín , Cali , Bogotá , and other various theaters and events , all of which received print , radio and television coverage . The performances featured additional dancers and background vocalists such as Cesar Navarro , Guillermo Gomez , Mauricio Pinilla , and Richard Ricardo . A music video was done for " Magia " , which Navarro also starred in . Navarro found working with Shakira enjoyable and relaxing , and recalled her as sensitive and energetic : " She was a tireless worker , but more than anything , she was a total blast . " The choreography for the performances was done by Gary Julio and Ray Silva . The album won an award at the Viña del Mar International Song Festival in 1991 , although Shakira was not able to attend the ceremony due to her age of under 16 years . Despite the live performances and the amount of media coverage , the LP did not fare well commercially ; between 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 200 copies were sold in her home country . Shakira has refused to allow the re @-@ release of both Magia and her next album , Peligro , because of their " immaturity " ; neither has ever been released in the U.S.
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits from liner notes :
Shakira – songwriter , vocals
Sergio Solano – acoustic and electric guitars
Antonio " Toño " Arnedo – saxophone
Miguel Enrique Cubillos N. – producer , songwriter , music direction , artistic arrangement , vocal direction , chorus
Ana Maria Gónzalez @-@ Liliana Avila – chorus
Juanita Loboguerrero – songwriter
Miguel E. Cubillos – producer , songwriter , music direction , artistic arrangement , vocal direction
Pablo Tedeschi – producer , songwriter , musical direction , arrangement , computer programming , synthesizer programming , drum programming
Alvaro Eduardo Ortiz Q – design
Gabriel Muñoz – general coordination
Luis Miguel Olivar – sound engineer , mixing engineer
Leo Erazzo – album artwork
= Goodies ( album ) =
Goodies is the debut studio album by American recording artist Ciara . It was released on September 28 , 2004 via LaFace Records . After writing songs for several established acts , Ciara 's talents were noticed by Jazze Pha , and she began to work on what became Goodies . The album 's conception came through the which the title track , created as a female crunk counterpart to Usher 's " Yeah " and Petey Pablo 's " Freek @-@ a @-@ Leek . " Ciara worked with several writers and producers on the album , including Jazze Pha , Lil Jon , Bangladesh , R. Kelly , Johntá Austin , Sean Garrett , and Keri Hilson , among others .
With Goodies , Ciara was hailed as the " Princess " or " First Lady of Crunk & B. " The album uses dance music while utilizing pop , R & B , and hip @-@ hop influences . The album delivers contradictory lyrical content , featuring female empowerment and independence @-@ promoting lyrics in songs like the title track , while others show interest in adult activities . Critics gave the album positive to mixed reviews , commending the " Goodies " -esque songs , while deeming others as unoriginal and noting Ciara 's limited vocal abilities . Most critics compared the work to singer Aaliyah , and also said it had qualities of Destiny 's Child .
Commercially the album was a success , in the United States , the album debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 , selling 124 @,@ 750 copies in its opening week . It was later certified triple platinum by the RIAA , and as of June 2010 , had sold over 2 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States . The album also fared well internationally being certified Platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) and Silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . Goodies earned Ciara two Grammy nominations at the 48th Grammy Awards including Best New Artist and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration for " 1 , 2 Step . "
= = Background = =
In her mid @-@ teens , Ciara formed the all @-@ girl group Hearsay with two of her friends . The group recorded demos , but as time went on , they began to have differences and eventually parted ways . Despite this setback , Ciara was still determined to reach her goal and signed a publishing deal as a songwriter . After leaving the group Hearsay , Texas native Ciara earned a writing job via her manager , for Atlanta 's Tricky Stewart and The @-@ Dream 's RedZone Entertainment , penning songs for Mýa and Fantasia among others . According to Ciara , no one believed in her dreams of hearing her own music on the radio until she met producer Jazze Pha in 2002 . Within five months of meeting her , Pha signed her to his Sho 'nuff label and they had already recorded five tracks . About Ciara , Jazze Pha said , " What was really lacking is the Janet Jackson , high @-@ energy dance [ music ] . Ciara fills that void . She 's pretty , she can dance , she can write music , and kids love her . Everyone loves her . "
= = Recording = =
After graduating from Riverdale High School in Riverdale , Georgia in 2003 , she was signed by LaFace Records executive , L.A. Reid , whom she was introduced to by Jazze Pha . She began production on her debut album later that year . Recording sessions for the album took place at Chocolate Factory , Chicago , IL ; Circle House Studios , Miami , FL ; Darp Studios , Atlanta , GA ; Doppler Studios , Atlanta , GA ; Futuristic Recording Studios , Atlanta , GA ; Ground Breaking Studios , Atlanta , GA ; Hit Factory Criteria , Miami , FL ; Hitco , Atlanta , GA ; Patchwerk Recordings , Atlanta , GA ; Phoenix Ave . Studios , Atlanta , GA ; Sony Music Studios , New York , NY ; Studio 609 Recordings , Philadelphia , PA ; The Studio , Philadelphia , PA .
In early 2004 , Ciara wrote a demo with record producer , Sean Garrett , co @-@ writer of Usher 's crunk hit " Yeah . " After hearing a demo , crunk producer Lil Jon , who also produced and was featured on " Yeah " , began to work on the full record , to have it released on LaFace , which was also Usher 's label . Originally , Ciara was reluctant to work with the track produced by Lil Jon , reportedly disliking crunk music at first . However , she decided to use the song to go against the grain and deliver lyrics in contrast of female promiscuity lines delivered by fellow female artists . To give her a title to stand out , Lil Jon dubbed Ciara as the " Princess of Crunk & B. " Dubbed the female counterpart to " Yeah " and fellow crunk hit " Freek @-@ a @-@ Leek " by Petey Pablo , it looked to capitalize on the success of the previous songs . In addition to working with Jazze Pha , whom produced most of the album , Lil Jon , and Garrett , she worked with several other Atlanta @-@ based writers and producers including Bangladesh , Johntá Austin , Jasper Cameron , and others , while featuring collaborations from Atlanta 's T.I. and Ludacris . R & B singer R. Kelly wrote and produced a track .
When talking about the album 's theme , Ciara said it was universal , stating , " It 's about everybody . You 'll have songs with different emotions , happy , sad , ' my heart is broken . ' What everybody goes through . " On her success with the preluding title track , Ciara said , " I 'm very content right now . I take everything a day at a time . Every time I hear good news , I 'm shouting out , ' Praise God . ' Everybody around me is so excited , I still haven 't got it . I haven 't really felt it like they 're feeling it for me . "
= = Composition = =
The album consists of bouncy dance music mixed with crunk , combined with either R & B , pop or hip hop music . The ballads on the set utilize Ciara 's breathy vocals , as the uptempo pieces . Lyrical content varies on the album . Songs like " Goodies " issue a message of female empowerment and abstinence , and this is contradicted as she hints at teasing sex . Slant Magazine compared this to Britney Spears @-@ esque " layer of tease to the mature " in her early work . Utilizing influences from 80 's dance music , qualities of the work of Destiny 's Child and Aaliyah are evident .
" Goodies " is heavily influenced by male counterpart crunk song " Yeah " and also has been compared to Kelis 's " Milkshake . " The song makes use of a repeated whistle , " faux operated vocals " in parts and a western guitar riff near the end . " 1 , 2 Step , " which continues the club music theme , is built around a simple dance and features Missy Elliott in a pas de deux. and according to Mike Pattensden of The Times , " owes plenty to classic New York electro . " " Oh , " a downtempo song , features a heavy bassline and has been called " brooding electronic grind , " and , according to Dorian Lynskey of The Guardian , " sounds like R & B reimagined by Gary Numan . " " Pick Up the Phone "
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fishermen allegedly killed or arrested by Sri Lankan navy along the maritime borders of India and Sri Lanka from the time of Sri Lankan civil war during 1983 . In the face of simmering tension after the 1985 January Colombo bound Yaldevi train attack in which 22 Sri Lankan soldiers and 16 civilians were killed , Rameswaram fishermen dared to venture to seas spelling acute hardship for the 10 @,@ 000 fishermen family . An estimated 381 fishermen have been killed in the sea due to shoot outs from 1983 to 2009 . The Sri Lankan army attributed the killings to the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam ( LTTE ) , but the casualty continues even after the end of LTTE in the region . The Tamil Nadu state government has increased the compensation of casualty from the original ₹ 100 @,@ 000 to 500 @,@ 000 ( US $ 1 @,@ 800 to $ 9 @,@ 000 ) . There has not been a single prosecution in any of the 381 killings committed so far from the Indian judiciary . The cases not being filed is attributed to the fact that people killed beyond the maritime boundary of India are not eligible for compensation and not many file complaints against the Sri Lankan navy . Though the Indian judiciary has provisions to prosecute foreigners , there is little progress due to the diplomatic overheads involved . Indian government has also ventured into the use of technology like use of Global positioning system ( GPS ) by the fishermen and enabling cellphone blips to alert their mobile phones whenever they are crossing into Sri Lankan waters . The Sri Lankan navy has confirmed reports on Indian fishermen risking the international boundary due to depleted catch in Indian waters .
There is a yearly 45 @-@ day ban on fishery with motorboats in the region . The fishing ban for the year 2012 was effective during the months of April – May . The jetty at Rameswaram is the largest landing centre for fishing boats in the region and it usually comes alive after the ban , with the arrival of fishermen , boat captains , shore workers and others from their native places .
Sea World Aquarium is a natural habitat lying opposite to the Rameswaram Bus Stand , having an assortment of underwater creatures – it is the only one of its kind in the state , filled with such varied marine life forms including exotic species .
= = = Kachchatheevu = = =
Another focal point on the simmering tension between Indian and Sri Lankan governments is over the use of Kachchatheevu , an uninhabited island 15 km north of Rameswaram , belonging to Sri Lanka . The accord of 1974 allows fishermen of both the countries for resting and soaking the nets in the island . Repeated allegations on attacks by the Lankan navy , which on many occasions killed Indian fishermen , prevented them from making it to the island . The annual two @-@ day Saint Anthony fest at the island draws huge number of people from the fishermen community of both the countries . The number of pilgrims for the 2012 function crossed 4 @,@ 000 , the largest attendance in the past two decades . The feast also provides an opportunity for the Indian fishermen to meet their Sri Lankan counterparts and exchange views on their mutual problems . The event served as a meeting point to find brides and grooms from both countries , but this practice has now been stopped from the 90s due to political constraint of fishermen family living in different countries .
= = = Sethusamudram Canal Project = = =
Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project proposes linking the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka by creating a shipping canal through the shallow sea sometimes called Setu Samudram , and through the chain of islands variously known as Ram Sethu or the Rama 's Bridge . A few organisations are opposing the dredging of Ramasethu on religious , environmental and economical grounds . Many of these parties and organisations support implementation of this project using one of the five alternative alignments considered earlier without damaging the structure considered sacred by Hindus . With 22 km of dredging remaining , the project is held from March 2010 by a Supreme Court order seeking the Central Government to clarify the status of the bridge as a national monument .
= Archaeoraptor =
" Archaeoraptor " is the informal generic name for a fossil from China in an article published in National Geographic magazine in 1999 . The magazine claimed that the fossil was a " missing link " between birds and terrestrial theropod dinosaurs . Even prior to this publication there had been severe doubts about the fossil 's authenticity . Further scientific study showed it to be a forgery constructed from rearranged pieces of real fossils from different species . Zhou et al. found that the head and upper body actually belong to a specimen of the primitive fossil bird Yanornis . A 2002 study found that the tail belongs to a small winged dromaeosaur , Microraptor , named in 2000 . The legs and feet belong to an as yet unknown animal .
The scandal brought attention to illegal fossil deals conducted in China . Although " Archaeoraptor " was a forgery , many true examples of feathered dinosaurs have been found and demonstrate the evolutionary connection between birds and other theropods .
= = Scandal = =
" Archaeoraptor " was unveiled at a press conference held by National Geographic magazine in October 1999 . At the same press conference , plans were announced to return the fossil to Chinese authorities , as it was illegally exported . In November 1999 National Geographic featured the fossil in an article written by art editor Christopher Sloan . The article in general discussed feathered dinosaurs and the origin of birds . It claimed the fossil was " a missing link between terrestrial dinosaurs and birds that could actually fly " and informally referred to it as " Archaeoraptor liaoningensis " , announcing it would later be formally named as such . This name means " ancient robber of Liaoning " . This drew immediate criticism from Storrs L. Olson , Curator of Birds at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington , D.C. Writing in Backbone , the newsletter of his museum , he denounced the publication of a scientific name in a popular journal , without peer review , as a " nightmare " .
On February 3 , 2000 , National Geographic issued a press release stating that the fossil could be a composite , and that an internal investigation had begun . In that same month Bill Allen , National Geographic editor , told Nature that he was " furious " to learn that the fossil might have been faked . In the March issue , in the forum section , a letter from Dr. Xu Xing pointed out that the tail section probably did not match the upper body . In October 2000 National Geographic published the results of their investigation , in an article written by Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning investigative journalist Lewis M. Simons . Simons concluded that the fossil was a composite and that virtually everyone involved in the project had made some mistakes .
= = = Chronology = = =
According to National Geographic 's report , the story of " Archaeoraptor " begins in July 1997 in Xiasanjiazi , China , where farmers routinely dug in the shale pits with picks and sold fossils to dealers for a few dollars . This was an illegal practice , but it was common then . In this case one farmer found a rare fossil of a toothed bird , complete with feather impressions . The fossil broke into pieces during collection . Nearby , in the same pit , he found pieces including a feathered tail and legs . He cemented several of these pieces together in a manner that he believed was correct . He apparently knew that it would make a more complete @-@ looking and , thus , more expensive fossil . It was sold in June 1998 to an anonymous dealer and smuggled to the United States . According to authorities in Beijing , no fossils may leave China legally .
By the fall 1998 annual meeting of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology , held in Utah , United States , rumors were circulating about a striking fossil of a primitive bird that was in private hands . This fossil was presented by an anonymous dealer at a gem show in Tucson , Arizona . The Dinosaur Museum in Blanding , Utah , purchased it in February 1999 . The museum is run by Stephen A. Czerkas and his wife , Sylvia Czerkas . Mr. Czerkas does not hold a university degree , but he is a dinosaur enthusiast and artist . He arranged for patrons of his museum , including trustee Dale Slade , to provide $ 80 @,@ 000 for the purchase of the fossil , in order to study it scientifically and prevent it from disappearing into an anonymous private collection .
The Czerkases contacted paleontologist Phil Currie , who contacted the National Geographic Society . Currie agreed to study the fossil on condition that it was eventually returned to China . The National Geographic Society intended to get the fossil formally published in the peer @-@ reviewed science journal Nature , and then follow up immediately with a press conference and an issue of National Geographic . Editor Bill Allen asked that all members of the project keep the fossil secret , so that the magazine would have a scoop on the story .
Slade and the Czerkases intended the fossil to be the " crown jewel " of the Dinosaur Museum and planned to keep it on display there for five years . Sloan says that he flew to Utah in the spring of 1999 to convince Stephen Czerkas to return the fossil to China immediately after publication , or he would not write about it for National Geographic and Currie would not work on it . Czerkas then agreed . Currie then contacted the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology in Beijing , and National Geographic flew the IVPP 's Xu Xing to Utah to be part of the " Archaeoraptor " team .
During the initial examination of the fossil on March 6 , 1999 it had already become clear to Currie that the left and right feet mirrored each other perfectly and that the fossil had been completed by using both slab and counterslab . He also noticed no connection could be seen between the tail and the body . In July 1999 , Currie and the Czerkases brought the fossil to the High @-@ Resolution X @-@ ray CT Facility of the University of Texas ( Austin ) founded and operated by Dr. Timothy Rowe to make CT scans . Rowe , having made the scans on July 29 , determined that they indicated that the bottom fragments , showing the tail and the lower legs , were not part of the larger fossil . He informed the Czerkases on August 2 that there was a chance of the whole being a fraud . During a subsequent discussion Rowe and Currie were pressured by the Czerkases to keep their reservations private .
Currie in the first week of September sent his preparator , Kevin Aulenback , to the Dinosaur Museum in Blanding to prepare the fossil for better study . Aulenback concluded that the fossil was " a composite specimen of at least 3 specimens ... with a maximum ... of five ... separate specimens " , but the Czerkases angrily denied this and Aulenbeck only reported this to Currie . Currie did not inform National Geographic of these problems .
On August 13 , 1999 , the team submitted a manuscript titled " A New Toothed Bird With a Dromaeosaur @-@ like Tail " under the names of Stephen Czerkas , Currie , Rowe , and Xu , to the journal Nature in London . The paper mentions in two places , and includes a figure illustrating the point that , one of the legs and the tail are counterparts that were composited into the main slab .
On August 20 Nature rejected the paper , indicating to the Czerkases that National Geographic had refused to delay publication , leaving too little time for peer review . The authors then submitted the paper to Science , which sent it out for peer review . Two reviewers informed Science that " the specimen was smuggled out of China and illegally purchased " and that the fossil had been " doctored " in China " to enhance its value . " Science then rejected the paper . According to Sloan , the Czerkases did not inform National Geographic about the details of the two rejections .
By that time the November issue of National Geographic was already in preparation for printing , but " Archaeoraptor " was never formally published in any peer @-@ reviewed journal .
National Geographic went ahead and published without peer review . The fossil was unveiled in a press conference on October 15 , 1999 , and the November 1999 National Geographic contained an article by Christopher P. Sloan — a National Geographic art editor . Sloan described it as a missing link that helped elucidate the connection between dinosaurs and birds . The original fossil was put on display at the National Geographic Society in Washington , DC , pending return to China . In the article Sloan used the name " Archaeoraptor liaoningensis " but with a disclaimer ( so that it would not count as a nomenclatural act for the purposes of scientific classification ) in anticipation of Czerkas being able to publish a peer @-@ reviewed description at some point in the future .
After the November National Geographic came out , Storrs L. Olson , curator of birds in the National Museum of Natural History of the Smithsonian Institution published an open letter on 1 November 1999 , pointing out that " the specimen in question is known to have been illegally exported " and protesting the " prevailing dogma that birds evolved from dinosaurs . " Olson complained that Sloan , a journalist , had usurped the process of scientific nomenclature by publishing a name first in the popular press : " This is the worst nightmare of many zoologists — that their chance to name a new organism will be inadvertently scooped by some witless journalist . "
In October 1999 , after having been informed by Currie of the problems and seeing the specimen for the first time , Xu noticed that the tail of " Archaeoraptor " strongly resembled an unnamed maniraptoran dinosaur that he was studying — later to be named Microraptor zhaoianus . He returned to China and traveled to Liaoning Province where he inspected the fossil site and contacted a number of fossil dealers . He eventually found a fairly complete fossil of a tiny dromaeosaur , and the tail of this new fossil corresponded so exactly to the tail on the " Archaeoraptor " fossil that it had to be the counterslab — it even had two matching yellow oxide stains . On December 20 , 1999 Xu Xing sent e @-@ mails to the authors and Sloan , announcing that the fossil was a fake .
On February 3 , 2000 The National Geographic News issued a press release stating that the " Archaeoraptor " fossil might be a composite , and that an internal investigation had begun . In the March issue of National Geographic Xu 's letter ran in the Forum section of the magazine , and Bill Allen had Xu change the word " fake " to " composite " .
On April 4 , 2000 Stephen Czerkas told a group of paleontologists in Washington that he and Sylvia had made " an idiot , bone @-@ stupid mistake " . Currie , Allen and Sloan all expressed regret . Rowe felt vindicated , claiming the affair as evidence that his scans were correct . Rowe published a Brief Communication in Nature in 2001 describing his findings . He concluded that , apart from the top part , several specimens had been used to complete the fossil : a first for the left femur , a second for the tibiae , a third for both feet and at least one more for the tail , which alone consisted of five separate parts .
In June 2000 the fossil was returned to China . In the October 2000 issue , National Geographic published the results of their investigation .
= = Ongoing confusion = =
The fossils involved in the " Archaeoraptor " scandal have led to ongoing confusion over taxon names . In December 2000 , Microraptor was described in Nature . Zhou et al . ( 2002 ) examined the upper body of the " Archaeoraptor " fossil and reported that it belonged to the previously @-@ named genus Yanornis .
= = = Dinosaur Museum Journal = = =
In 2002 the Czerkases published a volume through their Dinosaur Museum titled Feathered Dinosaurs and the Origin of Flight . In this journal they described and named several species . Of the six species named in the book , five are disputed .
Despite the work of Zhou et al . ( 2002 ) , Czerkas and co @-@ author Xu Xing described the upper portion of the " Archaeoraptor " fossil as a new bird genus , Archaeovolans , in the Dinosaur Museum Journal . The article does include the caveat that it might actually be a specimen of Yanornis . Thus , this same fossil specimen has been named " Archaeoraptor " , Archeovolans , and Yanornis , in different places .
Across the monographs in the Dinosaur Museum Journal , Stephen Czerkas built a case for his controversial view that maniraptoran dinosaurs are secondarily flightless birds . In so doing , he criticized prominent paleontologists . In the text on Cryptovolans , Czerkas accused Dr. Mark Norell of misinterpreting the fossil BPM 1 3 @-@ 13 as having long leg feathers due to the " blinding influences of preconceived ideas . " In fact , though , Norell 's interpretation was correct , and Czerkas added leg feathers to his own reconstruction of the fossil in the art that promotes the traveling exhibit .
Two other taxa that Czerkas and his co @-@ authors named were later treated as junior synonyms by other authors . Czerkas ' Cryptovolans was treated as Microraptor , and his Scansoriopteryx was treated as Epidendrosaurus . Czerkas described Omnivoropteryx , noting that it was similar to Sapeornis . Later specimens of Sapeornis with skulls demonstrated that the two were probably synonymous .
Another taxon that Czerkas assigned to the pterosauria and named Utahdactylus was reviewed by Dr. Chris Bennett . Bennett found multiple misidentifications of bones and inconsistencies between Czerkas ' diagrams and the actual fossils . Bennett found the specimen to be an indeterminate diapsid and criticized the previous authors for publishing a species name when no diagnostic characters below the class level could be verified . He made Utahdactylus a nomen dubium .
= = = Traveling exhibit = = =
In 2001 Stephen and Sylvia Czerkas compiled a traveling exhibit containing 34 other Chinese fossils . The show is titled Feathered Dinosaurs and the Origin of Flight . The San Diego Natural History Museum paid a set fee to the Dinosaur Museum to display this show in 2004 . When the show opened , Dr. Ji Qiang told reporters from Nature that about a dozen of the fossils had left China illegally . Ji arranged with the Czerkases to assign accession numbers to three of the most valuable specimens , thus formally adding them to the collection of Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences in Beijing , although they remain in the possession of the Czerkases . Stephen Czerkas denied Ji 's assertion that the fossils were illegal . Sylvia Czerkas told Nature magazine that she had worked out an agreement with officials of Liaoning Province in 2001 to borrow the fossils , and that they were to be repatriated in 2007 . Through March 2009 , however , the show is scheduled for the Fresno Metropolitan Museum of Art and Science in California . According to Nature , the Czerkases refused requests to make the officials from Liaoning available for interview .
Many scientists consider it unethical to work on fossils if there is any chance that they have been smuggled , and many disregard privately owned fossils altogether . Some professionals feel that private collectors put fossils in private hands where science may not be able to access or study them . Some believe that private collectors may damage important fossils , subject them to forgery , and obscure their origins or evidence about their ages . Illegal dealers have also participated in , and may encourage , governmental corruption . Another philosophy argues that if scientists could bend their ethics and agree to publish on important private fossils , this would encourage private holders to make them available for study .
= = = Taxonomic history = = =
In April 2000 Olson published an article in Backbone , the newsletter of the National Museum of Natural History . In this article he justified his views on the evolution of birds , but also revised and redescribed the species " Archaeoraptor liaoningensis " by designating just the tail of the original fraudulent specimen as the type specimen . To prevent the tainted name " Archaeoraptor " from entering paleornithological literature , this redescription assigned the name to that part of the chimeric specimen least likely to be classified under Aves , rather than to the portion which was later shown to represent a true bird species . Olson presumed that the National Geographic article had already validly named the fossil , and he therefore failed to explicitly indicate the name was new , as demanded by article 16 of the ICZN as a condition for a name to be valid . Several months afterwards Xu , Zhou and Wang published their description of Microraptor zhaoianus in Nature .
= = = Creationism = = =
The scandal is sometimes used by creationists like Kent Hovind , Kirk Cameron , and Ray Comfort to cast doubt on the hypothesis that birds evolved from dinosaurs . Many creationists insist that no missing links between birds and dinosaurs have been found , and commonly point to " Archaeoraptor " as evidence of misconduct performed to support the evolutionary theory . They see " Archaeoraptor " as a real " Piltdown Bird " . However , contrary to the Piltdown Man , " Archaeoraptor " was not a deliberate hoax . Furthermore , the authenticity of " Archaeoraptor " would not have been an essential proof for the hypothesis that birds are theropods , as this is sufficiently corroborated by other data ; paleontologist Christopher Brochu concluded in November 2001 : " That birds are derived theropod dinosaurs is no longer the subject of scholarly dispute . " Though playing the role of " terrestrial dinosaur " in the " Archaeoraptor " affair , Microraptor , showing wings and clear traces of rectrices , is generally assumed to have had at least a gliding capacity and is itself an excellent example of a transitional fossil .
= Buddhaghoṣa =
Buddhaghoṣa ( Thai : พระพุทธโฆษาจารย ์ , Chinese : 覺音 / 佛音 ) was a 5th @-@ century Indian Theravada Buddhist commentator and scholar . His best @-@ known work is the Visuddhimagga " Path of Purification " , a comprehensive summary and analysis of the Theravada understanding of the Buddha 's path to liberation . The interpretations provided by Buddhaghosa have generally constituted the orthodox understanding of Theravada scriptures since at least the 12th century CE . He is generally recognized by both Western scholars and Theravadins as the most important commentator of the Theravada .
= = Biography = =
Limited reliable information is available about the life of Buddhaghosa . Three primary sources of information exist : short prologues and epilogues attached to Buddhaghosa 's works ; details of his life recorded in the Mahavamsa , a Sri Lankan chronicle ; and a later biographical work called the Buddhaghosuppatti . A few other sources discuss the life of Buddhaghosa , but do not appear to add any reliable material . His name means " Voice of the Buddha " ( Buddha + ghosa ) in Pali .
The biographical excerpts attached to works attributed to Buddhaghosa reveal relatively few details of his life , but were presumably added at the time of his actual composition . Largely identical in form , these short excerpts describe Buddhaghosa as having come to Sri Lanka from India and settled in Anuradhapura . Besides this information , they provide only short lists of teachers , supporters , and associates of Buddhaghosa , whose names are not generally to be found elsewhere for comparison .
The Mahavamsa records that Buddhaghosa was born into a Brahmin family in the kingdom of Magadha . He is said to have been born near Bodh Gaya , and to have been a master of the Vedas , traveling through India engaging in philosophical debates . Only upon encountering a Buddhist monk named Revata was Buddhaghosa bested in debate , first being defeated in a dispute over the meaning of a Vedic doctrine and then being confounded by the presentation of a teaching from the Abhidhamma . Impressed , Buddhaghosa became a bhikkhu ( Buddhism monk ) and undertook the study of the Tipiṭaka and its commentaries . On finding a text for which the commentary had been lost in India , Buddhaghosa determined to travel to Sri Lanka to study a Sinhalese commentary that was believed to have been preserved .
In Sri Lanka , Buddhaghosa began to study what was apparently a very large volume of commentarial texts that had been assembled and preserved by the monks of the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya . Buddhaghosa sought permission to synthesize the assembled Sinhalese @-@ language commentaries into a comprehensive single commentary composed in Pali . The elder monks sought to first test Buddhaghosa 's knowledge by assigning him the task of elaborating the doctrine regarding two verses of the suttas ; Buddhaghosa replied by composing the Visuddhimagga . His abilities were further tested when deities intervened and hid the text of his book , twice forcing him to recreate it from scratch . When the three texts were found to completely summarize all of the Tipiṭaka and match in every respect , the monks acceded to his request and provided Buddhaghosa with the full body of their commentaries .
Buddhaghosa went on to write commentaries on most of the other major books of the Pali Canon , with his works becoming the definitive Theravadin interpretation of the scriptures . Having synthesized or translated the whole of the Sinhalese commentary preserved at the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya , Buddhaghosa reportedly returned to India , making a pilgrimage to Bodh Gaya to pay his respects to the Bodhi Tree .
The details of the Mahavamsa account cannot readily be verified ; while it is generally regarded by Western scholars as having been embellished with legendary events ( such as the hiding of Buddhaghosa 's text by the gods ) , in the absence of contradictory evidence it is assumed to be generally accurate . While the Mahavamsa claims that Buddhaghosa was born in northern India near Bodh Gaya , the epilogues to his commentaries make reference to only one location in India as being a place of at least temporary residence : Kanci in southern India . Some scholars thus conclude ( among them Oskar von Hinüber and Polwatte Buddhadatta Thera ) that Buddhaghosa was actually born in South India and was relocated in later biographies to give him closer ties to the region of the Buddha .
The Buddhaghosuppatti , a later biographical text , is generally regarded by Western scholars as being legend rather than history . It adds to the Mahavamsa tale certain details , such as the identity of Buddhaghosa 's parents and his village , as well as several dramatic episodes , such as the conversion of Buddhaghosa 's father and Buddhaghosa 's role in deciding a legal case . It also explains the eventual loss of the Sinhalese originals that Buddhaghosa worked from in creating his Pali commentaries by claiming that Buddhaghosa collected and burnt the original manuscripts once his work was completed .
= = Writings and translations = =
Buddhaghosa was reputedly responsible for an extensive project of synthesizing and translating a large body of Sinhala commentaries on the Pāli Canon . His Visuddhimagga ( Pāli : Path of Purification ) is a comprehensive manual of Theravada Buddhism that is still read and studied today . The Mahavamsa ascribes a great many books to Buddhaghosa 's composition , some of which are not believed to have been his work , but rather were composed later and attributed to him .
Below is a listing of the fourteen commentaries on the Pāli Canon traditionally ascribed to Buddhaghosa , the Aṭṭhakathā :
While traditional accounts list Buddhaghosa as the author of all of these works , the current consensus among scholars accepts only the Visuddhimagga and the commentaries on the first four nikayas as Buddhaghosa 's work .
= = Influence and Legacy = =
In the 12th century , the Sri Lankan monk Sariputta became the leading scholar of the Theravada following the reunification of the Sri Lankan monastic community by King Parakramabahu I. Sariputta incorporated many of the works of Buddhaghosa into his own interpretations . In subsequent years , many monks from Theravada traditions in Southeast Asia sought ordination or re @-@ ordination in Sri Lanka because of the reputation of the Sri Lankan Mahavihara lineage for doctrinal purity and scholarship . The result was the spread of the teachings of the Mahavihara tradition — and thus Buddhaghosa — throughout the Theravada world . Buddhaghosa 's commentaries thereby became the standard method by which the Theravada scriptures were understood , establishing Buddhaghosa as the definitive interpreter of Theravada doctrine .
In later years , Buddhaghosa 's fame and influence inspired various accolades . His life story was recorded , in an expanded and likely exaggerated form , in a Pali chronicle known as the Buddhaghosuppatti , or " The Development of the Career of Buddhaghosa " . Despite the general belief that he was Indian by birth , he later may have been claimed by the Mon people of Burma as an attempt to assert primacy over Sri Lanka in the development of Theravada tradition . Other scholars believe that the Mon records refer to another figure , but whose name and personal history are much in the mold of the Indian Buddhaghosa .
Finally , Buddhaghosa 's works likely played a significant role in the revival and preservation of the Pali language as the scriptural language of the Theravada , and as a lingua franca in the exchange of ideas , texts , and scholars between Sri Lanka and the Theravada countries of mainland Southeast Asia . The development of new analyses of Theravada doctrine , both in Pali and Sinhalese , seems to have dried up prior to Buddhaghosa 's emergence in Sri Lanka . In India , new schools of Buddhist philosophy ( such as the Mahayana ) were emerging , many of them making use of classical Sanskrit both as a scriptural language and as a language of philosophical discourse . The monks of the Mahavihara may have attempted to counter the growth of such schools by re @-@ emphasizing the study and composition in Pali , along with the study of previously disused secondary sources that may have vanished in India , as evidenced by the Mahavamsa . Early indications of this resurgence in the use of Pali as a literary language may be visible in the composition of the Dipavamsa and the Vimuttimagga , both dating to shortly before Buddhaghosa 's arrival in Sri Lanka . The addition of Buddhaghosa 's works — which combined the pedigree of the oldest Sinhalese commentaries with the use of Pali , a language shared by all of the Theravada learning centers of the time — provided a significant boost to the revitalization of the Pali language and the Theravada intellectual tradition , possibly aiding the Theravada school in surviving the challenge to its position posed by emerging Buddhist schools of mainland India .
Some scholars have argued that Buddhaghosa 's writing evinces a strong but unacknowledged Yogācāra Buddhist influence , which subsequently came to characterize Theravada thought in the wake of his profound influence on the Theravada tradition .
= = Critics = =
The Visuddhimagga reflects changes in interpretation which appeared during the centuries since the Buddha 's time .
The Australian Buddhist monastic Shravasti Dhammika is critical of contemporary practice . He concludes that Buddhaghosa did not believe that following the practice set forth in the Visuddhimagga will really lead him to Nirvana , basing himself on the postscript to the Visuddhimagga :
Even Buddhaghosa did not really believe that Theravada practice could lead to Nirvana . His Visuddhimagga is supposed to be a detailed , step by step guide to enlightenment . And yet in the postscript [ ... ] he says he hopes that the merit he has earned by writing the Vishuddhimagga will allow him to be reborn in heaven , abide there until Metteyya ( Maitreya ) appears , hear his teaching and then attain enlightenment .
Yet Ñāṇamoli notes that this postscript does not appear in the original Pali .
According to Kalupahana , Buddhaghosa was influenced by Mahayana @-@ thought , which were subtly mixed with Theravada orthodoxy to introduce new ideas . Eventually this led to the flowering of metaphysical tendencies , in contrast to the original stress on anattā in early Buddhism
= Idiotest =
Idiotest ( a portmanteau of " idiot " and " test " and stylized as Id ! otest ) is an American television game show broadcast by Game Show Network ( GSN ) . Hosted by Ben Gleib , the series features contestants in teams of two competing to answer brain teaser and puzzle questions . The winning team advances to a bonus round for an opportunity to increase their winnings to $ 10 @,@ 000 . The series was announced at GSN 's upfront presentation in March 2014 ; the first episode premiered on August 12 of that year .
Critical reception for the series has been mixed , with one writer calling it " enjoyable " while another called it " uninteresting . " Additionally , GSN released an online game midway through the first season that allows users to answer questions from the series ' past episodes .
= = Gameplay = =
The main game features two pairs of contestants answering brain teaser questions . In the first round , each team faces two questions , taking the form of a visual puzzle . Contestants can work together and must answer by pointing to the correct answer ( or answers depending on what the question is asking them ) on the screen . The question is often phrased so that the contestants may be misled if they do not read it correctly ( for example , " Touch the largest greenhouse " could be misread as " Touch the largest green house " ) The value of the question begins at $ 300 , with $ 20 deducted for every second the team takes in answering ; the money begins counting down when the puzzle first appears on the screen . The money stops counting down when the contestants submit an answer on the touchscreen . For all questions , a correct answer earns the remaining money , while a wrong answer or no answer earns nothing . In round two , there are 4 questions with each contestant working alone and cannot confer with their partners . The opening value of the question is $ 500 , decreasing by $ 25 each second until an answer is given . In the third round , one contestant from each team faces the same question simultaneously . Contestants have their own money countdown , which starts at $ 1 @,@ 000 and decreases by $ 50 per second . The other contestant from each team then faces a more difficult question , with an opening value of $ 2 @,@ 500 and decreasing by $ 100 per second . The host usually reads the question to the contestants during this round . After this second question , the team that has more money wins it and plays the bonus round for $ 10 @,@ 000 . If the game ended in a tie , the team who solves their puzzles the fastest are the winners .
= = = Smart Money Round = = =
In the bonus round , entitled the " Smart Money Round " , each member of the winning team plays the same question individually . While the first contestant is asked the question , the second is isolated offstage so that they cannot see or hear the question . The two teammates have a total of 40 seconds to answer ( in seasons 1 and 2 , the time limit was 30 seconds ) ; the clock stops when the first contestant submits an answer , and resumes when the second contestant first sees the question . If one team member answers the question correctly , they receive an additional $ 1 @,@ 000 ; if both answer correctly , their winnings are augmented to $ 10 @,@ 000 .
Midway through the first season , another version of the " Smart Money Round " was introduced requiring a team to correctly answer five questions in 60 seconds , with five @-@ second penalties for wrong answers . Each correct answer is worth $ 500 , with five correct answers winning $ 10 @,@ 000 .
= = = Online version = = =
An online game based on the series was developed for GSN 's website midway through the show 's first season . The game allows online users to answer questions seen on the actual show . Answering a certain amount of questions correctly allows players to level up and face more difficult questions ; a total of 32 levels are available .
= = Production = =
The show received very little advanced press before it was announced at GSN 's 2014 – 15 upfront presentation on March 18 , 2014 . At the presentation , GSN revealed plans to order 40 episodes of the series , while confirming August 12 as the premiere date on June 19 , 2014 . On October 28 , 2014 , the show was renewed for a 65 @-@ episode second season , which began airing April 1 , 2015 . The series was renewed for a third season on March 16 , 2016 , with the season premiere airing on April 12 .
The series has also produced some special editions featuring contestants from a preexisting rivalry . These episodes have included competitions between USC and UCLA graduates , as well as an Election Day special between pairs of Democrats and Republicans . This theme was revived with a special episode entitled Political Idiotest , which both taped and aired April 20 , 2016 and featured brain teasers referring to political subjects .
= = Reception = =
The series has received mixed reviews from critics . Carrie Grosvenor of About Entertainment argued the series to be " truly enjoyable to watch " while calling Gleib 's hosting " sarcastic and funny " . Conversely , Tim Conroy of Media Life Magazine argued that the show " just doesn 't do the trick " and thought Gleib had a difficult time " drawing amusing responses from the contestants " . Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times was equally unimpressed , saying that the show had " low ambitions " and arguing that Gleib 's hosting made the show " even more uninteresting " . Paired with the mixed critical reception , the series has seen a wide range of ratings for new episodes , bringing in between 245 @,@ 000 and 561 @,@ 000 total viewers during the first season .
The season two double episode premiere drew 388 @,@ 000 and 360 @,@ 000 viewers respectively .
= Puzzlejuice =
Puzzlejuice is a 2012 indie puzzle video game for iOS produced and developed by video game company Sirvo . The game is a combination of Tetris , tile @-@ matching , and Boggle : players rearrange falling tetromino blocks into rows of similar colors , which turn into letters that are cleared from the board by forming words . The fast @-@ paced game also includes challenges and power @-@ ups . The development team consisted three people ; programmer Asher Vollmer initially developed the game alone , before reaching out to artist Greg Wohlwend for advice on the aesthetics . Composer Jimmy Hinson produced the game 's music .
The game was released January 19 , 2012 to what video game review score aggregator Metacritic called " generally favorable " reviews . Multiple reviewers mentioned the difficulty involved in juggling the three game components simultaneously .
= = Gameplay = =
In Puzzlejuice , the player turns falling tetrominos into letters , and those letters into words and points . The player taps and drags on the touchscreen to rotate and position multicolored tetrominos that fall from the top of the screen . When the player completes a solid row of tiles , or arranges the fallen blocks such that four or more like @-@ colored tiles touch , the color tiles turn into letters . Players connect these letter tiles with their eight adjacent tiles ( in ordinal directions ) to make words . Words of sufficient length are cleared from play as well as their adjacent tiles — thus longer words clear more blocks . The iPhone version shows a magnified version of the tile obscured by the player 's finger near the finger . The game has been compared to a cross between Boggle , Tetris , and tile @-@ matching .
The game also offers objectives to be accomplished over multiple sessions , like making a six @-@ letter word , or clearing three or more rows at once . This unlocks power @-@ ups that occasionally provide opportunities such as halting the rate of new tetromino drops , and removing blocks from the screen . Up to three power @-@ ups can be selected to be used in each game .
The object of the game is to get the highest score . There are two play modes : Zen and Core . There is a 90 @-@ second time limit in Zen mode . In Core mode , players play until the screen fills with poorly placed tetrominos , similar to Tetris . Core has two difficulties . On the easiest difficulty , three @-@ letter words suffice , but harder modes require five @-@ letter words at a minimum . A score multiplier grows as players maintain a combo of multiple words created in succession , and resets if players are too slow . Scores are uploaded to Game Center .
= = Development = =
Puzzlejuice was built by a group called Collaboratory and later renamed Sirvo . The three @-@ person team consisted of programmer Asher Vollmer , artist Greg Wohlwend , and composer Jimmy Hinson . The game began as Vollmer 's idea . He later reached out to Wohlwend for aesthetic advice , which resulted in a 365 @-@ message chain email and the final product . Wohlwend and Vollmer did not speak a word to each other — or use a medium outside of Gmail and Twitter — throughout the entire development process . The title was inspired by what Vollmer described as the " EXTREME " American culture of the 1990s , exemplified by the board game Crossfire and juice @-@ filled Gushers fruit snacks . A similar game , Spelltower , was released during Puzzlejuice 's development , but Vollmer and Wohlwend ultimately considered their game sufficiently different to proceed . Puzzlejuice was selected for the PAX 10 , a spotlighted group of indie games , in July 2012 . The game was released as a universal app for iPhone and iPad on January 19 , 2012 . Vollmer expressed an interest in bringing the game to Steam Greenlight in August 2012 .
= = Reception = =
The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Multiple reviewers compared its core mechanics to a combination of Boggle , Tetris , and a tile @-@ matching game , such as Bejeweled or Puyo Puyo . Comparing word games , Edge called it the " fast @-@ paced action @-@ adventure " to Spelltower 's " survival horror " . Multiple reviewers mentioned the difficulty in mentally balancing the various components of the game , which VideoGamer.com compared to " doing open heart surgery while playing Dance Dance Revolution " .
Edge suggested playing on the game 's hardest difficulty , which they found the most engaging . They called it " mayhem , ... elegantly handled " . Pocket Gamer 's Harry Slater said the game " forces your brain to think in ways that it 's never been asked to before " . Edge compared the game 's challenges to Jetpack Joyride 's missions , and complimented the connection between Vollmer 's " magpie " design and Wohlwend 's " luminously flat pastel @-@ colored art " . Phil Eaves of Slide to Play wrote that the player should play with headphones or else miss a " wonderful " chiptune soundtrack .
Edge called the game " too hectic and exhausting " to return to often . VideoGamer.com 's Mark Brown struggled with registering the right input on the small screen , and found himself inadvertently making words from letters instead of moving color blocks . Slide to Play 's Eaves was also troubled by the controls , and recommended the iPad version for the extra screen space . Pocket Gamer 's Slater said it was too easy to clear the board with three @-@ letter words , and thus that the design execution was not as robust as the concept , never being " more than the sum of its strange combination of parts " . While TouchArcade 's Troy Woodfield called the gameplay " not ... totally original " in how it combines three common game ideas , he still found the combination " a stroke of genius " , and highly recommended the game as " a breath of fresh air " . Brown of VideoGamer.com agreed that Puzzlejuice distinguished itself from the crowded iOS puzzle game genre , and Slide to Play 's Eaves called its balance between game types " perfect " .
= Potlatch River =
The Potlatch River is in the state of Idaho in the United States . About 56 miles ( 90 km ) long , it is the lowermost major tributary to the Clearwater River , a tributary of the Snake River that is in turn a tributary of the Columbia River . Once surrounded by arid grasslands of the Columbia Plateau adjacent to the western foothills of the Rocky Mountains , the Potlatch today is used mainly for agriculture and irrigation purposes .
Its name derives from potlatch , a type of ceremony held by the indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest ; one such tribe lived along the river for hundreds of years before the arrival of whites . Pioneers settled the watershed and established farms and ranches in the late 19th century . After that , logging eliminated most of the forests within the watershed and the ecology of the river is still in the process of recovery . Fishing , hiking and camping are popular recreational activities on the river ; 14 percent the watershed lies on public lands . Before logging and agriculture , many varieties of riparian and forest plants once populated the catchment , and several species of fish still swim the river and its tributaries .
= = Course and drainage = =
The Hoodoo Mountains are the source of the Potlatch River . The Potlatch 's course traces a southwesterly line across the eastern Columbia Plateau in the arid Rocky Mountain foothills . Two forks form the river 's headwaters in the southern part of the Idaho Panhandle . The West Fork drains part of Latah County and the East Fork is in Clearwater County . These two forks combine near Helmer , and soon the river descends into a canyon that continues all the way to
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the mouth . While in the canyon , it receives Pine , Big Bear , Middle Potlatch and Little Potlatch Creeks from the north , and Boulder and Cedar Creeks from the south . Idaho State Highway 3 follows part of the lower canyon , and the town of Juliaetta is located at the Middle Potlatch Creek confluence . The river merges with the Clearwater at the elevation of 801 feet ( 244 m ) between the towns of Myrtle and Spalding . Its average discharge at the mouth , according to a USGS stream gauge , is 379 @.@ 8 cubic feet per second ( 10 @.@ 75 m3 / s ) . A peak flow of 8 @,@ 150 cubic feet per second ( 231 m3 / s ) was recorded there in 2006 . The river reaches its highest peaks in the winter and early spring , while it reduces to a trickle by summer and autumn . The river mainly flows over and through coarse Columbia River basalts that comprise the Columbia Plateau , similar in geology to the Palouse River farther west .
= = History = =
Native Americans of the Nez Perce tribe have lived along the Potlatch River for hundreds of years . The Potlatch River area was once a broad sweep of dry grassland bordered by forested mountains , on the eastern edge of the arid Columbia Plateau . Because of its location just southwest of the foothills of the Rockies , the Potlatch River receives much more rainfall than watersheds just to the west , such as the Palouse and Tucannon Rivers . In 1805 and again in 1806 , the Lewis and Clark Expedition passed the mouth of the Potlatch River while traveling down the Clearwater River . They referred to it as " a large creek " and named it Colter 's Creek , in honor of John Colter , a member of the expedition . It is not known if they were the first whites to see the river . The modern name of the river was adopted in 1897 .
The native environment stayed relatively intact until settlers began to arrive in western Idaho in great numbers in the 1870s , and miners also were attracted by a gold strike at nearby Orofino , on the banks of the Clearwater River . Many of these emigrants set up dryland farms and ranches in the prairies surrounding the Potlatch River . Soil conditions generally improve as one travels southwards through the watershed , but there was a major drawback to growing crops in the southern part of the basin : the inaccessibility of water . Already scarce in the arid Potlatch River drainage , the river 's water was hard to reach because of the steep canyon it passes through in most of its lower course . Farmers were restricted to growing crops that did not require irrigation , and many of the lands that did not have access to abundant @-@ enough water were relegated to pasture or hay producing status .
At first , the forests of the watershed were not significantly affected , but after logging operations sprung up near the start of the 20th century , most of the virgin timber in the watershed was cleared . The first sawmills were built to provide lumber for local uses , such as building houses and barns . Soon , however , the Washington , Idaho and Montana Railway extended its tracks into the area , allowing lumber to be exported out of the basin . Logging turned out to be a very profitable industry but had a lasting negative effect on the ecology of the Potlatch River watershed .
Splash dams , greased chutes , railroad landings , railroad branch lines and steam donkey operations were among the strategies utilized to exploit the watershed 's resources of timber . Unfortunately , railroad embankments and fills used to build up tributaries had artificially straightened them in the process , and erosion increased dramatically on the barren hillside , causing many streams to become much siltier than they naturally would be . Nearly all the old @-@ growth forest in the watershed is now gone , and the forests that remain are mostly second @-@ growth stands .
= = Ecology = =
At one time the river 's watershed was dominated by grassland mostly consisting of Idaho fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass . Cottonwoods , quaking aspen , maple , and alder formed the riparian zone along the Potlatch River . In the foothills , a meadow steppe environment abounding with black hawthorn , snowberry and small conifers flourished , while along the banks of smaller tributaries , hawthorn and mock orange grew . Camas and forbs thrived in the thinly distributed seasonal wetlands along the river and its larger tributary creeks . The forests were mainly a mix of Douglas fir and ponderosa pine , interspersed with rare stands of grand fir , western redcedar , western white pine , and larch , and an understory of oceanspray , ninebark , serviceberry , wild rose and snowberry . Wildfires burned through the watershed from time to time , clearing the way for new growth . After human intervention , these vegetation communities continued to persist , but in lesser numbers , and the grasslands have mostly been wiped out by farming . The average annual precipitation ranges from 15 to 50 inches ( 380 to 1 @,@ 270 mm ) per year , and annual variations in temperature are around 25 to 100 ° F ( − 4 to 38 ° C ) .
According to a study from 2003 – 2004 , there were 13 different species of fish in the Potlatch River watershed , including speckled dace , longnose dace , rainbow trout ( both wild and farm @-@ raised ) , brook trout , largemouth bass , pumpkinseed , northern pikeminnow , redside shiner , sculpin , bridgelip sucker , largescale sucker , and yellow perch . Migration of steelhead , the anadromous phase of rainbow trout , has been impacted by the construction of dams downstream on the Snake and Columbia Rivers . The two species of dace were cumulatively the largest individual fish population in the watershed , while steelhead accounted for 58 @.@ 4 % of the biomass . Of all the streams sampled during the study , the West Fork Potlatch River had the highest diversity because of its relatively pristine condition . The lower section of the river suffers from chronic pollution caused by agricultural runoff . From 2005 to 2008 , the population of steelhead ( rainbow ) trout in the watershed was recorded by the Potlatch River Steelhead Monitoring and Evaluation Program ( PRSME ) . There was no data for steelhead populations in the main stem but 197 adult steelhead were recorded in the East Fork of the river , while an average of 226 was recorded annually in one of the river 's larger tributaries , Big Bear Creek . Over 1 @,@ 000 steelhead are estimated to return to the Potlatch drainage in strong run years . Outmigration of steelhead smolt from the East Fork was estimated at 6 @,@ 976 fish while the average for Big Bear Creek was 9 @,@ 491 . The Idaho Department of Fish and Game began a series of seven projects in 2009 in order to conserve fish habitat in the Potlatch .
= = = Land use = = =
Forests cover about 57 % of the Potlatch River watershed , while about 38 % is used for agriculture and ranching . 78 % of the land is privately owned while 14 % lie within national forests . 7 % is owned by the state , while the Bureau of Land Management and Bureau of Indian Affairs each have a 1 % share .
= = Recreation = =
Many of the mountainous and forested sections of the drainage basin lie protected under national forest lands . There are several campgrounds overseen by the U.S. Forest Service in the headwaters of the Potlatch River watershed . Fishing is also good in the Potlatch River and many of its tributaries . Anglers are only permitted to catch brook trout , cutthroat trout , and rainbow and steelhead trout . The Department of Fish and Game annually stocks fish in the river . Fishing is permitted on the Potlatch from its mouth upstream to where Moose Creek joins the river near Bovill , as well as on the East Fork .
= When You Reach Me =
When You Reach Me is a Newbery Medal @-@ winning science fiction and mystery novel by Rebecca Stead , published in 2009 . It takes place in the Upper West Side in New York during 1978 and 1979 and follows the protagonist , Miranda Sinclair . She receives a strange note asking her to record future events and write down the location of her spare key . As the novel progresses , Miranda receives three more notes with requests . The novel contains three storylines — the appearance of Miranda 's mom on the game show , The $ 20 @,@ 000 Pyramid , Miranda 's best friend Sal suddenly not talking with Miranda , and the appearance of a laughing man . Central themes in the novel include independence , redemption and friendship . Stead also wanted to demonstrate the possibilities that she saw in time travel . The author hoped to show her children what New York was like in her childhood , and demonstrate how in an earlier time children were more independent .
When You Reach Me was inspired by a newspaper article about a man suffering from amnesia , and by parts of her childhood and her favorite book , A Wrinkle in Time . After completing much of the novel , Stead gave the draft to her editor , Wendy Lamb , who liked it . They expanded on the initial concepts and published When You Reach Me on July 14 , 2009 , under Wendy Lamb Books , an imprint of Random House . The book was well received by critics , who praised its realistic setting and the author 's deft handling of small details . The novel has reached the best @-@ seller lists of The New York Times , Los Angeles Times and USA Today . In addition to receiving the 2010 Newbery Medal , When You Reach Me won several Best Book of the Year awards .
= = Concept and development = =
The two main characters are Miranda , and the laughing man . Stead began writing When You Reach Me in 2007 after reading an article in The New York Times gave her an idea for a novel about traveling in time to save someone 's life . The article was about a man who woke up in Denver suffering from amnesia , having forgotten who he was or why he was there . Many people worked with the man to help him regain his memory . Under hypnosis , he spoke about his apparent wife , Penny , and two daughters who died in a car crash . However , when he and Penny reunited , the man found out she was only his fiancée — and they had no children . Upon reading this , Stead wondered if somehow the man had returned to the past to prevent an accident but lost his memory along the way . In addition , the article reminded Stead of a strange old man , called the ' laughing man ' , who lived near her house as a child .
While the news story initially inspired Stead , she also tied in parts of her childhood into the novel . Besides the laughing man , she included her primary school , her apartment and a sandwich store where she used to work . Stead also added memories of herself acting mean without reason . Slowly the novel became " more and more about these ordinary mysteries of life and less about the fantastic time @-@ travel @-@ y one " . After developing the basic idea , Stead began researching the science behind time travel to make sure her ideas would be logical . She asked her father for help with the science and complicated technical aspects , since he enjoyed mathematical puzzles . As they talked about time travel , Stead " just kept falling into the same hole with the logic , and he really helped me straighten it out " .
When Stead was only halfway done , she hit a wall : she wondered if she had focused the novel too much on her own personal life and problems . By her 40th birthday in January 2008 , she had stopped writing . One week after her birthday celebration , Stead went to a writers ' conference where the presenter advised attendees to stop thinking and just write . This speech worked as an antidote to Stead 's writer 's block ; she started working on When You Reach Me again . After she had written two @-@ thirds of the novel , Stead sent the draft to her editor Wendy Lamb at Random House . Perusing the script , Lamb found herself absorbed and wanted to help develop the book . Unlike Stead 's debut novel First Light , which Lamb heavily edited , Lamb modified nothing on the first draft of When You Reach Me . Throughout the process , Stead helped Lamb understand the complicated concepts in the book and had drafts read by others to make sure " revision hadn 't created any holes or contradictions in the plot " .
= = = A Wrinkle in Time = = =
Throughout the story , the main character Miranda is often reading Madeleine L 'Engle 's A Wrinkle in Time , Stead 's favorite book as a child ; she read and reread it multiple times . She recalls that L 'Engle was the only author she met in her childhood . Stead described the novel as a talisman for Miranda ; she included it in the first draft and planned to remove it , " because you can 't just toss A Wrinkle in Time in there casually " . Her editor suggested leaving it in if it could be better tied into the story . Stead was aware that she did not want A Wrinkle in Time to have too big an influence on When You Reach Me . Keeping this in mind , she reread A Wrinkle in Time through the perspective of different characters , which enabled her to develop new connections and ideas in her own work .
= = = Setting = = =
When You Reach Me takes place during the 1978 @-@ 1979 school year of Miranda , the main character . Stead placed Miranda 's home in the Upper West Side , New York City , where Stead grew up . Many parts of the novel explore " the same streets where Stead grew up , and riffs on some of her experiences " . Stead was inspired to use this setting because she moved into an apartment near her childhood home early in the development of the story . There she had experienced her first independence while exploring the streets , only to find a scary man near her house . Wondering why he was there , Stead later used this encounter as " the anchor as she wrote When You Reach Me " .
= = Plot summary = =
When You Reach Me follows a sixth @-@ grade protagonist , Miranda . She lives with her single mother who has a kindhearted boyfriend , Richard . Miranda 's best friend Sal , who she knew since she was a small child , had recently started ignoring Miranda after he had been punched in the stomach by another boy , Marcus .
A homeless man lives on the corner of Miranda 's street . She calls him the " laughing man " for his tendency to laugh without cause . Miranda notices that he always utters the words " book bag pocket shoe " . The phrase refers to the order and place he will send Miranda notes — her library book , a bread bag , her coat pocket and Richard 's shoe . The first three notes instruct Miranda to write a letter describing the future events . The notes , whose writer claims to be coming to Miranda 's time to save a life , offer three signs of the truth of the messages . As the plot develops , the proofs come true , and Miranda is intrigued .
Miranda and her new friends , Annemarie and Colin find a sandwich shop on the corner , wondering if they can get paid for a job there . The owner , Jimmy , agrees , but he does not wish to pay them with money instead he intends to give a free pop and a sandwich each day of their work . Miranda , Annemarie and Colin discover a Flintstone bank in the back of sandwich shop . Colin , wanting to see more of the bank , is pulled way by Annemarie insisting that Jimmy could find them . The next day , Jimmy fires the three workers , thinking that one of them stole the Flintstone bank , when it was actually Marcus who stole it . The workers write a card , give it to Jimmy and insist that they did not steal the bank . Jimmy believes them and let them work at the sandwich shop . He then tells them that he figured out who stole the bank . He thinks that it is Julia , a classmate in their class , and a best friend to Annemarie . He thinks she did it because she is African American . This upsets Annemarie greatly and she immediately quits her job .
At school , Julia starts shouting at Miranda for letting Annemarie drink soda and eat sandwiches . Julia explains that because Annemarie is epileptic she has to eat a special diet . Miranda explains that she didn 't know any of that . Colin was later hanging out with Sal . Miranda was home alone until her mom got home from work . Someone did a type of tap on her door which scares her because she doesn 't know anyone that knocks like that . She looks though the peep hole and sees Colin . She opens the door and he looks at her then kisses her . She then kisses him back . Colin smiles and then runs off .
In a later scene , Marcus encounters Sal . Marcus wants to apologize for his misbehavior , and chases Sal when he flees . Sal runs onto a street right ahead of an oncoming truck . Before the truck can hit Sal , the laughing man kicks Sal out of the way , sacrificing his own life for Sal 's . Miranda finds the fourth note in Richard 's shoe and learns that the laughing man came from the future to save Sal 's life . The note asks Miranda to prepare a chronicle of recent events and deliver it by hand . Miranda obeys this command .
Miranda 's mom is expected to appear on the $ 20 @,@ 000 Pyramid . In hopes of winning the money and having a better life , Miranda and her mom 's boyfriend Richard prep her for the show . Miranda and Sal are friends again . While her mother is on @-@ stage , Miranda reminisces about a conversation with Marcus about how no one would recognize a time @-@ traveler from a different age . She suddenly realizes that the laughing man is an older incarnation of Marcus , who has come from the future to save Sal 's life . He needed to deliver the notes to the young Marcus through Miranda , who is conveniently her friend . The novel ends as Miranda reflects on the events in an epilogue .
= = Genres = =
When You Reach Me is classified in the science fiction and mystery genres , but includes features of some other genres . Monica Edinger of The New York Times found When You Reach Me to be " a hybrid of genres , it is a complex mystery , a work of historical fiction , a school story and one of friendship , with a leitmotif of time travel running through it . " Augusta Scattergood of the Christian Science Monitor wondered , " Is When You Reach Me science fiction ? Time travel ? A highly imaginative girl 's completely conceived experience ? Maybe it 's historical fiction . After all , it is set in 1979 . " According to Mary Quattlebaum of The Washington Post , the novel is of the science fiction and time travel genres . Quattlebaum found that , unlike the usual time travel stories , When You Reach Me does not involve " cheesy time travel machines and rock- ' em @-@ sock- ' em action [ but instead ] far surpasses the usual whodunit or sci @-@ fi adventure to become an incandescent exploration of ' life , death , and the beauty of it all . ' " Both Kirkus Reviews and Publishers Weekly found that despite the book 's science @-@ fiction devices , the setting was still " firmly rooted in reality . "
Some reviewers have placed parts the novel in the mystery genre . Edinger found that despite the broad genres , the novel is mainly " a thrilling puzzle " . She relates the pieces slowly ; clues are found in the story itself , on the map , in words and chapter titles . At the end of the book everything is tied together and makes sense . Ann Crewdson of School Library Journal found that each note Miranda receives foreshadows the next event . Each note is " skillfully " integrated into the novel , along with subsequent clues , until the climax is reached and all the clues come together . Stead 's editor Lamb agreed with the mystery genre , in that " there 's plenty to wonder about after you finish the book . Just as we wonder why our feelings change so suddenly , or why someone like the laughing man appears on the corner one day . " Gurdon of The Wall Street Journal concurred with Lamb , adding that although the novel is clearly a mystery , the mystery itself is not revealed until the end where the last note comes and where everything ties together .
= = Themes = =
Aaron Mead found that , " the novel addresses the question of how to hold on to old friendships without stifling them , and it insightfully brings out the stabilizing effect that new friendships can have in the effort to preserve or reclaim old ones " . He noted that the novel deeply helps children in middle school . Crewdson opined that the book deals with the " intricacies of friendship " .
This theme of friendship is explored when Sal abandons his friendship with Miranda after he is hit by Marcus . Elli Housden of The Courier @-@ Mail found that Miranda is forced to deal with the fact that Sal seemingly abandons their friendship and ignores her for no apparent reason . Scattergood considered the novel an " ordinary friendship story " with Sal ignoring Miranda to find other friends . Julie Long from Reading Time noted how the incident forces Miranda to find new friends and become more active in school , where she starts learning the dynamics of that environment .
Mead noted that " the book builds toward second chances for Miranda 's mother — both vocationally and relationally . " As the novel progresses , Miranda gives second chances to Julia , a girl whom Miranda initially hates , and Alice , a girl who always needs to use the bathroom but never does . Miranda previously considered Julia " a competitor for Annemarie 's affection , and Alice as the weird kid who waited too long to go to the bathroom " . By the end of the book , she finds Julia to be Annemarie 's friend and discovers that Alice is an insecure girl .
Stead finds that kids today are much less independent since her childhood . She wrote , " [ F ] rom age nine , my friends and I were on the streets , walking home , going to each other 's houses , going to the store . I really wanted to write about that : the independence that 's a little bit scary but also a really positive thing in a lot of ways . And I 'm not sure that most kids have that today " . Throughout the novel , Miranda and her friends often walk around town without any adults . They are even found working in a sandwich store at lunch and walking home from school while trying to avoid the laughing man . While writing the novel , Stead hoped to show her sons the time period in which she lived , " send [ ing ] them on a little time @-@ travel journey of their own " . Laura Miller of The New Yorker found that this lack of independence in today 's youth is mainly due to the fact that kids now grow up with adults constantly watching them . Miller noted how , despite the lower crime rate in current times , the " characters , middle @-@ class middle school students , routinely walk around the Upper West Side by themselves , a rare freedom in today 's city . "
= = = Time travel = = =
Julianna Helt from the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette found that time travel forms a central theme as Miranda constantly wonders how time travel could be possible . In When You Reach Me , Marcus helps Miranda realize that the three old ladies from A Wrinkle in Time lied to Meg by promising they would return five minutes before they left . Marcus explains :
" So the garden is where they appear when they get home at the end of the book . Remember ? They land in the broccoli . So if they had gotten home five minutes before they left , like those ladies promised they would , then they would have seen themselves get back . Before they did " .
Roger Sutton from Horn Magazine felt that the moment Marcus explains this flaw to Miranda is the first exchange that shows the novel to be complicated and mysterious . Quattlebaum noted , " The story 's structure – an expert interweaving of past , present and future – brilliantly contradicts Miranda 's commonsensical belief that the end can 't happen before the middle . " Stead explained her view of time travel in her novel , where going back in time is fulfilling the future , rather than changing it . She hoped to make the time travel element logical to show that " Miranda wasn 't struggling to understand the seeming randomness and infinity of the universe , but learning that her world has value and that people do care about her " .
= = Audiobook adaption = =
The audiobook adaption of When You Reach Me was released by Listening Library and contains four disks . In praise of Cynthia Holloway 's performance of Miranda , M.V.P from Horn Book Magazine stated that her tone " emphasized the novel 's interpersonal aspects " . The reviewer found it beneficial that the chapter titles were added to the audio , since they seemed to add more detail about the book , but can be easily skipped over when reading . M.V.P criticized the voicing of Miranda 's mom . AudioFile praised Halloway for " a strong reading ... [ that ] makes listeners curious about this story 's nonlinear structure " and for managing the different elements of the story .
= = Critical reception = =
When You Reach Me was published on July 14 , 2009 , in hardcover format by Wendy Lamb Books , an imprint of Random House Children 's Books . Reception of When You Reach Me was positive . Reviewers praised the details and characters . The novel has reached many bestseller lists ; it was on the New York Times Best Seller list for 16 weeks ending May 9 , 2010 . It was number 127 on USA Today 's bestseller list during the week of January 28 , 2010 . On April 22 , 2010 , after staying at number 15 for two weeks , When You Reach Me left the Los Angeles Times bestseller list .
Reviewers lauded the realistic setting and characters . Ilene Cooper of Booklist acknowledged that although she was unsure if the ending was logical , " everything else is quite wonderful " . She praised the realistic portrayal of New York and mentioned that " the characters , children and adults ... are honest bits of humanity " . Julianna M. Helt of The Post Gazette felt that along with the " wonderful sense of middle school dynamics " , Stead 's depiction of New York City in the 1970s was superb . Quattlebaum considered no character to be minor ; each plays an important part in the story . Caitlin Augusta of School Library Journal found the setting to be " consistently strong . The stores — and even the streets — in Miranda 's neighborhood act as physical entities and impact the plot in tangible ways " .
Reviewers praised how Stead made every small detail matter . Augusta Scattergood of the Christian Science Monitor enjoyed the detailed work : " The beauty of Stead 's writing is found in the way she weaves subplots and settings together seamlessly . Richard 's stolen shoe drops into place . A reference to forbidden grapes is tied up sweetly . Stolen $ 2 bills ? Another part of the enigma explained by the end . " Edginer agreed , commenting that despite the small size of the novel compared to other popular books , When You Reach Me is a " taut novel , every word , every sentence , has meaning and substance . " Publishers Weekly added that even the smallest of details — Miranda 's name , her strange habits and why she carries A Wrinkle in Time with her — have a reason for their inclusion by the end of the novel .
= = = 2010 Newbery Medal = = =
Stead won the annual Newbery Medal recognizing When You Reach Me as the year 's " most distinguished contribution to American literature for children " . The judges chose the novel for making the small details important to the plot . Chairwoman of the Newbery committee Katie O 'Dell felt that " Every scene , every nuance , every word is vital both to character development and the progression of the mystery that really is going to engage readers and satisfy them " . The committee was " very excited about this book because it is exceptionally conceived , finely crafted and highly original " .
On January 18 , 2010 , a worker at Random House had tweeted the result 17 minutes prior the official announcement . The tweet was quickly taken down when the mistake was noticed .
= = = 2012 survey = = =
In 2012 , When You Reach Me was ranked number 11 among all @-@ time best children 's novels in a survey published by School Library Journal , a monthly with primarily U.S. audience . It was the only 21st @-@ century work among the top 20 .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Flekkefjord Station =
Flekkefjord Station ( Norwegian : Flekkefjord stasjon ) is a former railway station located in Flekkefjord , Norway . It served as the terminus of the 1 @,@ 067 mm ( 3 ft 6 in ) gauge Flekkefjord Line from 1904 to 1990 . The station building was designed by Paul Armin Due and was built in brick Art Nouveau .
The station was important for transport along the coast until 1944 , when the completion of the Sørland Line made Flekkefjord a branch station . At the same time , the line was converted to standard gauge , the number of station tracks was reduced , and the station received an overhaul . The station building was demolished in 1970 , but the station was still served until the line closed in 1990 . The tracks and depot buildings still exist .
= = History = =
The Flekkefjord Line ran from Egersund to Flekkefjord , as an extension of the Jæren Line , that ran from Stavanger to Egersund . The Norwegian Parliament voted in favor of the line in 1894 , and construction started two years later . While initial plans were to open the line in 1902 , the station and line did not open until 1 November 1904 . The line was built as a 3 ft 6 in ( 1 @,@ 067 mm ) gauge line , and the first rolling stock was reallocated from the Voss Line .
Initially , there were four trains daily in each direction , reduced to three on holidays . The most important train was the one that coordinated with the west @-@ bound steam ship ; the train would wait up to 45 minutes if the ship was delayed . This become the dominant route for people to get from Stavanger to cities along the South Coast , as well as to Oslo . In addition to passengers , major cargo shipments included seasonal shipments of herring , as well as lumber from the surrounding areas . Coal for the trains was imported by steam ship to Flekkefjord .
With the arrival of the Kragerø Line to Kragerø in 1927 , and the Sørland Line to Arendal in 1935 , buses were used between Flekkefjord and the terminus cities , allowing land connection between Stavanger and Oslo via Flekkefjord . At the same time , diesel multiple units were introduced on the " lightning trains " , cutting travel time to Stavanger by 50 minutes to 3 hours 15 minutes .
The Flekkefjord Line was planned as part of the Sørland Line , that would make Flekkefjord a station on the line between Oslo , Kristiansand and Stavanger . Instead , the route of the Sørland Line was chosen to traverse an inner route , and the Flekkefjord Line became a 17 @.@ 1 km ( 10 @.@ 6 mi ) branch line of the Sørland Line in 1944 . As part of the construction , the Flekkefjord Line was converted in 1940 – 41 to standard gauge . The first standard gauge train , a NSB Class 18 , operated on 8 August 1941 . The large traffic during the reconstruction period caused so much damage to the wharf that it had to be taken out of service . The speed on the line was also reduced to 40 kilometres per hour ( 25 mph ) , as the gauge conversion was done without changing the right @-@ of @-@ way profile . Dual gauge was kept until 1 March 1944 . At the same time the four tracks at the station were reduced to three . The cargo building was also moved three metres . In June 1945 , twelve people were employed at the station .
With the introduction of standard gauge , Flekkefjord went from being an important hub for transport along the south coast , to merely being a branch station . However , the number of daily trains to Sira and Moi had increased to twelve , operated with Class 86 and Class 87 multiple units . The Class 87 was used until 1956 , when Class 86 came into service . In 1966 , Class 87 was reintroduced . Important cargo customers at the time were Draco ( who made boats ) and Halvorsens Kjelfabrikk ( who made boilers ) . From 1981 , the Class 89 came into use , remaining until the station was closed in 1990 .
= = Facilities = =
As the only proper station on the line , Flekkefjord was built in brick in Art Nouveau . The two @-@ story 338 m2 ( 3 @,@ 640 sq ft ) building which was designed by Paul Armin Due had a ground floor with a ticket office , four offices and three waiting rooms . The second story was an apartment for the station master . Due chose to design the building symmetrically around the waiting room . It had arched widows and doors , curved corners and two round towers . This gave both a tight and soft form in organic interaction . It has been considered one of Due 's best works of Art Nouveau . Beside the station there was a 196 m2 ( 2 @,@ 110 sq ft ) single story restaurant building . In addition to a large main building , the station had a freight building , a wharf , a locomotive and wagon depot , and a loading area . There were four tracks past the station , in addition to two track to the cargo area . The cargo building had room for three wagons . The locomotive depot had places for six steam locomotives .
The restaurant was converted into housing in the 1950s , and in May 1970 the station building was demolished to make room for a new bus station . The cargo building was refurbished to serve as a station building for passengers and as offices . The wharf was sold by the municipality in 1987 , and the last train to serve the station departed on 31 December 1990 . Most of the line and infrastructure is however intact .
= Case of the Dean of St Asaph =
The Case of the Dean of St Asaph , formally R v Shipley , was the 1784 trial of William Davies Shipley , the Dean of St Asaph , for seditious libel . In the aftermath of the American War of Independence , electoral reform had become a substantial issue , and William Pitt the Younger attempted to bring a Bill before Parliament to reform the electoral system . In its support Shipley republished a pamphlet written by his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Sir William Jones , which noted the defects of the existing system and argued in support of Pitt 's reforms . Thomas FitzMaurice , the brother of British Prime Minister Earl of Shelburne , reacted by indicting Shipley for seditious libel , a criminal offence which acted as " the government 's chief weapon against criticism " , since merely publishing something that an individual judge interpreted as libel was enough for a conviction ; a jury was prohibited from deciding whether the material was actually libellous . The law was widely seen as unfair , and a Society for Constitutional Information was formed to pay Shipley 's legal fees . With financial backing from the society Shipley was able to secure the services of Thomas Erskine KC as his barrister .
Shipley was tried in 1784 by Mr Justice Buller and a specially convened jury at Shrewsbury . Edward Bearcroft , counsel for the prosecution , argued that on the basis of the existing system the jury could not decide on the nature of the pamphlet , while Erskine argued not only that they could , but that the material did not constitute seditious libel , containing as it did " a solemn protest against all sedition " . Persuaded by Erskine 's arguments , the jury ruled that Shipley was neither " guilty " or " not guilty " , but instead " guilty of publication only " , a confusing and non @-@ standard ruling which , after a long dialogue , Mr Justice Buller declared to mean " guilty on all charges " . Erskine appealed the decision to the Court of King 's Bench on 8 November , where the judges again ruled that juries could not decide whether material was libellous , but nevertheless released Shipley on a technicality ; his freedom was greeted with fireworks and bonfires , and Erskine was rewarded with the Freedom of the City of Gloucester . Still seeking to reform the law , Erskine sent the court records to Charles James Fox and Lord Camden , who , after much effort , passed the Libel Act 1792 , which secured the right of juries to decide whether material was libellous .
= = Background = =
Following the end of the American War of Independence , British public attention had turned to the need for Parliamentary reform – specifically , the lack of franchise in many towns and the presence of rotten boroughs . In response , William Pitt the Younger brought the idea of reform before Parliament and , in support of his actions , Sir William Jones wrote and published a pamphlet titled A Dialogue between a Farmer and a Country Gentleman on the Principles of Government , which covered the " virtues of government and defects in the representation of the people " . In 1783 Shipley , Jones 's father @-@ in @-@ law , recommended it to a group of Welsh constitutional reformers and had it reprinted in Welsh with his own preface suggesting it was " just , rational and constitutional " . As a result , Thomas FitzMaurice , the brother of the Earl of Shelburne , indicted Shipley for seditious libel , specifically for " publishing a false , scandalous and malicious libel ... to raise seditions and tumults within the kingdom , and to excite His Majesty 's subjects to attempt , by armed rebellion and violence , to subvert the state and constitution of the nation " .
The law dealing with seditious libel was particularly strict . Acting as " the government 's chief weapon against criticism " , it followed principles laid down in De Libellis Famosis and R v Carr : that seditious libel was a criminal offence , that the intention of the publisher or the truth of the allegations was irrelevant , that mere publication was sufficient for a conviction , and that juries were only allowed to deliver a verdict on whether the material had been published by the defendant , not whether it was libellous . Traditionally , matters of fact were left to the jury and matters of law to the judge , but with seditious libel " matters of law " was construed very widely ; it was the judge 's job to decide if the material was libellous , what constituted " seditious libel " , and the nature of " publication " , which was understood to include almost anything . Even a private letter , if intercepted , could lead to a prosecution .
Because of public disquiet with these principles , Shipley 's trial acted as a " test case " for the law of seditious libel ; a Society for Constitutional Information was formed by concerned citizens and began raising money to pay for his defence . Able to afford the best representation , the society gave the brief to Thomas Erskine KC , a noted defence barrister . The trial was to be heard by Lord Kenyon , then Chief Justice of Chester , at Wrexam ; after travelling 200 miles to the court Erskine discovered that a paper had been circulated in the area arguing that in libel cases juries were allowed to decide whether a publication was libellous , as well as whether it had been published . Citing the paper 's circulation , the prosecution asked for a postponement ; ignoring claims that a delay would cause Shipley hardship , Kenyon agree to postpone the trial . The case was eventually heard on 6 August 1784 by Mr Justice Buller , at Shrewsbury .
= = Trial and appeal = =
Edward Bearcroft , lead counsel for the prosecution , described the Dialogue as libel and argued that the truth of this was not a question for the jury to decide on ; they were bound to convict the defendant as long as they decided that he had published the Dialogue , regardless of the contents . Those contents , Bearcroft went on , sought to persuade the public that " every man of age had a right to choose his own representative in Parliament " . Erskine , in his reply , argued that the Dialogue was not libellous ( it opened with a preface containing " a solemn protest against all sedition " ) , and insisted that the jury had the right to decide what constituted libel :
If they know that the subject of the paper is the topic that agitates the country around them ; if they see danger in that agitation , and have reason to think that the publisher must have intended it , they say he is guilty . If , on the other hand , they consider the paper to be legal and enlightening in principle ; likely to promote a spirit of activity and liberty , in times when the activity of such a spirit is essential to the public safety , and have reason to believe it to be written and published in that spirit ; they say , as they ought to do , that the writer or the publisher is not guilty .
To demonstrate his feelings on the subject , Erskine asked the jury to consider him a fellow defendant , since he intended to publish the pamphlet himself as soon as possible ; he then went through the Dialogue line by line , showing that not only would most people agree with it , but that it was the foundation of Pitt 's Reform Bill . After Erskine concluded his arguments , again stating that the jury should feel free to debate whether the material constituted libel , Mr Justice Buller began his summing up , instructing the jury that they were only allowed to decide on whether Shipley had published the work . The jury retired , and after half an hour of discussion returned to declare Shipley " guilty of publishing only " . After a long and " confounding " debate between Erskine , Buller , and the jury , Buller declared Shipley guilty on all counts .
Erskine immediately appealed the decision to the Court of King 's Bench , where he argued on 8 November that Buller 's statement had misdirected the jury , and that as the jury was traditionally not given the right to investigate Shipley 's actual guilt , the previous trial was invalid ; a jury should be permitted to determine not only whether a statement was published , but whether it was libellous . With the exception of Mr Justice Wiles , the court unanimously declared that Erskine 's arguments were incorrect , and that the jury had no such role ; accordingly , his appeal was denied . Shipley was , however , later freed when the King 's Bench held that the initial indictment had been invalid because " there were no averments to point the application of the paper as a libel on the king and government " .
= = Aftermath = =
Although the case did not directly lead to legal change , it was nevertheless widely seen as a victory ; upon his release Shipley was greeted with fireworks and bonfires , and Erskine was rewarded with the Freedom of the City of Gloucester . Erskine , however , perceived it differently , and had records of the entire trial printed and sent to Charles James Fox and Lord Camden . Taking this as a hint , Fox ( after much delay ) introduced a Bill to Parliament in May 1791 , seeking to reform the law relating to libel . After it was passed through the Commons it went to the House of Lords , where members of the judiciary attempted to delay it ; in response Lord Camden , then 78 , rose and bluntly stated that if the judges were to be the sole arbiters of public opinion , nothing would be able to appear that criticised the government , leading to a stifling of the freedom of the press . His appeal was successful – without it , historian H. M. Lubasz writes , the Bill would never have passed the Lords – and within three weeks Parliament had formally passed the Libel Act 1792 , commonly known as Fox 's Libel Act , allowing juries for the first time to decide precisely what constituted libel .
= Colin Hall Simpson =
Major General Colin Hall Simpson , CBE , MC , VD ( 13 April 1894 – 23 August 1964 ) was an Australian Army officer who rose to the rank of major general as Signal Officer in Chief during the Second World War . He was one of the founders of Amcal , the largest retail pharmacy chain in Australia .
Simpson joined the First Australian Imperial Force in 1916 , and served on the Western Front in the Battle of Messines and Battle of Passchendaele . He was twice wounded , and was mentioned in despatches and awarded the Military Cross . After the war he worked as a pharmacist , and rose to the rank of colonel in the Militia . He transferred to the Australian Corps of Signals on its formation in 1925 .
During the Second World War he participated in the campaigns in Greece and Syria as Chief Signals Officer of the I Corps . He returned to Australia in 1942 to become the Australian Army 's Signal Officer in Chief . He also became the first Australian Corps of Signals officer to reach the rank of major general .
= = Early life = =
Colin Hall Simpson was born in St Kilda , Victoria , on 13 April 1894 , the son of Colin Simpson , a plumber , and his wife Elizabeth Fulton Simpson , née Jordan . He was educated at St Kilda Primary School , and , from 1911 , at Caulfield Grammar School . While at Caulfield Grammar , Simpson joined the Australian Army Cadets , rising to the rank of sergeant . After leaving school he became an apprentice pharmacist . He served with the 49th ( Prahran ) Battalion in which he was commissioned as a second lieutenant on 1 March 1914 . He became its assistant adjutant on 12 April 1915 and was promoted to lieutenant on 1 July 1915 .
= = First World War = =
Simpson was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the First Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) on 1 May 1916 , and posted to the 3rd Pioneer Battalion , part of the 3rd Division , which was then being raised in Australia . He embarked from Port Melbourne on the transport HMAT Wandilla on 6 June 1916 , arriving in England on 26 July 1916 . The 3rd Division trained on the Salisbury Plain in England , where he was promoted to lieutenant on 13 October 1916 . He was transferred to the 3rd Division Signal Company on 16 November 1916 . Soon after , the 3rd Division moved to the Western Front , moving into the line near Armentières . Simpson was mentioned in despatches on 4 January 1917 .
The 3rd Division carried out its first offensive at the Battle of Messines in June 1917 . For his part in the battle , Simpson was awarded the Military Cross . His citation read :
For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty . He organised the Brigade Signal Service so thoroughly that communication was maintained with every unit throughout . He was continually under shell @-@ fire , but personally supervised all repairs , by his vigorous and cheerful manner impressing all ranks in the highest degree .
Simpson participated in the Battle of Passchendale where he was gassed and wounded . He was evacuated to England on 22 October 1917 . While in hospital he applied for nine months ' leave to return to Australia and complete his pharmaceutical studies . He had passed the Intermediate Examination before leaving Australia but not the Final Examination . This was granted , and he embarked for home on the transport HMAT Persic on 21 December 1917 . He passed the Final Examination , and was registered as a pharmacist on 10 July 1918 . He never returned to the front , and his AIF appointment was terminated on 9 August 1918 .
= = Between the wars = =
Simpson remained in the Army as a reservist . He was posted to the 2 / 14th Infantry on 1 October 1918 , and was promoted to captain on 16 April 1920 . In the post @-@ war reorganisation of the Army , the 2 / 14th was absorbed into the 14th Infantry Battalion in March 1921 . In May , he transferred to the Royal Australian Engineers and joined the 3rd Division Signals Company . He was promoted to major on 1 July 1922 , and became its commander , with the rank of lieutenant colonel , on 1 September 1922 . On 1 January 1925 , the signal units were separated from the Engineers to form the Australian Corps of Signals , and he was transferred to the new corps . He commanded the 39th Infantry Battalion from 1 July 1929 to 30 June 1933 , after which he was on the unattached list for two years before resuming command of the 3rd Division Signals Company . On 1 May 1939 , he assumed command of the 6th Infantry Brigade , with the temporary rank of colonel .
Simpson opened his own chemist shop in Brunswick West in 1918 . On 12 August 1919 he married Jean Elizabeth Watson at the Congregational Church in Ascot Vale , Victoria . Their marriage produced two children , a son who died in infancy and a daughter , Jean Marjorie . One of the witnesses at their wedding ceremony was a fellow Militia officer , Alan Ramsay , who later married Jean 's sister Edna . In 1937 , Simpson banded together with D. E. Robertson and A. E. Moore to create the Allied Master Chemists of Australia Ltd , today better known as Amcal . They
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manner , and at 1800 UTC on October 11 , the low level circulation had become sufficiently organized to be designated as a tropical depression . At the time , the depression consisted of a well @-@ defined circulation , with some deep thunderstorm activity . Despite weak steering currents , the system started what was initially thought to be a westward drift , though just a few hours later was found to be towards the northwest . A small cyclone , a burst of deep convection formed at around the same time , and was said could have produced tropical storm @-@ force winds .
Continuing its slow , northwestward track under the weal steering currents of a weak mid @-@ level ridge to its north , and a broad cyclonic circulation to its southwest , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Lester at 1800 UTC on October 12 . Originally , it was unclear whether the center of circulation would remain slightly offshore , or move inland . Due to the presence of a weak upper @-@ level anticyclone that was centered just east of the system , favorable atmospheric conditions for strengthening prevailed , and the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) about 6 – 12 hours after being upgraded to a tropical storm . Early on October 13 , radar imagery from Acapulco , Mexico indicated that Lester remained a small and well @-@ organized cyclone as it passed just offshore . At the same time , light southwesterly wind shear began to develop . The interaction with land , combined with influence from the low to the southwest , started to weaken the storm , and it was downgraded to a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on October 13 . By later that day , reports from an Air Force Reserve Unit Hurricane Hunter Aircraft indicated that the cyclone had degenerated into a trough on the northeastern side of the larger low to the southwest .
= = Preparations and impact = =
On October 12 , in response to Lester , the Mexican government issued a tropical storm watch for the coast between Punta Maldonado to Zihuatanejo . It was upgraded to a warning later that day . It was extended to Lázaro Cárdenas on October 13 . Later that day , the warning was lifted when Lester dissipated . Lester brought rains to parts of Oaxaca and Guerrero , reaching 3 to 5 inches ( 76 to 127 mm ) . The highest 24 @-@ hour total peaked at 106 @.@ 5 mm ( 4 @.@ 19 in ) , recorded on October 12 . Localized flooding was likely caused by the storm , though no reports of deaths were received by the National Hurricane Center . However , the storm capsized two ships , and washed two more ashore . The heavy rain caused mudslides , which buried one man in his home ; he was later rescued by his family . In and around the port of Acapulco , about 14 trees were downed , and minor pooling of water was reported .
= Tvrđa =
Tvrđa ( Citadel ) is the Old Town of the city of Osijek in Croatia . It is the best @-@ preserved and largest ensemble of Baroque buildings in Croatia and consists of a Habsburg star fort built on the right bank of the River Drava . Tvrđa has been described by the World Monuments Fund as " a unique example of an eighteenth @-@ century baroque military , administrative , and commercial urban center " .
The star fort was constructed in the immediate vicinity of medieval Osijek after the defeat of the Ottoman forces in 1687 , due to Osijek 's strategic importance . Constructed starting in 1712 to plans by Mathias von Kaiserfeld and then Maximilian Gosseau de Henef , all five planned bastions and two gates were complete by 1715 . By 1735 , the inner town was finished and three northern bastions had been added . When complete , it was the largest and most advanced Habsburg fortress on the border with the Ottoman Empire , consisting of eight bastions and featuring armories , depots , a garrison headquarters , military court , construction office , a garrison physician , guardhouse , officers ' apartments , a military hospital and seven barracks . The completed fort was entirely surrounded with walls and palisades and had four main gates at each side ( north , south , east , west ) . Tvrđa had street lights by 1717 and was the site of the first public water supply in Croatia , opened in 1751 .
Tvrđa 's military importance decreased after the Berlin Congress of 1878 , with the increasing stability of the surrounding region . Most of the fort walls and fortifications were destroyed in the 1920s due to the obstacle they presented to the development of Osijek . While the fortifications have largely been removed , the fort 's interior core remains intact and is now home to churches , museums , schools and other public buildings , as well as numerous bars and restaurants . Of the fortification system , only the northern side of the walls now remain intact , as well as parts of the first and eighth bastions along with the northern gate known as the ' water gate ' ( ' vodena vrata ' ) . Tvrđa sustained significant damage during the Croatian War of Independence during the 1990s and was featured on the 1996 World Monuments Watch List of Most Endangered Sites . It now features on Croatia 's ' tentative list ' for consideration as a nominee for a World Heritage Site .
= = History = =
= = = Medieval and Ottoman eras = = =
The new name of Osijek first appeared in 1196 . The center of medieval Osijek was on the banks of the River Drava where Tvrđa now stands . The town was a trade and port settlement from the early 12th century due to its position on the way from Pécs and Buda southwards . The site was home to the Romanesque church of the Holy Trinity . Between 1526 and 1687 Osijek was ruled by the Ottomans , who did not change the layout of the settlement in any substantial way but introduced Islamic places of worship , giving the area an Oriental appearance . Traces of medieval and Ottoman towns remain to this day , including a remnant of the old Ottoman fortress wall , known today as the " Turkish Wall " ( Turski zid ) or " Filibey 's Fort " ( Filibejeva utvrda ) , lying next to the Tvrđa access road .
During the Ottoman period , Osijek was internationally known because of the Suleiman Bridge . The construction of the bridge was begun by İbrahim Pasha on 16 August 1526 following the orders of Suleiman the Magnificent . The bridge , which connected Osijek and Darda , took the form of a wooden road on piers and was approximately 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) long and 6 metres ( 20 ft ) wide . Seen as a great threat to Christian Europe the bridge was attacked several times , being destroyed in 1664 , when it was set on fire on the orders of Croatian feudal lord Nicholas VII of Zrin ( Croatian : Nikola VII . Zrinski , Hungarian : VII . Zrínyi Miklós ) . The bridge was rebuilt during the rule of Suleiman II . Finally , it was burned down by the Habsburg armies in 1686 .
= = = Design and construction = = =
= = = = First layout in late 17th century = = = =
Development of the military settlement at Tvrđa started in 1687 when the Habsburg armies drove the Ottomans out of the city during the Great Turkish War . The chief commander of the Imperial army , Louis William , Margrave of Baden @-@ Baden , saw Osijek as a location of exceptional strategic importance in the war against the Ottomans . He urged the repair of the city walls , and proposed construction of a new fort according to Vauban 's principles of military engineering .
The town magistrate was established in 1690 , while the plans for the new fort were still being drawn up , and one of its documents from August of the same year described the condition of the settlement as " ruinous " . Two months later , on 29 October , the Ottoman army suddenly attacked . The attack was repulsed only thanks to a well @-@ organised defense , and the Turks withdrew on 6 November , after a brief siege . The event was a clear lesson that the construction of the fort must not be delayed any further . The first phase of Tvrđa 's conversion into a Baroque fortress was based on the plan devised by the engineer Mathias von Kaiserfeld from 1691 .
= = = = Second layout in 18th century = = = =
The original plan for Tvrđa was drafted because of the need to reinforce the town walls , but did not include provisions to redesign the interior and envisaged largely uncontrolled development . New plans for a fort on the right bank of the River Drava were drawn up by Maximilian Gosseau de Henef . Gosseau took over planning of the fort when construction was already under way . Starting in August 1712 , Austrian engineers , supervised by the fort 's commander , General Johann Stephan von Beckers , built barracks , staff headquarters , churches and monasteries , surrounded by system of moats , bastions and gun positions , respecting Gosseau 's design . The design followed the model of lowland Dutch military fortifications of the period .
By 1715 , all five planned bastions and two gates were complete . An additional , western , gate leading to the Upper Town was added in 1716 . The construction of the outwork on the opposite bank of the River Drava , designed to offer protection from the north and to serve as a bridgehead , was completed by 1721 . The final , fourth gate , leading to the Lower Town , was not added until 1783 . Construction of the inner town was completed by 1733 , and in 1735 three additional northern bastions were completed , along with a post office , the fort 's construction office and a hospital . The completed fort had " eight bastions , two armories , two major depots , garrison headquarters , military court , construction office , garrison physician , guardhouse , officer apartments , military hospital and seven barracks " . Based on the ' ring model ' , the fortifications took up an area of 80 hectares ( 200 acres ) , making Tvrđa the largest fortress on the border with the Ottoman Empire .
Gosseau 's plan left space for churches to be built where mosques had once stood . Initially , converted mosques were used as churches , but Franciscans started to build a Baroque church in 1709 and it was consecrated in 1732 . A Franciscan monastery was built between 1699 and 1705 , with a new wing being added between 1731 and 1733 , which subsequently became a new monastery in 1761 . In 1725 , the Jesuits commenced construction of the parish church of St. Michael ( Croatian : Sveti Mihovil ) , following the construction of their own monastery . This church was in use after 1734 , despite being incomplete . A Holy Trinity column was erected in the fort 's main square in 1730 as a plague monument featuring volutes with pedestals on which four protectors against the plague are placed . Four additional pedestals were added to the monument in 1784 , each featuring a statue of a saint . Tvrđa had street lighting as early as 1717 . The first system to supply public water in Croatia was opened in Tvrđa in 1751 .
In the mid @-@ 18th century there were reportedly more than 35 inns in Tvrđa , estimated to an account for one in three of the fort 's buildings . Crown prince Joseph stayed in one of the inns when visiting Osijek . In 1786 , as Joseph II , he decreed the merger of the Upper Town , Lower Town and Tvrđa into one single town council .
= = = 19th and 20th century = = =
As early as the second half of the 18th century there was little or no new constructions taking place in Tvrđa , and even maintenance of the fort became a burden . In 1809 Osijek was granted free royal town status . Osijek 's council was accommodated in a building at the south @-@ eastern corner of Tvrđa 's main square .
Tvrđa 's military importance decreased after the Berlin Congress of 1878 as a result of increasing political and military stability in the region . Two north @-@ western bastions were demolished in the 1870s , making way for Ambrose 's Park ( Croatian : Ambrozijev perivoj ) . Construction of the Royal Grammar School started in 1881 , and the Royal General Secondary School was completed in 1890 . Episcopal seminary was also built in the south @-@ western corner of the main square in 1898 . These were the only buildings erected within Tvrđa walls in the last three decades of the 19th century .
As Osijek grew as a city , the fort 's presence hindered the potential for urban development . The demolition of most of the fort walls happened between 1923 and 1926 , with the construction of an electric tramway . The last gunpowder magazine , located behind the church of St. Michael , was demolished in 1958 . While most of the fortifications have been demolished ( only the first and eighth bastions and the northern wall with its so @-@ called ' water gate ' were kept ) , the center of Tvrđa remains intact . The Yugoslav People 's Army maintained a garrison and a military hospital in Tvrđa , but in the 1980s these buildings were gradually being abandoned , and adapted into ateliers for local painters and sculptors .
The fort sustained considerable damage during the Croatian War of Independence , which lasted from 1991 until 1995 . The war brought structural damage from collapsing roofs , walls and floors . These damages threaten plaster , sculpture and murals that lack proper protection and are subject to continuing decay .
= = Present day = =
After the fortress 's military importance decreased at the end of the 19th century , Tvrđa became a center of administrative , educational , cultural , and scholarly life in Osijek and the entire region . The first school in Osijek was organized at Tvrđa ; the first scholarly curriculum was introduced in 1707 , to be later expanded and renewed , and the first printing press started working in 1735 . The significance of educational institutions of Tvrđa are best underlined by the fact that Croatian Nobel Prize laureates , Lavoslav Ružička and Vladimir Prelog , along with Serbian scientist Milutin Milanković ( Milankovitch cycles ) , were all alumni ( graduates ) of the Tvrđa schools . The Faculty of Agriculture of the Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek has occupied the former general headquarters since 1995 after its previous site was destroyed in the Croatian War of Independence . The Faculty of Food Technology has been relocated to a building that served as the first military hospital in Osijek , from the mid @-@ 17th century until the beginning of the 1990s . Other present @-@ day educational institutions in Tvrđa include the II and the III Gymnasium , Franjo Kuhač Music School ( former Roman Catholic Seminary ) , Jesuit Classical Gymnasium ( former logistics barracks built in the mid @-@ 18th century ) , and the Secondary School of Economics ( former grammar school for girls ) .
According to the 2001 census , within the Tvrđa city district , there are 10 @,@ 277 inhabitants living in 3 @,@ 310 households . The fort interior is now a centre of Osijek 's nightlife . There are numerous bars and restaurants in Tvrđa . The fort hosts the Museum of Slavonia , the largest general @-@ type museum in Croatia , located in Tvrđa since 1946 . The former town museum and archives building today houses the State Directorate for Monument Protection , a department of the Croatian Ministry of Culture . The patron saint of the Tvrđa is Saint Michael , and his feast day of September 29 is celebrated as the day of the Tvrđa city district .
= = Heritage status = =
" I have seen many European towns , but have never found an identical development whereby an existing urban nucleus was turned into a fortification , or a similar town @-@ planning solution " .
The World Monuments Fund has described Tvrđa as " a unique example of an eighteenth @-@ century baroque military , administrative , and commercial urban center " . Tvrđa is on Croatia 's ' Tentative List ' for consideration as nominee for the World Heritage Site . During the 1991 – 95 conflict in Croatia , 90 per cent of the buildings in Tvrđa were damaged to some extent and the fort was featured on the 1996 World Monuments Watch List of Most Endangered Sites . It has not appeared on the list , published every two years , since .
The building of the general headquarters , dating from 1726 , and the ground plan of the fortress are depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 200 kuna banknote , issued in 1993 and 2002 .
The Agency for Restoration of Osijek Tvrđa ( Croatian : Agencija za obnovu osječke Tvrđe ) was established in 1999 . Its stated goals are protection , restoration and revitalization of Tvrđa . The restoration process aims to preserve architectural , historical and aesthetic qualities of Tvrđa in full accordance with the restoration principles set by the International Council on Monuments and Sites , while maintaining its multifunctional character . International cooperation is also envisioned , in particular with the Council of Europe . The Agency is jointly funded by the Government of Croatia , Osijek @-@ Baranja County and the City of Osijek .
= Bigeye thresher =
The bigeye thresher ( Alopias superciliosus ) is a species of thresher shark , family Alopiidae , found in temperate and tropical oceans worldwide . Like other thresher sharks , nearly half its total length consists of the elongated upper lobe of the tail fin . Its common name comes from its enormous eyes , which are placed in keyhole @-@ shaped sockets that allow them to be rotated upward . This species can also be distinguished by a pair of deep grooves on the top of its head , from which its scientific name is derived .
The large eyes of the bigeye thresher are adapted for hunting in low light conditions . It is one of the few sharks that conduct a diel vertical migration , staying in deep water during the day and moving into surface waters at night to feed . To protect its sensitive brain and eyes from the temperature changes accompanying these movements , the bigeye thresher has a vascular exchange system called the rete mirabile around those organs . This species feeds mainly on fish and squid , which are stunned via whip @-@ like strikes of the long tail . Bigeye threshers are ovoviviparous , usually bearing litters of two pups . The embryos are oophagous and feed on ova produced by the mother while inside the uterus . This shark is caught by commercial fisheries across its range ; the meat is not highly regarded but the skin , fins , and liver oil are valued . It has been assessed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
British biologist Richard Thomas Lowe was the first to scientifically describe the bigeye thresher , in papers published in Proceedings of the Royal Society of London ( 1840 ) and Transactions of the Zoological Society of London ( 1849 , sometimes given as 1839 ) . He based his description on a specimen caught off Madeira in the eastern Atlantic Ocean . However , Lowe 's description was subsequently overlooked by researchers and this species was known by different names until the 1940s , when new specimens from Cuba and Florida prompted its original scientific name to be resurrected . The specific epithet superciliosus is from the Latin super meaning " above " , and ciliosus meaning " eyebrow " , referring to the distinct lateral grooves above the eyes .
An allozyme analysis conducted by Blaise Eitner in 1995 showed that the closest relative of the bigeye thresher is the pelagic thresher ( A. pelagicus ) , with which it forms a clade . Fossil remains of the bigeye thresher dating to the Middle Miocene ( 16 @.@ 0 – 11 @.@ 6 Ma ) have been found in the Hokuriku region of Japan .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The bigeye thresher has a virtually circumtropical distribution . In the western Atlantic Ocean , it has been reported from New York to Florida , the Bahamas , Cuba , Venezuela , Tobago and southern Brazil . In the eastern Atlantic , it is known from Portugal , Madeira , Senegal , Guinea to Sierra Leone , Angola , and the Mediterranean Sea . In the western Indian Ocean , it occurs off South Africa , Madagascar , and the Arabian Sea . In the Pacific Ocean , it is known from southern Japan , Taiwan , New Caledonia , northwestern Australia , and New Zealand , and eastward to Hawaii , southern California , the Gulf of California , and west of the Galapagos Islands . Analysis of mitochondrial DNA has shown that Atlantic and Indo @-@ Pacific populations are somewhat genetically divergent from each other .
Bigeye threshers are usually found over the continental shelf and in the open sea , though they are occasionally encountered in shallow coastal waters . They occur in surface temperatures of 16 – 25 ° C ( 61 – 77 ° F ) , but have been tracked as far down as 723 m ( 2 @,@ 372 ft ) , where the temperature is only 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) . Little is known of their geographical movements ; one individual has been documented moving from New York to the Gulf of Mexico , a straight @-@ line distance of 2 @,@ 767 km ( 1 @,@ 719 mi ) .
= = Description = =
The eyes of the bigeye thresher can measure up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) across in adults . Each eye is taller than wide , with a bulbous upper portion . The orbits extend onto the dorsal surface of the head , allowing the eyes to orient upwards . There are also a pair of distinctive lateral grooves that extend from above the eyes to over the gill slits , giving it a " helmet " -like appearance . The snout is moderately long and bulbous , and there are no labial furrows at the corners of the mouth . The teeth are moderately large with a single , narrow cusp . There are 19 – 24 teeth in the upper jaw and 20 – 24 teeth in the lower jaw ; their shapes are similar in both jaws . There are large and small dermal denticles , with the smaller ones more numerous and interspersed amongst the larger ones . The smaller denticles taper to a point .
Up to half the body length is taken up by the long upper lobe of the caudal fin , which is broader than in other threshers . The large pectoral fins have a curved anterior margin and broad tips . The first dorsal fin is placed further back than in the other thresher sharks , with the free rear tip located above or just before the pelvic fins . Its coloration is a deep , metallic violet to purplish brown above and creamy white below . This color rapidly fades to a dull gray after death . Most bigeye threshers are 3 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 0 m ( 10 @.@ 8 – 13 @.@ 1 ft ) long and weigh 160 kg ( 350 lb ) . The largest known bigeye thresher measured 4 @.@ 9 m ( 16 ft ) long and weighed 364 kg ( 802 lb ) , and was caught near Tutukaka , New Zealand , in February 1981 .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The size and upward orientation of the bigeye thresher 's eyes are adapted to search for the silhouettes of prey in dim light . This species is one of a handful of shark species that conducts a diel vertical migration , spending daytime in deeper water between 300 – 500 m ( 980 – 1 @,@ 640 ft ) , beneath the thermocline where the temperature ranges from 6 to 12 ° C ( 43 to 54 ° F ) , and ascending above it to water less than 100 m ( 330 ft ) deep during nighttime . This migration likely relates to finding prey at night and avoiding predators during the day . The sharks ' daytime swimming patterns are usually steady , while at night they have a pattern of slow ascents and rapid descents .
Bigeye threshers are likely preyed upon by larger sharks and marine mammals . Known parasites of the bigeye thresher include the copepod Pagina tunica , and the tapeworm Litobothrium janovyi . Sea lampreys ( Petromyzon marinus ) have been seen attached near the cloaca of this shark . The bigeye thresher appears to be an ecological competitor of the blue shark ( Prionace glauca ) , and the numbers of the two species are negatively correlated such as that only one of two occurs in any given location .
= = = Feeding = = =
The bigeye thresher has larger teeth than other threshers and feeds on a wider variety of prey . Known food items include schooling forage fish such as mackerel and herring , benthic fishes such as hake and whiting , larger pelagic fishes such as lancetfish and small billfish , squid such as lycoteuthids and ommastrephids , and possibly crab megalopae . They likely use their long tails to stun their prey prior to capture , as they are often found hooked by their tails on longlines and with the bait fish in their stomachs . The shape of their eye sockets give them binocular vision in an upward direction to better aim their strikes . In the Mediterranean , they are strongly associated with schools of frigate mackerel ( Auxis rochei ) , suggesting that these sharks follow concentrations of their prey from place to place . It is said that the bigeye thresher uses its long tail to smack down birds .
= = = Life history = = =
Like other mackerel sharks , bigeye threshers are ovoviviparous and bear litters of two pups , one in each uterus . Very rarely , the litter size may be one , three , or four . There is no defined breeding season and most adult females are pregnant throughout the year without any apparent lag time between pregnancies . The gestation period is unknown . The developing fetuses are initially nourished by a yolk sac , and later on exhibit oophagy , in which they consume infertile eggs produced by their mother ( and possibly also uterine fluid ) . There is no evidence of sibling cannibalism as in the sand tiger shark ( Carcharias taurus ) . Unborn embryos are similar in appearance to adults , with proportionally larger heads and eyes . They are covered with a thin layer of epithelium that prevents the uterine wall from being abraded by the embryo 's sharp dermal denticles ; this has not been observed in the young of other thresher sharks . The young measure 1 @.@ 35 – 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 @.@ 4 – 4 @.@ 6 ft ) long at birth . Males mature at a length around 2 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 9 m ( 8 @.@ 9 – 9 @.@ 5 ft ) and at an age of 9 – 10 years , while females mature at a length around 3 @.@ 3 – 3 @.@ 6 m ( 11 – 12 ft ) and at an age of 12 – 14 years . The maximum lifespan of this species is believed to be 19 years for a male and 20 years for a female . A female bigeye thresher is estimated to produce only 20 young over her entire life .
= = = Thermoregulation = = =
There is conflicting evidence on whether the bigeye thresher is warm @-@ bodied like the common thresher ( A. vulpinus ) . In a 1971 study , Carey et al. probed the swimming muscles of two bigeye threshers with a thermistor needle and reported finding a temperature elevation of 1 @.@ 8 and 4 @.@ 3 ° C ( 3 @.@ 8 and 9 @.@ 1 ° F ) compared to the ambient environment . However , an anatomical examination conducted by Sepulveda et al. in 2005 found that though the bigeye thresher possesses the aerobic red muscles responsible for generating heat in the common thresher , these muscles are arranged in two strips along the flanks just beneath the skin , as opposed to near the core of the body . There is also no blood vessel countercurrent exchange system ( the rete mirabile ) in the trunk to limit the loss of metabolic heat to the water . Based on these differences , the authors questioned earlier measurements and concluded it was unlikely that the bigeye thresher maintains an elevated body temperature . The bigeye thresher does possess a highly developed rete system around its brain and eyes . This is thought to function in buffering those sensitive organs against temperature changes during the shark 's daily migrations up and down the water column , which can be as much as 15 – 16 ° C ( 27 – 29 ° F ) .
= = Human interactions = =
The bigeye thresher shark is rarely encountered by divers underwater and poses no danger . This species is or was taken by longline fisheries operated by many countries , including the United States , Japan , Spain , Brazil , Uruguay , and Mexico , and constitutes about 10 % of the pelagic shark catch . The bigeye thresher comprises 20 % of the longline catch off Cuba , where it is attracted at night using cyalume sticks ( chemical lights ) . It is also significant to Taiwanese fisheries , which land about 220 metric tons annually . The meat is marketed fresh , smoked , or dried and salted , though it is not highly regarded due to its mushy texture . The skin is used to make leather products , the liver oil for vitamins , and the fins for shark fin soup .
In the waters of the United States , this species is considered a nuisance bycatch of longlines , gillnets , and trawls . It is also occasionally caught in shark nets around beaches in South Africa . Along with the other thresher species , the bigeye thresher is listed as a game fish by the International Game Fish Association ( IGFA ) , and is pursued by recreational anglers off the United States , South Africa , and New Zealand . The bigeye thresher is highly susceptible to over @-@ exploitation due to its low lifetime fecundity . All three thesher shark species were assessed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) in 2007 .
= HMS Daring ( H16 ) =
HMS Daring was a D @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s . The ship spent the bulk of her career on the China Station . She was briefly commanded by Louis Mountbatten before World War II . Daring escorted convoys in the Red Sea in October – November 1939 and then returned to the UK in January 1940 for the first time in five years . While escorting a convoy from Norway , she was sunk by the German submarine U @-@ 23 in February 1940 .
= = Description = =
Daring displaced 1 @,@ 375 long tons ( 1 @,@ 397 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 890 long tons ( 1 @,@ 920 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Daring carried a maximum of 473 long tons ( 481 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 870 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 870 km ; 6 @,@ 760 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 145 officers and men .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Daring had a single 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) QF gun between her funnels and two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II guns mounted on the side of her bridge . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Career = =
Daring was ordered on 2 February 1931 under the 1930 Naval Estimates , and was laid down at John I Thornycroft 's yard at Woolston , Southampton on 18 June 1931 . She was launched on 7 April 1932 and completed on 25 November 1932 , at a total cost of £ 225 @,@ 536 , excluding equipment supplied by the Admiralty , such as weapons , ammunition and wireless equipment . The ship was initially assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla in the Mediterranean and made a brief deployment to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea in September – October 1933 . Lord Louis Mountbatten assumed command on 29 April 1934 , and Daring was given a refit at Sheerness Dockyard from 3 September to 24 October to prepare the ship for service on the China Station .
In December 1934 she sailed to join the 8th Destroyer Flotilla in the Far East and served there until the outbreak of war . Upon the ship 's arrival at Singapore , Lord Mountbatten was transferred to command HMS Wishart and Commander Geoffrey Barnard assumed command .
The ship and her sisters Duncan , Diana , and Dainty were transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet shortly before World War II began in September 1939 . Daring was kept in the Red Sea for escort and patrol work until November 1939 . She was overhauled in Malta from 25 November to 20 December . The ship escorted the Union @-@ Castle Line ocean liner SS Dunnottar Castle to Belfast in early 1940 and was under repair at Portsmouth until 25 January . Daring joined the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla in Scapa Flow on 10 February 1940 for escort duties . While escorting Convoy HN12 from Norway , she was torpedoed on 18 February in position 58 ° 39 ′ N 01 ° 40 ′ W by U @-@ 23 , under the command of Otto Kretschmer . Daring capsized and sank very quickly after having her stern blown off ; 157 of the ship 's company were lost . The five survivors were rescued by the submarine HMS Thistle , which had witnessed the attack .
= = Acclaimed model = =
A model of HMS Daring by renowned marine model maker Norman A. Ough is held by the National Maritime Museum .
= Kaga Rebellion =
The Kaga Rebellion or Chōkyō Uprising was a large @-@ scale revolt in Kaga Province ( present @-@ day southern Ishikawa Prefecture ) , Japan , in late 1487 through 1488 . Togashi Masachika , who ruled Kaga Province as shugo , had been restored to power in 1473 with aid from the Asakura clan as well as the Ikkō @-@ ikki , a loose collection of lesser nobility , monks , and farmers . By 1474 , however , the Ikkō @-@ ikki grew discontent with Masachika , and launched some initial revolts , which were easily quelled . In 1487 , when Masachika left on a military campaign , between one hundred thousand and two hundred thousand Ikkō @-@ ikki revolted . Masachika returned with his army , but the Ikkō @-@ ikki , backed by several disaffected vassal families , overwhelmed his army and surrounded him in his palace , where he committed seppuku . The former vassals of Masachika granted the position of shugo to Masachika 's uncle Yasutaka , but over the next several decades the Ikkō @-@ ikki increased their political hold on the province , which they would effectively control for almost a century .
= = Background and initial revolts = =
During the 15th century in Japan , peasant revolts , known as ikki , became much more commonplace . During the turmoil of the Ōnin War ( 1467 – 1477 ) and subsequent years , these rebellions increased in both frequency and success . Many of these rebels became known as Ikkō @-@ ikki , a collection of peasant farmers , Buddhist monks , Shinto priests , and jizamurai ( lesser nobles ) who all espoused belief in the Jōdo Shinshū sect of Buddhism . Rennyo , the Hongan @-@ ji abbot who led the Jōdo Shinshū movement , attracted a large following in Kaga and Echizen Province , but distanced himself from the political goals of the ikki , advocating violence only for self @-@ defense or defense of one 's religion .
During the mid @-@ 15th century , a civil war broke out among the Togashi clan over the position of shugo . Togashi Masachika had been driven out of Kaga by his younger brother , Kochiyo . When the Ōnin War broke out in 1467 , Masachika sided with Hosokawa and Kochiyo with Yamana . In 1473 , Masachika requested aid from Asakura Toshikaga , the lord of Echizen and ally of Hosokawa , as well as from the priests of Yoshizaki , who were associated with Rennyo . Masachika promised the ikki that if restored to power , he would lift his supporters out of their poverty . Further motivating the ikki to support Masachika were the religious policies of Kochiyo : Kochiyo patronized the Takada school of Jōdo Shinshū , a fierce rival to the Hongan @-@ ji for control of the Shinshū sect , and persecuted followers of the Hongan @-@ ji . Toshikaga pledged his support , as did the Yoshizaki priests , the latter prior to any approval from Rennyo . Rennyo eventually granted his approval to the actions of the Yoshizaki priests , and with Toshikaga providing military aid and the Ikkō @-@ ikki rioting throughout Kaga , Masachika quickly overthrew his brother . But Ikkō @-@ ikki support of Masachika was short @-@ lived . By 1474 , the Ikkō @-@ ikki were in dispute with Masachika as they claimed that he did not fulfill his promises of economic reward , and they attempted a rebellion . Rennyo refused to support their actions and the rebels were quickly defeated and forced to take refuge in Etchū Province . In 1475 , Shimotsuma Rensu , a disciple of Rennyo , falsely claimed that Rennyo supported a renewed uprising in Kaga . The revolt failed , and Rennyo excommunicated Rensu . Tiring of his efforts to restrain the unruly Ikkō @-@ ikki , Rennyo left Yoshizaki for the capital region .
= = 1488 revolt = =
Despite the previous revolts having been easily suppressed , unrest continued to simmer in Kaga under Masachika 's governance . The Ikkō @-@ ikki who remained in Kaga grew bolder , refusing to pay taxes and even seizing tax revenue and land , despite Rennyo 's continued protestations . In 1487 , Masachika left with a large army for Ōmi Province in response to a call for aid from shogun Ashikaga Yoshihisa , who was attempting to suppress the robber baron Rokkaku Tokoyori . In Masachika 's absence , the Ikkō @-@ ikki , led by Rengo , Renkō , and Rensei , three sons of Rennyo , launched their revolt and between one hundred thousand and two hundred thousand members took up arms . Masachika quickly returned from his military expedition , and defeated the rebels in several battles . However , several vassal families , discontent with Masachika , joined with the rebels . The rebels cut off Masachika from reinforcements from his allies in the bordering Echizen , Etchū , and Noto Provinces , and besieged his castle . Masachika , trapped in a burning castle and faced with certain defeat , committed seppuku . In his place , the vassal families who rebelled against Masachika put forward his uncle and ex @-@ shugo , Yasutaka , as a candidate to be the new shugo .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the overthrow of Masachika , Kaga became known as " hyakusho no motaru kuni " ( " the kingdom of peasants " , or " province ruled by peasants " ) . Shogun Yoshihisa , a friend and ally of Masachika , demanded that Rennyo excommunicate the Kaga ikki . However , Hosokawa Masamoto , an influential political figure who was also a close friend and patron of Rennyo , negotiated a deal which permitted Rennyo to merely reprimand the ikki while Masamoto would join the Hongan @-@ ji . In Kaga , Togashi Yasutaka took power as shugo , ruling the province until his death in 1504 . Afterward , under the rule of his son , Taneyasu , the ikki began to assert their influence over the vassal families that supported them in the uprising . The ikki soon split into rival political factions and initiated a series of political struggles which culminated in a civil war in 1531 . The heads of the three predominant Hongan @-@ ji temples in Kaga , as well as Taneyasu , were defeated when Renjun , a son of Rennyo , brought in Ikkō @-@ ikki troops from Mikawa Province . Upon Renjun 's victory , the office of shugo was abolished and the leaders of the opposition were exiled . The Ikkō @-@ ikki would control Kaga until 1580 , when forces loyal to Oda Nobunaga defeated them .
= Clavaria zollingeri =
Clavaria zollingeri , commonly known as the violet coral or the magenta coral , is a widely distributed species of fungus . It produces striking tubular , purple to pinkish @-@ violet fruit bodies that grow up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) tall and 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) wide . The extreme tips of the fragile , slender branches are usually rounded and brownish . A typical member of the clavarioid or club fungi , Clavaria zollingeri is saprobic , and so derives nutrients by breaking down organic matter . The fruit bodies are typically found growing on the ground in woodland litter , or in grasslands . Variations in branching and color can often be used to distinguish C. zollingeri from similarly colored coral fungi such as Alloclavaria purpurea and Clavulina amethystina , although microscopy is required to reliably identify the latter species .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was first described scientifically by French mycologist Joseph @-@ Henri Léveillé in 1846 . It was named after German botanist Heinrich Zollinger , who researched the genus Clavaria , and collected the type specimen in Java , Indonesia . Léveillé considered the dichotomous branching to be the prominent characteristic that separated this species from the otherwise similar Clavaria amethystina . American Charles Horton Peck published a species collected from Stow , Massachusetts as Clavaria lavendula in 1910 , but this is a synonym . The mushroom is commonly known as the " violet coral " , or the " magenta coral " .
In a 1978 classification of the genus Clavaria , Ronald Petersen placed C. zollingeri in the subgenus Clavaria , a grouping of species with clamp connections absent from all septa in the fruit body ; others in the subgenus included C. purpurea , C. fumosa , and the type , C. vermicularis . A large @-@ scale molecular analysis of the phylogenetic distributions and limits of clavarioid fungi in the family Clavariaceae was published by Bryn Dentiger and David McLaughlin in 2006 . Based on their analysis of ribosomal DNA sequences , C. zollingeri shared the greatest genetic similarity with Clavulinopsis laeticolor . Petersen 's concept of the infrageneric classification of Clavaria was largely rejected in this analysis , as two of the three subgenera he proposed were found to be polyphyletic .
= = Description = =
The coloring of the fruit bodies is quite variable , ranging from violet to amethyst , or violet shaded with brown or red . The colors may be variable over the fruit body ; in one instance the outside branches were brown while the inner branches in the center of the bundle were light violet . Dried specimens may lose their coloring almost entirely , as the pigments may be sensitive to light or dryness . The fruit body is typically 5 to 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) tall and 4 to 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 8 in ) wide . The stem , or base , is short , and the branching starts a short distance above the ground . The surfaces of the fragile branches are smooth and dry ; the branches are 2 – 6 thick , typically with rounded tips . It has no distinguishable odor , and a taste somewhat like radishes or cucumber . Although edible in small quantities , the fragile fruit bodies are of limited culinary value , and may have a laxative effect .
In mass , the spores ( produced on the surface of the branches ) are white . Light microscopy reveals additional details : the spores are roughly spherical to broadly elliptical , with dimensions of 4 – 7 by 3 – 5
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μm . They have a clear apiculus about 1 μm long , and a single large oil droplet . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , do not have clamps , and measure 50 – 60 by 7 – 9 μm , gradually widening at the apex .
= = = Similar species = = =
Other lavender to violet @-@ colored corals include Clavulina amethystinoides , which is so multiply branched so as to appear toothed , and Clavulina amethystina , which can only be reliably distinguished by its two @-@ spored basidia in comparison to the four @-@ spored basidia of Clavaria species . In Alloclavaria purpurea , the branching is reduced and the color usually a duller purple . The Australian coral Clavaria versatilis is also similar in appearance to Clavaria zollinger , but has branch tips that end in two short and blunt processes that are the same color as the rest of the fruit body . Ramariopsis pulchella — a small , violet @-@ colored coral fungus rarely taller than 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) — could be mistaken for a small C. zollingeri . It has roughly spherical spores measuring 3 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 5 by 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 μm .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of Clavaria zollingeri grow either solitarily , in groups , or in clusters on the ground in grassy spots , usually near hardwood trees , or with mosses . It is a saprobic species , deriving nutrients by breaking down organic matter . It has a widespread distribution , and has been found in Australia , New Zealand , North America , South America , and Asia ( including Brunei , India , and Korea ) . In North America , the distribution is restricted to the northeastern regions of the continent . Rare in Europe , it is listed in the Red Lists of threatened species in Denmark and Great Britain . In Ireland , it is used as an indicator species to help assess the fungal diversity of nutrient @-@ poor grasslands , a habitat under threat . It was recorded from the Netherlands for the first time in 2006 .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Clavaria zollingeri contains lectins , a class of proteins that bind specific carbohydrates on the surface of cells , causing them to clump together . A Korean study demonstrated that extracts of the fungus caused lymphoagglutination , a specific form of agglutination that involves white blood cells . In general , lectins are used in blood typing and serology , and they are widely used in affinity chromatography for purifying proteins .
= Ashdod =
Ashdod ( Hebrew : אַשְׁדּוֹד ( audio ) ; Arabic : اشدود , إسدود Isdud ) is the sixth @-@ largest city in Israel , located in the Southern District of the country , on the Mediterranean coast where it is situated between Tel Aviv to the north ( 32 kilometres ( 20 miles ) away ) and Ashkelon to the south ( 20 km ( 12 mi ) away ) . Jerusalem is 53 km ( 33 mi ) to the east .
Ashdod is Israel 's largest port , accounting for 60 % of the country 's imported goods . The city is also an important regional industrial center .
Modern Ashdod covers the territory of two ancient twin towns , one inland and one on the coast , which were for most of their history two separate entities , connected though by close ties with each other . This article is dealing with both these historic towns and other ancient sites now located within the territory of modern Ashdod .
The first documented urban settlement at Ashdod dates to the Canaanite culture of the 17th century BCE , making the city one of the oldest in the world . Ashdod is mentioned 13 times in the Bible . During its pre @-@ 1956 history the city was settled by Philistines , Israelites , colonists coming in the wake of Alexander 's conquests , Romans and Byzantines , Arabs , Crusaders , and Ottoman Turks .
Modern Ashdod was established in 1956 on the sand hills near the site of the ancient town , and incorporated as a city in 1968 , with a land @-@ area of approximately 60 square kilometres ( 23 sq mi ) . Being a planned city , expansion followed a main development plan , which facilitated traffic and prevented air pollution in the residential areas , despite population growth . According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics , Ashdod had a population of 217 @,@ 959 in 2014 , with an area of 47 @,@ 242 dunams ( 47 @.@ 242 km2 ; 18 @.@ 240 sq mi ) .
= = History = =
= = = Stone Age = = =
Three stone tools dating from the Neolithic era were discovered , but no other evidence of a Stone Age settlement in Ashdod was found , suggesting that the tools were deposited here in a later period .
= = = Bronze and Iron Ages = = =
The site of Ashdod in the Bronze Age and Iron Ages was at a tell just south of the modern city . It was excavated by archaeologists in nine seasons between 1962 and 1972 . The effort was led during the first few years by David Noel Freedman of the Pittsburgh Theological Seminary and Moshe Dothan . The remaining seasons were headed by Dothan for the Israel Antiquities Authority .
The earliest major habitation in Ashdod dates to the 17th century BCE , when the acropolis of the tell was fortified . Ashdod is first mentioned in written documents from Late Bronze Age Ugarit , which indicate that the city was a center of export for dyed woolen purple fabric and garments . At the end of the 13th century BCE the Sea Peoples conquered and destroyed Ashdod . By the beginning of the 12th century BCE , the Philistines , generally thought to have been one of the Sea Peoples , ruled the city . During their reign , the city prospered and was a member of the Philistine Pentapolis , which included Ashkelon and Gaza on the coast and Ekron and Gath farther inland , in addition to Ashdod .
In 950 BCE Ashdod was destroyed during Pharaoh Siamun 's conquest of the region . The city was not rebuilt until at least 815 BCE .
Asdûdu led the revolt of Philistines , Judeans , Edomites , and Moabites against Assyria after expulsion of king Ahimiti , whom Sargon had installed instead of his brother Azuri . Gath ( Gimtu ) belonged to the kingdom of Ashdod at that time . Assyrian king Sargon II 's commander @-@ in @-@ chief ( turtanu ) , whom the King James Bible calls simply " Tartan " , Isaiah 20 : 1 regained control of Ashdod in 712 / 711 BCE and forced the usurper Yamani to flee . Sargon 's general destroyed the city and exiled its residents , including some Israelites who were subsequently settled in Media and Elam .
Mitinti was king at the time of Sargon 's son Sennacherib ( r . 705 – 681 BCE ) , and Akhimilki in the reign of Sennacherib 's son Esarhaddon ( r . 681 – 669 BCE ) .
Psamtik I of Egypt ( r . 664 – 610 BCE ) is reported to have besieged the great city Azotus for twenty @-@ nine years ( Herodotus , ii . 157 ) ; the biblical references to the remnant of Ashdod ( Jeremiah 25 : 20 ; cf Zephaniah 2 : 4 ) are interpreted as allusions to this event .
The city absorbed another blow in 605 BCE , when Nebuchadnezzar conquered it .
In 539 BCE the city was rebuilt by the Persians . In 332 BCE it was conquered in the wars of Alexander the Great .
In the Book of Nehemiah , the Ashdodites seem to represent the whole nation of the Philistines in the sixth century BCE , the speech of Ashdod ( which half of the children from mixed families are described as adopting ) would simply be the general Philistine dialect . Hugo Winckler explains the use of that name by the fact that Ashdod was the nearest of the Philistine cities to Jerusalem .
= = = In the Hebrew Bible = = =
There are Biblical episodes referencing Ashdod but they remain uncorroborated by archaeological finds :
Upon Joshua 's conquest of the Promised Land , Ashdod was allotted to the Tribe of Judah ( Book of Joshua 15 : 46 ) .
In I Samuel 6 : 17 Ashdod is mentioned among the principal Philistine cities . After capturing the Ark of the covenant from the Israelites , the Philistines took it to Ashdod and placed it in the temple of Dagon . The next morning Dagon was found prostrate before the Ark ; on being restored to his place , he was on the following morning again found prostrate and broken . The people of Ashdod were smitten with boils ; a plague of mice was sent over the land ( 1 Samuel 6 : 5 ) .
According to the Bible , during the 10th century BCE Ashdod became , along with all the kingdom of Philistia , a patronage area of the Kingdom of Israel under the control of King David .
The capture of the city by King Uzziah of Judah shortly after 815 BCE is mentioned within 2 Chronicles ( 26 : 6 ) and in the Book of Zechariah ( 9 : 6 ) , speaking of the false Jews .
In the Book of Nehemiah ( Nehemiah 13 : 23 – 24 ) , some 5th century BCE residents of Jerusalem are said to have married women from Ashdod , and half of the children of these unions were reportedly unable to understand Hebrew ; instead , they spoke " the language of Ashdod " .
= = = Hellenistic period = = =
Once Hellenised , the city changed its name to the more Greek @-@ sounding Αzotus ( Greek : Άζωτος ) and prospered until the Hasmonean Revolt . During the rebellion Judas Maccabeus " took it , and laid it waste " ( Antiquities of the Jews Book 12 , 8 : 6 ) His brother Jonathan conquered it again in 147 BCE and destroyed the temple of Dagon of biblical fame ( Antiquities Book 13 , 4 : 4 ; 1 Samuel 5 : 1 @-@ 5 ) . During the rule of Alexander Jannæus , Ashdod was part of his territory ( Antiquities Book 13 , 15 : 4 ) .
= = = Roman and Byzantine periods = = =
After the destruction wreaked during the succession wars between Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II , Pompey restored the independence of Azotus , as he did with all Hellenising coastal cities ( Antiquities Book 14 , 4 : 4 ) . A few years later , in 55 BCE , after more fighting , Roman general Gabinius helped rebuild Ashdod and several other cities left without protective walls ( Antiquities Book 14 , 5 : 2 ) . In 30 BCE Ashdod came under the rule of King Herod , who then bequeathed it to his sister Salome ( Antiquities Book 17 , 8 : 1 ) . By the time of the First Jewish – Roman War ( 66 @-@ 70 ) , there must have been a large enough Jewish presence in Ashdod for Vespasian to feel compelled to place a garrison in the city .
Despite its location four miles ( 6 km ) from the coast , Ptolemy ( c . 90 – c . 168 CE ) described it as a maritime city , as did Josephus in Antiquities Book 13 , 15 : 4 . The same Josephus though describes Ashdod as " in the inland parts " ( Antiquities Book 14 , 4 : 4 ) . This curious contradiction may refer to Ashdod 's control of a separate harbor , called Azotus Paralios , or Ashdod @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Sea ( παράλιος - " paralios " , Greek for " on the coast " ) . The landlocked city was called by the Romans Hippinos , " of the horsemen " , and by the Greeks until late in the medieval period , Azotus mesogaios or " inland Azotus " .
During the Byzantine period , the port city overshadowed its inland counterpart in size and importance . The 6th @-@ century Madaba Map is showing both under their respective names .
= = = In the New Testament = = =
The 1st century AD Book of Acts refers to Azotus as the place in which Philip the Evangelist reappeared after he converted the Ethiopian eunuch to Christianity . Philip preached the gospel throughout the area until he reached Caesarea , about 90 km to the north .
= = = Early Muslim period = = =
The prominence of Hellenised , then Christian Azotus continued until the 7th century , when it came under Muslim rule .
A coastal fort was erected by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al @-@ Malik , the builder of the Dome of the Rock , at or near the former Azotus Paralios , which was later reconstructed by the Fatimids and Crusaders .
The medieval Arabic name of the port town was Mahuz Azdud , " harbour of Azdud " , a very interesting combination between the by then already ancient Aramaic word for harbour , mahuz , and " Azdud " , a return to a form much closer to the old Semitic name " Ashdod " .
The geographer Ibn Khordadbeh ( c . 820 – 912 ) referred to the inland city as " Azdud " and described it as a postal station between al @-@ Ramla and Gaza .
= = = Crusader period = = =
Documents from the Crusader period indicate that Ashdod belonged to the lordship of Ramla , and it appears probable that in 1169 the old Arab sea fort was given by Hugh , lord of Ramla , to his knight Nicolas de Beroard . From this period the fort is known as Castellum Beroart .
= = = Ayyubid and Mamluk periods = = =
The port stops being mentioned during the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods , making it likely that it was destroyed by the Muslims along with the other port cities , due to fears that they might again be used by Crusader invasions from the sea . With the destruction of the port city , its inland counterpart regains its importance .
= = = Ottoman rule = = =
The location of the village on Via Maris enhanced the city 's importance during the Ottoman rule . In 1596 CE , administrated by nahiya ( " subdistrict " ) of Gaza under the liwa ' ( " district " ) of Gaza , the population of Ashdod numbered about 413 . The villagers paid taxes on wheat , barley , sesame and fruit crops , as well as goats and beehives .
In the late nineteenth century , Isdud was described as a village spread across the eastern slope of a low hill , covered with gardens . A ruined khan stood southwest of the village . Its houses were one @-@ storey high with walls and enclosures built of adobe brick . There were two main sources of water : a pond and a masonry well . Both were surrounded by groves of date @-@ palm and fig @-@ trees .
= = = British Mandate = = =
In the 1922 census of Palestine , conducted by the British Mandate authorities , Isdud had a population of 2 @,@ 566 ; 2 @,@ 555 Muslims and 11 Christians , where the Christians were all Catholics . The population increased in the 1931 census to 3 @,@ 240 ; 3 @,@ 238 Muslims and 2 Christians , in a total of 764 houses .
During the Mandatory period , Isdud had two elementary schools ; one for boys which was opened in 1922 , and one for girls which started in 1942 . By the mid @-@ 1940s the boy @-@ school had 371 students , while the girl @-@ school had 74 .
In 1945 Isdud had a population of 4 @,@ 620 Arabs and 290 Jews , with a total of 47 @,@ 871 dunams of land , according to an official land and population survey . Of this , 3 @,@ 277 dunams were used citrus and bananas , 8 @,@ 327 for plantations and irrigable land , 23 @,@ 762 for cereals , while 131 dunams were built @-@ up land .
= = = 1948 war = = =
The village of Isdud was occupied by the Egyptian army on May 29 , 1948 and became the Egyptians ' northernmost position during the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War . While the Israelis failed to capture territory , and suffered heavy casualties , Egypt changed its strategy from offensive to defensive , thus halting their advance northwards . Egyptian and Israeli forces clashed in the surrounding area , with the Egyptians being unable to hold the Ad Halom bridge over the Lachish River . Israeli forces surrounded the town during Operation Pleshet , and shelled and bombed it from the air . For three nights from 18 October the Israeli Air Force bombed Isdud and several other locations . Fearing encirclement , Egyptian forces retreated on October 28 , 1948 and the majority of the residents fled . The 300 townspeople who remained were driven southwards by the Israel Defense Forces .
= = = State of Israel = = =
In 1950 , the moshavim of Sde Uziyahu and Shtulim were established to the east of Isdud , and in 1949 and 1953 , Bnei Darom and Gan HaDarom were established north of Isdud . According to Khalidi , they were established on the village lands .
The modern city of Ashdod was founded in 1956 . On May 1 , 1956 , then finance minister Levi Eshkol approved the establishment of the city of Ashdod . " Ashdod Company Ltd . " , a daughter company of City @-@ Builders Company Ltd . , was created for that purpose by Oved Ben @-@ Ami and Philipp Klutznick . The first settlers , 22 families from Morocco , arrived in November 1956 , followed by a small influx of immigrants from Egypt . In July 1957 , the government granted a 24 square kilometres ( 9 square miles ) , approximately 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) from Tel Aviv , to the Ashdod Company Ltd . , for building the modern city of Ashdod . The building of the Eshkol A power station in Ashdod was completed in 1958 and included 3 units : 2 units of 50 megawatt , and one unit of 45 megawatt ( with sea water desalination capabilities ) .
The first local council was appointed in October 1959 . Dov Gur was appointed the first local council head on behalf of the Israeli Ministry of Interior . The Magistrates ' Court in the city was inaugurated in 1963 . The building of the port of Ashdod began in April 1961 . The port was inaugurated in November 1963 , and was first utilized in November 1965 , with the coming of the Swedish ship " Wiengelgad " .
Large @-@ scale growth of the city began in 1991 , with the massive arrival of immigrants from the Soviet Union and Ethiopia and infrastructure development . From 1990 to 2001 the city accepted more than 100 @,@ 000 new inhabitants , a 150 % growth .
Ashdod was one of six cities that won the 2012 Education Prize awarded by the Israel Ministry of Education .
= = Urban development = =
The modern city of Ashdod city was built outside the historic settlement site , on virgin sands . The development followed a main development plan . The planners divided the city into seventeen neighborhoods of ten to fifteen thousand people . Wide avenues between the neighborhoods make traffic flow relatively freely inside the city . Each neighborhood has access to its own commercial center , urban park , and health and education infrastructure . The original plan also called for a business and administrative center , built in the mid @-@ 1990s , when the city population grew rapidly more than doubling in ten years .
Three industrial zones were placed adjacent to the port in the northern part of the city , taking into account the prevailing southern winds which take air pollution away from the city . The plan had its problems , however , including asymmetric growth of upscale and poorer neighborhoods and the long @-@ time lack of a main business and administrative center .
The city was planned for a maximum of 250 @,@ 000 inhabitants , and an additional area in the south was reserved for further development .
In 2012 , a plan to build an industrial zone on part of the Ashdod Sand Dune was approved . The plan calls for a hi @-@ tech industrial park , events halls , and coffee shops to be built adjacent to the train station . It will cover 400 dunams ( 0 @.@ 4 km2 ; 0 @.@ 2 sq mi ) , including 130 dunams of built @-@ up space , with the rest of the area being preserved as a nature reserve . In addition , the Port of Ashdod is undergoing a massive expansion program , and a private hospital will be built in the city .
= = Geography = =
The Ashdod @-@ Nitzanim sand dune nature reserve is a 20 @-@ kilometer ( 12 @-@ mile ) stretch of sand dunes on the southern outskirts of Ashdod .
= = Climate = =
Ashdod has a Mediterranean climate with hot summers , pleasant spring and fall , and cool , rainy winters . As a seaside town , the humidity tends to be high many times year round , and rain occurs mainly from November to March . In winter , temperatures seldom drop below 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) and are more likely to be in the range of 10 – 15 ° C ( 50 – 59 ° F ) , while in summer the average is 27 ° C ( 81 ° F ) . The average annual rainfall is 510 mm ( 20 in ) .
= = Economy = =
Ashdod is one of the most important industrial centers in Israel . All industrial activities in the city are located in northern areas such as the port area , the northern industrial zone , and around the Lachish River . The port of Ashdod is the largest port in Israel , handling about 60 % of Israel 's port cargo . It was mainly upgraded in recent years and will be able to provide berths for Panamax ships . Various shipping companies offices are also located in the port area which also is home to an Eshkol A power station and coal terminal .
The Northern industrial zone is located on Highway 41 and includes various industry including an oil refinery , which is one of only two in the country . The heavy industry zone located south of the Lachish River was once the main industrial center in Ashdod . Recently , however , leisure facilities have moved into the area . There is still some industry here , however , such as a Teva Pharmaceutical Industries plant , construction components producer Ashtrom , and Solbar a soybean oil producer . Ashdod is also home to Elta , a part of Israel Aircraft Industries where radar equipment , electronic warfare systems , and ELINT are developed .
= = Shopping , going out = =
Historically each neighborhood of Ashdod had its own commercial center . In 1990 , however , when the mall shopping culture developed in Israel , the main commercial activity in Ashdod moved to malls . The first mall to open in Ashdod was the Forum Center in the industrial zone . Restaurants , bars and night clubs were opened in the area . Today , the Forum center is mainly used for offices . Lev Ashdod Mall , which opened in 1993 , has been enlarged and upgraded since then . Ashdod Mall , billed at the time as the city 's largest shopping mall , has also been redesigned since its opening in 1995 . City Mall , Ashdod was opened in a combined building with the central bus station in 1996 , following the examples of the Tel Aviv Central Bus Station and the Jerusalem Central Bus Station . The Sea Mall , a three @-@ story mall near the government offices , has a climbing wall and movie theater . Star Center doubled in size in 2007 .
= = Education = =
In 2013 , Ashdod had 500 schools employing 3 @,@ 500 teachers . The student population was 55 @,@ 000 . The city 's education budget was NIS 418 million shekels .
Lycée français Guivat @-@ Washington , a French international high school , is in Givat Washington , in proximity to Ashdod .
= = Transportation = =
= = = Road = = =
Ashdod is located on the historic Via Maris . Highway 4 was developed following this route along the southern sea shore of Israel ; it serves as the main connection to the north , towards the Tel Aviv metropolitan area , and to the south , towards Ashkelon.Ad Halom junction was planned as the main entrance to the city from the east .
Ashdod Interchange was opened in 2009 . The interchange continues the freeway section of Highway 4 further south , by removing the traffic light at this junction , and also added grade separation with the railway . The other main road in the area is Highway 41 which served the city from the start of its modern history . This road runs from west to east towards Gedera and it is the main transport link to the port of Ashdod and the industrial zones , and connects to Highway 4 with an interchange .
In late 2012 , Ashdod won a NIS 220 million grant from the Israeli Transport Ministry to improve public transportation and decrease private car use . According to the municipality 's plans , a 20 @-@ kilometer ring of road arteries will be given priority in public transportation . These arteries will carry four bus rapid transit lines . In the city 's more crowded areas , such as Herzl Boulevard or the western part of Menachem Begin Boulevard , a public transportation lane will be paved in the center of the road . In other areas , the right @-@ hand lane will be reserved for public transportation . Buses will also be given priority at traffic lights ; electronic devices will allow a bus to signal its approach , causing the light to turn green . In addition , an electric @-@ powered bicycle rental network will be set up , and 22 kilometres ( 14 miles ) of bicycle paths will be paved in the city .
= = = Train = = =
The passenger railway connection to Ashdod opened in 1992 after the renovation of the historical railway to Egypt . Ashdod railway station is on Israel Railways ' Binyamina / Netanya – Tel Aviv – Ashkelon line and it is located near Ad Halom Junction . The station was upgraded in 2003 when a new terminal building was built . The station building is modern , but proper road access to it was only organized on September 23 , 2008 , when a new road to the station was opened .
There is also heavy freight traffic in the area . Port of Ashdod has its own railway spur line as well as a special terminal for potash brought from the Sodom area and exported abroad .
= = = Buses = = =
A new central bus station opened in 1996 . It serves as the terminus both for inter- and intracity lines . The central bus station is attached to the City Mall . Intercity bus lines connect the city with most population centers in central and southern Israel . Following is the list of bus companies serving routes at the central bus station :
The Egged Ta 'avura company has been operating urban buses in Ashdod since 2007 . In addition , a share taxi service exists in Ashdod , operated by Moniyot HaIr . Most share taxi lines coincide with intracity bus lines .
= = = Cruise ships and yachts = = =
There is a passenger pier in the Port of Ashdod . The traffic at this gateway is constantly growing , especially due to cruise ship activities . The other sea gateway is Blue Marina .
= = Demographics = =
According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics , Ashdod had a population of about 204 @,@ 400 at the end of 2006 , making it the fifth largest city in Israel . The annual population growth rate is 2 @.@ 6 % and the ratio of women to men is 1 @,@ 046 to 1 @,@ 000 . The population age distribution was recorded as 19 @.@ 7 % under the age of 10 , 15 @.@ 7 % from age 10 to 19 , 14 @.@ 9 % from 20 to 29 , 19 @.@ 1 % from 30 to 44 , 19 @.@ 1 % from 45 to 64 , and 11 @.@ 3 % were 65 or older . The population of Ashdod is significantly younger than the Israeli average because of the large number of young couples living in the city . The city is ranked medium @-@ low in socio @-@ economic grading , with a rating of 4 out of 10 . 56 @.@ 1 % of 12th grade students in Ashdod were eligible for matriculation certificates in 2000 . The average salary in 2000 was NIS 4 @,@ 821 compared to the national average of NIS 6 @,@ 835 .
= = = Immigrant absorption = = =
Ashdod has seen much of its growth as the result of absorption of immigrants . The first settlers were Jewish immigrants from Morocco and Egypt . In the 1960s Ashdod accepted a large number of immigrants from Romania , followed by a large number from Georgia ( then part of the Soviet Union ) in the 1970s . More than 60 @,@ 000 Russian Jews from the former Soviet Union who immigrated to Israel in the 1990s following the collapse of the Soviet Union settled in Ashdod . Recent demographic figures suggest that about 32 % of the city 's population are new immigrants , 85 % of whom are originally from the former Soviet Union . During the 1990s the city absorbed a large number of Beta Israel immigrants from Ethiopia , and in more recent years Ashdod absorbed a large number of immigrants from the United States , United Kingdom , France , Argentina , and South Africa . Many of the 60 @,@ 000 Marathi @-@ speaking Bene Israel from Maharashtra , India who moved to Israel also settled there . Ashdod also receives a significant amount of internal migration , especially from the Gush Dan region .
= = = Religion = = =
Over 95 % of Ashdod 's population is Jewish , over 30 % of whom are religiously observant . Despite this , the city is generally secular , although most of the non @-@ Jewish population is a result of mixed marriages . About 100 families are affiliated with the Pittsburg Hasidic group , established here in 1969 by Grand Rabbi Avraham Abba Leifer and continued today by his son , Grand Rabbi Mordechai Yissachar Ber Leifer . Ashdod has many synagogues serving different streams of Judaism . The city is also home to the world 's largest Karaite community , about five thousand strong . There is also a Scandinavian Seamen Protestant church , established by Norwegian Righteous Among the Nations pastor Per Faye @-@ Hansen .
= = Local government = =
Ashdod was declared a city in 1968 . The Ashdod City Council has twenty @-@ five elected members , one of whom is the mayor . The mayor serves a five @-@ year term and appoints six deputies . The current mayor of Ashdod , Yehiel Lasri , was last elected in 2008 after Zvi Zilker has been in office continuously since 1989 . Within the city council there are various factions representing different population groups . The headquarters of the Ashdod Municipality and the mayor 's office are at city hall . This new municipal building is located in the main culture and business area .
= = = Mayors = = =
= = Culture and art = =
= = = Music and performing arts = = =
Ashdod is home to the Israeli Andalusian Orchestra , which performs Andalusian classical music . It is an Arabic music style that originates from Moorish Iberia or Al @-@ Andalus , has been jealously preserved in its original form by Arab and Jewish musicians of the Maghreb over the centuries , and has left its mark on the cante flamenco , the flamenco singing style , perhaps better known in the West . The orchestra was awarded the Israel Prize in 2006 .
Ashdod also has one of the biggest open theaters in Israel - Amphi Ashdod that can hosts more than 6 @,@ 400 guests . The Amphi hosts Ashdod 's international art festival " Méditerranée " .
The MonArt Centre for the Arts , which includes a ballet school , a music center and the Ashdod Museum of Art , is a performing arts center which comprises different galleries , art schools , studios and events . The ambitious architectural complex has been inaugurated in 2003 . Theatre and concerts are hosted in several cultural venues ; the most important are performed at the Ashdod Performing Arts Center , a new 938 @-@ seat concert hall of distinct elegance and originality designed by Israeli architect Haim Dotan and inaugurated in 2012 in the city 's cultural center . Ashdod plays host to many national and international music festivals , including the annual Super Jazz Ashdod Festival managed by Leonid Ptashka .
The ACADMA conservatory is a professional educational institute for music and performance studies based in Ashdod . Operated under the supervision of the Ministry of Education , the institute was established in 1966 , and serves as a home for 600 young musicians in different fields .
= = = Museums = = =
The Corinne Mamane Museum of Philistine Culture is worldwide the only museum dedicated to this topic . It reopened in 2014 with a new interactive exhibition .
The Ashdod Museum of Art , located in the MonArt center ( see above at " Music and performing arts " ) , has 12 galleries and two exhibition halls . In an architectural echo of the Louvre , the entrance to the museum is through a glass pyramid . In 2003 the internal spaces of the museum were redesigned by the architects Eyal Weizman , Rafi Segal and Manuel Herz .
= = Sports = =
Ashdod 's football team , F.C. Ashdod represents the city in Ligat ha 'Al , Israel 's Premier League . The club is known for its successful soccer school . The city 's top basketball team is Maccabi Ashdod . The men squad plays in First League , Israel 's First tier league , and the women squad Maccabi Bnot Ashdod plays in top division .
Ashdod plays host to many national and international sporting tournaments , including the annual Ashdod International Chess Festival . The city has a cricket team , a rarity in Israel . It is run and organized by citizens of Indian descent . Ashdod 's beaches are a venue for water sports , like as windsurfing and Scuba diving . The Ashdod Marina offers yachting services .
Notable athletes from Ashdod include :
Vered Borochovsky – 2000 Sydney Olympics and 2004 Summer Olympics swimmer .
Alon Hazan – international soccer player
Haim Revivo – international soccer player
Gocha Tzitziashvili – 2003 Greco @-@ Roman Wrestling World champion & 2004 Summer Olympics wrestler
= = Twin towns – Sister cities = =
Ashdod is twinned with
= = Notable residents = =
Valery Panov
= Héctor López =
Héctor Headley López Swainson ( born July 9 , 1929 ( possibly April 8 , 1932 ) ) is a former left fielder and third baseman in Major League Baseball who played for the Kansas City Athletics and New York Yankees from 1955 to 1966 . He is notable as the first black manager at the AAA baseball level , as the third outfielder on the Maris / Mantle Yankees , and as the Kansas City Athletics franchise hitting streak record holder . López was on World Series Championship teams for the Yankees in 1961 and 1962 . In various seasons , he finished among the top 10 American League hitters in hits , runs batted in , runs scored , doubles , triples , slugging percentage , sacrifice flies , sacrifice hits , games played , times hit by pitch and at bats . He was also known for his hustle , his clutch hitting and poor fielding .
López was the second Panamanian @-@ born major league baseball player and continues to be one of the country 's most revered world champion athletes . Although Humberto Robinson ( 102 games played / 5 seasons ) debuted in the major leagues 22 days earlier than López , López ( 1 @,@ 450 games played / 12 seasons ) was the first of the 49 major leaguers born in Panama to have an extensive career . He was the first Panamanian @-@ born major leaguer to finish in the top 10 in any official statistical category ( sacrifice hits , 1956 ) ; first to lead his league in any official statistic ( sacrifice flies , 1958 ) ; first to play in the World Series ( with the 1960 Yankees ) ; and the first to win a World Championship ( with the 1961 Yankees ) .
He was an infielder for the Athletics , and later was often the third outfielder on the Maris / Mantle Yankees of the early and mid @-@ 1960s . López had his most successful season in 1959 , but continued to contribute effectively during the early 1960s during their pennant successes . The utility player divided his career almost equally between infield and outfield positions . After retiring from baseball , he went on to become a groundbreaking manager in minor league baseball as the first to break the baseball color line as a black manager at the AAA level for the Buffalo Bisons and then served in various international managerial and coaching positions .
= = Early life = =
Born in Colón , Panama , López grew up in Colón and the neighboring Panama Canal Zone . He held a part @-@ time job at an American military base bowling alley . He was a high school track star whose father had been a pitcher for the Panama national baseball team . As a high school athlete , he played semipro baseball for US $ 100 per month in Colón . After he graduated from high school he signed to play with St. Hyacinthe of the Canadian Provincial League who also employed Clifford " Connie " Johnson .
= = Kansas City Athletics ( 1955 – 59 ) = =
Prior to the 1952 season , López was acquired by the Philadelphia Athletics from the Drummondville Cubs of the Class @-@ C Provincial League for $ 1 @,@ 500 ( $ 13 @,@ 367 today ) . In 1954 , López won baseball 's Triple Crown in the Winter League . Throughout his professional career , he played in the Panama winter league where he won three batting titles and regularly led the league in home runs . López developed in the A 's farm system , and when the team relocated to Kansas City in 1955 he was recalled to the major league club . López made his major league debut in 1955 . That season he finished second to Carlos Paula among rookies in batting average and was overshadowed by American League strikeout @-@ leading pitcher Herb Score for the Rookie of the Year . He usually played second or third base during his time with the Athletics . During his rookie season , he finished third on the team in home runs , trailing only Gus Zernial ( 30 ) and Vic Power ( 19 ) . He tied Jim Finigan for third on the team in RBIs with 68 , trailing only Zernial and Power , who had 84 and 76 , respectively . López was the team 's regular third baseman , and was the youngest regular starter on the team . In 1956 , the team finished with a 52 – 102 record , but López had a career @-@ high 153 hits . He also set then @-@ career highs in home runs ( 18 ) and runs batted in ( 69 ) . In his early years , black and white players did not room together on the road , so he roomed with Vic Power even though Power 's closest friend on the team was Clete Boyer . In 1957 , he had a 22 @-@ game hitting streak , that is the All @-@ time Kansas City Athletics team record for the thirteen seasons the franchise played there .
He earned a position in the top @-@ 10 in the American League in both games played and at bats in 1956 and 1958 , as well as leading the AL in sacrifice flies and times grounded into double plays in 1958 . López also was in the top 10 in doubles and runs scored in 1958 and in sacrifice hits in 1956 . On June 26 , 1958 , López hit three home runs in a game against the Washington Senators . During his career with the Athletics , he hit .278 with 67 home runs and 269 RBIs , and scored 298 runs . However , his talents were wasted on a team that never finished above 6th place . On May 26 , 1959 , he was traded with Ralph Terry to the New York Yankees for Johnny Kucks , Tom Sturdivant , and Jerry Lumpe . For all his offensive skills , López led American League third basemen in errors in each of his four full seasons in Kansas City .
Baseball writer and Kansas City Athletics fan Bill James wrote that López was as bad a defensive player as you would ever want to see . The Authors of The Great American Baseball Card Flipping , Trading and Bubble Gum Book wrote of López 's defense " I would like to go on record right here and now as declaring Hector López the all @-@ time worst fielding major league ballplayer . "
= = New York Yankees ( 1959 – 66 ) = =
In his first season with the Yankees after being traded , he played 35 games in the outfield , the first time in his career he played more than 20 outfield games . He still played 76 games at third base for the team . In his 33 games with Kansas City at the start of the 1959 Major League Baseball season , he had played exclusively at second base . In his next five seasons with the Yankees from 1960 to 1964 , he mostly played in the outfield as he was part of five consecutive pennant winners . During his time with the Yankees , he was often the third outfielder of the Maris / Mantle Yankees that won two of the five consecutive World Series they played in from 1960 to 1964 . He logged the most games in left field during the back @-@ to @-@ back World Series Championship seasons of 1961 & 1962 ( 129 vs. Berra @-@ 109 , Tresh @-@ 43 ) . During the five pennant years , with Roger Maris playing right field and Mickey Mantle playing center field , López logged 406 games in left field . This was the most by any Yankee during this period ( Tom Tresh @-@ 195 , Yogi Berra @-@ 129 ) . López is one of eleven Yankees to have been on these five consecutive pennant winners and along with Whitey Ford , Elston Howard , Bobby Richardson , & Clete Boyer is one of seven Yankees to have been part of the entire Maris / Mantle Yankee era . In 1965 and 1966 , he made the majority of his outfield appearances in right field . However , in 1965 Mantle did not play center field . Mantle did return to center field for the majority of his appearances in 1966 ( the final year of the Maris / Mantle Yankees and the final year of López ' career ) .
In 1959 , he finished in the top 10 in slugging percentage , hits , doubles and RBI . In 1960 he was among the top 10 in triples and sacrifice hits . During the 1961 World Series , López replaced Mantle ( who only had six Series at bats ) in Game 4 and recorded a 2 @-@ run single on the way to a 7 – 0 victory . In Game 5 , which was the Series @-@ clinching game , he homered and tripled , driving in five runs , and caught Vada Pinson 's fly ball for the final out of the Series . His three for seven , 7 run batted in performance continues to be remembered by New Yorkers as a highlight of the series .
= = Managing = =
López was the manager of the Buffalo Bisons in 1969 . This made him the first black manager at the AAA level . This was six years before Frank Robinson became the first black manager in the major leagues . López was one of three black men ( along with Sam Bankhead and Gene Baker ) to manage in the minor leagues in the twenty @-@ five years after Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier in 1947 . In 1990 , he coached Malverne High School of Malverne , New York in Nassau County on Long Island in addition to working in the parks department in the Town of Hempstead . López has also managed in Venezuela and been a player @-@ manager in Panama . He was the manager of the Panama national baseball team in the 2009 World Baseball Classic .
= = Panamanian history = =
He paved the way as a role model for the first three Panamanian Major League All @-@ Stars , Ben Oglivie and Manny Sanguillén also from Colón , and Rod Carew a Colonense born in neighboring Gatun . López recorded many firsts among Panamanian baseball players ; he was the first regular major leaguer , since 1955 was his rookie season , whereas Robinson did not qualify as a rookie until 1958 ( the season in which he recorded his 50th career inning pitched ) and Webbo Clarke , who also debuted in 1955 , never qualified as a rookie . López ' 1955 rookie season , when he batted .290 , was also the first by a Panamanian to qualify for baseball 's statistical leadership by recording the minimum number of plate appearances or innings pitched . Thus , although he was not the first to appear in the major leagues , he was in a sense the first Panamanian everyday player .
None of the other major leaguers born in Panama who played in the 1950s ( Robinson , Clarke , Pat Scantlebury , Tom Hughes ) played in the major league postseason , which then only included the World Series , before López did so with the 1960 Yankees . No other Panamanian was part of a World Series champion before López with the 1961 Yankees . He was the first Panamanian to record many statistical accomplishments , such as a stolen base , home run , double , triple , walk or strikeout . His 1956 season was the first by a Panamanian with more than 150 hits , more than 25 doubles , 90 runs scored , or more than
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" rising importance of the villain in Bollywood . " According to Sinha , the title had not been planned as such , and was ultimately chosen because Ra.One " sounded cooler " than G.One. Khan was advised to name the film after his own character ; he declined to do so , citing the inter @-@ dependence between good and evil . He also called Alfred Hitchcock as his inspiration , and pointed out that the antagonists in films like Sholay , Mr. India and Sadak were better remembered than the protagonists .
= = = Principal photography = = =
The crew of Ra.One featured both Indian and overseas personnel . Nicola Pecorini served as the director of photography , with V. Manikandan providing assistance . Andy Gill and Spiro Razatos were hired as the stunt supervisors , and Nino Pansini was hired as the stunt cinematographer . Sabu Cyril and Marcus Wookey were responsible for the production design . The film 's producer was Bobby Chawla , but Gauri Khan later stepped in after the former suffered a brain haemorrhage . Filming took place at a number of studios , notably Filmistan Studios , Film City and Yash Raj Studios in India and the Black Hangar Studios in the UK .
Principal photography was initially set to begin in Miami , but the idea was abandoned due to budget constraints . The first phase of filming began in Goa on 21 March 2010 and continued until May . The second and third phases took place in London with the entire cast , beginning in July 2010 and ending in August . The next phase was split into two schedules ; the first schedule commenced at Filmistan Studios in the first week of September 2010 , while the second schedule began in December 2010 and took place over a seven @-@ day period . The remaining portions were filmed in July 2011 at Film City . A cameo appearance and a music video were filmed in the weeks leading up to the release , the former at the Whistling Woods Studios in Mumbai .
Ra.One featured three major action sequences , which were filmed in sets and real locations across Mumbai and London . The cinematography borrowed ideas from video games , such as rapid transitions between first @-@ person and third @-@ person perspectives . Procedures such as bullet time were also incorporated into the film . The production design was closely associated with the lighting and cinematography to facilitate smooth filming . However , filming faced a number of difficulties including increasing costs , delays and safety constraints . In addition , differences between Khan and Sinha caused tensions on the sets .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
As with the filming crew , the post @-@ production crew of the film included both Indian and overseas personnel . Prime Focus carried out the film 's 3 @-@ D conversion , with London @-@ based colorist Richard Fearon performing the color grading . Red Chillies VFX partnered with a number of visual effects studios around the world , and undertook the incorporation of the visual effects under the supervision of Jeffrey Kleiser . Nvidia provided the information technology – based software utilised for the effects , while Edwark Quirk supervised over the computer @-@ generated imagery used in the film . Resul Pookutty was responsible for the film 's sound design .
The idea for converting the film to 3 @-@ D was put forth during filming , and was implemented in July 2011 due to a revived interest in 3 @-@ D films . The process required 2 @,@ 600 artists to convert 4 @,@ 400 shots of the film . The sound design involved bridging the real and the virtual world , and the required sound enhancements were achieved by using the Dolby Surround 7 @.@ 1 system . Incorporating the visual effects began in April 2010 , and was preceded by extensive research . 1 @,@ 200 artists worked for 2 ½ years to complete the visual effects work . A number of complex procedures were executed , including cubical transformations and the design of the faceless form of Ra.One.
Despite precautions , the post @-@ production faced significant delays owing to the digital inter @-@ mediation , increased work @-@ load due to the 3 @-@ D and dubbed versions of the film , and delays in the completion of the visual effects . The post @-@ production also faced budget constraints and witnessed an overuse of CGI according to the cinematographer . The delays left only two days for printing the film and sending it to theatres , generating significant anxiety over a possible delay in the release . Khan subsequently kept strict tabs on the progress of work , and postponed his knee surgery to complete the film on time .
= = = Costumes = = =
The body suits worn by Khan and Rampal were designed by Robert Kurtzman and Tim Flattery , and made by a team of specialists based in Los Angeles . Sinha spent around three months conceptualising the costumes , watching various superhero films to design a costume not created already . He then wrote a 23 @-@ page document with his sketches and details of what he wanted , and gave it to the designers to work upon . To create the suit , Khan was required to enter a small chamber where a warm latex @-@ like liquid was released up to his neck and allowed to solidify , forming the mould which was then peeled off his body . The suit was joined by a concealed zipper and subsequently modified . Computer @-@ generated embellishments such as light beams and electricity were added to the suits after Khan expressed dissatisfaction with the initial rushes of the film . A total of 21 costumes were made for the film , with each suit reportedly costing ₹ 10 million ( US $ 150 @,@ 000 ) .
Khan 's suit was made of reinforced latex , coloured steel @-@ blue and fitted with micro @-@ computer circuitry . Rampal 's suit was made of three @-@ inch thick solid rubber , and was red in color . Both actors were required to wear additional suits inside their body suits to prevent skin contact . Wearing the suits created a number of difficulties for the actors . It took 20 minutes to put on the suits and 40 minutes to remove them . In addition , the non @-@ porous nature of the suits created intense heat inside , causing excessive perspiration despite the presence of special air conditioning ducts . Khan later felt that the suits ' conception had been a mistake since filming occurred during the day ; digital adjustments to the suits brought " all the efforts to naught . "
Manish Malhotra designed the look and the costume of Kareena Kapoor for the song " Chammak Challo " , which received widespread media coverage . Kapoor wore a red sari draped in the style of a dhoti . Since the release of the song , the costume was termed a " fashion rage , " becoming popular in India and some overseas countries . Fashion experts applauded the costume and Kapoor 's ability to carry it off " stunningly , " though certain experts dismissed the naming of the sari color .
= = Music = =
The soundtrack of Ra.One was composed by Vishal @-@ Shekhar , with the lyrics being written by Atahar Panchi , Vishal Dadlani and Kumaar . A. R. Rahman provided the background score for a single sequence . Sinha announced that R & B singer Akon and the Prague Philharmonic Orchestra would be a part of the soundtrack ; the former lent his vocals for " Chammak Challo " and " Criminal " , while the latter performed in " Bhare Naina " . The composers obtained the official license to use Ben E. King 's " Stand By Me , " on which they based the song " Dildaara . " The soundtrack contains fifteen tracks , including seven original songs , four remixes , three instrumentals and an international version of " Chammak Challo " . The music rights were bought by T @-@ Series for ₹ 150 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 2 million ) . The Hindi version of the soundtrack was released on 12 September 2011 ; the Tamil and Telugu versions were released on 10 October 2011 , featuring six tracks each .
= = Release = =
= = = Statistics = = =
In India , the Hindi version of Ra.One was released across more than 4 @,@ 000 plus screens worldwide- 3 @,@ 100 screens in 2 @,@ 100 theatres , breaking the record for the widest Bollywood release previously held by Bodyguard ( 2011 ) . The Tamil and Telugu versions were released on 275 prints and 125 prints respectively . A week before the release , multiplex owners throughout India decided to allot 95 % of the total available screen space to the film . Overseas , Ra.One was released in 904 prints . This including 600 prints in Germany , 344 prints in the USA , 200 – 300 prints in South Korea , 202 prints in the UK , 79 prints in the Middle East , 75 prints in Russia , 51 prints in Australia , 49 prints in Canada and 25 prints in New Zealand and Taiwan . In early October 2011 , a partnership deal was being finalised by the distributors to allow the film to be released in China across 1 @,@ 000 prints . In addition , the film was released in Pakistan and non @-@ traditional territories like Brazil , Spain , Italy , Greece and Hong Kong . The 3D version was released in 550 screens across the world . Ra.One was noted for the extensive use of digital prints , reportedly making up 50 – 60 % of the total release ; in India , the film was exhibited in over 1 @,@ 300 digital theatres , breaking the record previously held by Bodyguard . The wide digital release was implemented to lower distribution costs , make the film accessible to a wider audience and reduce piracy . However , despite the measures taken , pirated versions of Ra.One were available on the Internet within hours of the film 's release .
= = = Marketing = = =
The producers of Ra.One spent ₹ 100 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ) out of a ₹ 520 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 7 million ) marketing budget , ₹ 150 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 2 million ) of this was utilised for internet promotions alone . The film 's first theatrical poster was released in December 2010 , and was followed by the release of two teaser trailers during the 2011 ICC Cricket World Cup . The first theatrical trailer premiered three months later . Khan and Sinha undertook a multi @-@ city tour during which they unveiled a 3 @,@ 600 feet @-@ long piece of fan mail to collect audience messages . The official website of Ra.One was launched on 31 May 2011 , and an official YouTube channel for the film was subsequently unveiled . On 20 October 2011 , Khan held a live chat with fans on Google Plus , the first time an Indian film personality had done so . Rampal 's look in the film , which had been kept secret , was revealed in late October 2011 .
The film 's marketing utilised merchandise and games to facilitate the creation of a franchise . Khan marketed merchandise related to the film , which included toys , tablets and apparel . On 14 October 2011 , a gaming tournament featuring games like Call of Duty was conducted in Mumbai and telecast live on YouTube . Red Chillies Entertainment partnered with Sony Computer Entertainment Europe to create " Ra.One – The Game , " a game for PlayStations which was released on 5 October 2011 . The producers further collaborated with UTV Indiagames to design a social game titled Ra.One Genesis , with an independent plot based on G.One , in addition to designing digital comics based on the film 's characters .
= = = Screenings = = =
In May 2011 , the first rushes of Ra.One were shown to the cast of Khan 's other home production Always Kabhi Kabhi ( 2011 ) . Subsequently , the film was screened for test audiences to study and gauge the film 's appeal across different age groups . A few days prior to the theatrical release , Khan arranged a special screening of the film 's final cut in Yash Raj Studios , where he invited close friends , his family and the film 's crew . Between 24 and 26 October 2011 , Ra.One had international premieres in Dubai , London and Toronto , all of which were chosen due to their international significance and large South Asian populations . The premiere in Dubai was held on 24 October 2011 at the Grand Cinemas , Wafi . A high @-@ profile dinner and charity auction followed , where Khan raised AED30,000 ( approximately US $ 8 @,@ 200 ) to build a workshop for children with special needs . The premiere included three simultaneous screenings of the film , for which tickets were placed on sale for the public . The premiere in London took place at the O2 Cineworld the following day , and the premiere in Toronto took place at the TIFF Bell Lightbox on 26 October 2011 .
Ra.One was submitted to the Central Board of Film Certification on 14 October 2011 to receive its viewership rating . The Board raised strong objections to the film 's action scenes , fearing that they would influence young children to emulate the stunts . The police and the Indian Railways security force had made similar objections to the train @-@ based stunts in the film , claiming that youngsters would " blindly imitate them " and hence put their lives at risk . The film was finally passed with a ' U ' certificate without cuts , but under the condition that prominent disclaimers were shown , stating that the stunts were computer @-@ generated and should not be imitated . The British Board of Film Classification rated the film 12A for " moderate fantasy violence " . In March 2012 , a Mid @-@ Day report alleged that Ra.One had received a favourable rating , pointing out that the producers had violated the rules by meeting the Board officials during the screening .
= = = Plagiarism allegations = = =
The film faced allegations of plagiarism with similarities to Terminator 2 : Judgment Day ( 1991 ) , the Batman series , Iron Man ( 2008 ) , The Sorcerer 's Apprentice ( 2010 ) and Tron : Legacy ( 2010 ) . Khan denied the allegations , saying , " I got inspired from a lot of superhero movies but the movie is original . In fact , Ra.One will be the first superhero @-@ based movie in the world in which the superhero lives in a family . "
A few days before the release , screenwriter Yash Patnaik claimed that Ra.One resembled a concept that he had developed several years before . Patnaik appealed to the Bombay High Court to delay the film 's release , until he was given due credit or 10 % of the film 's overall profit . The court , observing prima facie evidence that there had been copyright violations , asked the filmmakers to deposit ₹ 10 million ( US $ 150 @,@ 000 ) with the court on 21 October 2011 before releasing the film . However , Patnaik challenged the court 's decision and demanded that the producers give him credit and not cash . Sinha later claimed that he alone had developed the film 's story .
= = = Hacking = = =
Ra.One also faced cybertheft and hacking issues . On 3 June 2011 , three days after its launch , the official website of the film was hacked by suspected Pakistani cyber criminals who stated that the act was in revenge for a similar attack on a Karachi press club website . The hackers defaced the homepage and left a note threatening the Indian Press Club . Despite precautions , the song " Chammak Challo " was leaked several months before the official release of the soundtrack . Khan clarified that the leaked song was a " rough version " of the actual song , and that the person responsible for the leak was being looked for . He subsequently refuted claims that the leak had been engineered as a publicity stunt .
= = = Television and home media = = =
The television broadcasting rights for Ra.One were bought by Star India for a then @-@ record sum of ₹ 350 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 2 million ) , surpassing 3 Idiots ( 2009 ) . The Indian television premiere of Ra.One took place on 21 January 2012 on STAR Gold , garnering a 28 % market sharefor the channel and a TVR of 6 @.@ 7 . Star India subsequently syndicated the television screening rights to Disney XD , where it premiered on 2 June 2012 . In May 2012 , International Media Distribution announced that Ra.One would be televised on Comcast and Cox , as a part of the celebrations of the Asian Pacific American Heritage Month . Discovery Channel tied up with Red Chillies Entertainment to produce a one @-@ hour program titled " Revealed : The Making of Ra.One , " which aired on the channel on 30 March 2012 . The program discussed the making of the film in detail , including the visual effects and the challenges faced while filming .
Eros International released the DVD of Ra.One on 13 December 2011 across all regions in one @-@ disc and two @-@ disc packs complying with the NTSC format . The DVD of the film contained alternate endings . Initially , Khan had wanted to add alternate endings to the theatrical release itself , but later deemed it risky . The DVD version was made interactive as well . VCD and Blu @-@ Ray versions of the film were also released .
= = Reception = =
Upon release , Ra.One received mixed reviews from critics in India and generally positive reviews overseas . Review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 69 % of 16 critics gave Ra.One a positive review , with an average critic rating of 5 @.@ 6 / 10 , granting the film a " Fresh " consensus . On Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean from film reviews , Ra.One holds a rating of 60 % based on eight reviews , signifying " mixed or average reviews . "
Positive reviews described the film as an ambitious initiative and a technological success , with some critics thinking that Ra.One had put Indian films on par with Hollywood . The visual effects received near @-@ universal praise , though dissenting opinions stated that they were " all over the place " . The action sequences were also widely praised . Other aspects of the film received more polarising opinions , and one very positive review was criticised for " over @-@ rating " the film . Mixed views were opined regarding the plot 's gaming concept , with some critics deeming it " far @-@ fetched " and others lauding the " gaming @-@ style aesthetics " . Similarly , some critics called the emotional scenes " fulfilling " while others felt them to be " lacking in connect with the audience " .
The story was negatively received by several critics , with a number of them deeming it to be disappointing and lacking in originality ; one critic praised the original idea but criticised its " Bollywoodization " . The direction was criticised in a number of reviews , though a few critics praised Sinha 's pacing of the film and the execution of the action sequences . Some critics pointed to the presence of scenes which were not child @-@ friendly , despite Ra.One being promoted as a children 's film . Particular reviews criticised the lack of character development and the film 's " incoherently hackneyed morality " . A few critics panned the film as a whole , describing it as a " mess " ; one review commented , " It 's convenient to say that if you have no expectations from the film , you wouldn 't be disappointed . "
After its release , Ra.One received numerous nominations and awards in India and abroad , a majority of them for its technical aspects . The film notably won the National Film Award and the Filmfare Award for Best Special Effects , and four International Indian Film Academy Awards . The film also received several business awards for its marketing and distribution . On the other hand , the film received negative ( " dishonorable " ) awards as well . Ra.One won the titles of Worst Film and Worst Director at the Golden Kela Awards , and also won the Worst Film award at the Ghanta Awards .
= = Economics = =
= = = Pre @-@ release = = =
The budget of Ra.One was the subject of significant speculation prior to its release . A number of estimates placed the budget between ₹ 1 @.@ 4 billion ( US $ 21 million ) and ₹ 2 billion ( US $ 30 million ) . It was universally accepted that the film was the most expensive Bollywood film of all time , with certain sources stating that the film was the most expensive Indian film ever . The original budget was revealed to be ₹ 1 @.@ 30 billion ( US $ 19 million ) after promotional expenses . Khan stated that he had " worked very hard " to finance the film without borrowing money , and reportedly hosted a television show just to finance the film . Ra.One earned ₹ 1 @.@ 32 billion ( US $ 20 million ) from pre @-@ release revenue sources , setting a new record for Bollywood films .
The extensive marketing campaign greatly increased audience expectations of the film . Ra.One set records for the level of pre @-@ release buzz for a Bollywood film , and also topped a number of polls gauging the most awaited Bollywood films of the year . Anticipation for the film was equally high among the trade analysts , with some commenting that the film would pass the ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) mark in one week and the ₹ 3 billion ( US $ 45 million ) mark in over three weeks . Advance bookings commenced on 20 October 2011 on a limited scale , and expanded later . While initial ticket sales were low , they picked up considerably near the release date . A few days prior to the release , the advance booking was described as " phenomenal , " with an overall advance booking rate of 20 – 25 % across the country . A number of advantages of the film 's release were pointed out , such as the festive season and higher 3D ticket prices , though there had been doubt regarding the timely release of the 3D version .
= = = Box office = = =
In India , Ra.One debuted at the beginning of the five @-@ day Diwali weekend , and subsequently broke the Diwali opening day record . The film then set the records for the biggest single @-@ day net revenue and the biggest three @-@ day opening weekend earned by a Bollywood film , breaking the previous records held by Bodyguard .
Subsequently , the film began to suffer significant drops in its collections , with its five @-@ day extended weekend and nine @-@ day extended week coming second to the records of Bodyguard . The film faced an 84 percent drop in collections in its second week and fell a further 90 percent in its third week , the latter primarily due to the release of Rockstar . The dubbed versions showed similar trends . The Tamil and Telugu versions together earned around ₹ 50 million ( US $ 740 @,@ 000 ) nett .
In overseas markets , Ra.One earned the highest three @-@ day and five @-@ day opening weekends among the Bollywood releases of 2011 ; by its second weekend , the film had become the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of 2011 in overseas markets , but the collections suffered drops throughout . In general , families and children formed the major portion of the film 's audience , and the 3D version is regarded as a success .
= = Possible sequel = =
Reports of a planned sequel of Ra.One began surfacing prior to the film 's release , though the extent of real progress on the sequel is unknown . Both Khan and Sinha admitted to formulating plans for a sequel , though the former noted that it would be " presumptuous " to start the sequel before the first film 's release . Khan later refuted the speculations , saying that a sequel was unlikely due to his other commitments . After Ra.One won a National Award , an " overjoyed " Khan said that the film 's world could be further explored . He stated that the sequel , if made , would be titled G.One and not Ra.Two , and that he would make it " faster , bigger and better " than Ra.One. Khan was reported to be looking for a script , without a fixed release date . In April 2012 , Mushtaq Sheikh said that the pre @-@ production of the sequel had begun . A number of reports stated that Kareena Kapoor would not be a part of the sequel .
Despite Khan 's enthusiasm for the idea of a sequel , the film industry expressed mixed opinions regarding it . Filmmaker Rajkumar Gupta commented , " It would be challenging to take forward a story that has not worked earlier . " Producer Ramesh Taurani responded negatively to the idea , saying , " It is important for the film to be appreciated so that a sequel can be made . " Trade analyst Atul Mohan called the sequel " a bad idea . " Conversely , others were supportive of the sequel . Producer Goldie Behl brushed aside arguments about the success of the first film , saying , " If the people think that they can earn some more , then it doesn 't matter how big or small the hit was . " Director Kunal Kohli also reacted positively , saying , " Certain ideas naturally lend themselves to sequels . So why not use that investment of your time and effort to make a sequel that will take the brand further ? "
= Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell =
Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell is the 2004 debut novel of British writer Susanna Clarke . An alternative history set in 19th @-@ century England around the time of the Napoleonic Wars , it is based on the premise that magic once existed in England and has returned with two men : Gilbert Norrell and Jonathan Strange . Centred on the relationship between these two men , the novel investigates the nature of " Englishness " and the boundaries between reason and unreason , Anglo @-@ Saxon and Anglo @-@ Dane , and Northern and Southern English cultural tropes / stereotypes . It has been described as a fantasy novel , an alternative history , and a historical novel . It inverts the Industrial Revolution conception of the North @-@ South divide in England : in this book the North is romantic and magical , rather than rational and concrete . It can be usefully compared and contrasted with Elizabeth Gaskell 's attempts at synthesising a unitary English identity in her fiction .
The narrative draws on various Romantic literary traditions , such as the comedy of manners , the Gothic tale , and the Byronic hero . The novel 's language is a pastiche of 19th @-@ century writing styles , such as those of Jane Austen and Charles Dickens . Clarke describes the supernatural with mundane details . She supplements the text with almost 200 footnotes , outlining the backstory and an entire fictional corpus of magical scholarship .
Clarke began writing Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell in 1992 ; ten years later she submitted the manuscript for publication . It was accepted by Bloomsbury and published in September 2004 , with illustrations by Portia Rosenberg . Bloomsbury were so sure of its success that they printed 250 @,@ 000 hardcover copies . The novel was well received by critics and reached number three on the New York Times best @-@ seller list . It was longlisted for the 2004 Man Booker Prize and won the 2005 Hugo Award for Best Novel .
= = Plot summary = =
= = = Volume I : Mr Norrell = = =
The novel opens in autumn 1806 in northern England with The Learned Society of York Magicians , made up of " theoretical magicians " , who believe that magic died out several hundred years earlier . The group is stunned to learn of a " practising magician " , Mr Gilbert Norrell , who owns a large collection of " books of magic " , which he has spent years purchasing to keep them out of the hands of others . Norrell proves his skill as a practical magician by making the statues in York Cathedral speak . John Childermass , Mr Norrell 's long @-@ time servant , convinces a member of the group , John Segundus , to write about the event for the London newspapers .
Segundus 's article generates considerable interest in Mr Norrell , who moves to London to revive practical English magic . He enters society with the help of two gentlemen about town and meets a Cabinet Minister , Sir Walter Pole . To ingratiate himself , Mr Norrell attempts to recall Sir Walter 's fiancée , Emma Wintertowne , from the dead . He summons a fairy — " the gentleman with thistle @-@ down hair " — who strikes a bargain with Mr Norrell to restore Emma : half of her life will be spent with the fairy . After news spreads of Emma 's resurrection and happy marriage to Sir Walter , magic becomes respectable ; and Mr Norrell performs various feats to aid the government in their ongoing war against Napoleon .
While living in London , Mr Norrell encounters Vinculus , a street @-@ magician , who relates a prophecy about a nameless slave and two magicians in England , but Norrell dismisses it . While travelling , Vinculus later meets Jonathan Strange , a young gentleman of property from Shropshire , and recites the same prophecy , prompting Strange to become a magician . Meanwhile , the gentleman with thistle @-@ down hair takes a liking to Stephen Black , Sir Walter 's capable black butler , and promises to make him a king . Emma ( now Lady Pole ) lapses into lassitude . She rarely speaks , and her attempts to communicate her situation are confounded by magic . No doctor can cure her , and Mr Norrell claims that her problems cannot be solved by magic . Without the knowledge of the other characters , each evening she and Stephen are forced to attend balls held by the gentleman with thistle @-@ down hair in the Faerie kingdom of Lost @-@ Hope , where they dance all night long .
= = = Volume II : Jonathan Strange = = =
Volume II opens in Summer 1809 with Strange learning of Mr Norrell and travelling to London to meet him . They immediately clash over the importance of John Uskglass ( the legendary Raven King ) to English magic . Strange argues that " without the Raven King there would be no magic and no magicians " while Norrell retorts that the Raven King made war upon England and should be forgotten . Despite their differing opinions and temperaments , Strange becomes Norrell 's pupil . Norrell , however , deliberately keeps some knowledge from Strange .
Lady Pole and Strange 's wife , Arabella , become friends ; several times Lady Pole attempts to tell Arabella about her forced nights of dancing at the fairy 's castle in Lost @-@ Hope , but each time she tells an unrelated story . Arabella also meets the gentleman with thistle @-@ down hair at the Poles ' , but she assumes he is simply a resident . Without her husband 's knowledge , the fairy plots to enchant her , although Stephen Black continually attempts to dissuade him .
The Stranges become a popular couple in London . The Cabinet ministers find Strange easier to deal with than Norrell , and they send him to assist the Duke of Wellington on his Peninsular Campaign . For over a year , Strange helps the army : he creates roads , moves towns , and makes dead men speak . After he returns , he fails to cure George III 's madness , although Strange manages to save the king from becoming enchanted by the gentleman with thistle @-@ down hair , who is determined to make Stephen a king . Strange then helps defeat Napoleon at the horrific Battle of Waterloo .
Frustrated with being Norrell 's pupil , Strange pens a scathing review of a book outlining Norrell 's theories on modern magic ; in particular , Strange challenges Norrell 's views of the Raven King . The English public splits into " Norrellites " and " Strangites " ; Norrell and Strange part company , although not without regret . Strange returns home and works on his own book , The History and Practice of English Magic . Arabella goes missing , then suddenly reappears , sick and weak . Three days later she dies .
= = = Volume III : John Uskglass = = =
Volume III opens in January 1816 with Childermass experiencing strong magic that is not produced by either Norrell or Strange . At the same time , Lady Pole attempts to shoot Mr Norrell as he is returning home . Childermass takes the bullet himself but is not killed . Afterwards , Lady Pole is cared for in the country by John Segundus , who has an inkling of the magic surrounding her . During travels in the north , Stephen meets Vinculus , who recites his prophecy : " the nameless slave shall be a king in a strange country ... " Stephen believes it applies to him , but the gentleman with thistle @-@ down hair argues that it applies to the Raven King .
Strange settles in Venice and meets Flora Greysteel . They become fond of each other and Strange 's friends believe he may marry again . However , after experimenting with dangerous magic that threatens his sanity to gain access to Faerie , he discovers that Arabella is alive and being held captive . Immediately after he discovers this , the gentleman with the thistledown hair curses him with Eternal Night , an eerie darkness that engulfs him and follows him wherever he goes . Thereafter , Strange 's strenuous efforts to rescue her take their toll , and his letters to friends begin to appear crazed . At Strange 's request , Flora moves with her family to Padua and secludes herself inside her home , along with a mirror given to her by Strange . Drawlight is sent by Lascelles and Norrell to Venice to only enquire about Strange but is brought before him by Strange 's magic . Strange instructs Drawlight with several tasks and re @-@ invokes the old alliances within England between the forces of nature and John Uskglass . In England , this reawakening sparks a magical renaissance , but Norrell fails to grasp its significance . Strange returns and gives Childermass instructions which allow him to free Lady Pole from the fairy 's enchantment . Strange , bringing " Eternal Night " with him , asks Norrell to help him undo Arabella 's enchantment by summoning John Uskglass .
Childermass meanwhile indirectly receives the message meant for him by Strange and uses it to break the enchantment over Lady Pole . Enraged by this the gentleman with the thistledown hair first murders Vinculus forcing Stephen Black to watch . Then after begins to place a second curse upon Lady Pole that would lead to her imminent death for cheating him of his prize . In parallel , Norrell and Strange attempt a spell intended to pay homage from the forces of England to John Uskglass . Their same belief as the gentleman with the thistledown hair that the ' nameless slave ' applies to Uskglass ends up in them devoting their power to Stephen who uses his momentary control of England to destroy the man with the thistledown hair . Amongst the confusion , Stephen leaves down one of the newly opened Faerie roads , and becomes the new king of the now blossoming Lost @-@ Hope .
Between the death of Vinculus and the gentleman with the thistledown hair , Childermass notes that tattooed upon Vinculus 's body is the last works of John Uskglass . As he tries to preserve the tattoos in memory , a man appears . Between calling Childermass his servant ( leading him to believe it is Norrell in disguise ) and trivially performing other feats of great magic , the unknown man brings Vinculus back to life .
As a result of the imprecision of the fairy 's curse , which was placed on " the English magician , " Norrell is trapped along with Strange in the " Eternal Night , " and they cannot move more than a certain distance from each other . Upon the gentleman with the thistledown hair 's death , Arabella comes through the mirror in Venice , where Flora is waiting for her upon instruction of Strange . The penultimate scene is of the now infamous Childermass releasing the contract upon The Learned Society of York Magicians , telling them they can study magic again , and showing the now restored Vinculus as proof that one last book remains , tattooed upon his body . Two months later , Strange has a conversation with the now stronger Arabella still living in Venice , explaining that he and Norrell are working to undo the eternal darkness they are both trapped in , but are planning to adventure into other worlds . Neither wish to take her to Faerie again , so he instead promises to return to her when he dis @-@ spells the darkness and tells her not to be a widow till then , which she agrees to .
= = Composition and publication = =
Clarke first developed the idea for Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell during a year spent teaching English in Bilbao , Spain : " I had a kind of waking dream ... about a man in 18th @-@ century clothes in a place rather like Venice , talking to some English tourists . And I felt strongly that he had some sort of magical background – he 'd been dabbling in magic , and something had gone badly wrong . " She had also recently re @-@ read J. R. R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings and afterwards was inspired to " trying writing a novel of magic and fantasy " .
After she returned from Spain in 1993 , Clarke began to think seriously about writing her novel . She signed up for a five @-@ day fantasy and science @-@ fiction writing workshop , co @-@ taught by writers Colin Greenland and Geoff Ryman . The students were expected to prepare a short story before attending , but Clarke only had " bundles " of material for her novel . From this she extracted " The Ladies of Grace Adieu " , a story about three women secretly practising magic who are discovered by the famous Jonathan Strange . Greenland was so impressed with the story that , without Clarke 's knowledge , he sent an excerpt to his friend , the fantasy writer Neil Gaiman . Gaiman later said , " It was terrifying from my point of view to read this first short story that had so much assurance ... It was like watching someone sit down to play the piano for the first time and she plays a sonata . " Gaiman showed the story to his friend , science @-@ fiction writer and editor Patrick Nielsen Hayden . Clarke learned of these events when Nielsen Hayden called and offered to publish her story in his anthology Starlight 1 , which featured pieces by well @-@ regarded science @-@ fiction and fantasy writers . She accepted , and the book won the World Fantasy Award for best anthology in 1997 .
Clarke spent the next ten years working on the novel in her spare time , while editing cookbooks full @-@ time for Simon & Schuster in Cambridge . She also published stories in Starlight 2 and Starlight 3 ; according to the New York Times Magazine , her work was known and appreciated by a small group of fantasy fans and critics on the internet . She was never sure , however , if she would finish her novel or if it would be published . Clarke tried to write for three hours each day , beginning at 5 : 30 am , but struggled to keep this schedule . Rather than writing the novel from beginning to end , she wrote in fragments and attempted to stitch them together . Clarke , admitting that the project was for herself and not the reader , " clung to this method " " because I felt that if I went back and started at the beginning , [ the novel ] would lack depth , and I would just be skimming the surface of what I could do . But if I had known it was going to take me ten years , I would never have begun . I was buoyed up by thinking that I would finish it next year , or the year after next . " Clarke and Greenland fell in love while she was writing the novel and moved in together . Greenland did not read the novel until it was published .
Around 2001 , Clarke " had begun to despair " , and started looking for someone to help her finish and sell the book . Giles Gordon became her agent and sold the unfinished manuscript to Bloomsbury in early 2003 , after two publishers rejected it as unmarketable . Bloomsbury were so sure the novel would be a success that they offered Clarke a £ 1 million advance . They printed 250 @,@ 000 hardcover copies simultaneously in the United States , Britain , and Germany . Seventeen translations were begun before the first English publication was released . Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell was first published in the United States on 8 September 2004 , in the United Kingdom on 30 September , and in other countries on 4 October .
= = Style = =
Clarke 's style has frequently been described as a pastiche , particularly of nineteenth @-@ century British writers such as Charles Dickens , Jane Austen , and George Meredith . Specifically , the novel 's minor characters , including sycophants , rakes , and the Duke of Wellington , evoke Dickens ' caricatures . Laura Miller , in her review for Salon , suggests that the novel is " about a certain literary voice , the eminently civilized voice of early 19th century social comedy " , exemplified by the works of Austen . The novel even uses obsolete spellings — chuse for choose and shewed for showed , for example — to convey this voice as well as the free indirect speech made famous by Austen . Clarke herself notes that Austen 's influence is particularly strong in the " domestic scenes , set in living rooms and drawing rooms where people mostly chat about magic " where Dickens 's is prominent " any time there 's more action or description " . While many reviewers compare Clarke 's style to that of Austen , Gregory Feeley argues in his review for The Weekly Standard that " the points of resemblance are mostly superficial " . He writes that " Austen gets down to business briskly , while Clarke engages in a curious narrative strategy of continual deferral and delay . " For example , Clarke mentions Jonathan Strange on the first page of the novel , but only in a footnote . He reappears in other footnotes throughout the opening but does not appear as a character in the text proper until a quarter of the way through the novel .
In Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell , Clarke infuses her dry wit with prosaic quaintness . For example , the narrator notes : " It has been remarked ( by a lady infinitely cleverer than the present author ) how kindly disposed the world in general feels to young people who either die or marry . Imagine then the interest that surrounded Miss Wintertowne ! No young lady ever had such advantages before : for she died upon the Tuesday , was raised to life in the early hours of Wednesday morning , and was married upon the Thursday ; which some people thought too much excitement for one week . " As Michel Faber explains in his review for The Guardian , " here we have all the defining features of Clarke 's style simultaneously : the archly Austenesque tone , the somewhat overdone quaintness ( " upon the Tuesday " ) , the winningly matter @-@ of @-@ fact use of the supernatural , and drollness to spare . " Gregory Maguire notes in The New York Times that Clarke even gently ridicules the genre of the novel itself : " [ A gentleman ] picks up a book and begins to read ... but he is not attending to what he reads and he has got to Page 22 before he discovers it is a novel – the sort of work which above all others he most despises – and he puts it down in disgust . " Elsewhere , the narrator remarks , " Dear Emma does not waste her energies upon novels like other young women . " The narrator 's identity has been a topic of discussion , with Clarke declaring that said narrator is female and omniscient rather than a future scholar from within the real storyline as some had suggested .
Clarke 's style extends to the novel 's 185 footnotes , which document a meticulous invented history of English magic . At times , the footnotes dominate entire pages of the novel . Michael Dirda , in his review for The Washington Post , describes these notes as " dazzling feats of imaginative scholarship " , in which the anonymous narrator " provides elaborate mini @-@ essays , relating anecdotes from the lives of semi @-@ legendary magicians , describing strange books and their contents , speculating upon the early years and later fate of the Raven King " . This extensive extra @-@ textual apparatus is reminiscent of postmodernist works , such as David Foster Wallace 's Infinite Jest ( 1996 ) and Thomas Pynchon 's Mason & Dixon ( 1997 ) , particularly as Clarke 's notes humorously refer to previous notes in the novel . Clarke did not expect her publisher to accept the footnotes .
Feeley explains that Romantic poet John Keats 's " vision of enchantment and devastation following upon any dealings with faeries " informs the novel , as the passing reference to the " cold hillside " makes clear . The magic in Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell has been described as " wintry and sinister " and " a melancholy , macabre thing " . There are " flocks of black birds , a forest that grows up in the canals of Venice , a countryside of bleak moors that can only be entered through mirrors , a phantom bell that makes people think of everything they have ever lost , a midnight darkness that follows an accursed man everywhere he goes " . The setting reflects this tone , as " dark , fog , mist and wet give the book much of its creepy , northern atmosphere . " According to Nisi Shawl in her review for The Seattle Times , the illustrations reinforce this tenor : " Shadows fill the illustrations by Portia Rosenberg , as apt as Edward Gorey 's for Dickens ' ' Bleak House ' . " Author John Clute disagrees , arguing that they are " astonishingly inappropriate " to the tone of the novel . Noting that Clarke refers to important nineteenth @-@ century illustrators George Cruikshank and [ Thomas Rowlandson ] , whose works are " line @-@ dominated , intricate , scabrous , cartoon @-@ like , savage and funny " , he is disappointed with the " soft and wooden " illustrations provided by Rosenberg .
= = Genre = =
Reviewers variously describe Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell as a fantasy novel , an alternative history , a historical fiction , or as a combination of these styles . Clarke herself says , " I think the novel is viewed as something new ... blending together a few genres – such as fantasy and adventure and pastiche historical – plus there 's the whole thing about slightly knowing footnotes commenting on the story . " She explains in an interview that she was particularly influenced by the historical fiction of Rosemary Sutcliff as well as the fantasies of Ursula K. Le Guin and Alan Garner , and that she loves the works of Austen .
In his review for The Boston Globe , John Freeman observes that Clarke 's fantasy , like that of Franz Kafka and Neil Gaiman , is imbued with realism . He argues that the footnotes in particular lend an air of credibility to the narrative : for example , they describe a fictional biography of Jonathan Strange and list where particular paintings in Norrell ’ s house are located . In an interview , Clarke describes how she creates this realist fantasy : " One way of grounding the magic is by putting in lots of stuff about street lamps , carriages and how difficult it is to get good servants . " To create this effect , the novel includes many references to real early @
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by meteorologists Ivan R. Tannehill and Edward B. Garriott indicate that the seventh tropical storm of the season existed at 15 ° N , 37 ° W on September 28 , which is located west of Cape Verde . Observations noted that maximum sustained winds reached 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . With only a single data point , no further information is available on this storm .
= Egon Mayer =
Egon Mayer ( 19 August 1917 – 2 March 1944 ) was a German Luftwaffe military aviator during World War II , a fighter ace credited with 102 enemy aircraft shot down in over 353 combat missions . His victories were all claimed over the Western Front and included 26 four @-@ engine bombers , 51 Supermarine Spitfires and 12 P @-@ 47 Thunderbolts . Mayer was the first fighter pilot to score 100 victories entirely on the Western Front .
Born in Konstanz , Mayer , who was a glider pilot in his youth , volunteered for military service in the Luftwaffe of the Third Reich in 1937 . Following flight training he was posted to Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen " ( JG 2 — 2nd Fighter Wing ) in 1939 . He fought in the Battle of France and claimed his first aerial victory in that campaign on 13 June 1940 . Mayer was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of the 7 . Staffel ( 7th squadron ) of JG 2 " Richthofen " in June 1941 . Two months later , following his 21st aerial victory , he received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 1 August 1941 . He claimed 16 further victories and was awarded the German Cross in Gold on 16 July 1942 . In November 1942 , Mayer was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of the III . Gruppe ( 3rd group ) of JG 2 " Richthofen " .
Mayer claimed his first victories over United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) four @-@ engine bombers when he shot down two B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses and a B @-@ 24 Liberator on 23 November 1942 . Together with fellow fighter ace Georg @-@ Peter Eder , Mayer developed the head @-@ on attack as the most effective tactic against the Allied daylight heavy combat box bomber formations . He received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves on 16 April 1943 after 63 victories . On 1 July 1943 , he replaced Walter Oesau as Geschwaderkommodore ( wing commander ) of JG 2 " Richthofen " . He claimed his 90th victory on 31 December 1943 and on 5 February 1944 became the first pilot on the Channel Front to reach 100 victories . Mayer was killed in action on 2 March 1944 while leading an attack on a USAAF bomber formation ; he was shot down by P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt escort fighters near Montmédy , France . He was posthumously awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords that day .
= = Early life and career = =
Mayer , the son of a farmer , was born on 19 August 1917 in Konstanz at the Bodensee . Konstanz at the time was in the Grand Duchy of Baden of the German Empire . Mayer grew up on his parents ' farm named Hauserhof and spent his spare time at the glider airfield at the Bellenberg near Engen . He went to school at the Langemarck @-@ Realgymnasium — a secondary school built on the mid @-@ level Realschule to achieve the Abitur ( university entry qualification ) — in Singen . Today , the Langemarck @-@ Realgymnasium , which had been named after the location of the World War I Battle of Langemarck , is the Hegau @-@ Gymnasium .
Following his graduation , Mayer volunteered for military service in the Luftwaffe on 1 November 1937 . His military training began at the 2nd Air Warfare School ( Luftkriegsschule 2 ) at Gatow , on the southwestern outskirts of Berlin . He was then trained as a fighter pilot and promoted to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) on 1 August 1939 .
= = World War II = =
World War II in Europe began on Friday , 1 September 1939 , when German forces invaded Poland . Mayer received the Iron Cross 2nd Class ( Eisernes Kreuz 2 . Klasse ) on 25 October 1939 and was transferred to Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen " ( JG 2 — 2nd Fighter Wing ) , named after the after World War I fighter ace Manfred von Richthofen , on 6 December 1939 . For his entire combat career , with the exception of a brief posting to the fighter pilot school at Werneuchen , Mayer would serve in JG 2 " Richthofen " . He claimed his first aerial victory on 13 June 1940 during the Battle of France , shooting down an Armée de l 'Air ( French Air Force ) Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406.
In the Battle of Britain , Mayer often flew over the English Channel as the wingman of Helmut Wick . He claimed three further victories in this campaign , all over Royal Air Force ( RAF ) Supermarine Spitfires , but was himself shot down or forced to land at the French Coast . Once he had to swim in the Channel for an hour before he was rescued . At the end of 1940 Mayer had four victories to his credit and JG 2 " Richthofen " was withdrawn from combat to replenish the heavy losses it had sustained . Following a short tour as fighter pilot instructor at the Jagdfliegerschule ( fighter pilot school ) in Werneuchen , Mayer was sent back to the Channel Front .
On 10 June 1941 , Oberleutnant ( First Lieutenant ) Mayer was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of 7 . Staffel ( 7th squadron ) of JG 2 " Richthofen " , based at Saint @-@ Pol @-@ Brias . He claimed his 19th and 20th victory on 23 July 1941 and was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) on 1 August 1941 after his 21st aerial victory . He received the award with fellow JG 2 " Richthofen " pilots Oberleutnant Erich Leie and Oberleutnant Rudolf Pflanz on that day . The triple award presentation was recorded by the Deutsche Wochenschau ( German Weekly Review ) , a newsreel series released in the cinemas . His score had increased to 28 aerial victories by the end of 1941 .
Mayer received the German Cross in Gold ( Deutsches Kreuz in Gold ) on 16 July 1942 . On 19 August , his 25th birthday , Mayer shot down two Spitfires over Dieppe during Operation Jubilee , his 49th and 50th victory .
= = = Group commander = = =
Mayer was promoted to Hauptmann ( captain ) and was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of III . Gruppe of JG 2 " Richthofen " in November 1942 . On 23 November , Mayer claimed his first victories over United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) four @-@ engined bombers , when he shot down two B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses and a B @-@ 24 Liberator . Together with Georg @-@ Peter Eder , Mayer developed the head @-@ on attack as the most effective tactic against the Allied daylight heavy combat box bomber formations . The concept was based on a Kette ( chain ) , three aircraft flying in a " V " formation , attacking from ahead and to the left . When in range , the attackers opened fire with a deflection burst , aiming in front of the enemy aircraft . Following the attack , the pilots would pull up sharply to the left or right . This gave the attacking fighters the best chance of avoiding the massed firepower of the bombers ' guns .
On 14 February 1943 , Mayer shot down three RAF Hawker Typhoons , claiming his 60th to 62nd victories . Following his 63rd victory he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) on 16 April 1943 , the 232nd officer or soldier of the Wehrmacht so honored . The presentation was made by Adolf Hitler in his office at the Reich Chancellery in Berlin on 11 May 1943 . Mayer was then promoted to Major ( major ) on 1 June 1943 .
In June 1943 , Mayer encountered Robert S. Johnson , a future ace from the 56th Fighter Group of the US Eighth Air Force . Johnson 's P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt had been badly shot @-@ up by some Focke Wulf Fw 190s during a routine mission . As Johnson limped home , with a canopy that would not open and hydraulic fluid and oil covering his windscreen , Mayer pulled alongside him in his Fw @-@ 190 . Mayer looked the wounded P @-@ 47 over , and then circled to come in from Johnson 's six @-@ o 'clock to give it the coup de grâce . The first gun pass failed to knock the heavy American fighter out of the sky . Mayer made two more runs on Johnson , without success . After running out of ammunition , Mayer pulled alongside Johnson , saluted him and headed for home . Johnson landed his plane , and counted more than 200 holes , without even moving around the airplane . He also saw that a 20 mm cannon shell had exploded just behind his headrest , which had made it impossible to open his canopy .
On 22 June 1943 , a flight led by Mayer encountered an RAF Spitfire unit . During the course of the engagement , he claimed one Spitfire shot down and damage to another . He shot down three USAAF P @-@ 47s on 26 June 1943 .
= = = Wing commander and death = = =
Mayer was appointed Geschwaderkommodore ( wing commander ) of JG 2 " Richthofen " on 1 July 1943 , thus succeeding Oberst ( Colonel ) Walter Oesau . Command of III . Gruppe was passed on to the Staffelkapitän of 8 . Staffel , Hauptmann Bruno Stolle . He claimed three B @-@ 17s shot down within 19 minutes on 6 September . The Eighth Air Force was targeting Stuttgart that day and lost 45 aircraft . On 1 December 1943 , Mayer shot down three P @-@ 47 Thunderbolts . His claimed aerial victories increased to 90 on 30 December 1943 . Mayer was credited with four victories on 7 January 1944 , three B @-@ 24s and one B @-@ 17 shot down in the vicinity of Orléans . On 4 February 1944 he claimed his 100th victory , the first fighter pilot on the Channel Front to achieve this mark .
Mayer 's final score stood at 102 when he was shot down and killed in action by a P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt near Montmédy on 2 March 1944 . Flying Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 A @-@ 6 ( factory number 470468 ) , Mayer had led his Stabsschwarm ( headquarters unit ) and elements of III . Gruppe , 14 Fw 190s in total , in an attack on B @-@ 17s in the area of Sedan , but failed to detect the fighter escort of 29 P @-@ 47s 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 meters ) above . His aircraft was seen taking hits at a range of 400 yards ( 370 meters ) in the nose and cockpit . It made a violent snap roll and went into a vertical dive , crashing within 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 kilometers ) of Montmédy . He was posthumously decorated with the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) that day .
Recent research by historian Norman Fortier suggests that Mayer was shot down by Lieutenant Walter Gresham of the 358th Fighter Squadron of the 355th Fighter Wing . The claim is based on gun camera footage and recollections of Mayer 's wingman , who was forced to bail out during the action . Mayer was buried at the cemetery of Beaumont @-@ le @-@ Roger , France , and in 1955 re @-@ interred at the German War Cemetery in St. Desiré de Lisieux .
= = Awards = =
Wound Badge in Silver
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Fighter Pilots in Gold with Pennant " 300 "
Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 25 October 1939 )
1st Class ( May 1940 )
German Cross in Gold on 16 July 1942 as Oberleutnant in the 7 . / Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen "
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords
Knight 's Cross on 1 August 1941 as Leutnant of the Reserves and pilot in Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen "
232nd Oak Leaves on 16 April 1943 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the III . / Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen "
51st Swords on 2 March 1944 as Oberstleutnant and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen "
= Alberta and Great Waterways Railway scandal =
The Alberta and Great Waterways Railway Scandal was a political scandal in Alberta , Canada in 1910 , which forced the resignation of the Liberal provincial government of Alexander Cameron Rutherford . Rutherford and his government were accused of giving loan guarantees to private interests for the construction of the Alberta and Great Waterways ( A & GW ) Railway that substantially exceeded the actual cost of construction , and which paid interest considerably above the market rate . They were also accused of exercising insufficient oversight over the railway 's operations .
The scandal split the Liberal Party : Rutherford 's Minister of Public Works , William Henry Cushing , resigned from his government and publicly attacked its railway policy , and a large portion of the Liberal caucus voted to defeat the government in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta . Although the government survived all of these votes , and Rutherford largely placated the legislature by appointing a royal commission to investigate the affair , pressure from Lieutenant @-@ Governor George Bulyea forced Rutherford 's resignation and his replacement by Arthur Sifton .
The royal commission reported months after Rutherford had already resigned . The majority did not find Rutherford or his cabinet guilty of any wrongdoing , but criticized them for poor judgment , both in relation to the loan guarantees and in relation to the exemptions the A & GW received from provincial legislation ; a minority report was more sympathetic , and declared the allegations against them " disproved " . James Cornwall , a Liberal backbencher who supported Rutherford , fared somewhat worse : his personal financial involvement in the railway gave rise to " suspicious circumstances " , but he too was not proven guilty of any wrongdoing .
Besides provoking Rutherford 's resignation , the scandal opened rifts in the Liberal Party that took years to heal . Sifton eventually smoothed over most of these divisions , but was frustrated in his railway policy by legal defeats . He ultimately adopted a similar policy to Rutherford 's , and the A & GW was eventually built by private interests using the money raised from provincial loan guarantees . The Liberals went on to be re @-@ elected in 1913 and 1917 .
= = Background = =
Alberta 's first years as a province were optimistic ones , and one way that this optimism manifested itself was in a desire for railroads . The public , media , and politicians all called for the rapid development of new lines and expansion of existing ones . Rutherford 's Liberals had set up a framework that allowed almost anybody to enter the railroad business , but few firms had done so by 1909 . The opposition Conservatives called for the government 's direct entry into the industry . Rutherford 's government instead opted for a regime of loan guarantees : the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway and the Canadian Northern Railway ( CNR ) had their bonds , which were to pay 4 % per year over their thirty @-@ year term , guaranteed at a rate of $ 13 @,@ 000 per mile of railway constructed . The legislature had the right to increase this to $ 15 @,@ 000 . In exchange , the railways were subject to a minimum rate of line construction : the CNR was required to build 125 miles ( 201 km ) and the Grand Trunk Railway 50 miles ( 80 km ) before the end of 1909 .
Besides the established companies , guarantees were also offered to new companies . One company to take advantage of this was the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway , which was founded by two Kansas City bankers , William R. Clarke and Bertrand R. Clarke , and a Winnipeg accountant , William Bain . The company proposed to build a " line from Edmonton north @-@ easterly to a point at or near the west end of Lac la Biche , thence to a point at or near Fort McMurray . " Guarantees to the so @-@ called " A & GW " were more generous than to the established companies : $ 20 @,@ 000 per mile for 350 miles ( 560 km ) and $ 400 @,@ 000 for its Edmonton terminal . The bonds also paid better interest ( 5 % ) over a longer term ( fifty years ) than those of the established companies . Upon the bonds ' sale , the money was to be placed in a bank account controlled by the government , and paid to the railway as the line was constructed .
= = The scandal = =
The Rutherford government had just been resoundingly re @-@ elected in the 1909 provincial election , winning 36 of the legislature 's 41 seats , when the new legislature first met in February 1910 . There was initially no sign of controversy in relation to the A & GW Railway : William Clarke , A & GW President , had several months earlier announced that the line would be completed by the end of 1912 , ahead of schedule . When the A & GW bonds went on sale in London in November 1909 , the issue was oversubscribed . The following month , the contract for ties was awarded . Everything seemed to be progressing as planned when , at the beginning of the new legislative session , Liberal backbencher John R. Boyle asked the government a series of innocuous questions about the company and the guarantees made to it . Rutherford , Minister of Railways as well as Premier , responded to the questions in writing . Before he did so , however , a rumour began to circulate that William Henry Cushing , Minister of Public Works , had resigned from the cabinet .
Boyle and Conservative leader R. B. Bennett questioned Rutherford about the rumours , but Rutherford initially refused to make any announcement . The next day , however , the rumour was confirmed when the Premier read Cushing 's letter of resignation in the legislature . In this letter , Cushing gave his reasons for resigning as disagreement with the government 's railway policy , which he claimed was developed without his involvement or consent . Rutherford disagreed with this claim , and expressed his regret for Cushing 's resignation .
= = = J. R. Boyle 's resolution = = =
On February 21 , Boyle gave notice of a resolution to expropriate the rights of the A & GW and build the line directly . He asserted that the government had guaranteed to the A & GW more than was necessary , as a line of 230 miles ( 370 km ) , barely two thirds what had been guaranteed , was sufficient . The next day , Boyle further alleged that Deputy Attorney @-@ General S. B. Woods had tampered with the government 's files on the A & GW before Boyle and Bennett had viewed them . Attorney @-@ General Charles Wilson Cross strongly disputed this allegation .
Debate on Boyle 's resolution began February 25 , in front of a full public gallery . Cushing opened debate . He explained that the cabinet 's original intention had been for $ 20 @,@ 000 per mile to be the maximum guarantee , with less promised for more easily built portions of the line . He claimed that he had taken ill at a time that this understanding was still in place , only to have Rutherford move responsibility for railways from Cushing 's Public Works department to a new Railways department , headed by Rutherford himself . He recounted his discomfort with Rutherford 's refusal to consult with Public Works engineers on the actual costs of constructing the line , and his relief at Rutherford 's assurance that Cushing himself would be consulted . He claimed that Rutherford had not followed @-@ through on this pledge , and that , upon seeing the completed agreement between the A & GW and the government , Cushing had decided to resign . Rutherford disputed this version of events , noted that Cushing had been at all relevant cabinet meetings , and cited the report of government engineer R. W. Jones in disputing that the line could be constructed for less than $ 20 @,@ 000 per mile .
Boyle followed , alleging that Rutherford had privately committed the government to the $ 20 @,@ 000 figure as early as November 14 , 1908 , before a government engineer had even been appointed . He also accused the government of negligence in failing to verify the paid in capital of the A & GW before committing $ 7 @.@ 4 million of government loan guarantees to it . He closed by repeating his demand that the government expropriate the company 's rights and build the line itself . Cross rebutted for the government , questioning Cushing 's sincerity and quoting a March 1909 speech in which the then @-@ Minister of Public Works had defended the government 's railway policy against Bennett 's attacks . Cross also reminded the legislature that no money was to be paid to the A & GW until tracks were actually constructed .
On February 28 Liberal member and Cushing @-@ ally Ezra Riley proposed an amendment to Boyle 's resolution , striking out the proposals to expropriate and substituting a statement that " the contract and agreement entered into between the Government and the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway Company are not such as to commend them to the judgment and confidence of this house " . The same day , an amendment to this amendment was moved by Liberal John William Woolf and seconded by Liberal John Alexander McDougall . Woolf and McDougall proposed redrafting the agreement along the lines proposed by A & GW President Clarke in a letter to Rutherford . This letter suggested that the A & GW should offer to the government its construction equipment and other assets in guarantee of its construction pledges .
The Woolf @-@ McDougall amendment was considered friendly to the government , but Rutherford was not yet in the clear . Independent Edward Michener attacked the government for receiving only par value for the bonds when they had been sold at ten percent above par . McDougall voiced his support for Michener 's argument ; though McDougall had seconded Woolf 's pro @-@ government amendment , it became apparent that his reasons for doing so were less support for the government than a principled aversion to the province using its law @-@ making power to extricate itself from inconvenient contracts .
Opposition to the government came to a head March 2 when Conservative leader Bennett first spoke . Bennett was renowned as one of the province 's finest orators , and his five @-@ hour speech earned plaudits even from the Liberal Edmonton Bulletin , which praised its " splendor in diction [ and ] the physical endurance of the orator " and called it a " high water mark for parliamentary debate in Alberta " . Bennett lashed out at the government 's handling of the A & GW file , accusing it of culpable negligence in failing to properly oversee the company 's activities . He claimed to have been approached directly by " great financial interests " intent on preventing his participation in the debate . He argued that the discrepancy in the sale price of the bonds and what the government had received for them meant that Clarke and his associates had realized a profit of between $ 200 @,@ 000 and $ 300 @,@ 000 at the government 's expense . He closed with an accusation that Cross had sent an emissary to a telephone company that wanted to install an automatic telephone system in Calgary agreeing to reverse his opposition to the deal in exchange for a $ 12 @,@ 000 contribution to Cross 's campaign fund . These charges , corroborated by Cushing but hotly denied by Cross , were not related to the A & GW affair , but were designed to damage the credibility of the government 's de facto house leader on the eve of the vote on the Woolf @-@ McDougall amendment . The government side adopted similar tactics : Agriculture Minister Duncan Marshall accused Boyle of being motivated by bitterness over having been denied the solicitorship of the A & GW ; Boyle admitted that he had applied for this position , but denied an accusation from Peace River MLA James Cornwall that he had requested Cornwall 's assistance in lobbying for it .
The Woolf @-@ McDougall amendment came to a vote the evening of March 3 . In a victory for the government , the amendment passed twenty @-@ three votes to fifteen . In addition to Michener and the legislature 's two Conservatives , the amendment was opposed by twelve of the legislature 's thirty @-@ seven Liberals , including Cushing . Charles M. O 'Brien , the legislature 's lone Socialist representative , voted with the government .
= = = Cabinet confusion = = =
On March 9 , Cross suddenly resigned . His resignation was quickly followed by that of Woods , his deputy . The next day William Ashbury Buchanan , Minister without Portfolio , did the same ; though he had voted on the government 's side on the Woolf @-@ McDougall motion , he harboured considerable doubts about the government 's railway policy . Rumours circulated that Agriculture Minister Marshall and Minister without Portfolio Prosper @-@ Edmond Lessard had also resigned , though these proved false . Buchanan , Marshall , Lessard , and Rutherford made no comment on the situation to either the press or the legislature , but Cross was more forthcoming : he said that Rutherford had told him that Cushing had been asked to re @-@ enter cabinet and had accepted , leading Cross to conclude that , in light of his public conflict with Cushing , he " could not , under the circumstances , remain a member of the Alberta government . " ( Woods , who as a deputy minister did not sit in the legislature , denied that his resignation had any political motivation at all ; he said that he had received an employment offer carrying three times his current salary . )
Cushing also made public statements and , as usual , his were not in line with Cross 's . While acknowledging that Rutherford had invited him to rejoin the cabinet , he claimed that the Premier had offered Cross 's resignation as one of the terms for Cushing 's re @-@ entry . He further denied that he had ever accepted Rutherford 's offer , both because of persisting conflict between him and the Premier and because his re @-@ entry was unanimously opposed by his fellow dissident Liberals . He directly accused Cross of having fabricated his claim that Rutherford had told him that Cushing had agreed to re @-@ enter cabinet .
Rutherford held his silence until March 11 , when he told the legislature that he had not accepted any resignations . He said that the only vacant cabinet post was the ministry of Public Works previously held by Cushing , and that he hoped to fill it soon . In the meantime , he intended to continue governing . While he eventually acknowledged Buchanan 's resignation March 14 , Cross remained in cabinet .
= = = Further manoeuvring in the legislature = = =
Following the passage of the Woolf @-@ McDougall motion , the government took the offensive . On March 9 , Rutherford gave notice of a resolution to strike a provincial railway board , with a membership of Rutherford , Deputy Public Works Minister John Stocks , and provincial railway engineer R. W. Jones . The board would have the power to discharge any government responsibility under the Alberta Railway Act . Stocks , however , publicly repudiated the resolution , and announced that he would have nothing to do with it .
On March 11 , government supporter Charles Stewart attempted to disclose a scandalous rumour about Boyle in the legislature , but was ruled out of order by Speaker Charles W. Fisher . The allegation was quickly printed in the Edmonton Bulletin instead : Boyle , who expected to be named Attorney @-@ General in the event that Cushing formed a government , was accused of approaching Lucien Boudreau and Robert L. Shaw , two government supporters who were hoteliers in their extra @-@ legislative careers , and offering them immunity from prosecution for liquor license violations in exchange for their support of the insurgency .
That same day , Riley and Boyle moved a motion of no confidence in the government . It was defeated by a margin of twenty to seventeen . Ominously for Rutherford , two hitherto loyal Liberals , Buchanan and Henry William McKenney , switched their support to the rebels . More favourably , the ill member for Macleod , Colin Genge , was rumoured to be recovering from his illness and soon on his way to Edmonton , where he was expected to support the government ( in fact , Genge would die without ever taking his seat ) . The government was also encouraged by the motion of dissident George P. Smith to strike an apolitical commission to supervise the construction of the A & GW , since it corresponded closely to its own proposal to appoint a royal commission .
Rutherford gave notice of a resolution to strike this royal commission , to be composed of three judges of the provincial supreme court , March 14 . After one final attempt by the rebels to defeat the government legislatively ( which failed by three votes ) , the resolution to strike the royal commission passed the legislature unanimously the next day . The Alberta and Great Waterways Railway scandal was , for the time being , out of the legislature 's hands .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = The commission 's inquiry = = =
The commission first met in Edmonton March 29 . The three commissioners — Justices David Lynch Scott , Horace Harvey , and Nicholas Beck — were joined by counsel for the insurgents ( including Bennett himself ) , Cross , Rutherford , the A & GW , and Cornwall ( who had been accused of using his involvement with the Athabasca Railway for personal benefit during the scandal ) . The evidence they heard was reported in great detail by Alberta 's press , to the initial interest of the public . Before long , however , the details grew tedious , and the public became less engaged .
The greatest surprise to emerge during the commission 's inquiry did not come from one of the forty @-@ six witnesses to testify , but from one who did not : A & GW President Clarke moved back to the United States , and did not return for his scheduled testimony . While this disappearance did not prove the government 's guilt , in the eyes of the press it did prove Clarke 's . As the Edmonton Journal put it , the only question left to answer was " were the members of the government simple innocents whom Clarke worked through their credulity or were they in on it with him ? "
= = = George Bulyea 's role = = =
Though it was George Bulyea , Alberta 's first lieutenant governor , who had invited Rutherford to form the province 's first government in 1905 , the Premier never fully enjoyed Bulyea 's confidence . Bulyea preferred several other candidates to Rutherford , including federal Member of Parliament ( MP ) Peter Talbot , but when these proved unwilling he acquiesced with Rutherford , the choice of Alberta Liberals . Now , with Rutherford reeling , Bulyea saw his initial doubts validated and began the search for potential successors .
The obvious choice was Cushing , but Bulyea felt little enthusiasm for him , doubting his political acumen ( in this opinion he was supported by other Liberal Party luminaries , including Frank Oliver , federal Minister of the Interior and proprietor of the Bulletin ) . He continued to prefer Talbot , but found that the insurgent Liberals , who favoured Cushing , would not accept him . Oliver was also a possibility , but he had no interest in leaving Ottawa .
Talbot suggested Arthur Sifton , the province 's chief justice . Sifton was a Liberal , but as a judge he was remote from political mudslinging . However , he had been offered the office of Premier in 1905 , when it had seemed more desirable than it did now ; would he have any interest ? The question was answered May 26 , when the legislature reconvened . Bulyea entered the house and announced that he had accepted Rutherford 's resignation and that he had asked Sifton to form a government . Sifton had accepted .
The arrangement had nearly fallen apart at the last moment : MLAs loyal to Cross indicated on May 25 that they would accept Sifton only if Cross remained the Attorney @-@ General , which Sifton refused . It appeared for a time that Rutherford would not resign ; after considering the matter overnight , Bulyea decided the morning of May 26 that he was in a position to force the Premier 's hand , but it proved unnecessary when Rutherford stepped down of his own volition .
= = = The commission 's report = = =
The commission reported to the legislature November 10 , 1910 . Its findings were split into two reports : a majority report from Justices Scott and Harvey , and a minority report from Justice Beck .
The majority report traced the origins of the A & GW scandal to 1905 , when a number of Albertans , including James Cornwall , were federally incorporated as the Athabasca Railway Company , chartered to construct a railway from Edmonton to Fort McMurray . The legal work for the incorporation had been done by the law firm of Charles Wilson Cross , Cornwall 's close friend and personal solicitor . In October 1906 Cornwall sold the ARC 's charter to a syndicate of Winnipegers for $ 2 @,@ 500 and a one @-@ sixth share in the syndicate . The syndicate costed out the construction of the railway , and found that cost per mile would be $ 13 @,@ 700 from Edmonton to Lac la Biche , and one thousand dollars per mile more from Lac la Biche to Fort McMurray . It decided to undertake the venture if it could get a loan guarantee of $ 13 @,@ 000 per mile from the Alberta government .
At the end of 1906 , syndicate members visited Alberta , where Cornwall introduced them to members of the cabinet . Negotiations between the syndicate and the government continued for several years . During this time , new construction estimates prepared by the syndicate placed the cost of the railway at between eighteen and twenty thousand dollars per mile . February 2 , 1907 , Cornwall entered into an agreement with the syndicate whereby he would receive $ 544 @,@ 000 in stock in the resulting railway company if he could secure the necessary loan guarantees ; this amount was later changed to $ 100 @,@ 000 .
At the beginning of 1908 , Clarke appeared on the scene , and eventually acquired the syndicate 's full interest in the railway , including a purchase of Cornwall 's interest for $ 14 @,@ 500 ( of an agreed @-@ upon $ 25 @,@ 000 ) . Shortly thereafter , Clarke met with members of cabinet in Calgary ; Cushing asserted that he had not been present for this meeting , while Rutherford insisted that he had been . While no formal guarantee was made at this meeting , Clarke left it confident that he would receive the necessary loan guarantee , and proceeded with construction plans . He obtained new cost estimates for the railroad of $ 27 @,@ 000 per mile , though Clarke 's engineer confidentially advised him that it could be built for half this amount . By November 14 , 1908 , the cabinet , led by Rutherford and Cross , had agreed to the $ 20 @,@ 000 per mile guarantee . The majority report was critical of Rutherford and Cross for this , and also for setting the bonds ' interest rate at 5 percent rather than 4 percent . The stated reason for this discrepancy was that the proposed railroad was likely to be difficult and expensive to build , crossing hundreds of miles of wilderness ; in response , the report pointed out that the provincial guarantee of $ 20 @,@ 000 per mile took this difficulty into account , and that there was thus no need for a higher interest rate to lure investors .
The majority report also took a dim view of the exemptions from the province 's railway legislation that were built into the A & GW 's charter : unlike the province 's other railways , the A & GW was not required to have directors resident in Alberta and was exempt from the requirement that railway companies not commence business until 25 % of their capital was subscribed and 10 % paid up . The A & GW was held to a figure of less than 1 % for both , and even this requirement was met in an unusual manner : Clarke brought his personal account into overdraft to issue a $ 50 @,@ 000 cheque to the company , thereby allowing the latter to meet its capital requirements and commence operations . The company then authorized a payment of the same amount to Clarke on account of expenses incurred by him on behalf of the company ; he used this payment to clear his overdraft .
The majority declined to find Rutherford and Cross guilty of any wrongdoing beyond poor judgment , though its findings were hardly flattering : " As there is room for doubt that the inference of personal interest is the only reasonable inference to be drawn from the circumstances related , and in view of the positive denial , it can only be said that , in the opinion of your commissioners , the evidence does not warrant the finding that there was or is any personal interest on the part of Dr. Rutherford or Mr. Cross " . Its findings with regards to Cornwall were similar : his receipt of $ 14 @,@ 500 and his expectation of $ 10 @,@ 500 more constituted " suspicious circumstances " , but these " point to no definite conclusion ; and he has denied that he received any other benefit , or was interested in any other way in the enterprise , and it must be held that the evidence does not establish the contrary . "
Justice Beck 's minority report was more sympathetic to all three men . Beck declared himself perfectly satisfied that Cushing , despite his protestations to the contrary , had been aware of all details of the negotiations . While acknowledging that " in some instances the wisdom of their course may be doubtful " , he accepted Rutherford 's and Cross 's explanations for their actions and labelled the accusations against them " disproved " . He felt similarly about Cornwall , concluding that by the time he was using his position to advocate for the construction of the A & GW , he was free of any pecuniary interest in it .
= = = Long @-@ term effects = = =
Sifton was selected Premier in an effort to restore party unity , and his first cabinet reflected that . There were three ministers in addition to Sifton . Charles R. Mitchell had been , like Sifton , a judge during the scandal , and was therefore unattached to either side . Duncan Marshall had been a Rutherford cabinet minister , but not one identified strongly with its railway policy . Archibald J. McLean had voted with the rebels , but not been a leader among them . The cabinet thus included members of both factions , but none of those who inspired such strong opinions as to be overly divisive .
In late 1910 , the new government introduced legislation to revoke the A & GW 's charter and confiscate the proceeds from the sale of bonds , which were still held by the province . In introducing the bill , Sifton made no commitment as to what would be done with the funds once confiscated . Many northern MLAs , including Cornwall and Cross , suspected that the Premier 's plans for the money did not include construction of a northern railway , and opposed the bill on that basis . Clarke re @-@ surfaced in Winnipeg to deny Sifton 's charge that the A & GW had defaulted on any of its obligations , and Conservative leader Bennett opposed the confiscation out of stated respect for private property : " Clarke I despise but Clarke I am bound to respect because this province gave him a right by charter and if I know the United States I do not think it will allow this province to take his property ' without due process of law ' . "
The government won the vote 25 to 14 . Once the legislation was signed into law by Bulyea , the government immediately wrote cheques drawing on the bond money . The Royal , Dominion , and Union banks , where the funds were deposited , refused payment . The government sued , and the provincial supreme court ruled in its favour in 1912 . The Royal Bank subsequently requested that the federal government use its power of disallowance to invalidate the legislation and appealed the supreme court 's decision to the British privy council , at the time Canada 's highest court of appeal . While the federal government declined to act , in 1913 the privy council found that the provincial legislature did not have the authority to confiscate money that had been raised from investors from outside of the province .
In its objective of smoothing over Liberal divisions , Sifton 's succession was only partially successful . Rutherford himself became increasingly distant from the party , and sought re @-@ election in the next election as an independent Liberal , opposed to Sifton 's government . In fact , he offered to campaign for the Conservatives across the province if they would agree not to run a candidate against him in his own riding ; the Conservatives declined his offer , and Rutherford was defeated . He would go on to campaign for the Conservatives in the 1921 election . On the other side , Ezra Riley , a leader of the insurgency , resigned his seat in protest of Cushing 's exclusion from the new administration ; he was defeated in the ensuing by @-@ election by a pro @-@ Sifton candidate . It is possible that supporters of Cross would have taken a similar tack , but Sifton brought him back into cabinet before the next election . With the noisiest dissidents neutralized , the Liberals enjoyed a period relatively free of intra @-@ party strife , until the Conscription Crisis of 1917 once again split the party .
= A Short Walk in the Hindu Kush =
A Short Walk in the Hindu Kush is a 1958 book by the English travel writer Eric Newby . It is an autobiographical account of his adventures in the Hindu Kush , around the Nuristan mountains of Afghanistan , ostensibly to make the first mountaineering ascent of Mir Samir . It has been described as a comic masterpiece , intensely English , and understated . Publications including The Guardian and The Telegraph list it among the greatest travel books of all time . It has sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies in paperback .
The book has 14 monochrome photographs taken mainly by Newby , and two hand @-@ drawn maps . The novelist Evelyn Waugh wrote a preface that mentions the book 's whimsy and its Englishness .
The action in the book moves from Newby 's life in the fashion business in London to Afghanistan . On the way Newby describes his very brief training in mountaineering in North Wales , a stop in Istanbul , and a nearly @-@ disastrous drive across Turkey and Persia . They are driven out to the Panjshir Valley , where they begin their walk , with many small hardships described in a humorous narrative , supported by genuine history of Nuristan and brief descriptions of the rare moments of beauty along the way . Disagreements with Newby 's Persian @-@ speaking companion Hugh Carless , and odd phrases in an antique grammar book , are exploited to comic effect .
The book has been reprinted many times , in at least 16 English versions and in Spanish , Chinese and German editions . While some critics consider Newby 's Love and War in the Apennines a better book , A Short Walk was the book that made him well @-@ known , and critics agree that it is both understated and very funny in an old @-@ school British way .
= = Background = =
In 1956 at the age of 36 , Newby ended his London career in fashion and decided impulsively to travel to a remote corner of Afghanistan where no Englishman had ventured for 60 years .
He sent a telegraph to his friend the diplomat Hugh Carless , then due to take up his position as First Secretary in Tehran later that year , requesting he accompany him on an expedition to Northern Afghanistan . They were poorly prepared and inexperienced , but Newby and Carless vowed to attempt Mir Samir , a glacial and then unclimbed 20 @,@ 000 foot peak in the Hindu Kush .
= = The book = =
= = = Publication = = =
A Short Walk was first published in 1958 by Secker and Warburg . It has been reprinted many times since .
Translations include :
1997 : Laertes , Barcelona ( Spanish )
1998 : 馬可孛羅文化事業股份有限公司 . Marco Polo , Taibei ( Chinese )
2002 : Eichborn , Frankfurt am Main ( German )
2005 : Goldmann , München ( German )
= = = Illustrations = = =
The book was illustrated with 14 monochrome photographs taken by Newby or Carless ; one depicts the explorer Wilfred Thesiger in his sleeping @-@ bag .
There are two hand @-@ drawn maps . The " Map to illustrate a journey in Nuristan by Eric Newby and Hugh Carless in 1956 " , shows an area of 75 x 55 miles covering the Panjshir valley to the Northwest , and Nuristan and the Pushal valley to the Southeast ; it has a small inset of Central Asia showing the area 's location to the Northeast of Kabul . The other map , " Nuristan " , covers a larger area of about 185 x 140 miles , showing Kabul and Jalalabad to the South , and Chitral and the Pakistan region of Kohistan to the East .
= = = Preface by Evelyn Waugh = = =
A two @-@ page preface by novelist Evelyn Waugh recommends the book , remarking on its " idiomatic , uncalculated manner " , and that the " beguiling narrative " is " intensely English " . He hopes that Newby is not the last of a " whimsical tradition " . He explains that Newby is not the other English writer of the same name and confesses ( or pretends ) that he began to read it thinking that it was the other man 's work . He sketches out the " deliciously funny " account of Newby selling women 's clothes , and the " call of the wild " ( he admits it is an absurdly trite phrase ) that led him to the Hindu Kush . Waugh ends by advising the " dear reader " to " fall to and enjoy this characteristic artifact . "
= = = Structure = = =
The book contains 20 chapters , all narrated in the first person by Newby .
= = = = The rag trade = = = =
Chapter 1 Life of a Salesman
Newby describes his frustration with life in the fashion business or " rag trade " in London .
Chapter 2 Death of a Salesman
Newby leaves the rag trade .
= = = = Training = = = =
Chapter 3 Birth of a Mountain Climber
Newby and Carless receive very brief training in mountaineering technique , on boulders and small cliffs in North Wales . The inn has " splendid " waitresses who seem to be expert climbers and who take them up the Ivy Sepulchre on Dinas Cromlech , as the easier Spiral Stairs route is busy .
= = = = Driving out = = = =
Chapter 4 Pera Palace
Newby arrives in Istanbul with his wife , Wanda , having driven across Europe .
Chapter 5 The Dying Nomad
With Carless , they drive across Turkey to Persia ( present day Iran ) . They make an emergency stop on the road , just short of a dying nomad , and with difficulty convince the police they did not cause the death .
Chapter 6 Airing in a Closed Carriage
Wanda returns home and the men cross Persia and Afghanistan , driving through Herat to Kandahar and Kabul . They had driven 5 @,@ 000 miles ( 8 @,@ 000 km ) in a month . There are comic touches , as when " The proprietor Abdul , a broken @-@ toothed demon of a man , conceived a violent passion for Hugh . We sat with him drinking coffee ... ' Arrrh , CAHARLESS , soul of your father . You have ill @-@ used your motor @-@ car . ' He hit Hugh a violent blow of affection in the small of his back , just as he was drinking his coffee . ' Urggh ! ' "
= = = = Journey = = = =
Chapter 7 A Little Bit of Protocol
Newby and Carless try to acclimatise to the altitude with a practice walk . They visit the Foreign Ministry , hire an Afghan cook , and buy a " very short " list of supplies . Newby describes the geography of Nuristan " walled in on every side by the most formidable mountains " and a little history , with the legend of descent from Alexander the Great , the British imperial adventures , and pre @-@ war German expeditions .
Chapter 8 Panjshir Valley
They are driven out from Kabul by a servant from the Embassy . They stay in a tall mud house in a place with mulberry trees , vines and willows by a river . Hugh puts the dinner guests to sleep with a complicated story " about an anaconda killing a horse " .
Chapter 9 A Walk in the Sun
They meet their three " very small " horses and their horse @-@ drivers . The cook has to return to Kabul . Despite having horses , they decide to carry 40 pound ( 20 kg ) packs " to toughen ourselves up " . The local people insult them for carrying loads in the heat . The drivers are angry at having to walk in the heat . They agree the drivers ' pay .
Chapter 10 Finding our Feet
They walk . They get upset stomachs and blisters . They find a man " with his skull smashed to pulp " ; the head driver suggests they should leave the place immediately . Two lammergeiers circle overhead .
Chapter 11 Western Approaches
They become tired of each other 's company , and of the food they have brought . They come to a ruinous summer pasture village , and eat local food : boiled milk , the yellow crust that forms on cream , and fresh bread . They catch sight of their goal , Mir Samir . They find tracks of ibex and wolf . One of their drivers catches a snowcock by running after it .
Chapter 12 Round 1
They look up at the awesome West wall of the mountain above them . They walk up the glacier wearing new crampons , probing for crevasses with their ice @-@ axes . They cross the bergschrund and climb " a few feet of easy rock " . Carless suggests rappelling 200 feet ( 60 m ) to the next glacier . They agree " it would be difficult " to get back if they did that . They return to their base camp and try again the next morning , again finding their way blocked . They wish the climbing waitresses from Wales were with them .
Chapter 13 Coming Round the Mountain
An injured boy is dressed in a " devilish " goatskin to draw the poison from his wounds . Newby has to eat the tail of a fat @-@ tailed sheep . They are escorted up the Chamar valley by a greedy farting albino . Newby tries to learn some phrases in the Bashguli or Kafir language from a 1901 Indian Staff Corps grammar , which contains sentences such as " A lammergeier came down from the sky and took off my cock " .
Chapter 14 Round 2
Setting out at 5 a.m. , they attempt to climb the East ridge . It becomes very hot . The rock is gritty with sharp flakes of mica . They pretend to be " Damon Runyon characters trying to climb a mountain " to cheer themselves up . They get better at roped climbing . After six and a half hours the altimeter shows 18 @,@ 000 feet . They reckon they could reach the top if they tried a different gully and started at 4 a.m. They go down . Carless 's hands are red and bleeding .
Chapter 15 Knock @-@ out
They camp below a cliff . Rocks continually fall , bouncing over their heads . It is bitterly cold . There is a thunderstorm . They eat pea soup , tinned apple pudding , and jam straight from the tin . They try to sleep . They try to ascend a 70 degree ice slope . They reach the ridge , after five hours , not the estimated two . At 19 @,@ 100 feet they have a tremendous view of the Hindu Kush , the Anjuman Pass , Tirich Mir , and the mountains that border Pakistan . Choughs croak above them . They are only 700 feet below the summit , but four hours away . They turn back . " The descent was terrible . " They return to camp at 9 p.m. after climbing for 17 hours .
Chapter 16 Over the Top
Carless makes an impressive speech in Persian to convince the drivers to continue into Nuristan . They climb an extremely indistinct track to the pass . They descend into Nuristan : it grows hot . Men run to meet them : they are told they are the first Europeans ever to cross the pass ( Newby doesn 't believe this ) . They are given ice @-@ cold milk to drink .
Chapter 17 Going Down !
They make camp in a loop of the river to reduce the risk of being murdered in the night . They are visited by two evil @-@ looking men with an ancient Martini @-@ Henry rifle , riding a horse . In the morning they try out the Bashguli grammar on a man ; he understands , but speaks a variant dialect or language . Newby tells the history of the Kafirs and the Russians . Their guide does not let them camp in a grove of mulberry trees full of " extremely handsome " girls and young women ; instead , he makes them camp under some cliffs in a place full of flies and excrement . They undress to wash in the river , discovering how thin they have become .
Chapter 18 A Room with a View
A large audience gathers to watch them get up and cook . There is a violent storm . They reach Pushal , " the capital of the Ramgul Kafirs " . The headman gives them delicious apricots and tells tales of the old days . They admire the antique rifles of many kinds that the men have , all " in a disgraceful condition " . A mullah forbids them to go to a funeral where a bullock is to be slaughtered , in a holiday atmosphere . Instead , they sit under a walnut tree beside a river , with kingfishers , butterflies , hummingbird hawkmoths , a woodpecker drilling , and have " a rare moment of peace " . Newby shakes hands with two lepers . They all have dysentery . Newby spends hours negotiating the price of a complete male Nuristanis costume .
Chapter 19 Disaster at Lake Mundul
Walking down from Lustagam they pass hand @-@ made irrigation canals of hollowed @-@ out halved tree trunks on stone pillars . They are shown a large rock , the Sang Neveshteh , with an inscription said to be in Kufic script , supposedly recording the Emperor Timur Leng 's visit in 1398 A.D. Newby gives some pages of history " lifted almost in their entirety ... from Elliott [ sic ] and Dawson 's History of India , Vol . III , London , 1871 . " The emperor forcibly converted the Nuristanis to Islam , which Newby implies they still regret . The country becomes lusher , with both ordinary mulberries and the king mulberry , plums , sloes and soft apples . Then they cross a wooded country with watermills , wild raspberries and buttercups " like a summer morning in England , but a long time ago " . They climb back into the " wilderness " to Gadval , a village on a cliff , with picturesque privies over the streams . At Lake Mundul a mullah swims the horse with Newby 's camera and all their film and other possessions across the river . The headman shows a scar inflicted on him in deep snow by a black bear .
Chapter 20 Beyond the Arayu
They climb 2 @,@ 000 feet out of the valley to reach the Arayu . At Warna they rest by a waterfall with mulberry trees . They walk on . Newby dreams of cool drinks and hot baths . They struggle on over a high cold pass . The last village of Nuristan , Achagaur , is peopled by Rajputs who claim to come from Arabia . They reach the top of the Arayu pass , " one of the lonely places of the earth with all the winds of Asia droning over it " . Newby feels the place will continue " whatever disasters overtook the rest of mankind " . They feel very happy going down from the pass . They meet the explorer and author of Arabian Sands , Wilfred Thesiger . He is disgusted by their air @-@ beds .
Maps
= = Reception = =
Edward Mace George , writing in The Guardian , notes that the book " is the comic masterpiece Newby will be remembered by " , though his finest work was Love and War in the Apennines ( 1971 ) .
Kari Herbert notes in The Guardian 's list of travel writer 's favourite travel books that she inherited her father , English polar explorer Wally Herbert 's " well @-@ loved copy " of Newby 's book . " Like Newby , I was in a soulless job , desperate for change and adventure . Reading A Short Walk was a revelation . The superbly crafted , eccentric and evocative story of his Afghan travels was like a call to arms . " John Gimlette , in the same list , chooses Newby 's Love and War in the Apennines . The Telegraph includes it as one of its " 20 best travel books of all time " , describing Newby and Carless 's meeting with the explorer Wilfred Thesiger as a " hilarious segment " . It quotes " We started to blow up our air @-@ beds . ' God , you must be a couple of pansies , ' said Thesiger . " Outside magazine includes A Short Walk among its " 25 essential books for the well @-@ read explorer " .
Margalit Fox , writing Newby 's obituary in the New York Times , notes that the trip was the one that made him famous , and states that " As in all his work , the narrative was marked by genial self @-@ effacement and overwhelming understatement . " She cites a 1959 review in the same publication by William O. Douglas , later a Supreme Court judge , who called the book " a chatty , humorous and perceptive account " , adding that " Even the unsanitary hotel accommodations , the infected drinking water , the unpalatable food , the inevitable dysentery are lively , amusing , laughable episodes . "
The Anmore Ladies Book Club ( Gentlemen welcomed ) called the book " an understated and very humorous travel story " , with " often ' laugh out loud ' funny " descriptions . While " the writing was a bit tedious at times , the general consensus was that [ the book ] was well worth the read " .
Travel writer John Pilkington includes the book in his " Top 10 writer 's reads " in Geographical magazine , observing that it is " still unmatched after nearly 50 years in print " , and describing it as a " hilarious and nicely understated description of an ill @-@ fated journey " .
American novelist Rick Skwiot enjoys the " blithely confident Brit 's " narrative style , finding echoes of its concept , structure and humour in Bill Bryson 's A Walk in the Woods . Skwiot notes the hazards of the journey as crevasses , precipices , thieves , bears , disease , thirst , hunger . " Somehow they blunder on toward their whimsical destination " , he remarks , the " seductive and tickling narrative " told with " understatement , self @-@ effacement , savage wit , honed irony , and unrelenting honesty . " The reader is drawn in " by his endearingly flawed humanity . "
Michael Shapiro , interviewing Newby for Travelers ' Tales , calls the book " a classic piece of old @-@ school British exploration , and established Newby ’ s trademark self @-@ deprecating wry humor . "
In Varieties of Nostalgia in Contemporary Travel Writing , Patrick Holland and Graham Huggan observe that " travel writing , like travel itself , is generated by nostalgia " . But the " anachronistic gentleman " can only exist , they note , quoting Simon Raven , " in circumstances that are manifestly contrived or unreal " . The resulting " atmosphere of enhanced affectation is exploited to maximum comic effect " in books like A Short Walk , which they call " an acclaimed post @-@ Byronic escapade in which gentlemanly theatrics come to assume the proportions of full @-@ blown farce . "
= = Legacy = =
The Austrian alpinist Adolf Diemberger wrote in a 1966 report that in mountaineering terms Newby and Carless 's reconnaissance of the Central Hindu Kush was a " negligible effort " , admitting however that they " almost climbed it " . The climb was more warmly described in the same year as " The first serious attempt at mountaineering in that country [ the Afghan Hindu Kush ] " by the Polish mountaineer Boleslaw Chwascinski .
In January 2012 , an expedition under the auspices of the British Mountaineering Council , citing the " popular adventure book " , attempted the first winter ascent of Mir Samir , but it was cut short by an equipment theft and " very deep snow conditions and route finding difficulties " .
= = = Edition = = =
Newby , Eric ( 1974 ) . A Short Walk in the Hindu Kush . Pan . ISBN 0 @-@ 330 @-@ 24227 @-@ X.
= Philip Humber =
Philip Gregory Humber ( / ˈʌmbər / ; born December 21 , 1982 ) is an American former professional baseball pitcher . He pitched for the New York Mets , Minnesota Twins , Kansas City Royals , Chicago White Sox , and Houston Astros in seven seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Although he debuted in the major leagues in 2006 and had worked mostly as a starter in the minor leagues , he did not become a regular MLB starter until 2011 .
Humber earned three Texas Little League state championships . He subsequently attended Carthage High School in Carthage , Texas , where he led the baseball team to the state championship game in 2001 , his senior season , winning state Player of the Year honors . He then attended Rice University , where he played college baseball for the Rice Owls baseball team . Humber was the winning pitcher in the clinching game of the 2003 College World Series . He has also represented the United States at the World University Baseball Championship .
The Mets selected Humber with the third overall selection in the 2004 MLB draft . During his minor league career , he underwent ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction , before making his MLB debut with the Mets . It took him several years to regain his ability to throw with the same velocity that he had prior to the injury . After being included in a trade to the Twins for Johan Santana , Humber struggled to establish himself . He spent a year with the Royals organization and was briefly a member of the Oakland Athletics organization , before being claimed on waivers by the White Sox in 2011 , getting an opportunity to pitch in the White Sox ' starting rotation . On April 21 , 2012 , Humber pitched the 21st perfect game in MLB history , defeating the Seattle Mariners .
= = Early life = =
Born in Nacogdoches , Texas , Humber was raised in Carthage , Texas . Living in an area with an abundance of baseball fields , Humber grew up with a batting cage in his backyard . At the age of 11 , Humber visited the Chicago White Sox during spring training in Florida as the guest of Robert Ellis , a family friend of the Humbers , who then was a minor league baseball pitcher for the White Sox .
Carthage was a Texas anomaly , its baseball athletes being the most admired role models rather than its football players . As of 2004 , the Panola County Dixie League teams had won 15 state championships in the preceding 20 years and Humber played for three state champions .
= = Amateur career = =
Humber attended Carthage High School . The Carthage Bulldogs had won the state title in 1990 and been one of the final four teams in the state tournament in 1994 . Humber was promoted from junior varsity midway through his sophomore season . He compiled a 4 – 0 win – loss record with a low 1 @.@ 09 earned run average ( ERA ) . He went 7 – 2 as a junior , and posted a 13 – 1 record with a 0 @.@ 90 ERA and 146 strikeouts as a senior . A capable batter , he also had a .371 batting average with six home runs . Humber threw a shutout in the Texas University Interscholastic League Class 4A semifinals against Cedar Park High School in 2001 , his senior season . Although Carthage lost the state championship to Western Hills High School in baseball that year , Humber was named Texas High School Class 4A Player of the Year by the Texas Sports Writers Association . According to former Major League Baseball prospect and East Texas native Alan Move : " Back in high school , he ( Humber ) threw harder than everyone else and changed speeds pretty well and that 's all you need in high school . "
Humber was drafted by the New York Yankees in the 29th round of the 2001 Major League Baseball draft . As the 875th pick overall , he described himself as " more of a draft @-@ and @-@ follow " prospect . The Yankees made Humber an offer in an attempt to lure him away from his college scholarship , but he did not sign , choosing instead to attend Rice University in order to play college baseball for the Rice Owls baseball team , competing in the Western Athletic Conference ( WAC ) of NCAA Division I.
At Rice , Humber was coached by Wayne Graham . Humber 's first home appearance at Reckling Park was in the annual Rice Alumni game in February 2002 . After retiring his first two batters in relief , Humber faced a pair of Major League Baseball players . José Cruz , Jr. bounced the baseball off of the wall in center field and then Lance Berkman hit the ball over the scoreboard . After his inauspicious debut , he became a dominant pitcher during his three college seasons for the Rice Owls , stepping into the nationally ranked Owls ' starting rotation as a freshman . Humber finished his freshman season in 2002 with an 11 – 1 win – loss record , a 2 @.@ 78 ERA , and a WAC @-@ leading 130 strikeouts in 110 2 ⁄ 3 innings , earning National Freshman Player of the Year honors from Collegiate Baseball and All @-@ America honors from several publications — Collegiate Baseball ( Second Team ) , Baseball America ( Second Team ) and Baseball Weekly ( Third Team ) . Humber 's strikeout total was the most for an Owl freshman since 1976 . That season , Rice reached the 2002 College World Series , but lost its first two games and was eliminated . Nonetheless , Humber earned an invitation to USA Baseball 's national team trials . He was the scheduled starter in the second of the two games , which was against the Notre Dame Fighting Irish on June 17 , but the team could not hold a 3 – 2 lead in the bottom of the ninth . He then competed for the United States national baseball team at the 2002 World University Baseball Championship , which was held in Messina , Sicily . On August 7 , he earned a victory for the United States in a game against the South Korean team . The United States won the silver medal in the tournament .
Entering his sophomore season , he was expected to be a key part of the starting pitching rotation . The 2003 season saw the development of Rice 's " Big Three " rotation , featuring Humber and sophomore classmates Wade Townsend and Jeff Niemann . Humber developed a curveball that season , to augment his arsenal that included a fastball , changeup and split @-@ finger fastball . During the season , Humber achieved his 17th consecutive win in WAC play . He was recognized as a Third Team All @-@ American by Collegiate Baseball and was a First Team All @-@ Western Athletic Conference honoree . The trio entered the 2003 College World Series with gaudy numbers — Niemann ( 16 – 0 , 1 @.@ 63 ERA ) and Townsend ( 10 – 1 , 1 @.@ 90 ERA ) complementing Humber — and with Humber scheduled for the third game , if necessary . Humber finished with an 11 – 3 win – loss record with a 3 @.@ 30 ERA , as Rice won its first national championship in any team sport . He pitched a complete game in the decisive third game of the series , a 14 – 2 win over the Stanford Cardinal . The game established a College World Series record for largest title game margin of victory . During the season , Rice established a school record 30 @-@ game winning
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= Kansas City Royals ( 2010 ) = = =
On December 15 , 2009 , Humber signed a minor league contract with the Kansas City Royals , receiving an invitation to spring training . After he pitched to an 11 @.@ 74 ERA in four spring training games , the Royals reassigned Humber to their minor league camp on March 22 .
Humber was assigned to start the year with the Omaha Royals of the PCL . On June 10 , 2010 , while pitching in a game for Omaha , Humber was hit in the face on a line drive by Luis Cruz . After lying on the mound for a few minutes , he was able to get up and walk on his own to the dugout . He was then transported to a local hospital , where he received eighteen stitches . He earned the second PCL Pitcher of the Week Award of his career for play during the week ending August 1 . He won the award based on having posted a complete game 4 @-@ hit 7 @-@ strikeout shutout against the Nashville Sounds on July 30 .
However , Humber began to regain the velocity he had lost following Tommy John surgery in 2005 . Humber was called up by the Kansas City Royals on August 5 , 2010 , when Kansas City designated José Guillén for assignment . On August 25 , Humber pitched three relief innings for the Royals against the Detroit Tigers and earned his first MLB win . He finished the 2010 season with a 2 – 1 win – loss record and 4 @.@ 15 ERA in eight games for the Royals , including one game started . He also appeared in 21 games , 20 of them starts , for the Omaha Royals , pitching to a 5 – 6 win – loss record and 4 @.@ 47 ERA . The Royals designated Humber for assignment in December 2010 , in order to make room on the roster for newly signed Jeff Francoeur .
= = = Chicago White Sox ( 2011 – 2012 ) = = =
In December 2010 , the Royals waived Humber , and he was claimed by the Oakland Athletics , who had extra room on their 40 @-@ man roster at the time of the waiver claim . However , the team subsequently filled its 40 @-@ man roster and designated Humber for assignment later that off @-@ season in order to make room on their roster for Guillermo Moscoso , who the Athletics acquired from the Texas Rangers in a trade during January 2011 . The Chicago White Sox claimed Humber off waivers from the Athletics on January 18 , 2011 . He signed a contract worth $ 500 @,@ 000 for the season . White Sox pitching coach Don Cooper worked with Humber , as he replaced his cut fastball with a slider and improved his pitching mechanics in the fashion originally recommended by Peterson in 2005 .
Humber debuted with the White Sox in their third game in relief . He made two pitches , both of which resulted in hits and base runners that came around to score . With Jake Peavy injured at the start of the 2011 season , the White Sox gave Humber the opportunity to pitch in their starting rotation . On April 9 , 2011 , Humber won his first start with the White Sox , pitching 6 2 ⁄ 3 innings and only allowing one run . Humber surprised the White Sox with his strong performance . On April 25 , in the sixth start of his career , he took a no @-@ hitter into the seventh inning against the New York Yankees at Yankee Stadium , but with one out Alex Rodriguez singled up the middle . He finished with seven scoreless innings . He took a no @-@ hitter into the sixth inning against the Washington Nationals on June 26 , but ended up earning a 2 – 1 loss when he surrendered a seventh inning home run to Danny Espinosa . In early July , when he led the major leagues with 103 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched and held an 8 – 4 record with a 2 @.@ 69 ERA , he seemed like a probable selection for the 2011 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game . In mid @-@ July , the White Sox switched to a six @-@ man rotation . By early August , Humber was in a slump . Humber denies the extra rest affected his pitch command . He spent time on the disabled list with a facial bruise after Kosuke Fukudome lined a baseball into his face above the right eye on August 18 . After he was hit , he was very concerned for his wife : " I thought , ' I 've got to get up because she 's in the stands , ' " Humber said . " As soon as I went in [ the clubhouse ] , I asked one of the guys to call her to make sure she knew I was OK . " , adding " My main concern was cheering up my wife . " He appeared in one rehabilitation start for the Charlotte Knights of the Class @-@ AAA International League . Humber pitched seven scoreless innings in his major league return . Humber completed his first full season as an MLB starting pitcher with a 9 – 9 win – loss record with a 3 @.@ 75 ERA in 163 innings .
As Humber performed better in the first half of the 2011 season ( 8 – 5 , 3 @.@ 10 ERA ) than in the second half ( 1 – 4 , 5 @.@ 01 ERA ) , which he attributed to general fatigue , Humber decided to add 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) during his offseason workouts . Humber signed a one @-@ year contract in March for $ 530 @,@ 000 , above the minimum salary for a player with his level of MLB experience . In the first season in which he did not have to battle for a roster spot in spring training , he made his final spring training start in his home state near Rice at Minute Maid Park in front of many relatives . Although the 2012 Chicago White Sox 's rotation was said to be made up of five number @-@ three starters , Humber began the season as the number five starter .
In Humber 's 30th career start in MLB , he pitched the 21st perfect game in MLB history against the Seattle Mariners on April 21 , 2012 . It was the third perfect game in White Sox history after those thrown by Charlie Robertson and Mark Buehrle , and the 18th no @-@ hitter in White Sox history . It was Humber 's second start of the 2012 season and first career complete game .
Humber was named American League ( AL ) Player of the Week for the week ending April 22 . Humber went 1 – 0 with a 0 @.@ 63 ERA in 14 1 ⁄ 3 innings while striking out 16 over two starts that week , including the perfect game . He received a congratulatory phone call from President Barack Obama , a noted White Sox fan . Humber appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman , where he read the " Top Ten List " . Humber 's perfect game will be memorialized with a plaque at the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum .
Since the perfect game , Humber has struggled . He allowed 20 runs in his next three starts across 13 1 ⁄ 3 innings . He missed one month of the season due to a right elbow strain . Following the acquisition of Francisco Liriano , the White Sox removed Humber from the starting rotation .
= = = Houston Astros ( 2013 ) = = =
The Houston Astros claimed Humber off waivers on November 30 , 2012 . Humber made the Astros ' starting rotation at the start of the 2013 season . Humber lost his spot in the starting rotation to Érik Bédard after opening the season with an 0 – 7 record and an ERA of 8 @.@ 82 . Humber was designated for assignment on May 12 , after his record fell to 0 – 8 with a 9 @.@ 59 ERA . After pitching in relief for the Oklahoma City RedHawks of the PCL , the Astros selected his contract on August 12 , when they traded Wesley Wright to the Tampa Bay Rays . On October 3 , the Astros declined a $ 3 million option for 2014 , instead paying him his guaranteed $ 500 @,@ 000 and releasing him .
= = = Oakland Athletics = = =
On November 2 , 2013 , Humber signed a minor league contract with the Oakland Athletics , with an invitation to spring training . The Athletics assigned him to the Sacramento River Cats of the PCL .
= = = Kia Tigers = = =
On December 8 , 2014 , Humber signed a contract with the Kia Tigers of the Korea Baseball Organization . After pitching to a 6 @.@ 75 ERA in 50 2 / 3 innings , Humber was released by the Tigers on July 20 , 2015 .
= = = San Diego Padres = = =
On December 10 , 2015 , Humber signed a minor league deal with the San Diego Padres . Humber retired on March 29 , 2016 .
= = = Pitching style = = =
Humber relied on five pitches . He had a four @-@ seam fastball ranging from 89 to 92 miles per hour ( 143 – 148 km / h ) , a two @-@ seam fastball ( 89 to 92 miles per hour ( 143 – 148 km / h ) ) , a slider ( mid 80s ) , a changeup ( mid 80s ) , and a 12 @-@ 6 curveball ( 78 to 81 miles per hour ( 126 – 130 km / h ) ) . He used his slider against right @-@ handed hitters but preferred to use his changeup and curveball as off @-@ speed pitches against left @-@ handed hitters . Humber favored his curveball in two @-@ strike situations . He used a conventional " three @-@ quarters " arm slot to deliver his pitches .
= = Personal life = =
Humber married his wife , Kristan , in November 2007 . They were introduced by mutual friends in 2005 . At the time of his perfect game , Humber 's wife was nine months pregnant with the couple 's first child , a son named John Gregory , who was born on May 1 . Humber comes from a large extended family .
Humber is a registered member of the Republican Party . He has the Bible verse Colossians 3 : 23 inscribed in his baseball glove . He undertook a charitable mission to the Philippines in the 2011 – 12 offseason with Brett Carroll , where they instructed children about baseball and Christianity .
Josh Tomlin , an MLB pitcher , is a close friend of Humber . From nearby Tyler , Texas , Tomlin competed against Humber in high school , and the two train together during offseasons . Humber is currently a Tyler resident .
= Jonathan Lethem =
Jonathan Allen Lethem ( born February 19 , 1964 ) is an American novelist , essayist and short story writer . His first novel , Gun , with Occasional Music , a genre work that mixed elements of science fiction and detective fiction , was published in 1994 . It was followed by three more science fiction novels .
In 1999 , Lethem published Motherless Brooklyn , a National Book Critics Circle Award @-@ winning novel that achieved mainstream success . In 2003 , he published The Fortress of Solitude , which became a New York Times Best Seller . In 2005 , he received a MacArthur Fellowship .
= = Early life = =
Lethem was born in Brooklyn , New York , to Judith Frank Lethem , a political activist , and Richard Brown Lethem , an avant @-@ garde painter . He was the eldest of three children . His father was Protestant ( with Scottish and English ancestry ) and his mother was Jewish , from a family with roots in Germany , Poland , and Russia . His brother Blake became an artist , and his sister Mara became a photographer , writer , and translator . The family lived in a commune in the pre @-@ gentrified Brooklyn neighborhood of North Gowanus ( now called Boerum Hill ) . Despite the racial tensions and conflicts , he later described his bohemian childhood as " thrilling " and culturally wide @-@ reaching . He gained an encyclopedic knowledge of the music of Bob Dylan , saw Star Wars twenty @-@ one times during its original theatrical release , and read the complete works of the science fiction writer Philip K. Dick . Lethem later said Dick ’ s work was " as formative an influence as marijuana or punk rock — as equally responsible for beautifully fucking up my life , for bending it irreversibly along a course I still travel . "
His parents divorced when Lethem was young . When he was thirteen , his mother Judith died from a malignant brain tumor , an event which he has said haunted him and has strongly affected his writing . ( Lethem discusses the direct relation between his mother and the Bob Dylan song " Like a Rolling Stone " in the 2003 Canadian documentary Complete Unknown . ) In 2007 , Lethem explained , " My books all have this giant , howling missing [ center ] — language has disappeared , or someone has vanished , or memory has gone . "
Intending to become a visual artist like his father , Lethem attended the High School of Music & Art in New York , where he painted in a style he describes as " glib , show @-@ offy , usually cartoonish " . At Music & Art he produced his own zine , The Literary Exchange , which featured artwork and writing . He also created animated films and wrote a 125 @-@ page novel , Heroes , still unpublished .
After graduating from high school , Lethem entered Bennington College in Vermont in 1982 as a prospective art student . At Bennington , Lethem experienced an " overwhelming .... collision with the realities of class — my parents ’ bohemian milieu had kept me from understanding , even a little , that we were poor .... at Bennington that was all demolished by an encounter with the fact of real privilege . " This , coupled with the realization that he was more interested in writing than art , led Lethem to drop out halfway through his sophomore year . He hitchhiked from Denver , Colorado to Berkeley , California in 1984 , across " a thousand miles of desert and mountains through Wyoming , Utah , and Nevada , with about 40 dollars in my pocket , " describing it as " one of the stupidest and most memorable things I 've ever done . "
Lethem lived in California for twelve years , working as a clerk in used bookstores , including Moe 's and Pegasus & Pendragon Books , and writing on his own time . Lethem published his first short story in 1989 and published several more in the early 1990s .
= = Career = =
= = = First novels = = =
Lethem ’ s first novel , Gun , with Occasional Music , is a merging of science fiction and the Chandleresque detective story , which includes talking kangaroos , radical futuristic versions of the drug scene , and cryogenic prisons . The novel was published in 1994 by Harcourt Brace , in what Lethem later described as a " delirious " experience . " I 'd pictured my first novels being published as paperback originals , " he recalled , " and instead a prestigious house was doing the book in cloth .... I was in heaven . " The novel was released to little initial fanfare , but an enthusiastic review in Newsweek , which declared Gun an " audaciously assured first novel " , catapulted the book to wider commercial success . Gun , with Occasional Music was a finalist for the 1994 Nebula Award , and placed first in the " Best First Novel " category of the 1995 Locus Magazine reader 's poll . In the mid @-@ 1990s , film producer @-@ director Alan J. Pakula optioned the novel 's movie rights , which allowed Lethem to quit working in bookstores and devote his time to writing .
His next book was Amnesia Moon ( 1995 ) . Partially inspired by Lethem 's experiences hitchhiking cross @-@ country , this second novel uses a road narrative to explore a multi @-@ post @-@ apocalyptic future landscape rife with perception tricks . After publishing many of his early stories in a 1996 collection , The Wall of the Sky , the Wall of the Eye , Lethem published his third novel , As She Climbed Across the Table ( 1997 ) . It starts with a physics researcher who falls in love with an artificially generated spatial anomaly called " Lack " , for whom she spurns her previous partner . Her ex @-@ partner 's comic struggle with this rejection , and with the anomaly , constitute the majority of the narrative .
In 1996 , Lethem moved from the San Francisco Bay Area back to Brooklyn . His next book , published after his return to Brooklyn , was Girl in Landscape . In the novel , a young girl must endure puberty while also having to face a strange and new world populated by aliens known as Archbuilders . Lethem has said that Girl in Landscape 's plot and characters , including the figures of a young girl and a violently protective father figure , were " very strongly influenced " by the 1956 John Wayne Western The Searchers , a movie with which he is " obsessed . "
= = = Mainstream success and " genre bending " = = =
The first novel Lethem began after returning to New York City was Motherless Brooklyn , a return to the detective theme . He maintained objective realism while exploring subjective alterity through Lionel Essrog . His protagonist has Tourette syndrome and is obsessed with language . Lethem later said that Essrog
... obviously [ is ] the character I 've written with whom I most identify ... [ the novel ] stands outside myself ... It 's the only one which doesn 't need me , never did . It would have found someone to write it , by necessity .
Upon its publication in 1999 , Motherless Brooklyn won the National Book Critics Circle Award for Fiction , The Macallan Gold Dagger for crime fiction , and the Salon Book Award ; it was named book of the year by Esquire . In 1999 , actor Edward Norton announced that he was planning to write , direct and star in a film adaptation of the novel . In March 2007 , Norton said he was still working on the screenplay .
According to The New York Times , the mainstream success of Motherless Brooklyn made Lethem " something of a hipster celebrity " , and he was referred to several times as a " genre bender " . Critics cited the variety of Lethem 's novels , which were alternately hard @-@ boiled detective fiction , science fiction , and autobiographical . ( Lethem credited his comfort in genre @-@ mixing to his father 's art , which " always combined observed and imagined reality on the same canvas , very naturally , very un @-@ self @-@ consciously . " ) In Time magazine , Lev Grossman classed Lethem with a movement of authors similarly eager to blend literary and popular writing , including Michael Chabon ( with whom Lethem is friends ) , Margaret Atwood , and Susanna Clarke .
In 2003 , Lethem commented on the concept of " genre bending " :
The fact is , I used to get very involved , six or seven years ago , and before that , in questions of taxonomy of genre , and in the idea — which is ultimately a political idea — that a given writer , perhaps me , could in some objective way alter or reorganize the boundaries between genres .... Nowadays , I 've come to feel that talking about categories , about " high " and " low " , about genre and their boundaries and the blurring of those boundaries , all consists only of an elaborate way to avoid actually discussing what moves and interests me about books — my own , and others ' . What I like are books in their homely actuality — the insides of the books , the mysterious movements of characters and situations and the emotions that accompany those movements . The play of sentences , their infinite variety .
In the early 2000s , Lethem published a story collection , edited two anthologies , wrote magazine pieces , and published the 55 @-@ page novella This Shape We 're In ( 2000 ) . This Shape We 're In was one of the first offerings from McSweeney 's Books , the publishing imprint that developed from Dave Eggers ' McSweeney 's Quarterly Concern .
In November 2000 , Lethem said that he was working on an uncharacteristically " big sprawling " novel , about a child who grows up to be a rock journalist . The novel was published in 2003 as The Fortress of Solitude . The semi @-@ autobiographical bildungsroman features dozens of characters in a variety of milieus , but features a tale of racial tensions and boyhood in Brooklyn during the late 1970s . The main characters are two friends of different backgrounds who grew up on the same block in Boerum Hill . It was named one of nine " Editor 's Choice " books of the year by The New York Times and has been published in fifteen languages .
Lethem 's second collection of short fiction , Men and Cartoons , was published in late 2004 . In March 2005 , The Disappointment Artist , his first collection of essays , was released . On September 20 , 2005 , Lethem received a MacArthur Fellowship .
In an interview with Armchair / Shotgun in 2009 , Lethem said of short fiction :
I 'm writing short stories right now , that 's what I do between novels , and I love them . I 'm very devoted to it . You know , it 's funny . There seems to be some sort of law that you only get to be celebrated for one or the other . And then a couple of people will break it . Updike did . They didn 't review his story collections by saying , " Well , these are nice , but he 's a novelist . " Or review his novels by saying , " Well , too bad he can 't do the longer stuff . " Other people tend to get patronized on one end or the other — and I 'll take it . I have a very happy life as a novelist . But the story collections I 've published are tremendously important to me . And many of the uncollected stories — or yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ collected stories — are among my proudest writings . They 're very closely allied , obviously , to novel writing . But also very distinct , and , you know , there 's no need to choose .
= = = 2005 – present = = =
In September 2006 , Lethem wrote the article , " The Genius of Bob Dylan " , a lengthy interview with Bob Dylan , which was published in Rolling Stone . The interview contained Lethem 's reflections on Dylan 's artistic achievements . It revealed Dylan 's dissatisfaction with contemporary recording techniques and his thoughts on his own status .
After Motherless Brooklyn and The Fortress of Solitude , Lethem decided that " [ i ] t was time to leave Brooklyn in a literary sense anyway ... I really needed to defy all that stuff about place and memory . " In 2007 , he returned as a novelist to California , where some of his earlier fiction had been set , with You Don 't Love Me Yet , a novel about an upstart rock band . The novel revolves around a woman in the band , Lucinda , who answers phones for her friend 's complaint line and uses some of a caller 's words as lyrics . According to Lethem , the book was inspired by the years he spent as the lead singer in an upstart California band in the late 1980s and early 1990s , during what he called " the unformed posturing phase of life " . The novel received mixed reviews .
In 2005 , Lethem had announced that he was planning to revive the Marvel Comics character Omega the Unknown in a ten @-@ issue series to be published in 2006 . After hearing of the project , Omega co @-@ creator Steve Gerber expressed personal outrage over the use of the character without his participation , though he later discussed the project with Lethem and admitted that he had " misjudged " him . In May 2006 , Marvel Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief Joe Quesada explained that the series had been delayed to 2007 , saying that " winning the MacArthur Grant put additional and unexpected demands on [ Lethem 's ] time . " The revamped Omega the Unknown series was published in ten monthly issues from October 2007 to July 2008 ; the issues were published in a single volume in October 2008 .
In early 2007 , Lethem began work on Chronic City , which was published on October 13 , 2009 . In July 2008 , Lethem said that Chronic City is " set on the Upper East Side of Manhattan , it ’ s strongly influenced by Saul Bellow , Philip K. Dick , Charles G. Finney and Hitchcock ’ s Vertigo and it concerns a circle of friends including a faded child @-@ star actor , a cultural critic , a hack ghost @-@ writer of autobiographies , and a city official . And it ’ s long and strange . "
His essay , " The Ecstasy of Influence : A Plagiarism " ( 2007 ) , is a passionate defense of plagiarism and a call for a return to a " gift economy " in the arts . He writes ,
The kernel , the soul — let us go further and say the substance , the bulk , the actual and valuable material of all human utterances — is plagiarism ... Don 't pirate my editions ; do plunder my visions . The name of the game is Give All . You , reader , are welcome to my stories . They were never mine in the first place , but I gave them to you .
The essay was included in his 2011 collection , The Ecstasy of Influence : Nonfictions , Etc .
In 2011 , The Exegesis of Philip K. Dick , edited by Pamela Jackson and Lethem , was published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt . Among other projects , Lethem published short books about John Carpenter 's film They Live ( published in October , 2010 as They Live ) and the Talking Heads album Fear of Music . Starting in 2011 , he served as the Roy E. Disney Professor in Creative Writing at Pomona College , a position formerly held by the late David Foster Wallace .
Lethem 's ninth novel , entitled Dissident Gardens , was released on September 10 , 2013 . According to Lethem in an interview with the Los Angeles Times , the novel concerns " American leftists " , very specifically " a red @-@ diaper baby generation trying to figure out what it all means , this legacy of American Communism . " Regarding the novel 's setting , Lethem said in the same interview that it is
" set in Queens and Greenwich Village , another New York neighborhood book , very much about the life of the city ... writing about Greenwich Village in 1958 was really a jump for me , it was as much of an imaginative leap as any of the more fantastical things I 've done . But really exciting , too . "
Dissident Gardens was quickly followed up in February 2015 with Lucky Alan and Other Stories , Lethem 's fifth short story collection . Lethem 's next novel , his tenth , is scheduled for publication in October 2016 . Titled A Gambler 's Anatomy , the novel 's official plot description on the Penguin Books website alludes to it concerning " an international backgammon hustler who thinks he ’ s psychic " .
= = Personal life = =
In 1987 , Lethem married the writer and artist Shelley Jackson ; they were divorced by 1997 . In 2000 , he married Julia Rosenberg , a Canadian film executive ; they divorced two years later .
As of 2007 , Lethem lived in Brooklyn and Berwick , Maine , with his third wife , the filmmaker Amy Barrett , and their son , Everett Barrett Lethem ( b . May 23 , 2007 ) .
= = Works = =
= = Criticism and interpretation = =
Cohen , Samuel . After the End of History : American Fiction in the 1990s . University of Iowa Press , 2009 . [ contains discussion of The Fortress of Solitude ]
Clarke , Jaime ( ed . ) . Conversations with Jonathan Lethem . Literary Conversations . University Press of Mississippi , 2012 .
Luter , Matthew . Understanding Jonathan Lethem . Understanding Contemporary American Literature . University of South Carolina Press , 2015 .
Peacock , James . Jonathan Lethem . Contemporary American and Canadian Writers . Manchester University Press , 2012 .
= Nki National Park =
Nki National Park is a national park in southeastern Cameroon , located in its East Province . The closest towns to Nki are Yokadouma , Moloundou and Lomie , beyond which are rural lands . Due to its remoteness , Nki has been described as " the last true wilderness . " It has a large and varied ecosystem , and it is home to over 265 species of birds , and the forests of Cameroon contain some of the highest population density of forest elephants of any nation with an elephant density of roughly 2 @.@ 5 per square kilometer for Nki and neighboring Boumba Bek National Park combined . These animals are victims of poaching , which has been a major problem since an economic depression in the 1980s . The indigenous people follow in the footsteps of the poachers , attracted by the financial opportunities . The removal of logging industries from the park , on the other hand , has been a success ; it is no longer considered a major threat to Nki 's wilderness .
= = History = =
The World Wildlife Fund has been in the process of conserving the park since the 1980s , including ridding the area of the logging business . This movement , however , has been met with some criticism , especially by members of the remote village of Ndongo , Cameroon . Before WWF arrived , Ndongo was a bustling logging town of 300 residents with fairly good roads and plentiful working opportunities . Once the organization established itself , it pressured the logging companies to operate in a more environmentally friendly manner . The logging companies pulled out of the town in 1988 , leaving broken machinery and severely damaging Ndongo 's economy . According to Leonard Usongo , manager of WWF projects in southeast Cameroon , " we cannot convince a community of the need to protect forests if we don ’ t acknowledge their problems or their poverty . "
Today , logging is no longer a major problem , as " it would require a lot of investment to develop necessary infrastructure , such as roads , for [ its ] operations , especially in the southern portion of Nki . " According to the WWF 's scientific advisor in the region , Paul Robinson Ngnegueu , " poaching is the biggest threat to ... Nki . " It is a result of the late 1980s economic depression in Cameroon . The indigenous people followed the poachers , attracted by the financial opportunities . They would sell their product through " intermediaries " for money and more hunting supplies .
Cameroonian authorities fought poaching in Nki by applying repressive measures to the indigenous population . An example of this was in January 1997 , when Bakas were forced from their homes near Mambele . These actions turned the Bakas against the WWF , which they considered " an organization of whites who want to protect animals " . Every year , poachers travel up the Dja for central Nki , where elephant ivory is abundant . Strong currents on the river are a deterrent for half the year , but after that , according to freelance journalist Jemini Pandya , the fauna is easy to prey upon .
Nonetheless , when Pandya of the WWF visited Nki National Park in the early 1990s , she described it as " the last true wilderness . " In 1995 , the park was named an Essential Protection Zone , its first official status . It was not formally established as a national park until the Cameroonian government decreed the creation of Boumba Bek and Nki National Parks on 17 October 2005 . This establishment was not without opposition ; the Bakas have continually asked to reduce the park 's boundaries and ask for higher usage rights , which invaded upon " their " land .
Cameroon and Gabon are currently working on the TRIDOM project , a conservation initiative leading to a land management plan which will oversee access to and use of forests . It will create a tri @-@ national " interzone " bordered by the Minkebe , Boumba @-@ Bek , Nki , and Odzala National Parks and the Dja Wildlife Reserve . This project is part of a conservation movement toward the zoning and designation of new protected areas .
= = Geography and climate = =
The park is located in a remote area of southeastern Cameroon , which " has helped maintain most of its pristine forest and beauty . " It has never been completely explored . Largely hilly in its terrain at an elevation of 350 – 650 m , it falls within the Sangha ecoregion . Nki is crossed by several large rivers , including the Dja River . A waterfall , Nki falls , is located on the river in the park , giving " a tinge of exoticism to the landscape . " The park is situated from latitude 2 ˚ 05 to 2 ˚ 50 N and longitude 14 ˚ 05 to 14 ˚ 50 E. It covers a surface area of 3 @,@ 093 km2 ( 1 @,@ 194 sq mi ) and straddles two administrative divisions in the East province : Ngoyla in Haut Nyon and Moloundou in Boumba et Ngoko Division . The closest towns to Nki are Yokadouma , Moloundou and Lomie , beyond which is rural lands .
Seventy @-@ three bais , or forest clearings , have been discovered in Nki National Park . In April 2006 , while looking for elephant groups , a WWF team discovered the largest bai in the region , Ikwa Bai . Dr. Mike Loomis , a member of the group , confirmed that this bai is slightly larger than Dzanga Sangha Bai ( Central African Republic ) , which had previously held the record . He also reported little human development adjacent to the bai , and noticed 21 elephants and 16 buffaloes in it simultaneously . The bai has a small creek running through its center , which sits atop a bed of rocks and sand . A large mineral pit is located next to the stream . It is the habitat of several wildlife species , the largest @-@ numbering being chimpanzees , elephants , buffaloes , and gorillas .
The park has a tropical climate with temperature ranging from 23 @.@ 1 – 25 ˚ C with an average annual temperature of 24 ˚ C. Its relative humidity varies between 60 and 90 % while annual rainfall is 1500 mm per year . According to the Cameroon Ministry of Agriculture , nearby Moloundou has a rainy season from September to November , a dry season from November to March , a rainy season from March to June , and a dry season from July to August .
= = Demographics = =
The area around the park , as defined by the World Wildlife Fund , has a human population of 22 @,@ 882 , mostly ethnic Bantus and , despite being named a minority in Cameroon 's constitution of 18 January 1996 , Baka Pygmies . These include the Djem , Bangando , Bakwele and Zime tribes . Non @-@ indigenous employees of logging companies and traders make up a sizeable amount of the population . The population density of the region is about five people per square kilometer , concentrated along the main Yokadouma @-@ Moloundou road . The villages around the park are mostly homogeneous as there are few non @-@ natives , most of whom work as civil servants or traders .
= = Biodiversity = =
= = = Flora = = =
As with Boumba @-@ Bek to the northeast , the main type of forest is semi @-@ evergreen with an open canopy dominated by the 50 – 60 m Triplochiton , though it is mixed with large patches of closed evergreens . There are also some seasonally flooded Uapaca trees along the Dja River .
= = = Fauna = = =
Nki , according to the Environmental News Service , " encompass [ es ] a biodiverse group of plants and animals . " This has been confirmed by various studies over the years . Sitatunga , chimpanzees , forest antelope ( largely duikers ) , bushbucks , giant forest hogs , bush pigs , leopard , Nile crocodiles and bongos are all found in Nki National Park , along with " hundreds " of fish species .
The forests of Cameroon contain some of the highest population density of forest elephants of any nation , and Nki is no different , with an elephant density of roughly 2 @.@ 5 per square kilometer for Boumba Bek and Nki combined . The population has been steadily rising , from 1 @,@ 547 in 1998 to 3 @,@ 000 in 2006 . Gorillas are also reported to abundant ; there are an estimated 6 @,@ 000 adults in Nki . The park is also home to diurnal primates , such as the threatened crested monkey , De Brazza monkey , and the black colobus , who reportedly only live east of the Dja River .
A 20 @-@ day study held by BirdLife International discovered 265 species of birds in the park . Of these , the yellow @-@ bellied form of forest robin is widespread . In the study , a pair of Ja River scrub warblers was discovered in a 1 hectare patch of Rhynchospora marsh ; its population must be small as there are few such marshes in Nki . Three species of forest nightjar have been observed in the park ; Bate 's and brown nightjars are common in southeastern Cameroon , while a rarer and unidentified third species ' call has been heard twice . It is likely that this is Prigogine 's nightjar , as its voice is identical to that of the only known specimen of this species which was found in the Democratic Republic of Congo . Two small owls , Sjostedt 's and African barred owlets coexist in Nki , due to similar habitat requirements .
= Mauritius women 's national football team =
The Mauritius women 's national football team is a women 's association football team that represents the country of Mauritius . They have played two matches in their history , playing Réunion on 3 June 2012 and 25 November 2012 . As Réunion are not a FIFA member , this match was not recognised by FIFA . They are controlled by the Mauritius Football Association and are members of FIFA , the Confederation of African Football ( CAF ) , and the Council of Southern Africa Football Associations ( COSAFA ) . As of 2012 the head coach is Alain Jules . The development of women 's football in the country and in Africa as a whole faces a number of challenges , with a programme for women 's football not being created in the country until 1997 . FIFA gives money to the Mauritius Football Association , 10 % of which is aimed at developing football in the country in areas that include women 's football , sport medicine and futsal .
= = History = =
In 1985 , almost no country in the world had a women 's national football team and Mauritius was no exception with a women 's football programme only being established in the country in 1997 . As of January 2013 , the team has not played in , nor have they scheduled , any FIFA sanctioned matches . The only match they have played to date was against Réunion on 3 June 2012 in Saint @-@ Denis . This match ended in a 3 – 0 defeat . A return match was planned for July 2012 in Mauritius , but this was put back to November 2012 . The match was played in Bambous on 25 November 2012 , with Réunion winning again , this time by 2 goals to 1 .
Mauritius was scheduled to compete in several competitions , which they ended up withdrawing from before playing a single match . The list includes the 2002 Confederation of Southern African Football Associations women 's tournament in Harare , Zimbabwe from which they withdrew . In 2005 , Zambia was supposed to host a regional Council of Southern Africa Football Associations ( COSAFA ) women 's football tournament , with several countries agreeing to send teams including South Africa , Zimbabwe , Mozambique , Malawi , Seychelles , Mauritius , Madagascar , Zambia , Botswana , Namibia , Lesotho and Swaziland . The tournament eventually took place in 2006 , but Mauritius did not send a team . Beyond that , they were scheduled to participate in the 2008 Women 's U @-@ 20 World Cup qualification , where they were scheduled to play Zimbabwe in the preliminary round ; however , Zimbabwe withdrew from the competition giving Mauritius an automatic bye into the first round . In that round Mauritius was supposed to play South Africa , but withdrew from the competition .
As of 2012 , the head coach is Alain Jules . As of March 2012 , the team was not ranked in the world by FIFA , as it had not yet participated in any matches against other FIFA members .
= = Recruitment and organisation = =
Women 's football in Africa as a whole faces several challenges , including limited access to education , poverty amongst women in the wider society , and fundamental gender inequality present in the society that occasionally allows for female specific human rights abuses . Another problem with the development for the national team , one faced throughout the continent , is if quality female football players are found , many leave the country seeking greater opportunity in Northern Europe or the United States .
Women 's football was formally established in Mauritius in 1997 . As of 2009 , there was no national or regional women 's competition but a school competition existed . There are 17 clubs for women over the age of 16 and four youth clubs in the country . The country has three national women 's football teams : senior , under @-@ 15 , and under @-@ 19 . In the period between 2002 and 2006 , none of them played even one international match . 10 % of the money from the FIFA Financial Assistance Programme ( FAP ) is targeted at the technical development of the game , which includes women 's football , sport medicine and futsal . This compares to 15 % for men 's competitions and 4 % for youth football development . Between 1991 and 2010 in Mauritius , there was no FIFA FUTURO III regional course for women 's coaching , no women 's football seminar held in the country and no FIFA MA course held for women / youth football .
= = Players = =
Players called for the two leg 2016 Africa Women Cup of Nations qualification matches against Botswana in March 2016 .
Head coach : Alain Jules
= Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) =
" Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " is an instrumental by English musician George Harrison , released as the opening track of his 1974 album Dark Horse . It was also the B @-@ side of the album 's second single – which was " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " in North America and most other territories , and " Dark Horse " in Britain and some European countries . Among Harrison 's post @-@ Beatles solo releases , the track is the first of only two genuine instrumentals he released from 1970 onwards – the other being the Grammy Award @-@ winning " Marwa Blues " , from his 2002 album Brainwashed .
Harrison recorded " Hari 's on Tour " in April 1974 at a spontaneous session held at his home , Friar Park . A slide guitar @-@ based composition , the track also features saxophonist Tom Scott and the latter 's jazz @-@ rock band L.A. Express , who were touring as Joni Mitchell 's backing group at the time . It was the first Harrison song to feature Scott , who became a regular collaborator and served as band leader during Harrison 's only series of concerts in North America , the highly publicised " Dark Horse Tour " with Ravi Shankar . " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " was played as the opening number throughout this tour , over November and December 1974 .
Although music critics and Harrison biographers have generally viewed the album track in an unfavourable light , several concert reviewers identified it as an effective opener for the shows . " Hari 's on Tour " is one of only two songs from the 1974 tour to have been released officially , after a live version was included on the limited @-@ edition Songs by George Harrison 2 EP in 1992 . This live recording was taken from the Washington , DC stop on the tour , during which Harrison met with President Gerald Ford at the White House .
= = Background = =
George Harrison first worked with jazz saxophonist , flautist and arranger Tom Scott in April 1973 , during the Los Angeles sessions for Ravi Shankar 's Shankar Family & Friends album . The two musicians also contributed to Ringo Starr 's album Ringo around that time , as well as Cheech & Chong 's Los Cochinos . Outside of his session work , Scott 's main activities were leading his band , L.A. Express , and backing Joni Mitchell , both live and in the studio . Just as Harrison had long combined elements of Hindustani classical music with Western rock and gospel , and was now moving towards the funk and soul genres , Scott 's solo work fused jazz , funk , pop and Middle Eastern influences . His collaborations with Mitchell also coincided with her move from confessional folk songwriting towards pop and jazz , and eventually avant garde .
Harrison , Scott and Mitchell soon developed a mutual rapport , according to L.A. Express bassist Max Bennett . In addition to carrying out further sessions for Shankar Family & Friends in Los Angeles , in March 1974 , Harrison had begun spending time there trying to set up his own record label , with the winding down of the Beatles ' Apple Records from mid 1973 onwards . In August 1973 , rumours in the music industry claimed that Harrison , Bob Dylan , Joan Baez and Paul Simon were forming a label together ; in fact , Harrison founded Dark Horse Records , one of the first releases of which was the Shankar album , and Dylan temporarily signed with David Geffen 's Asylum Records , which was Mitchell 's label .
= = Composition and recording = =
Mitchell 's tour in support of her critically acclaimed Court and Spark album arrived in London in April 1974 . While backstage at her and Scott 's show at the New Victoria Theatre , Harrison invited the five members of the L.A. Express to come out to his Oxfordshire home , Friar Park , the following day . Bennett recalls that they arrived by limousine and he mistook the property 's grand gatehouse for the main residence .
Scott later told music journalist Michael Gross that only a social visit was planned , but the band were impressed with Friar Park 's 16 @-@ track home studio , FPSHOT , and Harrison suggested they record something . The first song they worked on was an untitled instrumental tune that later became known as " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " , for which Scott made a lead sheet for the band . Part of the title was taken from " Hari Georgeson " , the latest pseudonym adopted by Harrison when working with non @-@ EMI / Capitol artists , since he was still contracted to Apple until January 1976 .
Harrison played slide guitar on the track , in his preferred open E tuning , adopting a similar sound to the one he had used three years earlier on John Lennon 's song " How Do You Sleep ? " Aside from Scott and Bennett 's contributions , on saxophone and bass , respectively , the other musicians were Robben Ford ( electric guitar ) , Roger Kellaway ( piano ) and John Guerin ( drums ) . Harrison 's musical biographer , Simon Leng , writes that the tune predominantly uses major chords , with the " main melodic interest " coming with a shift to C # minor seventh , which provides " a moment of softening sweetness " . Leng notes the contrast between Harrison 's Fender Stratocaster " roaring into action " on this song and the " opulence " of his previous album , Living in the Material World , and suggests that Harrison now " just wanted to be one of the boys " in a " working , rocking band " . The engineer at the session was Phil McDonald .
According to Scott , the basic track took " a couple of hours " before they had a satisfactory take . The musicians then recorded a second song , " Simply Shady " , which , like " Hari 's on Tour " , would be included on Harrison 's forthcoming album , Dark Horse . The five band members stayed over at Friar Park before Ford , Bennett , Kellaway and Guerin left for Denver the following day . Scott says he stayed on and worked further with Harrison at FPSHOT ; in addition to the various horn parts , he played organ on " Hari 's on Tour " .
In the same interview with Gross , for Circus Raves magazine , Scott recalled that he was the first Western musician that Harrison approached about joining him and Shankar for a tour of the United States and Canada later in the year . The tour would be the first in North America by a former Beatle since the group 's 1966 US visit , and Harrison 's first live performances since his staging of the Concert for Bangladesh in August 1971 . Rather than include Beatles material on the 1974 tour , however , Harrison planned to present a varied program combining rock , soul / R & B , jazz , funk and Indian classical music . Eight Arms to Hold You authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter suggest that " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " was written " simply as a show opener " for the North American concerts , which would also feature Harrison 's former Apple Records protégé Billy Preston .
Although his 1969 experimental album Electronic Sound consists of Moog synthesizer sounds and the 1968 Wonderwall Music soundtrack is almost entirely devoid of vocals , out of all the tracks released by Harrison as a solo artist after the Beatles ' break @-@ up in 1970 , " Hari 's on Tour " is a rare example of a genuine instrumental composition . Only 2002 's " Marwa Blues " stands as another . Among other projects they worked on together through to the early 1980s , Harrison played on the instrumental " Appolonia ( Foxtrata ) " , from Scott 's 1975 album New York Connection , and Scott helped produce Harrison 's debut on Dark Horse Records , Thirty Three & 1 / 3 .
= = North American tour and album release = =
Harrison 's overcommittal of his time to Dark Horse acts Ravi Shankar and Splinter during 1974 resulted in him having to rush @-@ record much of Dark Horse while preparing for the North American tour . Due to the pressure , Harrison developed laryngitis during rehearsals and damaged his voice . As well as placing further importance on the instrumentals in his setlist , which included " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " and Scott 's track " Tom Cat " , Harrison 's depleted vocals marred the concerts for many observers .
In addition , while many critics admired the adventurousness of the musical program and reviewed the shows favourably , others , particularly in music publications such as Rolling Stone , wrote scathingly of Harrison 's reluctance to acknowledge the Beatles ' legacy , together with his willingness to share the spotlight so readily with Shankar 's orchestra of classical musicians and Preston . In his role as band leader , Scott spoke out in support of Harrison 's musical direction and refuted reports that the tour was not going well ; instead , he told Circus Raves , audience reaction had been " radically different from city to city " and dependent on whether concertgoers chose to listen , or came expecting to hear the Beatles .
Harrison played " Hari 's on Tour " as the opening song throughout the tour , which began on 2 November 1974 in Vancouver and ended in New York on 20 December . It was preceded by a recording of Monty Python 's " The Lumberjack Song " , played through the concert PA while the band took the stage . As the many bootlegs from the tour reveal , early on in each performance of " Hari 's on Tour " , Harrison often called out a greeting to the city or town in question . Some concert reviewers referred to the song as " Hari Good Boy Express " or " Hari Good Bye Express " . The first of these two titles is how Harrison named the track on the preliminary artwork included in the 2014 reissue of Dark Horse .
The studio version appeared as the opening track on Dark Horse , followed by " Simply Shady " . Due to the delay in its completion , the album was released on 9 December in North America , towards the end of the Harrison – Shankar tour , and a few days before Christmas in Britain . Although Christmas shows in the UK had been under consideration , no such performances took place , and Harrison 's only tour after 1974 would be a series of Japanese concerts in December 1991 with Eric Clapton . Following its initial release , " Hari 's on Tour " was issued as the B @-@ side to the second single off the album – " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " in the United States , Canada and a number of other territories , and " Dark Horse " in Britain and some other European countries .
= = Reception = =
Contrasting with his successes as a solo artist since 1970 , Dark Horse earned Harrison the worst critical notices of his career . " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " drew a favourable response during the 1974 tour , however , as reviewers commented on the energy with which the band performed the piece . In his feature article on the West Coast concerts , for Rolling Stone , Ben Fong @-@ Torres described the song as a " well @-@ arranged , tension @-@ and @-@ release number " , while the Pacific Sun called it " a zingy and classically melodic instrumental ... a touchstone of the Harrison style " . Reviewing the second show of the tour , D.P. Bond of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer wrote : " Harrison 's opening instrumental piece was beautiful : the fullest , finest explosion of rock ' n ' roll that I think I have ever heard . "
The NME 's Bob Woffinden wrote a notably unfavourable assessment of the Dark Horse album , in which he found " Hari 's on Tour " to be " an unevenly paced boogie thing that has George blowing most of his licks straightaway and Tom Scott coming on with a few quasi @-@ Jnr . Walker bursts " . Woffinden continued : " Which , you feel , would not be a bad appetiser for the real meat to follow . Unfortunately , Hari 's vegetarian . " In an equally unfavourable review of the album , Jim Miller of Rolling Stone dismissed the track as " banal " . Harrison biographer Alan Clayson refers to Hari 's on Tour " as " an instrumental that went in one ear and out the other " , while in The Beatles : An Illustrated Record , critics Roy Carr and Tony Tyler described it as sounding like " a backing track from which the vocal line has mysteriously been deleted " . Author Elliot Huntley acknowledges that the musicians " performed brilliantly " on the recording , but adds , " unfortunately brilliant musicians alone do not a good song make " .
Echoing the magazine 's earlier support for the tour , Brian Harrigan of Melody Maker praised Harrison 's " nifty slide guitar " on the opening song and throughout the album , which he felt " should certainly do a tremendous amount to salvage George 's battered reputation " . In his 1977 book The Beatles Forever , Nicholas Schaffner similarly opined that " Hari 's on Tour " " boasts some mean licks " while commenting that neither the tour nor the album " warrant [ ed ] all the abuse they got " . Writing more recently for AllMusic , Richard Ginell describes the recording as " Tom Scott 's L.A. Express churning out all @-@ pro L.A.-studio jazz / rock " and adds that the song " gets the doomed project off to a spirited start " .
Simon Leng views this " neat instrumental " as a collaborative effort between Harrison and Scott , and a logical step for the guitarist , given Harrison 's early appreciation of Chet Atkins ' instrumentals . Leng regrets Harrison 's apparent abandoning of his " meticulous approach " to recording in favour of uncharacteristic spontaneity , and concludes : " Ultimately , this good @-@ time guitar showcase is as relevant as Dylan 's ' Nashville Skyline Rag ' . " Ian Inglis writes of Scott 's soprano sax producing an " atmosphere of anticipation " similar to a successful film or television theme , and identifies " Hari 's on Tour " as an indication that Harrison , some years before his career became focused on movie production , was able to " effectively incorporate the conventions of a soundtrack within the codes of rock " . Reviewing the 2014 reissue of Dark Horse , Joe Marchese of The Second Disc describes the track as " a bright opening to an album that would considerably darken in tone " .
= = Live version = =
Harrison recorded and filmed several of the 1974 concerts for a planned release , but only live versions of this instrumental and " For You Blue " have ever been issued officially . In 1992 , " Hari 's on Tour " appeared on the four @-@ song EP accompanying Songs by George Harrison 2 , a limited @-@ edition , hand @-@ bound book produced by Genesis Publications . Text accompanying this disc gives the recording information as simply " live in Washington DC in 1974 " , referring to Harrison 's 13 December show at the Capital Centre in Landover , Maryland , a suburb of Washington . The book was limited to a print run of 2500 and published on 22 June 1992 .
Described by Leng as " the leading performers of the period " , Harrison 's tour band comprised Scott and Robben Ford from the L.A. Express , Preston on keyboards , jazz percussionist Emil Richards , the rhythm section of Willie Weeks and Andy Newmark , and additional horn players Jim Horn and Chuck Findley . Jim Keltner joined as second drummer midway through the tour , and some of Ravi Shankar 's musicians played during Harrison 's portion of each show . The sound heard during the opening seconds of " Hari 's on Tour " is a sarangi , played by Sultan Khan , who was one of the fifteen musicians in Shankar 's orchestra .
The Washington stop was among the highlights of the tour . At the invitation of Jack Ford – son of US president Gerald Ford – Harrison , Shankar , Scott , Preston and others in the entourage visited the White House on 13 December , where Harrison met with President Ford . Surprised at the " good vibes " there so soon after the Watergate hearings , Harrison asked Ford to personally intercede in both John Lennon 's struggle to be allowed to remain in the United States , and the US Treasury 's audit of the funds raised through the Concert for Bangladesh .
Madinger and Easter write that this released version of the song is most likely a composite of performances from the evening show at Landover and the 6 December matinee performance at Toronto 's Maple Leaf Gardens . As with all the tracks from the highly priced Songs by George Harrison volumes , " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " is available unofficially on bootleg compilations such as Pirate Songs .
= = Personnel = =
George Harrison – slide guitar , acoustic guitar
Tom Scott – saxophones , horn arrangement , organ
Robben Ford – electric guitar
Roger Kellaway – piano
Max Bennett – bass
John Guerin – drums
uncredited – tambourine
= Vine Street , London =
Vine Street is a street in Westminster , London , running from Swallow Street , parallel to Regent Street and Piccadilly . It is now a dead end that was shortened from a longer road in the early 18th century owing to the building of Regent Street .
From the 18th to 20th century , it was home to Vine Street Police Station , which grew from a watch @-@ house into one of the busiest police stations in the world . The Marquess of Queensberry was charged with libel against Oscar Wilde here in 1895 . There was also a court house in the 18th and early 19th century . The street 's association with law has led to it being grouped with Bow Street and Marlborough Street on the standard British Monopoly board .
= = Geography = =
The street is approximately 70 feet ( 21 m ) long and is a dead end , running east and parallel to Piccadilly near Piccadilly Circus . It consists mainly of the rear facades of buildings facing onto other streets . It connects to Swallow Street at its western end and an alleyway , Piccadilly Place halfway along . At the eastern end , the Man in the Moon Passage provides foot access to Regent Street . The nearest tube station is Piccadilly Circus .
= = History = =
The street is named after The Vine , an 18th @-@ century public house , which in turn may have been named after a former vineyard that was based at this location in Roman times . It was documented on ratebooks as Little Swallow Street in 1675 . It was laid out around 1686 and originally ran further , along what is now the Man in the Moon Passage . John Rocque 's Map of London , 1746 shows Vine Street extending from Piccadilly northeast to Warwick Street . In 1720 , the main properties on the street were a brewery and a carpenter 's yard .
Vine Street was split into two sections following the construction of Regent Street between 1816 and 1819 . The Man in the Moon Passage was created at this time , named after a former pub at this location . The northern section towards Warwick Street was renamed Great Vine Street , and then a branch of Warwick Street itself . It ceased to exist after the reconstruction of the Regent Street Quadrant in 1920 .
In 1853 , Charles Moreign purchased several small houses at the end of Vine Street so they could be redeveloped into St James 's Hall , Piccadilly . A rear entrance to the hall backed onto the street . The hall was demolished in 1905 and replaced by the Piccadilly Hotel , which also backs onto Vine Street .
= = = Police and law = = =
Vine Street has long been associated with the police and law . Around 1751 @-@ 2 , a court house was built at the western end of the street , on the corner of what is now Piccadilly Place . It closed in 1836 following the reorganisation of the court system around Westminster and was subsequently occupied by the lawyer Edward Gaffin .
The Vine Street Police Station was at No. 10 . It was originally built as a watch @-@ house around 1767 , and rebuilt following a fire in 1786 that destroyed several properties on and around the street . A school operated on the first floor , and two cells were in the basement . A further storey was added to the building in 1816 . It was renamed Vine Street Police Station in 1829 following the establishment of the Metropolitan Police District . The school moved from the building to Swallow Street in 1836 , where it stayed before closing in 1881 . The police station went on to become one of the main stations in Central London . In 1850 , it was extended over the 18th century courthouses . At one point in the 19th century it was one of the busiest police stations in the world . An Arts and Crafts extension wing was built on the station in 1897 , that faced onto Swallow Street . The Man in the Moon pub , adjacent to the station , was bought by the police receiver in 1931 .
The station closed in 1940 ( along with nearby Marlborough Street Magistrates Court ) to be replaced with an integrated West End Central Police Station at Savile Row , with the street being renamed Piccadilly Place . A subsequent rise in foot traffic around the area , and associated crime , led to the station being re @-@ opened in 1966 , with the street being renamed back to Vine Street in 1972 . The police station closed in 1997 and the building was demolished in 2005 for redevelopment .
= = Events and incidents = =
The Dutch artist Peter Scheemakers moved into a house on the western edge of Vine Street around 1741 . He stayed there until 1769 , when he returned to Antwerp .
On 2 September 1791 , composer Frantisek Kotzwara died at prostitute Susannah Hill 's house at No. 5 Vine Street from erotic asphyxiation following a sexual act that involved tying his neck to a doorknob . Hill was charged with Kotzwara 's murder but later acquitted .
In 1895 , the Marquess of Queensbury was charged at Vine Street Police Station with libel against Oscar Wilde . This ultimately led to Wilde 's arrest and subsequent imprisonment . On 29 May 1901 , the stonemason James Schulty reported he had information about the murder of Mary Ann Austin but refused to reveal details anywhere except the Vine Street Police Station . The information was discarded by the Metropolitan Police as little value .
In 1928 , an officer working at the station was sacked after it was revealed he had been gathering bribes from local nightclubs and brothels , acquiring over £ 17 @,@ 000 ( now £ 924 @,@ 000 ) in the process . The officer subsequently committed suicide and the station is believed to be haunted by his ghost . Related incidents include reports of papers being inexplicably moved , and an officer hearing footsteps despite knowing he was the only one in the station .
The street and station is mentioned in the Pogues ' song " The Old Main Drag " on their 1985 album Rum Sodomy & the Lash . It refers to the station and street 's unpopularity with some of London owing to their distrust of the police force . Because of its relatively hidden location and proximity to Piccadilly Circus , the street suffers from crime , which has led to Westminster City Council gating off the Man in the Moon Passage so service vehicles can access connecting buildings safely .
The street features as a property with a purchase price of £ 200 on the British Monopoly board . It is one of a group of three , coded orange , with connections to law , and is named after the police station . The other two orange properties , Bow Street and Marlborough Street , which are both valued at £ 180 , are named after the Bow Street Runners and Marlborough Street Magistrates Court respectively . Since the Man in the Moon is now closed , students on a Monopoly board pub crawl drink in one of the nearby pubs , such as those on Swallow Street , instead .
= 4 Minutes =
" 4 Minutes " is a song by American singer and songwriter Madonna from her eleventh studio album Hard Candy ( 2008 ) , featuring vocals by American singers Justin Timberlake and Timbaland . It was released as the lead single from the album on March 17 , 2008 , by Warner Bros. Records . According to Madonna , the song is about saving the environment and " hav [ ing ] a good time while we are doing it " . She also cited the song as the inspiration for the documentary I Am Because We Are ( 2008 ) .
The song was recorded at Sarm West Studios , in London , while the mixing of the track was finished at The Hit Factory studio , in Miami . Sound engineer Demo Castellon first worked on the vocals and then on the beats , while the synths were composed by Timbaland and Danja . An uptempo dance @-@ pop song with an urban and hip hop style , " 4 Minutes " incorporates Timbaland 's characteristic bhangra beats and the instrumentation used in the song includes brass , foghorns and cowbells . The song 's lyrics carry a message of social awareness , inspired by Madonna 's visit to Africa and the human suffering she witnessed in the continent .
" 4 Minutes " received positive reviews from critics , who called it a busy dance track and complimented its music , which was compared to that of a marching band . Some reviewers noted that it was Madonna who appeared more of a featured artist on the track , rather than Timberlake . The song peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 , giving Madonna her 37th top @-@ ten single , breaking the record previously held by Elvis Presley , as the artist with most top @-@ ten hits . It remains Madonna 's best @-@ selling digital single in the United States , with sales of over three million copies . Internationally , " 4 Minutes " topped the chart in 21 countries , including Australia , Canada , Germany , Italy , Spain and the United Kingdom .
In the song 's accompanying music video , Madonna and Timberlake sing and run away from a giant black screen that devours everything in its path . At the end of the video , both of them are consumed by the screen . " 4 Minutes " was performed by Madonna on the promotional tour for Hard Candy and the 2008 – 09 Sticky & Sweet Tour . In the latter , the song served as the opener of the rave segment , where Madonna wore a futuristic robotic outfit . During performances of the song , Timberlake and Timbaland appeared on video screens and sang their lines . The song received two Grammy Award nominations for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals and Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical at the 2009 ceremony .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
Following the release of her tenth studio album , Confessions on a Dance Floor ( 2005 ) , Madonna wanted to record more dance music . When asked by producer Stuart Price what kind of music appealed to her , Madonna replied that she loved the records of singer Justin Timberlake and producer Timbaland , so she collaborated with them . " 4 Minutes " was written by all three artists , along with Nate " Danja " Hills , and produced by Timbaland , Timberlake and Danja . The song , initially named " 4 Minutes to Save the World " , was one of the last to be produced for Madonna 's album Hard Candy . In an interview with MTV News , Madonna said that the concept of the song was developed through discussions with Timberlake . She further explained the meaning of the song :
I don 't think it 's important to take it too literally . I think the song , more than anything , is about having a sense of urgency ; about how we are you know , living on borrowed time essentially and people are becoming much more aware of the environment and how we 're destroying the planet . We can 't just keep distracting ourselves we do have to educate ourselves and wake up and do something about it . You know at the same time we don 't want to be boring and serious and not have fun so it 's kind of like well if we 're going to save the planet can we have a good time while we are doing it ?
Madonna clarified that her age did not have anything to do with the sense of urgency reflected in the track ; instead , it was just something that she had in mind for a long time and with " 4 Minutes " , the sense seeped into her music . Ingrid Sischy from Interview magazine said that the song felt like a ballad for the world , containing " the sounds of a great big marching band . It 's a giant dance song
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2002 to 2004 . Other minor roles followed on the television series What About Brian , CSI : Miami , Related , Numb3rs , The Unit , and The Sarah Silverman Program . Hamm 's Mad Men castmate Eric Ladin had said that one of the reasons he looks up to Jon is that while he " made it " later than most actors , Hamm never gave up on acting .
= = = International recognition = = =
Hamm received his breakthrough role in 2007 , when he was cast from more than 80 candidates as the protagonist character Don Draper , in AMC 's drama series Mad Men . In the series , set in a fictional 1960s advertising agency , he plays a suave advertising executive with an obscure past .
Hamm recalled , " I read the script for Mad Men and I loved it . [ ... ] I never thought they 'd cast me — I mean , I thought they 'd go with one of the five guys who look like me but are movie stars " , and that an actor with a " proven track record " would likely have been chosen if another network had aired the show . He went through numerous auditions and explained each time to the casting directors what he could bring to the character , if given the part . Alan Taylor and Mad Men creator Matthew Weiner initially thought Hamm was too handsome for the role but ultimately decided , " it was perfect to cast sort of the perfect male in this part " ; Weiner also sensed that the actor had not been raised by his parents , similar to Draper 's backstory .
Hamm used memories of his father to portray Draper , a well @-@ dressed , influential figure in business and society hiding great inner turmoil and facing changes in the world beyond his control .
Mad Men debuted on July 19 , 2007 , with almost 1 @.@ 4 million viewers . It quickly developed a loyal audience , with Hamm receiving strong reviews .
Robert Bianco of USA Today was complimentary of Hamm , noting that his interpretation of Draper was a " starmaking performance " . The Boston Globe 's Matthew Gilbert called Hamm a " brilliant lead " .
For his work , Hamm won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Television Series – Drama in 2008 . Also in 2008 , he was nominated for both the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series . In 2009 , Hamm was again nominated for the Golden Globe Award and Screen Actors Guild Award in the same category , and received another Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series . In 2010 , Hamm received his third Golden Globe Award nomination . Mad Men concluded its seven @-@ season run on May 17 , 2015 . Hamm received his first Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series on September 20 , 2015 after receiving 12 Emmy nominations for acting on and producing the series .
Hamm 's next film role was in the 2008 science fiction film The Day the Earth Stood Still , a remake of the 1951 film of the same name . Although the film received mixed reviews , it was financially successful , earning $ 230 million worldwide at the box office .
Hamm hosted Saturday Night Live , season 34 , episode 6 , on October 25 , 2008 , and played various roles , including Don Draper in two sketches . He returned to host again on January 30 and October 30 , 2010 .
In 2009 , Hamm guest starred in three episodes of the NBC situation comedy show 30 Rock , as Drew Baird , a doctor who is a neighbor and love interest of Liz Lemon 's ( Tina Fey ) . For these performances , he received three nominations for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series .
Hamm 's film projects post @-@ 2009 include the independent mystery thriller Stolen ( 2009 ) and his first leading role , in which he plays a man trying to demystify the circumstances surrounding his son 's kidnapping . The Hollywood Reporter 's Frank Scheck stated that the feature never came together , and that Hamm was unable to do much with his " underwritten role " .
Hamm had a voice cameo in the animated feature Shrek Forever After ( released in May 2010 ) , as an ogre leader named Brogan . Also that year , he appeared as an FBI agent in The Town ( 2010 ) , with Ben Affleck ; after receiving " about 40 scripts that were all set in the 60s , or had me playing advertising guys " , Hamm was pleased that the film offered a role " the opposite to Don Draper " . The feature received generally favorable reviews and earned $ 144 million worldwide .
His next acting role was as defense attorney Jake Ehrlich in the independent drama Howl , based on Allen Ginsberg 's eponymous 1956 poem . On December 12 , 2010 , Hamm made a guest appearance as an FBI supervisor on Fox 's animated series The Simpsons .
Returning to film , he appeared in Zack Snyder 's action @-@ fantasy movie Sucker Punch ( 2011 ) , as the character High Roller , and the doctor . He also had a supporting role in the comedy Bridesmaids as Kristen Wiig 's " rude and arrogant sex buddy " . Hamm was next seen in the independent feature Friends with Kids ( 2011 ) , which he produced alongside his then @-@ partner Jennifer Westfeldt ; the story centers around a group of friends whose lives are changed as the couples in the group begin to have children .
He has a recurring role in the sitcom The Increasingly Poor Decisions of Todd Margaret , as the servant of sociopathic billionaire Dave Mountford ( Blake Harrison ) . The role is later revealed to , in fact , be a fictionalized version of Hamm complaining that being made into Dave 's servant has required him to be written out of four episodes of Mad Men .
Hamm hosted the 21st ESPYS Awards on July 17 , 2013 and played sports agent J.B. Bernstein in Disney 's sports drama Million Dollar Arm the following year .
Hamm starred alongside Daniel Radcliffe in the Ovation television dark comedy A Young Doctor 's Notebook , playing an older version of Radcliffe 's character , from December 2012 to December 2013 . He had a number of roles in 2015 , in the comedy shows Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt and Wet Hot American Summer : First Day of Camp , as well as the animated comedy Minions , as the voice of Herb Overkill . Minions was a major box office success ; despite mixed reviews , it grossed a total of over $ 1 billion worldwide .
Hamm filmed the upcoming action comedy Keeping Up with the Joneses in the spring of 2015 , which also stars Zach Galifianakis and Gal Gadot and will be released in October 2016 after being pushed back seven months . His other upcoming film roles include the drama Aardvark , science fiction film Marjorie Prime ( both 2016 ) , and Edgar Wright 's comedy crime film Baby Driver in 2017 .
= = Personal life = =
In 1997 , Hamm began a relationship with actress and screenwriter Jennifer Westfeldt . They jointly own homes in Los Angeles and the Upper West Side in New York . In an interview discussion about his relationship with Westfeldt , Hamm said : " We may not have a piece of paper that says we 're husband and wife , but after 10 years , Jennifer is more than just a girlfriend . What we have is much deeper and we both know that . To me , people [ should ] get married when they 're ready to have kids , which I 'm not ruling out . " Along with Westfeldt , Hamm has appeared in Gap @-@ related campaign advertisements . In April 2009 , Hamm and Westfeldt formed their own production company , Points West Pictures . Hamm and Westfeldt are advocates of animal rescue and have adopted a mixed breed dog named Cora from the Much Love Animal Shelter in California . In September 2015 , Hamm and Westfeldt announced they were ending their relationship .
Although his role as Don Draper required Hamm to smoke , he gave up smoking when he was 24 . On set he does not smoke actual cigarettes , but rather herbal cigarettes that do not contain tobacco or nicotine .
In March 2015 , Hamm 's representative confirmed that Hamm had recently completed inpatient treatment for alcoholism . Additionally , Hamm reported developing vitiligo throughout the filming of Mad Men .
Hamm identifies as a Democrat .
= = = Sports and related endorsements = = =
Hamm is an avid golfer and tennis player , and a devoted fan of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) team the St. Louis Blues ' ; he 's even appeared in two television spots advertising for the team . He is also a fan of the Major League Baseball ( MLB ) team the St. Louis Cardinals ' , and narrated the official highlight film for the 2011 World Series , which the Cardinals won . He is a cricket fan , too , having been introduced to the sport by Daniel Radcliffe when filming A Young Doctor 's Notebook .
= = = Other product endorsements = = =
In March 2010 , Mercedes @-@ Benz hired Hamm ( replacing actor Richard Thomas ) as their new voice actor for the S400 Hybrid campaign . In 2013 , American Airlines debuted a commercial titled " Change is in the Air " , featuring Hamm 's voice @-@ over . Hamm is an American Airlines frequent flier , and his Mad Men character Don Draper often spoke of aspiring to win such accounts as American Airlines .
= = Reception = =
Internationally viewed as a sex symbol , Hamm was named one of Salon.com 's Sexiest Man Living in 2007 and one of People magazine 's Sexiest Men Alive in 2008 . In November 2008 , Entertainment Weekly named him one of their Entertainers of the Year . He again was named one of the magazine 's Entertainers of the Year in 2010 . Hamm also won GQ 's " International Man " award in September 2010 .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Music videos = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= USS Yancey ( AKA @-@ 93 ) =
USS Yancey ( AKA @-@ 93 / LKA @-@ 93 ) was an Andromeda @-@ class attack cargo ship built by the Moore Dry Dock Company of Oakland , California for the United States Navy during World War II . The ship was named in honor of Yancey County , North Carolina .
Yancey 's keel was laid in May 1944 , and the ship was launched in July , and commissioned in October . The ship operated in the Pacific during the war and was a participant in the amphibious landings at Iwo Jima in February 1945 and Okinawa in April . After Japan 's surrender in August , Yancey was in Tokyo Bay during the signing of the Japanese Instrument of Surrender on 2 September . The ship made voyages delivering troops for the occupation of Japan before returning to the United States in January 1946 . After spending most of the next year on the east coast , Yancey was ordered back into the Pacific in November , and took part in Operation Highjump , a Navy expedition to Antarctica in January 1947 ; Yancey Glacier was named in the ship 's honor .
After spending most of the next decade in duties in the Western Pacific , Yancey was decommissioned in March 1958 and placed in reserve at Olympia , Washington . Yancey was reactivated in the aftermath of the Berlin Crisis of 1961 and recommissioned in November . During the October 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis she sailed in support of the U.S. blockade of Cuba , and during the April 1965 U.S. intervention in the Dominican Republic she carried almost a quarter of all of the evacuees from Santo Domingo . In January 1970 , Yancey was blown by a storm into the Chesapeake Bay Bridge @-@ Tunnel which closed the structure for several weeks .
The ship was decommissioned for the final time in January 1971 , and struck from the Naval Vessel Register in January 1977 . After being stripped of salvageable materials , the ship was sunk as an artificial reef off the North Carolina coast in 1990 . The ship is intact and rests on her starboard side at a depth of 160 feet ( 49 m ) .
= = Design and construction = =
Yancey was laid down under a Maritime Commission contract ( MC hull 1193 ) on 22 May 1944 by the Moore Dry Dock Company at Oakland , California . The ship was launched on 8 July 1944 and was sponsored by Miss Beverly Bartlett . As built , Yancey was just over 459 feet ( 140 m ) long and 63 feet ( 19 m ) abeam . When fully loaded she had a displacement of 13 @,@ 910 long tons ( 14 @,@ 130 t ) and drew a little more than 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) . She was powered by a single steam turbine capable of generating 6 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 4 @,@ 500 kW ) , and attained a top speed of 16 @.@ 5 knots ( 30 @.@ 6 km / h ) during her trials .
Yancey was equipped to carry eight LCMs ( " Landing Craft Mechanized " ) , which were designed to land vehicles in amphibious landings ; one LCP ( L ) ( " Landing Craft , Personnel ( Large ) " ) ; and fifteen LCVPs ( " Landing Craft , Vehicle , Personnel " ) , or Higgins boats . Yancey was outfitted with primarily defensive weapons : one 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) / 38 caliber dual @-@ purpose gun mount , ; four twin 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) gun mounts ; and sixteen 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) AA gun mounts .
= = World War II = =
The ship was commissioned as USS Yancey ( AKA @-@ 93 ) on 11 October 1944 under the command of Commander Edward R. Rice , USNR . After fitting out at San Francisco , California , Yancey received her boat group of 26 landing craft and conducted a shakedown cruise out of San Pedro , California . After post @-@ shakedown alterations and repairs at San Diego , California , she sailed for San Francisco to load cargo from 18 to 24 November . Yancey sailed for Pearl Harbor the next day , and was assigned to Transport Division ( TransDiv ) 47 , Transport Squadron ( TransRon ) 16 upon her arrival on 2 December .
= = = Iwo Jima = = =
After remaining at Pearl Harbor until 27 January 1945 , Yancey departed for the Marianas with elements and cargo of the 5th Marine Division as part of Task Group ( TG ) 51 @.@ 12 in support of the invasion of Iwo Jima . After stops for fuel and supplies at Eniwetok and invasion rehearsals at Tinian , the ship arrived off Iwo Jima at 06 : 24 on 19 February , D @-@ day for the initial landing . During almost continuous operations for the first four days of the battle , Yancey only lost two landing craft ( LCVPs ) : one to enemy mortar fire , and another to heavy surf . Yancey received minor damage when she collided with Pensacola while transferring 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) ammunition to the heavy cruiser .
On 29 February , after the tactical situation ashore had improved sufficiently , Yancey anchored off " Red " beach to unload her general cargo . During this time the ship was hit by one long @-@ range mortar shell , but suffered no casualties among her crew . Slowed by nightly air raids , and high surf that required cargo to be offloaded to LSTs , LSMs , and LCTs , Yancey completed her unloading on 2 March . The cargo ship sailed with three other transports and a pair of screening destroyers to Saipan and then to Espiritu Santo , where she rejoined her TransRon 16 squadron mates in embarking the 27th Infantry Division .
= = = Okinawa = = =
Yancey sailed on 25 March as a part of TG 51 @.@ 3 , the designated " mobile reserve " for the invasion of Okinawa . As the group headed for a planned stop in the Carolines , Yancey took a disabled LSM under tow and delivered the vessel to Ulithi . TransDiv 47 was detached from TG 51 @.@ 3 and arrived off Kerama Retto on 9 April , eight days after the battle had commenced . After receiving her orders , Yancey anchored off the Hagushi beaches on the 12th . During her four days of unloading , the crew was hampered by Japanese air raids and delayed — according to the ship 's commander — over 15 hours because of the attacks . Yancey 's number four 40 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) mount claimed a " sure assist " on a Nakajima Ki @-@ 43 " Oscar " fighter that crashed 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) from the ship . Despite delays caused by the air attacks , Yancey was the first attack cargo ship of her group to finish unloading , and sailed independently for the Marianas on the 16th . During her stay off the Okinawa beaches , the ship lost none of her boats and suffered three casualties : two men were wounded by shrapnel , and another broke an arm .
After a short rest @-@ and @-@ recreation stop at Guam , Yancey rejoined her squadron at Ultihi and underwent boiler repairs and intensive antiaircraft training ; her crew won numerous five @-@ case " beer prizes " for shooting down target sleeves . Getting underway again on 8 May , Yancey spent the next two months shuttling men and materiel from rear area bases , calling at Manus in the Admiralty Islands ; Finschhafen , New Guinea ; Tulagi ; Hollandia , Dutch New Guinea ; and finally Guiuan , on the island of Samar , in the Philippines . She rejoined TransDiv 47 , TransRon 16 , at San Pedro Bay , Leyte Gulf , on 16 July and sailed with the rest of the division to Iloilo , on the island of Panay , to conduct amphibious training exercises with the United States Army 's 43rd Infantry Division .
Yancey was in the Philippines when word of the Japanese surrender came in on 15 August . TransDiv 47 took on provisions at Iloilo after training exercises for the planned invasion of Japan were cancelled ; after arriving at Batangas , Luzon , Philippines , she embarked elements of the 1st Cavalry Division slated for the occupation of Japan .
After completing the loading process on 23 August , Yancey weighed anchor on the 25th as a member of Task Force ( TF ) 33 . However , the ships had to turn back because of a tropical storm in the vicinity . The typhoon delayed the task force for only a day , as the ships weathered the fringes of the storm at Subic Bay before again getting underway soon thereafter . Yancey entered Tokyo Bay on the morning of 2 September , the day Japan signed the formal articles of surrender on the deck of the battleship Missouri anchored there . Shortly after the conclusion of those ceremonies , the attack cargo ship headed into Yokohama harbor , the third ship in her squadron to enter that port and the first to start unloading . The ship completed her unloading in 19 hours and then proceeded to an anchorage off Yokohama .
During her World War II service , Yancey was awarded two battle stars .
= = Post war = =
Yancey 's squadron departed on 4 September 1945 and steamed via Leyte Gulf to Zamboanga . There , they commenced loading elements of the Army 's 41st Infantry Division from 16 to 18 September . Yancey and her sisters shifted soon thereafter to Bugo , Mindanao , where she picked up Army LCMs . After TG 54 @.@ 28 had assembled in Leyte Gulf on 21 September , the group — which included Yancey — sailed for Japan 's Inland Sea .
Due to minesweeping difficulties , however , the landings scheduled for the Kure – Hiroshima area were postponed ; and the task group sailed instead for Buckner Bay , Okinawa . On 28 September , the ship put to sea to evade another typhoon . On 1 October , she returned and anchored in Buckner Bay . Two days later , Yancey again headed for Japanese waters and entered Bungo Suido on the 5th , beginning the long , difficult passage up the Inland Sea along the channel swept through the minefields . The next morning — after spending the night anchored in the cleared channel — Yancey headed for Hiro Wan , where the landings were made . The ship completed her unloading in 48 hours . On 9 October , she was detached from TransRon 16 and reported to CinCPac for assignment . The following day , Yancey rode out a third typhoon with 130 fathoms ( 240 m ) of chain on deck , a second anchor ready to go , and steam at the throttle .
The attack cargo ship , remaining behind when the rest of her squadron was sent back to the United States on 11 October , headed instead to Haiphong , French Indochina to embark Chinese troops . After an 11 @-@ day delay , 1 @,@ 027 officers and men of the 471st Regiment , 62nd Chinese Army — and one interpreter — boarded the American vessel for passage to Takao , Formosa . After arrival , the Chinese troops had all been offloaded by 17 : 00 on 17 November . After sailing to Manila , Yancey received orders to proceed to the United States on 25 November , one year to the day she had sailed from San Francisco . Yancey took on a capacity load of Army and Navy men returning to the United States for discharge and departed Manila harbor on 27 November . During the voyage , she flew a 310 @-@ foot ( 94 m ) " homeward @-@ bound pennant " adorned with 27 stars .
After a stop at Pearl Harbor for boiler repairs and to offload her Army passengers , Yancey sailed for Balboa , Panama Canal Zone , reaching there on the last day of the year ; she was the last ship to transit the Panama Canal in 1945 . On 6 January 1946 , Yancey cleared Cristobal , Canal Zone , bound for Louisiana . After a brief stop at New Orleans , the attack cargo ship proceeded on , via Jacksonville , Florida , to Norfolk , where she arrived on 29 January . Less than a month later , on 27 February , Yancey sailed farther north and reached the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard the following day .
Over the next few months , Yancey underwent a regular overhaul there and then operated off the eastern seaboard and into the western Atlantic . During that time , she called at Bayonne , New Jersey ; Bermuda ; San Juan , Puerto Rico ; Guantanamo Bay , Cuba ; Balboa , Canal Zone ; Jacksonville , Florida ; and made return calls at Norfolk , Bayonne , and Bermuda . In addition , the ship visited the New York Naval Shipyard and Davisville , Rhode Island , before being assigned tentatively to TF 68 effective on 9 November .
= = Operation Highjump = =
In compliance with her new orders , Yancey proceeded back to the west coast , sailing via Cristobal and the Panama Canal . After arriving at San Pedro , California , Yancey reported for duty with TF 68 and was reassigned to the Pacific Fleets Service Force and homeported at San Francisco , on 11 November . The next day , she shifted to Port Hueneme , California , where she began loading cargo for Operation Highjump , the U.S. Navy expedition to Antarctica .
Departing Port Hueneme on 2 December , Yancey pressed southward , headed for Antarctica , and spent Christmas at sea . Two days later , she saw her first icebergs — visible evidence that she was entering the polar latitudes . She sighted the northern limit of the Antarctic pack ice on the 28th and spent the next two days investigating ice conditions . She fueled from USS Canisteo 10 nautical miles ( 19 km ) south of Scott Island , Antarctica , purportedly becoming the first ship to conduct an underway refueling below the Antarctic Circle .
After threading her way through the pack ice over the ensuing weeks , Yancey finally arrived at Bay of Whales , Antarctica , mooring at the shelf ice on 18 January 1947 . Subsequently departing that " port " on 6 February for the area to the north of the ice floes , the attack cargo ship entered the pack ice on the 9th . Over the next three days , she pressed through the floes that extended for a width of almost 275 nautical miles ( 509 km ) .
On 13 February , Yancey joined TU 68 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 which also included the Coast Guard icebreaker , Northwind , towing the attack cargo ship Merrick . Within a week , the ships were riding out a fierce storm that justified — at least to Yancey sailors — the Antarctic 's title as " The World 's Stormiest Sea " . Yancey reached Port Chalmers , New Zealand , on 22 February and departed that port on 5 March , bound for Samoa .
Subsequently departing Pago Pago on 27 March bound for Hawaii with YTL @-@ 153 in tow , the attack cargo ship arrived at Pearl Harbor on 14 April . She soon got underway for the west coast of the United States and reached Port Hueneme on 2 May 1947 . There , Yancey disembarked a unit of a construction battalion ( " Seabees " ) and discharged TF 68 cargo . Her duty with TF 68 thus completed on 15 May , Yancey reported for duty with Service Division ( ServDiv ) 12 . Shortly thereafter , Yancey shifted to San Pedro before heading to Terminal Island , California , for restricted availability on 20 May . After that period of repairs and alterations , Yancey returned to Port Hueneme to load cargo earmarked for shipment to Pearl Harbor and Guam .
= = Korean War = =
Over the next decade , Yancey operated between west coast ports and advanced bases in the Western Pacific ( WestPac ) , including ports in Japan , Korea , and the Philippines . During that period , she also supported United Nations ( UN ) actions in Korea , operating in support of the initial attempts to fight the North Korean advance ; in the first UN counteroffensives in early 1951 ; and in the final phases of activity that preceded the armistice in the summer of 1953 . Yancey was awarded three battle stars for her Korean War service .
In December 1957 , after having served continuously since 1944 , Yancey was deactivated at San Francisco . She was placed out of commission in March 1958 , and entered the Reserve Fleet at Olympia , Washington , on 11 October 1960 .
= = Recommissioning = =
In the aftermath of the Berlin Crisis of 1961 , Yancey was reactivated as part of President John F. Kennedy 's bid to build up the U.S. Navy . On 17 November 1961 , Yancey was recommissioned at Portland , Oregon , with Captain Gordon R. Keating in command . The ship departed from San Diego on 12 January 1962 and reached Norfolk , her new assigned home port , on 2 February , there becoming the newest member of Amphibious Squadron ( PhibRon ) 12 . Over the next months , Yancey took part in a variety of exercises and maneuvers .
Yancey participated in Operation Phiblex in the spring of 1962 , operating off Roosevelt Roads and Vieques , Puerto Rico . She later paid a port call at Charlotte Amalie , St. Thomas , Virgin Islands , before she returned to Roosevelt Roads and reloaded equipment and embarked Marines slated to return to Morehead City , North Carolina . Subsequently returning to Norfolk on 2 May , Yancey touched briefly at Charleston , South Carolina , to take on additional landing craft before returning to the Tidewater region to spend the remainder of May .
Subsequently visiting Boston , and Rockland , Maine , Yancey participated in amphibious boat exercises at Provincetown , Massachusetts , before she got underway on 24 July for Davisville , Rhode Island . There , she loaded a Seabee unit and their equipment and headed eastward , bound for Rota , Spain . Offloading one Seabee unit and onloading another , Yancey then paused briefly at Gibraltar before touching at Lisbon on the return leg of her voyage to the United States . Disembarking the seabees and unloading their equipment at Davisville , Yancey headed back to Norfolk , reaching her homeport on 18 August 1962 .
On 17 October , Yancey again sailed from Norfolk and proceeded to Morehead City , to load marines and equipment for Operation PhiBrigLex ( Amphibious Brigade Exercises ) slated for Vieques , Puerto Rico . Upon arrival , the attack cargo ship loaded immediately and set out to join the rest of the ships in the squadron . She soon was fighting her way through Hurricane Ella which caused her to alter her course to avoid the most severe part of the storm .
= = Cuban Missile Crisis and Dominican Republic operations = =
On 23 October 1962 , President Kennedy ordered a naval quarantine of Cuba in response to the presence of Soviet missiles on the soil of that island nation . Yancey sortied in support of the American operations in the Caribbean , and remained on station until the missiles were removed and tensions were relaxed . Over the next few years , Yancey made regular deployments to the Mediterranean to take part in joint exercises with NATO forces .
In April 1965 , Yancey was ordered to the Dominican Republic to support Operation Power Pack , the code name for the United States ' intervention in the Dominican Republic . The attack cargo ship arrived at Santo Domingo , the capital city , on 30 April . Yancey loaded nearly 600 evacuees from 21 nations . Among those on board the ship were the daughter of William Tapley Bennett Jr . , the United States Ambassador to the Dominican Republic ; the Belgian Ambassador to the Dominican Republic ; sixteen nuns from the Dominican Order ; and several large families . Yancey 's officers and crew vacated their quarters to allow room for female passengers and children , and many slept on the decks of the ship during the passage to San Juan , Puerto Rico . One of the passengers gave birth during the short trip , and gave her son the middle name of Yancey in honor of the ship .
After debarking her passengers at San Juan on 1 May , the ship took on supplies needed by the American ground forces in Santo Domingo : gasoline , oil , and ammunition . She docked in Santo Domingo on 2 May and exchanged her cargo for 450 more evacuees to be taken to San Juan . In all , Yancey carried almost a quarter of those fleeing the Dominican Republic . She returned to Norfolk soon thereafter , and resumed her role of training and cruising off the eastern seaboard and into the Caribbean basin . On 1 January 1969 , Yancey was redesignated as LKA @-@ 93 .
= = Chesapeake Bay Bridge @-@ Tunnel incident = =
Toward the end of her career , Yancey made headlines . Yancey was at anchor near one stretch of the Chesapeake Bay Bridge @-@ Tunnel near Norfolk on 21 January 1970 . Driven by the winds in a snowy gale that gusted up to 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) , Yancey dragged her anchors and hit the bridge , knocking it out of service for several weeks . The Navy started a free shuttle service for commuters that normally used the route , using helicopters and LCUs . Fortunately , there were no vehicles on the bridge at the time of the collision , and no one was injured . Sources do not report on any damage to Yancey from the incident , but any damages suffered must have been easily repaired , because the ship deployed to the Mediterranean a few months later .
After a return to the United States in mid @-@ 1970 , Yancey entered inactive status at Norfolk on 1 October of that year . The ship was decommissioned at Norfolk on 20 January 1971 , and entered the James River berthing area of the National Defense Reserve Fleet . Yancey was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 January 1977 . The vessel remained in the James River fleet until 16 August 1984 when she was withdrawn to be stripped of useful equipment by the U.S. Navy . She re @-@ entered the fleet one year later , on 28 August 1985 , but was withdrawn for the final time on 15 December 1989 to be prepared for sinking as an artificial reef .
In 1990 , the former Yancey was sunk as an artificial reef off Morehead City , North Carolina , and rests on her starboard side at a depth of 160 feet ( 49 m ) .
= Leopard 2E =
The Leopard 2E or Leopard 2A6E ( E stands for España , Spanish for Spain ) is a variant of the German Leopard 2 main battle tank , tailored to the requirements of the Spanish army , which acquired it as part of an armament modernization program named Programa Coraza , or Program Breastplate . The acquisition program for the Leopard 2E began in 1994 , five years after the cancellation of the Lince tank program that culminated in an agreement to transfer 108 Leopard 2A4s to the Spanish army in 1998 and started the local production of the Leopard 2E in December 2003 . Despite postponement of production owing to the 2003 merger between Santa Bárbara Sistemas and General Dynamics , and continued fabrication issues between 2006 and 2007 , 219 Leopard 2Es have been delivered to the Spanish army .
The Leopard 2E is a major improvement over the M60 Patton tank , which it replaced in Spain 's mechanized and armored units . Its development represented a total of 2 @.@ 6 million man @-@ hours worth of work , 9 @,@ 600 of them in Germany , at a total cost of 2 @.@ 4 billion euros . This makes it one of the most expensive Leopard 2s built . Indigenous production amounted to 60 % and the vehicles were assembled locally at Sevilla by Santa Bárbara Sistemas . It has thicker armor on the turret and glacis plate than the German Leopard 2A6 , and uses a Spanish @-@ designed tank command and control system , similar to the one fitted in German Leopard 2s . The Leopard 2E is expected to remain in service until 2025 .
= = Spanish armor programs 1987 – 93 = =
By 1987 , the Spanish army was equipped with 299 French @-@ designed AMX @-@ 30Es , assembled by Santa Bárbara Sistemas , and 552 American M47 and M48 Patton tanks . The AMX @-@ 30Es were put into service in 1970 , while the latter went into service in the mid @-@ 1950s . Although Spain 's M47s and M48s were modernized to M47Es and M48Es , bringing them to near equivalence with the M60 Patton tank , the Spanish army considered them antiquated . In 1984 , when deciding to replace its Patton tanks , the Spanish government declared its intention to produce a whole new main battle tank locally , since known as the Lince . Five companies expressed interest in bidding , including Krauss @-@ Maffei in a partnership with Santa Bárbara Sistemas , GIAT with what became the Leclerc , General Dynamics with the M1 Abrams and Vickers with the Valiant . While the M1 Abrams and Valiant bids were not accepted , the bidding continued until 1989 when it was officially canceled .
Instead , the Spanish government opted to replace its older Patton tanks with American M60 Patton tanks retired from Central Europe in accordance with the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe . Although the Spanish army was originally to receive 532 M60 and M60A1 tanks , only 260 M60A3s were ultimately delivered , of which 244 were put into active service in the army . In the late 1980s the Spanish Ministry of Defense approved a modernization program for 150 of its AMX @-@ 30Es and a reconstruction program for the remaining 149 vehicles of this type , restoring them to their original condition . However , neither the M60s nor the AMX @-@ 30s were a considerable improvement over Spain 's fleet of M47 and M48 Patton tanks .
Since the existing tank fleet did not meet the Spanish army 's needs , Spain opened talks with Germany and Krauss @-@ Maffei over the possibility of future collaboration in regards to Spain 's future tank , and sent a military delegation to Germany in 1994 . Although the Germans offered Spain surplus Leopard 1 tanks and Soviet equipment incorporated into the German army after the reunification of Germany , the Spanish government declined these offers and pressed for the Leopard 2 .
= = Programa Coraza = =
In March 1994 , the Spanish Ministry of Defense created Programa Coraza 2000 ( Program Breastplate 2000 ) , which focused on the procurement and integration of new armament for the Spanish army 's modernization . The program included the Leopard 2E and the Pizarro infantry combat vehicle , as well as the Eurocopter Tiger attack helicopter . The program 's scope extended to the integration of 108 Leopard 2A4s , which were leased to Spain in late 1995 . Apart from procurement , Programa Coraza was meant to prepare the Spanish army logistically for the introduction of new matériel .
= = = Leopard 2A4 = = =
A memorandum of understanding was signed on 9 June 1995 between the German and Spanish governments , setting the foundations for an acquisition of up to 308 brand @-@ new Leopard 2Es . These were to be assembled in Spain by Santa Bárbara Sistemas , with 60 – 70 percent of the components manufactured by Spanish companies , and production taking place between 1998 and 2003 . Furthermore , the German government agreed to lend the Spanish army 108 Leopard 2A4s for training purposes for a period of five years . These vehicles were delivered between November 1995 and June 1996 . In 1998 , Spain agreed to procure the ceded Leopard 2A4s and reduce production of the brand @-@ new Leopard 2E to 219 vehicles . In 2005 it was declared that the 108 Leopard 2A4s were to cost Spain just € 16.9m , to be paid by 2016 .
The Leopard 2A4s equipped X and XI Mechanized Infantry Brigade
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, which at the time formed part of Eurocorps . As production of the Leopard 2E began and these units received Leopard 2Es , their Leopard 2A4s re @-@ equipped the Alcántara Armored Cavalry Regiment , based in Melilla .
Spain 's Leopard 2E is based on the Leopard 2A6 , and incorporates the add @-@ on wedge armor of the Leopard 2A5 on the turret . This armor maximizes the armor depth that a kinetic energy penetrator must travel through to enter the internal volume of the turret . Like the Swedish Leopard 2S ( Strv 122 ) , the Leopard 2E has increased armor thickness on the hull 's glacis plate , the turret frontal arc and the turret roof , bringing the vehicle 's weight close to 63 tonnes ( 69 @.@ 4 tons ) . The vehicle 's protection is augmented by the added armor that is built into the tank during the manufacturing process , as opposed to being added on after assembly as is the case for German Leopard 2A5s and 2A6s . As a consequence , the Leopard 2E is one of the best @-@ protected Leopard 2s in service .
The tank is armed with Rheinmetall 's 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 55 tank @-@ gun , and is capable of adopting a 140 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) gun . Both the tank commander and gunner have identical second generation thermal viewers , derived from those of the TOW 2B Light Launcher System . These are integrated into the tank by Indra and Rheinmetall Defense Electronics . Indra provides the tank 's command and control system , called the Leopard Information and Command Equipment ( LINCE ) , based on the Swedish and German Integrierte Führungssysteme ( IFIS ) . Other differences between the Spanish Leopard 2E and other Leopard 2A6s include an auxiliary power unit , manufactured by SAPA , an air conditioning system and new rubber pads for the vehicle 's tracks to increase their lifespan on the irregular Spanish terrain . About 60 % of each Leopard 2E was manufactured in Spain , as opposed to 30 % for the Swedish Leopard 2S , for example .
Although the final contract for the production of Spanish Leopard 2Es was signed in 1998 , calling for a production rate of four tanks per month , the first Leopard 2Es were not manufactured until late 2003 . This was largely due to the merging of Santa Bárbara Sistemas with General Dynamics , and Krauss @-@ Maffei 's reservations regarding the sharing of the Leopard 2 's technology with a rival company manufacturer of the M1 Abrams . Krauss @-@ Maffei delivered 30 Leopard 2Es between 2003 and 2006 . Production by Santa Bárbara Sistemas was delayed after assembly had begun ; between January and November 2007 , for example , only three of the 43 Leopard 2Es to be delivered to the Spanish army were actually delivered — with 15 more being delivered before the end of the year to make up for the earlier production problems . By 1 July 2006 the Spanish army had received 48 Leopard 2Es and nine Büffel armored recovery vehicles , which was only a quarter of those contracted . Production of the Leopard 2E was planned to end by 2007 but was extended into 2008 .
The Leopard 2E replaced the Leopard 2A4 in Spanish mechanized units , which in turn replaced M60s in cavalry units . Both versions of the Leopard 2 are expected to remain in service with the Spanish army until 2025 . In terms of industrial scale , the production and development of the Leopard 2E represents a total of 2 @.@ 6 million man @-@ hours of work , including 9 @,@ 600 in Germany . It is one of the most expensive Leopard 2s built ; the original contract was worth € 1,910m but the final cost was € 2,399m .
= = = Comparison with other tanks in Spanish service = = =
The Spanish army replaced its M60 Patton tanks and AMX @-@ 30s with the Leopard 2 between 1995 and 2008 , a considerable improvement in capability . Previously , the Spanish army was equipped with M47 and M48 Patton tanks , which were upgraded to near M60 equivalency during the late 1970s and during the 1980s . Both the Leopard 2A4 and Leopard 2E sport a much more powerful gun than the AMX @-@ 30 and M60 tanks . The Leopard 2 's 1 @,@ 500 horsepower ( 1 @,@ 110 kW ) engine provides greater power than the M60A3 's 750 horsepower ( 559 @.@ 27 kW ) and the AMX @-@ 30EM2 's 850 horsepower ( 633 @.@ 84 kW ) engines . On the other hand , the Leopard 2 carries fewer , but larger rounds than the M60A3 .
= Indian Ocean raid ( 1944 ) =
In March 1944 , a force of three Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) heavy cruisers raided Allied shipping in the Indian Ocean . The cruisers departed Japanese @-@ held territory on 1 March with the support of other IJN vessels and aircraft . On 9 March , they encountered and sank the British steamer Behar , with the heavy cruiser Tone picking up over 100 survivors . Fearing detection , the Japanese force subsequently returned to the Netherlands East Indies ( NEI ) , arriving on 16 March . Two days later , most of Behar 's crew and passengers were murdered on board Tone . Following the war the commander of the raid , Rear Admiral Naomasa Sakonju , was executed for this war crime and Tone 's captain Haruo Mayuzumi ( ja : 黛治夫 ) was sentenced to seven years imprisonment .
= = Background = =
In February 1944 , the Japanese Combined Fleet withdrew from its base at Truk in the Central Pacific to Palau and Singapore . The appearance of a powerful Japanese naval force at Singapore concerned the Allies , as it was feared that these ships could potentially conduct raids in the Indian Ocean and against Western Australia . In response , the Allies strengthened their naval and air forces in the area by transferring two British light cruisers from the Atlantic and Mediterranean as well as several U.S. Navy warships from the Pacific . The number of air units in Ceylon and the Bay of Bengal region was also increased . Admiral James Somerville , the commander of the British Eastern Fleet , feared that the Japanese would repeat their devastating Indian Ocean raid of early 1942 , and on 25 February requested permission to withdraw his fleet from its base at Trincomalee so that it was not at risk from the larger Japanese force . The Admiralty rejected this request , and directed that the fleet should remain at Trincomalee unless it was threatened by a superior Japanese force as its withdrawal would affect morale and harm Britain 's prestige in the region . It was agreed , however , that the Eastern Fleet should not engage superior Japanese forces and could withdraw if Somerville judged this necessary .
In late February , Vice @-@ Admiral Shiro Takasu — the Commander in Chief , Southwest Area Fleet — ordered the heavy cruisers Aoba , Chikuma , and Tone to raid Allied shipping on the main route between Aden and Fremantle . This force was commanded by Vice Admiral Naomasa Sakonju on board Aoba . In his instructions to Sakonju , Vice Admiral Takasu directed that if the force captured Allied merchant seamen all prisoners , other than radio operators and other personnel who might possess useful information , were to be killed . Sakonju did not question this order . The Japanese cruisers embarked specialised boarding parties for this operation as it was hoped that they could capture merchant ships to alleviate Japan 's shipping shortage .
= = Raid = =
The three Japanese heavy cruisers departed from the Combined Fleet 's anchorage in the Lingga Islands on 27 February . The light cruisers Kinu and Ōi and three destroyers escorted the force through the Sunda Strait on 1 March . The raiders were supported by 10 medium bombers and three or four seaplanes based in Sumatra and west Java which conducted patrols in the direction of Ceylon . Three or four submarines from the 8th Flotilla also monitored Allied shipping movements near Ceylon , the Maldive Islands and Chagos Archipelago . The Allies did not detect the Japanese force 's departure , but reinforced their forces in Western Australia after an American submarine encountered Kinu and Ōi operating near the Lombok Strait on 6 March . The presence of these ships was taken to indicate that a hostile force had possibly been dispatched into the Indian Ocean . On 8 March , Somerville directed all Allied ships travelling between 80 and 100 ° east to divert to the south or west .
After leaving the Sunda Strait , the Japanese heavy cruisers sailed south @-@ west for the main route between Aden and Fremantle . The ships were spread 50 km ( 27 nmi ; 50 km ) by day and 20 km ( 11 nmi ; 12 mi ) by night and maintained radio silence . On the morning of 9 March , they encountered the 6 @,@ 100 long tons ( 6 @,@ 200 t ) British steamer Behar at 20 ° 32 ′ S 87 ° 10 ′ E , about midway between Fremantle and Colombo . The ship was travelling from Fremantle to Bombay as part of a voyage between Newcastle , New South Wales and the United Kingdom carrying a cargo of zinc .
Upon sighting the Japanese ships , Behar 's master , Captain Maurice Symons , ordered that his radio operator transmit the " RRR " code in order to notify other ships and Allied bases that the merchant ship was being attacked by surface raiders . Tone 's signals room picked up this message , and the cruiser opened fire on Behar . The Japanese cruiser did not attempt to capture the steamer , as it was judged too risky to sail her back to Japanese territory . Tone 's gunners scored hits on Behar 's prow and stern which killed three of her crew . Five minutes after the sighting , Behar 's crew and passengers abandoned ship . The steamer sank shortly afterwards and either 104 or 108 survivors were rescued by Tone . ( I )
The Behar survivors were maltreated by members of Tone 's crew . Japanese sailors forced the survivors to hand over all their personal belongings of any value , and then used ropes to tie the survivors in painful positions which caused them to have difficultly breathing . The merchant ship 's chief officer was beaten after he complained that treating civilians in such a way violated the Geneva Convention . However , the female survivors later had their ropes removed . When the survivors were taken below decks to be imprisoned they were badly beaten by Japanese sailors .
Following the attack , Sakonju judged that it was too dangerous to continue the raid as Behar 's distress message may have alerted the Allies to his force 's presence . Accordingly , the Japanese turned back for the NEI that day . The heavy cruisers were again escorted through the Sunda Strait by Kinu , Ōi and five destroyers , and arrived back at the NEI on 15 March . During this time , the Behar survivors were held in a small and extremely hot store room on board Tone , and were given little access to food and water , sanitary facilities and exercise .
Despite Sakonju 's fears , the Allies were not immediately aware of the attack on Behar . Her distress signal had been picked up by only a single Allied merchant ship , which did not report it until she arrived at Fremantle on 17 March . In the meantime , Somerville had decided on 16 March that surface raiders no longer posed a threat to shipping in the Indian Ocean and allowed Allied vessels to resume their normal routing .
= = Massacre = =
Shortly after the Behar survivors were rescued , Sakonju sent a radio message to Tone 's commanding officer , Captain Haruo Mayuzumi , reprimanding him for taking non @-@ essential personnel prisoner and not capturing the merchant ship . In this message Sakonju ordered that the survivors be killed . Mayuzumi was unwilling to so , however , as he felt that this would violate his Christian religious beliefs . His executive officer , Commander Junsuke Mii , also opposed killing the prisoners . Mayuzumi radioed a request to Sakonju that the prisoners be put ashore , but this was rejected . The captain then visited Aoba to argue his case , but Sakonju remained unmoved and told Mayuzumi to " obey my orders " . Despite his misgivings , Mayuzumi decided to kill the prisoners .
On 15 March the three heavy cruisers anchored at Tanjung Priok near Java . Following this , either 15 or 36 survivors were transferred to Aoba . ( II ) The party sent to Aoba included Symonds , the Behar 's chief officer and several of the senior officers as well as both of the ship 's female passengers . All of this group were later landed at Tanjung Priok .
The three cruisers sailed from Tanjung Priok bound for Singapore on 18 March . That night , all the prisoners on board Tone were beheaded by several of the cruiser 's officers . Mayuzumi watched the killings from the ship 's bridge but Mii refused to take part .
= = Aftermath = =
Aoba , Chikuma and Tone arrived at Singapore on 25 March . The Indian Ocean raid was the last operation conducted by Axis surface raiders during World War II . As a result , Behar was the final Allied merchant ship to be sunk by surface raiders during the war . The raid is notable chiefly for the Behar massacre ; it achieved little militarily . The raid failed to disrupt Allied traffic in the region as the diversions ordered by Somerville on 8 March were rescinded by the 16th . The only tangible result was the sinking of one ship , the Behar ; by contrast Axis submarines sank three ships in the Indian Ocean during the same period . The raid was also less successful than comparable raids by surface ships in the region , such as that of the Admiral Scheer in 1941 . The Japanese made no attempt to capitalize on their numerical superiority in the region and by the end of the month it had vanished ; reinforcements to the Eastern Fleet enabled Somerville to start a series of carrier raids , commencing with the attack on Sabang on 19 April 1944 .
The party of Behar survivors who had been landed at Tanjung Priok were initially interred in prisoner of war camps in Java ; the male prisoners were sent to a camp near Batavia and the women were held in a female camp nearby . After all the members of the group had been interrogated , the survivors were separated and sent to other camps in Java or to work as slave labourers in Japan . All the survivors were freed after the end of the war in August 1945 .
Following the war , the Allies prosecuted the officers responsible for the murders on board Tone . Vice Admiral Takasu had died from disease in September 1944 , but Sakonju was tried by the British in 1947 at Hong Kong and sentenced to death . Mayuzumi was also convicted for his role in the killings and sentenced to seven years imprisonment .
= Geneforge =
Geneforge is the first video game in the Geneforge series of role @-@ playing video games created by Spiderweb Software .
Players assume the role of an apprentice Shaper , a sect of mages who can create living creatures through force of will . The apprentice is cast away on Sucia , an island abandoned by the sect 200 years prior . The island contains groups of the Shapers ' creations , who have formed their own ideologies regarding their creators in the intervening years . The primary motivation of the player is to escape the island and , in the process , deal with the forces working to steal the Shaper secrets abandoned on Sucia Isle .
The game 's setting stemmed from the idea of players being able to create and control a group of obedient creatures . The Shapers and the world of Geneforge were the result of Vogel imagining how would a being possess such power and how would they use it . The game 's setting , a mixture of science fiction and fantasy , differs from the pure science fiction setting the game had been envisioned as . Vogel had difficulties balancing gameplay with the powerful directed @-@ energy weapons players would expect to use in a science fiction game . Sales exceeded the developer 's expectations , despite fears that the departure from Spiderweb 's Avernum series would deter players . Geneforge received a positive reception from reviewers , despite the quality of the graphics being rated as poor and the game containing one piece of music , the title theme . The plot and setting were praised by reviewers for uniqueness and detail .
= = Gameplay = =
Players create a character and travel around Sucia Island , a location Barred to the members of the player character 's sect . Whilst searching for a way off the island , the game 's ultimate goal , players can form alliances with the island 's inhabitants and complete quests through combat or other means . Geneforge is played in 45 ° axonometric perspective , movement through the game 's environs is real @-@ time but switches to turn @-@ based combat in the game 's playing field . The game world is divided up into 77 areas accessible through a world map . The first two areas serve as the game 's tutorial ; introducing players to navigation , controls and shaping creations . Clearing areas by defeating guardians or successfully traversing the terrain allows players to bypass those areas via the world map , reducing travelling time . The game has an always @-@ visible auto @-@ map , which begins each area completely darkened , and is revealed as the player explores . As the player 's party performs tasks or defeats enemies they receive experience , leading to increased levels and additional skill points . The player character 's skill points can be used to increase their statistics or to improve their aptitude in one of the fifteen available skills . Canisters which increase skills or add new abilities are scattered throughout the game .
Before starting the game , players choose from three basic character classes , each of which has a particular playing style . Guardians are fighters who excel in standard combat skills , especially hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting . They are capable of shaping creations , but have little affinity for magic . Agents excel in spell casting and are capable of hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , but have poor shaping skills . The Shaper is a summoner , capable of creating living creatures by using their own life essence . Shapers rely on their creations for protection . Every character class is referred to as " Shaper " in @-@ game . Most objectives in the game must be completed via combat or diplomacy , but players can also use subterfuge to pass obstacles . All three character classes can use different methods , depending on which skills they are adept in . Some areas are difficult to pass , and some tasks are difficult to complete , unless the player character is a certain class . Each character class has a different combat style , the combat skills they are associated with cost fewer skill points to increase .
Essence is used for both creating creatures and casting spells ; the number , type and strength of creations is limited by the player 's essence capacity . For instance , if a character with 70 maximum essence summons a creature which costs 20 essence , their maximum essence is reduced to 50 until the creation is destroyed , either through combat or being absorbed by the Shaper to regain essence . A total of 18 different creations are featured in the game , with larger and more powerful creatures costing more essence to create . The types and strengths of creations can be altered depending on the player 's combat style . Creations accompanying the player receive a percentage of the experience points received for completing quests or defeating foes , levelling up and receiving skill points in the same manner as the player character . These skill points can be spent to increase creations ' statistics , but every statistic increase costs more essence and reduces the amount of essence available to summon other creations or cast spells . Essence and health are regained from Shaper @-@ designed pools or by entering a friendly town .
Combat is turn @-@ based , with each character in the player 's party receiving action points at the beginning of the player 's turn . The number received is dependent on the items the player character has equipped and the skills the character or creations possess . Each action uses a specific number of points , for example , moving one square takes a single point and attacks or spells take five . Attacking or spellcasting with fewer than ten action points immediately ends the character 's turn , otherwise a character can continue to act until they run out of points . Most enemies will attack the player on sight , retreating in terror if they reach a certain threshold of damage without being killed . Other specialized behaviors are also present , including creatures which call for help , or creatures which act as sentries and retreat to an ambush location when threatened . Creations made by the player character can also be controlled by a similar artificial intelligence , or the player can invest more essence in the creation 's intelligence and control them manually .
Geneforge 's dialogue is delivered through on @-@ screen text . Encounters with intelligent creations or humans result in the player being given a series of pre @-@ determined questions or responses . Conversation options and the outcome of those conversations change according to the player 's previous interactions. as well as which quests have been completed ; which items the player has ; which group the player belongs to and the player 's leadership skill . The player can collect items from defeated enemies and the game environments to improve their own equipment . Non @-@ player characters can trade with the player , buying most items regardless of type . The shopkeeper has a fixed amount of gold at the start of the game which does not replenish itself . It is possible for the player to drain all shopkeepers of their gold reserves , making it impossible to sell further items .
= = Plot = =
The player begins as an initiate of a powerful sect of magicians , the Shapers . Members of the sect create living beings from the magical essence within themselves . Apprentices are sent to academies to learn the art of shaping and the player 's character has been accepted to do so . The player departs on a voyage to the academy aboard a specially modified Drayk , a dragon @-@ like Shaper Creation . During the journey , the Shaper passes a group of islands , one of which is recognized as the Barred Sucia Island . Locations Barred by the Shapers are closed to both the sect and outsiders alike , meaning a catastrophe has occurred or something very valuable is located there . As the Shaper examines Sucia , lost in thought , the craft is attacked and mortally wounded by an unidentified sailing ship . After igniting the vessel 's sails with a fireball , the craft deposits the Shaper on an abandoned dockside before dying . The player is now stranded on Sucia Island and must find a way to leave .
Exploration of the docks reveals a strange canister filled with swirling liquid . Thinking the canister contains healing or energizing properties , the Shaper breaks the seal and absorbs the contents . Instead the contents absorb into the Shaper 's body , strengthening and changing it . The changes become visibly apparent , the player character 's skin smoothens and glows slightly . The canisters also affect the user 's mental state , causing a more violent and arrogant temperament . Serviles remain on the island , having been abandoned when the island was Barred . They are intelligent creations of Shapers , designed to serve them without question or hesitation . These Serviles have had no contact with Shapers for two centuries , and have separated into three groups with differing philosophies regarding their creators . The Obeyers are still faithful to the Shapers , the Awakened believe that they should be treated as equals . The Takers have rejected Shapers completely and view the sect as oppressors to be fought .
After encountering the three servile groups , the player begins to learn of a group of foreigners known as Sholai , explorers who have been shipwrecked on the island . It was the Sholai , led by a man named Trajkov , who attacked the player with their last remaining ship . Trajkov controls a device called the Geneforge , created by the Shapers , which can rewrite the user 's DNA and make them incredibly powerful . This is the cause of the island 's Barred status , the device was deemed too dangerous in the wrong hands . Trajkov and his followers have allied themselves with the Takers , absorbing the contents of canisters and trying to claim Shaper powers as their own . The group have been unable to activate the Geneforge itself due to a Shaper being needed to activate the device . A Shaper named Goettsch was kidnapped for this purpose , in the same manner as the player @-@ character . Goettsch fled and stole the shaping gloves needed to safely use the Geneforge , causing Trajkov to attempt to kidnap the player as a replacement . During these events , some Sholai have escaped from their increasingly violent and unpredictable leader .
The player is free to join any one of the servile groups and share common goals , or remain unaligned . Geneforge can be completed without joining any group . Trajkov can be killed through combat or tricked into killing himself by using the Geneforge . He can also be aided in activating the device , if the player steals the shaper gloves from Goettsch . Goettsch offers the player fake shaper gauntlets , which do not protect Trajkov from the Geneforge 's energy should he be convinced they are genuine shaping gloves . The player can complete the game by using the last boat on Sucia Island . The small vessel is moored in a guarded dock on the far side of the island . Finishing the game unlocks one of more than a dozen game endings , dependent on the player 's actions during the game .
= = Development = =
Work on Geneforge began during the development of Avernum 2 , initially little information was revealed . In an interview published by RPGDot Vogel compared the game 's movement system to Fallout and revealed that a new game engine was being implemented . The project had initially been intended as pure science fiction but this was soon abandoned in favor of a mixed fantasy and science fiction setting . In an interview published on website RPG Codex , Vogel stated this was due difficulties maintaining game balance with futuristic weaponry which " should be devastating " . He added " I found it to be too difficult to model the weapons in a way that simultaneously felt sensible and maintained balance . "
Geneforge stemmed from the idea of creating a horde of creatures and the ability to care for those creatures or send them to their deaths . The choice was to be made by the player . From this point , Vogel considered who would be able to gain such powers , how they would control them and how these creatures would be treated . The game was developed with the intention of giving players choices ; which factions to side with , how non @-@ Shaper human outsiders are treated and whether to pursue goals through combat or diplomacy . Unlike most role @-@ playing games , Geneforge was designed so that it would be possible to complete the game without using violence . Vogel cited Baldur 's Gate II : Shadows of Amn , Planescape : Torment , Deus Ex and EverQuest as influences .
The game marked a departure from the Avernum series and its predecessor the Exile series , Vogel expressed a need to work on other projects - " every few years , I need to do something cool and weird . It keeps me interested . " He stated that the differences in Geneforge meant the game might struggle to find an audience , however sales exceeded his expectations .
= = Reception = =
Geneforge received positive reviews , the game 's story and lack of bugs received praise in particular . InsideMacGames ' Christopher Morin suggested that players interested in a " strong storyline and a unique take on magic " would be impressed , but not those who sought high quality graphics and sound . The game 's setting has been described as unique and fresh , the level of detail in Geneforge 's fictional world was praised by reviewers.Jeff Green of Computer Gaming World praised the game for its " story and gameplay " as something that high @-@ budget games often lack .
The quality of the game 's graphics was rated poorly by most reviewers , reviewers noted that the overall quality of the game made up for this deficiency . GameSpy 's Carla Harker described the graphics as " ... dated by about seven years " and the game as a " technological pariah " , despite calling it one of the best role @-@ playing games released in the past year . Green similarly described graphics as dated and something to put up with in favor of gameplay . Website Just RPG 's Eric Arevalo described them as simplistic but noted the game 's story and the ability to control " fascinating mutant creatures " made up for this . The Entertainment Depot 's Nick Stewart differed , praising the graphics as " Simplistic without being plain , lavish without being overdone " as well as the fluidity of character animation and detail of character designs .
The almost total lack of music , except for the title screen theme song , and complete lack of voice acting was noted by reviewers . This highlighted the game 's sound effects and environmental sounds , such as weapons clashing and the background noise of towns . Nick Stewart found " a fairly decent variety of effects and noises scattered throughout " , that they " added somewhat to the experience " , but became irritated by the amount of hissing and popping in the environmental sounds after extended play . Carla Harker described the sound as " Almost non @-@ existent " and Eric Arevalo found that there weren 't enough sound effects . RPGDot 's Val Sucher noted that the music player Winamp could be played in the background , due to the game 's small memory requirements .
= Giant mouse lemur =
The giant mouse lemurs ( members of the genus Mirza ) are a genus of strepsirrhine primates . Two species have been formally described ; the northern giant mouse lemur ( Mirza zaza ) and Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur ( Mirza coquereli ) . Like all other lemurs , they are native to Madagascar , where they are found in the western dry deciduous forests and further to the north in the Sambirano valley and Sahamalaza Peninsula . First described in 1867 as a single species , they were grouped with mouse lemurs and dwarf lemurs . In 1870 , British zoologist John Edward Gray assigned them to their own genus , Mirza . The classification was not widely accepted until the 1990s , which followed the revival of the genus by American paleoanthropologist Ian Tattersall in 1982 . In 2005 , the northern population was declared a new species , and in 2010 , the World Wide Fund for Nature announced that a southwestern population might also be a new species .
Giant mouse lemurs are about three times larger than mouse lemurs , weighing approximately 300 g ( 11 oz ) , and have a long , bushy tail . They are most closely related to mouse lemurs within Cheirogaleidae , a family of small , nocturnal lemurs . Giant mouse lemurs sleep in nests during the day and forage alone at night for fruit , tree gum , insects , and small vertebrates . Unlike many other cheirogaleids , they do not enter a state of torpor during the dry season . The northern species is generally more social than the southern species , particularly when nesting , though males and females may form pair bonds . The northern species also has the largest testicle size relative to its body size among all primates and is atypical among lemurs for breeding year @-@ round instead of seasonally . Home ranges often overlap , with related females living closely together while males disperse . Giant mouse lemurs are vocal , although they also scent mark using saliva , urine , and secretions from the anogenital scent gland .
Predators of giant mouse lemurs include the Madagascar buzzard , Madagascar owl , fossa , and the narrow @-@ striped mongoose . Giant mouse lemurs reproduce once a year , with two offspring born after a 90 @-@ day gestation . Babies are initially left in the nest while the mother forages , but are later carried by mouth and parked in vegetation while she forages nearby . In captivity , giant mouse lemurs will breed year @-@ round . Their lifespan in the wild is thought to be five to six years . Both species are listed as endangered due to habitat destruction and hunting . Like all lemurs , they are protected under CITES Appendix I , which prohibits commercial trade . Despite breeding easily , they are rarely kept in captivity . The Duke Lemur Center coordinated the captive breeding of an imported collection of the northern species , which rose from six individuals in 1982 to 62 individuals by 1989 , but the population fell to six by 2009 and was no longer considered a breeding population .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first species of giant mouse lemur was described by the French naturalist Alfred Grandidier in 1867 based on seven individuals he had collected near Morondava in southwestern Madagascar . Of these seven specimens , the lectotype was selected in 1939 as MNHN 1867 – 603 , an adult skull and skin . Naming the species after the French entomologist Charles Coquerel , Grandidier placed Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur ( M. coquereli ) with the dwarf lemurs in the genus Cheirogaleus ( which he spelled Cheirogalus ) as C. coquereli . He selected this generic assignment based on similarities with fork @-@ marked lemurs ( Phaner ) , which he considered to also be members of Cheirogaleus . The following year , the German naturalist Hermann Schlegel and Dutch naturalist François Pollen independently described the same species and coincidentally gave it the same specific name , coquereli , basing theirs on an individual from around the Bay of Ampasindava in northern Madagascar . Unlike Grandidier , they placed their specimen in the genus Microcebus ( mouse lemurs ) ; however , these authors also listed all Cheirogaleus under Microcebus and based the classification of their species on similarities with the greater dwarf lemur ( M. typicus , now C. major ) .
In 1870 , the British zoologist John Edward Gray placed Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur into its own genus , Mirza . This classification was widely ignored and later rejected in the early 1930s by zoologists Ernst Schwarz , Guillaume Grandidier , and others , who felt that its longer fur and bushy tail did not merit a separate genus and instead placed it in Microcebus . British anatomist William Charles Osman Hill also favored this view in 1953 , noting that despite its larger size ( comparable to Cheirogaleus ) , its first upper premolar was proportionally small as in Microcebus . In 1977 , French zoologist Jean @-@ Jacques Petter also favored the Microcebus classification , despite the threefold size difference between Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur and the other members of the genus .
The genus Mirza was resurrected in 1982 by American paleoanthropologist Ian Tattersall to represent an intermediate branch between Microcebus and Cheirogaleus , citing the Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur 's significantly larger size than the largest Microcebus and locomotor behavior more closely aligned with Cheirogaleus . Adoption of Mirza was slow , though in 1994 it was used in the first edition of Lemurs of Madagascar by Conservation International . In 1993 , primatologist Colin Groves initially favored the Microcebus classification in the second edition of Mammal Species of the World , but began supporting the resurrection of Mirza in 2001 . In 1991 , prior to adopting Mirza , Groves was the first to use the common name " giant mouse lemur " . Prior to that , they were popularly referred to as " Coquerel 's mouse lemur " .
In 2005 , Peter M. Kappeler and Christian Roos described a new species of giant mouse lemur , the northern giant mouse lemur ( M. zaza ) . Their studies compared the morphology , behavioral ecology , and mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences of specimens from both Kirindy Forest in central @-@ western Madagascar and around Ambato in northwestern Madagascar , part of the Sambirano valley . Their study demonstrated distinct differences in size , sociality , and breeding , as well as sufficient genetic distance to merit specific distinction between the northern and central @-@ western populations . Because Grandidier 's description was based on a southern specimen , they named the northern population as a new species .
The World Wide Fund for Nature ( WWF ) announced in 2010 that a biodiversity study from 2009 in the gallery forest of Ranobe near Toliara in southwestern Madagascar revealed a population of giant mouse lemurs previously unknown to science , and possibly a new species . They noted a significant difference in coloration between the two known species and the specimen they observed . However , further testing was required to confirm the discovery .
= = = Etymology = = =
The etymology of Mirza puzzled researchers for many years . Gray often created mysterious and unexplained taxonomic names — a trend not only continued with his description of Mirza in 1870 , but also with the genera Phaner ( fork @-@ marked lemurs ) and Azema ( for M. rufus , now a synonym for Microcebus ) , both of which were described in the same publication . In 1904 , American zoologist Theodore Sherman Palmer attempted to document the etymologies of all mammalian taxa , but could not definitively explain these three genera . For Mirza , Palmer only noted that it derived from the Persian title mîrzâ ( " prince " ) , a view tentatively supported by Alex Dunkel , Jelle Zijlstra , and Groves in 2012 . However , because the reference to Persian princes might have come from Arabian Nights , a popular piece of literature at the time , Dunkel et al. also searched the general literature published around 1870 . The origin of all three names was found in a British comedy The Palace of Truth by W. S. Gilbert , which premiered in London on 19 November 1870 , nearly one and a half weeks prior to the date written on the preface of Gray 's manuscript ( also published in London ) . The comedy featured characters bearing all three names : King Phanor ( sic ) , Mirza , and Azema . The authors concluded that Gray had seen the comedy and then based the names of three lemur genera on its characters .
= = = Evolution = = =
Based on studies using morphology , immunology , repetitive DNA , SINE analysis , multilocus phylogenetic tests , and mitochondrial genes ( mtDNA ) , giant mouse lemurs are most closely related to mouse lemurs within the family Cheirogaleidae , and together they form a clade with the hairy @-@ eared dwarf lemur ( Allocebus ) . Both dwarf lemurs and fork @-@ marked lemurs are more distantly related , with fork @-@ marked lemurs being either a sister group of all cheirogaleids , or more closely related to sportive lemurs ( Lepilemur ) .
Although Mirza , Microcebus , and Allocebus form a clade within Cheirogaleidae , the three lineages are thought to have diverged during a narrow window of time , so the relationships within this clade are difficult to determine and may change with further research . All three are thought to have diverged at least 20 mya ( million years ago ) , although another estimate using mtDNA places the divergence between Mirza and Microcebus at 24 @.@ 2 mya . Divergence between the two recognized species of giant mouse lemur is estimated at 2 @.@ 1 mya .
= = Description = =
Though giant mouse lemurs are relatively small cheirogaleids , they are more than three times larger than the smallest members of the family , the mouse lemurs . Their body weight averages 300 g ( 11 oz ) . At around 300 mm ( 12 in ) , their bushy and long tail is longer than their head @-@ body length , which averages 233 mm ( 9 @.@ 2 in ) . Their forelimbs are shorter than the hind limbs ( with an intermembral index of 70 ) , a trait shared with mouse lemurs . The skull is similar to that of dwarf and mouse lemurs , and the auditory bullae are small .
Like other cheirogaleids , the dental formula for giant mouse lemurs is 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 32 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 3 × 2 = 36 ; on each side of the mouth , top and bottom , there are two incisors , one canine , three premolars , and three molars — a total of 36 teeth . Their upper teeth converge towards the front of the mouth , but are straighter than those in mouse lemurs . The first upper premolar ( P2 ) is relatively small , but nearly as tall as the next premolar ( P3 ) . Unlike mouse lemurs and more like dwarf lemurs , giant mouse lemurs have a prominent anterior lower premolar ( P2 ) . Also more aligned with dwarf lemurs , the first two upper molars ( M1 – 2 ) have a more anterior hypocone that sits opposite the metacone , compared to the mouse lemurs ' more posterior hypocone , which is presumably a symplesiomorphic ( ancestral ) trait . Also on M1 and M2 , the cingulum ( a crest or ridge on the tongue side ) comprises two small cuspules . In all other dental characteristics , giant mouse lemurs are noticeably similar to both dwarf and mouse lemurs .
Giant mouse lemurs have two pairs of mammae , one on the chest ( pectoral ) and one on the abdomen ( abdominal ) . Their fur is typically grayish @-@ brown on the dorsal ( back ) side and more gray in color on the ventral ( front ) side . The tail is typically black @-@ tipped . The new population found by WWF in 2010 has an overall lighter color , along with reddish or rusty patches near the hands and feet on the dorsal side of the arms and legs . This population also has a red tail , which darkens at the end . Vibrissae are found above the eyes ( superciliary ) , above the mouth ( buccal ) , under the lower jaw ( genal ) , near the top of the jaw ( interramal ) , and on the wrist ( carpal ) . Like mouse lemurs , the ears are large and membranous .
Ear size is one differentiating factor between the northern giant mouse lemur and Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur , with the former having shorter , rounded ears , while the latter has relatively large ears . The northern giant mouse lemur is generally larger and also has a shorter tail and shorter canine teeth . This species also has the largest testicles relative to body size of any living primate , with an average volume of 15 @.@ 48 cm3 ( 0 @.@ 945 cu in ) , corresponding to 5 @.@ 5 % of its body weight . If human males had comparably sized testes , they would weigh 4 kg ( 8 @.@ 8 lb ) and be the size of a grapefruit .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur has a spotty distribution across western Madagascar 's dry deciduous forests due to the forest fragmentation throughout the region . The dry forests in this lowland region vary in elevation from sea level to 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) . The range of this species is divided into northern and southern subpopulations , which are separated by several hundred kilometers . Both historical and current populations between these ranges are uncertain . The southern region is bound by the Onilahy River in the south and the Tsiribihina River in the north , while the northern population is found in the northwestern corner of the island at Tsingy de Namoroka National Park . They are most commonly found in forests near rivers and ponds .
The northern giant mouse lemur is found in isolated forest patches along the northwest coast in both the more humid Sambirano valley and Sahamalaza Peninsula , as well as the Ampasindava Peninsula . Its range extends from the Maeverano River in the south to the Mahavavy River in the north . The new population reported by the WWF in 2010 is found in the gallery forests of Ranobe near Toliara in southwestern Madagascar .
= = Behavior = =
Giant mouse lemurs were first studied in the wild by Petter and colleagues in 1971 . His observations were secondary to his primary research interest , the fork @-@ marked lemurs north of Morondava . Both northern and southern populations were studied intermittently between 1978 and 1981 , and in 1993 , long @-@ term social and genetic studies began in Kirindy Forest . Behavioral studies of captive individuals have also been performed at the Duke Lemur Center ( DLC ) in Durham , North Carolina during the 1990s .
= = = Population density and territory = = =
Before the recognition of more than one species , differences in population density were noted between southern forests like Kirindy and northern forests near Ambanja . Later , it was recognized that Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur was found in lower densities than the northern giant mouse lemur . The former range between 30 and 210 individuals per square kilometer ( 250 acres ) , with lower densities in open areas of the forest , while the latter has been recorded with 385 to 1 @,@ 086 individuals per km2 . However , in the case of the northern giant mouse lemur , populations were found in more isolated forest fragments and it is thought that their consumption of introduced cashew and mango help sustain these higher populations .
According to studies of Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur , home ranges of both sexes vary from 1 to 4 hectares ( 2 to 10 acres ) with frequent overlap , particularly on the periphery of their range . Individuals most heavily use and aggressively defend a smaller core area within their range . Individuals can have up to eight neighbors . Home ranges of males tend to overlap with those of both females and other males , and typically expand to four times the size during the mating season . Female home ranges show no variability in size , and can remain stable for years . At Kirindy Forest , genetic studies showed that the home ranges of related females tend to clump closely together , while unrelated males may overlap their range , suggesting male dispersal and migration is responsible for gene flow .
= = = Activity patterns = = =
Both species are strictly nocturnal , leaving their nests around sunset to stretch and self @-@ groom for a few minutes . Both species typically forage between 5 and 10 m ( 16 and 33 ft ) above the forest floor , though Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur has been observed on the ground . They primarily move by quadrupedal running and occasionally leaping between branches , and use the same feeding postures as mouse lemurs , such as clinging to tree trunks . When moving through the trees , giant mouse lemurs scurry rapidly like mouse lemurs , unlike dwarf lemurs , which use more deliberate movement . Slow movements are usually seen in lower , denser foliage when hunting for insects , while more rapid motion and leaping is typically seen at moderate heights of 2 – 5 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 16 ft ) . Surveillance of the home range involves slower movements in lighter foliage near the tops of large trees , while movements along the border of a home range is more rapid and occurs at a lower height . Similar movement patterns have been observed in captivity as well .
Giant mouse lemurs begin foraging moments before the sun disappears , occasionally participate in social activities during the last half of the night , and return to one of their nests prior to sunrise . Cold temperatures cause them to leave the nest later and return early , sometime during the second half of the night . During the first half of the night , giant mouse lemurs are more likely to rest for an hour or more , usually at the expense of social activities , but not feeding time . Rest periods are longer when temperatures are low . Unlike many other cheirogaleids , they remain active all year and do not enter daily or seasonal torpor .
= = = Nesting = = =
Both species sleep in round nests up to 50 cm ( 20 in ) across made of interlaced lianas , branches , leaves , and twigs gathered from nearby trees and woven using the mouth and hands . Nests are typically between 2 and 10 m ( 6 @.@ 6 and 33 ft ) above the ground in the fork of large tree branches or surrounded by dense lianas . Trees covered in thick lianas as well as trees with year @
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-@ round leaf cover ( e.g. Euphorbiaceae ) are favored for nest construction , though large bare trees may be used by building the nest higher . In addition to nesting in dense lianas , individual giant mouse lemurs will rotate between 10 and 12 nests every few days to avoid predators . Only females have been observed building nests in the wild , though males , females , and young have been observed building nests in captivity . Multiple nests are sometimes built in the same tree or in nearby trees and are shared by neighboring giant mouse lemurs , fork @-@ marked lemurs , and the introduced black rat ( Rattus rattus ) . Unlike most other nocturnal lemurs , giant mouse lemurs do not appear to sleep in tree holes .
= = = Social structure = = =
Both species usually are solitary foragers , although the northern giant mouse lemur tends to be the most social , possibly due to its higher population density . Up to eight ( typically four ) adult males , adult females , and juveniles may be found in a northern giant mouse lemur nest , whereas Coquerel 's giant mouse lemurs do not nest communally , except when females share their nest with their offspring . Males do groom and call to females when they come into contact , and according to radio @-@ tracking and direct observations at Analabe near Kirindy , they form pair bonds , sometimes briefly traveling together during the dry season . However , most interactions between adults are infrequent and typically occur later at night and particularly during the dry season in overlapping core areas , often involving chases and other agonistic behavior , and only rarely social grooming . During the mating season , males act aggressively towards one another , pulling out fur around the head and shoulders and biting the head .
Giant mouse lemurs use at least eight vocalizations , the most common of which are contact calls , which sound like " hum " or a " hein " and are used when moving and when meeting familiar individuals . A " mother @-@ infant meeting call " used at dawn before returning to the nest consists of short , modulated whistles . Both males and females have distinct single note calls used in territorial behavior ; the female call sounds like " pfiou " and the male call is a short , loud whistle . Both sexes use an alarm call , which sounds like a " croak " , and an agonistic call , which consists of repeated " tisk @-@ tisk @-@ tisk " sounds . Females exhibit a " waking call sequence " , sometimes referred to as " loud calls " , which start when foraging commences and then switch to quieter " hon " calls possibly to indicate their position to their neighbors . A long " sexual call sequence " consisting of soft whistle and several modulated , hoarse " brroak " calls is used by both sexes during estrus . Studies of captive individuals have found other vocalizations , but their purpose has not been determined . The northern giant mouse lemur appears to be the most vocal of the two species . Although vocalizations are the primary form of social communication , they also scent mark using saliva , urine , and secretions from the anogenital scent gland on small branches and other objects .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Reproduction starts in November for Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur at Kirindy Forest ; the estrous cycle runs approximately 22 days , while estrus lasts only a day or less . The mating season in this southern population is limited to a few weeks , whereas the northern giant mouse lemur is thought to breed throughout the year , a trend seen in only two other species of lemur : the aye @-@ aye ( Daubentonia madagascariensis ) and the red @-@ bellied lemur ( Eulemur rubriventer ) . The northern giant mouse lemur had been observed breeding year @-@ round in captivity if their litter did not survive or was removed , but at the time this population was thought to be Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur .
One to three offspring ( typically two ) are born after 90 days of gestation , weighing approximately 12 g ( 0 @.@ 42 oz ) . Because they are poorly developed , they initially remain in their mother 's nest for up to three weeks , being transported by mouth between nests . Once they have grown sufficiently , typically after three weeks , the mother will park her offspring in vegetation while she forages nearby . After a month , the young begin to participate in social play and grooming with their mother , and between the first and second month , young males begin to exhibit early sexual behaviors ( including mounting , neck biting , and pelvic thrusting ) . By the third month , the young forage independently , though they maintain vocal contact with their mother and use a small part of her range .
Females start reproducing after ten months , while males develop functional testicles by their second mating season . Testicle size in the northern giant mouse lemur does not appear to fluctuate by season , and is so large relative to the animal 's body mass that it is the highest among all primates . This emphasis on sperm production in males , as well as the use of copulatory plugs , suggests a mating system best described as polygynandrous where males use scramble competition ( roaming widely to find many females ) . In contrast , male Coquerel 's giant mouse lemurs appear to fight for access to females ( contest competition ) during their breeding season . Males disperse from their natal range , and the age at which they leave varies from two years to several . Females reproduce every year , although postpartum estrus has been observed in captivity . In the wild , the lifespan of giant mouse lemurs is thought to rarely exceed five or six years , though in captivity they can live up to 15 years .
= = Ecology = =
Both species are omnivorous , eating fruit , flowers , buds , insect excretions , tree gums , large insects , spiders , frogs , chameleons , snakes , small birds , and eggs . Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur is thought to opportunistically prey on mouse lemurs after an individual was found with a half @-@ eaten gray mouse lemur ( M. murinus ) in a trap . During June and July , at the peak of the dry season , this species relies on sugary excretions from the larvae of hemipteran and cochineal insects as well as tree gums . The sugary excretions are obtained by either licking them from the back of the insect or collecting the crystallized sugars that accumulate beneath the insect colony . During this time of year , feeding on insect secretions can account for 60 % of feeding activity . In contrast , the northern giant mouse lemur relies on cashew fruits during the dry season .
Giant mouse lemurs are often sympatric with mouse lemurs , such as M. murinus , though they are typically found higher in the canopy and favor thicker , taller gallery forests . At the Marosalaza forest ( north of Morondava ) , Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur is sympatric with four other nocturnal lemurs ( mouse lemurs , sportive lemurs , dwarf lemurs , and fork @-@ marked lemurs ) , but manages niche differentiation by feeding at different times and specializing on insect secretions during the dry season .
Diurnal birds of prey such as the Madagascar buzzard ( Buteo brachypterus ) are their most significant predators . Other documented predators of giant mouse lemurs include the fossa ( Cryptoprocta ferox ) , Madagascar owl ( Asio madagascariensis ) , and the narrow @-@ striped mongoose ( Mungotictis decemlineata ) .
= = Conservation = =
In 2012 , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) assessed both Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur and the northern giant mouse lemur as endangered . Prior to that , both species had been listed as vulnerable . Populations of both species are in decline due to habitat destruction , primarily for slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture and charcoal production . Also , they are both hunted for bushmeat . The population announced by the WWF in 2010 was found outside the limits of a nearby protected area , PK32 @-@ Ranobe , which was granted temporary protection status in December 2008 and is co @-@ managed by the WWF . Its forests were not included in the protected area due to existing concessions for mining activities .
As with all lemurs , giant mouse lemurs were first protected in 1969 when they were listed as " Class A " of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources . This prohibited hunting and capture without authorization , which would only be given for scientific purposes or the national interest . In 1973 , they were also protected under CITES Appendix I , which strictly regulates their trade and forbids commercial trade . Although enforcement is patchy , they are also protected under Malagasy law .
Giant mouse lemurs are rarely kept in captivity , though they breed easily . In 1989 , the Duke Lemur Center held more than 70 % of the captive population ( 45 of 62 individuals ) . At the time , the DLC was coordinating a captive breeding program for Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur , and all individuals kept at American facilities were descended from six individuals imported by the DLC in 1982 from the region around Ambanja . As of 2009 , the International Species Information System ( ISIS ) recorded only six remaining individuals registered in the United States and Europe , all reclassified as northern giant mouse lemurs and considered a non @-@ breeding population ; and in 2015 , only a single female remained on record .
= Copper shark =
The copper shark , bronze whaler , or narrowtooth shark ( Carcharhinus brachyurus ) is a species of requiem shark , family Carcharhinidae , and the only member of its genus found mostly at temperate latitudes . It is distributed in a number of separate populations in the northeastern and southwestern Atlantic , off southern Africa , in the northwestern and eastern Pacific , and around Australia and New Zealand , with scattered reports from equatorial regions . This species can be found from brackish rivers and estuaries , to shallow bays and harbors , to offshore waters 100 m ( 330 ft ) deep or more . Females are found apart from males for most of the year , and conduct seasonal migrations . A large species reaching 3 @.@ 3 m ( 11 ft ) long , the copper shark is difficult to distinguish from other large requiem sharks . It is characterized by its narrow , hook @-@ shaped upper teeth , lack of a prominent ridge between the dorsal fins , and plain bronze coloration .
Feeding mainly on cephalopods , bony fishes , and other cartilaginous fishes , the copper shark is a fast @-@ swimming predator that has been known to hunt in large groups , utilizing their numbers to their advantage ; however for most of the time they remain solitary . Off South Africa , this species associates closely with the annual sardine run , involving millions of southern African pilchard ( Sardinops sagax ) . Like other requiem sharks , it is viviparous , with the developing embryos mainly nourished through a placental connection formed from the depleted yolk sac . Females bear litters of 7 to 24 pups every other year in coastal nursery areas , after a gestation period of 12 or perhaps as long as 21 months . It is extremely slow @-@ growing , with males and females not reaching maturity until 13 – 19 and 19 – 20 years of age respectively .
This species is valued by commercial and recreational fisheries throughout its range , and utilized as food . The species population size is unknown , but the ICUN 's Red List assesses the species as Near Threatened because it is very susceptible to population depletion due to its low growth and reproductive rates and because its numbers are believed to have declined in some areas .
Copper sharks only attack humans infrequently , but the species places sixth in the number of unprovoked attacks on people .
= = Taxonomy = =
Because of its very patchy range , the copper shark has been scientifically described several times from different locales . The earliest valid description is presently considered to be British zoologist Albert Günther 's account of Carcharias brachyurus in the 1870 eighth volume of Catalogue of the fishes in the British Museum . The earliest name was once thought to be Auguste Duméril 's 1865 Carcharias remotus , until it was found that the type specimen associated with that name is actually a blacknose shark ( C. acronotus ) . Thus , this shark was often referred to as C. remotus in older literature . An even earlier name , Richard Owen 's 1853 Galeolamna greyi , is of questionable taxonomic status as it was based solely on a set of now @-@ destroyed jaws that may or may not have belonged to a copper shark . Modern authors have assigned this species to the genus Carcharhinus .
The specific epithet brachyurus is derived from the Greek brachys ( " short " ) and oura ( " tail " ) . The name " whaler " originated in the 19th century , applied by the crews of whaling vessels in the Pacific who saw large sharks of various species congregating around harpooned whale carcasses . This species may also be referred to as black @-@ tipped whaler , cocktail shark or cocktail whaler , or New Zealand whaler , as well as by the shortened " bronze " , " bronzie " , or " cocktail " . Günther originally referred to four syntypes : a stuffed specimen from Antarctica and another from New Zealand , which have since been lost , and two fetuses from Australia that were later discovered to be bull sharks ( C. leucas ) . In the interests of taxonomic stability , in 1982 Jack Garrick designated a 2 @.@ 4 m ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) long female caught off Whanganui , New Zealand as a new type specimen .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
The first efforts to determine the evolutionary relationships of the copper shark were based on morphology and returned inconclusive results : in 1982 Jack Garrick placed it by itself as a grouping within Carcharhinus , while in 1988 Leonard Compagno placed it in an informal " transitional group " that also contained the blacknose shark ( C. acronotus ) , the blacktip reef shark ( C. melanopterus ) , the nervous shark ( C. cautus ) , the silky shark ( C. falciformis ) , and the night shark ( C. signatus ) . Gavin Naylor 's 1992 allozyme study concluded that the closest relative of the copper shark is the spinner shark ( C. brevipinna ) , but could not resolve their wider relationships with the rest of the genus . Fossilized teeth from the copper shark have been recovered from the Pungo River in North Carolina , dating to the Miocene ( 23 – 5 @.@ 3 Ma ) , from Tuscany , dating to the Pliocene ( 5 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 6 Ma ) , and from Costa Mesa in California , dating to the Late Pleistocene ( 126 @,@ 000 – 12 @,@ 000 years ago ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The copper shark is the only member of its genus largely found in temperate rather than tropical waters , in temperatures above 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) . It is widely distributed but as disjunct regional populations with little to no interchange between them . In the Atlantic , this shark occurs from the Mediterranean Sea to Morocco and the Canary Islands , off Argentina , and off Namibia and South Africa ( where there may be two separate populations ) , with infrequent records from Mauritania , the Gulf of Guinea , and possibly the Gulf of Mexico . In the Indo @-@ Pacific , it is found from the East China Sea to Japan ( excluding Hokkaido ) and southern Russia , off southern Australia ( mostly between Sydney and Perth but occasionally further north ) , and around New Zealand but not as far as the Kermadec Islands ; there are also unconfirmed reports from the Seychelles and the Gulf of Thailand . In the eastern Pacific , it occurs from northern Chile to Peru , and from Mexico to Point Conception , California , including the Gulf of California . The copper shark is common off parts of Argentina , South Africa , Australia , and New Zealand , and rare elsewhere ; in many areas its range is ill @-@ defined because of confusion with other species .
Copper sharks can be found from the surf zone to slightly beyond the continental shelf in the open ocean , diving to depths of 100 m ( 330 ft ) or more . This species commonly enters very shallow habitats , including bays , shoals , and harbors , and also inhabits rocky areas and offshore islands . It is tolerant of low and changing salinities , and has been reported from estuaries and the lower reaches of large rivers . Juveniles inhabit inshore waters less than 30 m ( 98 ft ) deep throughout the year , while adults tend to be found further offshore and regularly approach the coast only in spring and summer , when large aggregations can be readily observed in shallow water .
Populations of copper sharks in both hemispheres perform seasonal migrations , in response to temperature changes , reproductive events , and / or prey availability ; the movement patterns differ with sex and age . Adult females and juveniles spend winter in the subtropics and generally shift to higher latitudes as spring nears , with pregnant females also moving towards the coast to give birth in inshore nursery areas . Adult males remain in the subtropics for most of the year , except in late winter or spring when they also move into higher latitudes , in time to encounter and mate with post @-@ partum females dispersing from the nurseries . During migrations , individual sharks have been recorded traveling up to 1 @,@ 320 km ( 820 mi ) . It is philopatric , returning to the same areas year after year .
= = Description = =
The copper shark has a slender , streamlined body with a slightly arched profile just behind the head . The snout is rather long and pointed , with the nostrils preceded by low flaps of skin . The round , moderately large eyes are equipped with nictating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) . The mouth has short , subtle furrows at the corners and contains 29 – 35 upper tooth rows and 29 – 33 lower tooth rows . The teeth are serrated with single narrow cusps ; the upper teeth have a distinctive hooked shape and become more angled towards the corners of the jaw , while the lower teeth are upright . The upper teeth of adult males are longer , narrower , more curved , and more finely serrated than those of adult females and juveniles . The five pairs of gill slits are fairly long .
The pectoral fins are large , pointed , and falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) . The first dorsal fin is tall , with a pointed apex and a concave trailing margin ; its origin lies about even with the tips of the pectoral fins . The second dorsal fin is small and low , and positioned about opposite to the anal fin . There is usually no ridge between the dorsal fins . The caudal fin has a well @-@ developed lower lobe and a deep ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe . This species is bronze to olive @-@ gray above with a metallic sheen and sometimes a pink cast , darkening towards the fin tips and margins but not conspicuously so ; the color fades quickly to a dull gray @-@ brown after death . The underside is white , which extends onto the flanks as a prominent band . The copper shark is easily mistaken for other large Carcharhinus species , particularly the dusky shark ( C. obscurus ) , but can be identified by its upper tooth shape , absent or weak interdorsal ridge , and lack of obvious fin markings . It reportedly reaches a maximum length of 3 @.@ 3 m ( 11 ft ) and weight of 305 kilograms ( 672 lb ) .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Fast and active , the copper shark may be encountered alone , in pairs , or in loosely organized schools containing up to hundreds of individuals . Some aggregations seem to form for reproductive purposes , while others form in response to concentrations of food . This species may fall prey to larger sharks . Known parasites of the copper shark include the tapeworms Cathetocephalus australis , Dasyrhynchus pacificus and D. talismani , Floriceps minacanthus , Phoreiobothrium robertsoni , and Pseudogrillotia spratti , the leech Stibarobdella macrothela , and the fluke Otodistomum veliporum .
= = = Feeding = = =
The copper shark feeds more towards the bottom of the water column than the top , consuming cephalopods , including squid ( Loligo spp . ) , cuttlefishes , and octopus ; bony fishes , including gurnards , flatfishes , hakes , catfishes , jacks , Australian salmon , mullets , sea breams , smelts , tunas , sardines , and anchovies ; and cartilaginous fishes , including dogfish sharks ( Squalus spp . ) , stingrays , skates , electric rays , and sawfishes . Cephalopods and cartilaginous fishes become relatively more important food for sharks over 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long . Young sharks also consume scyphozoan jellyfish and crustaceans , including mud shrimps ( Callianassa ) and penaeid prawns . It does not attack marine mammals , though has been known rarely to scavenge on dolphins that had succumbed to fishing nets . The predominant prey of this species off South Africa is the southern African pilchard ( Sardinops sagax ) , which comprise 69 – 95 % of its diet . Every winter , schools of copper sharks follow the " run " of the pilchard from the Eastern Cape to KwaZulu @-@ Natal . The gathering of millions of forage fish attract a multitude of predators , including several species of sharks , of which copper sharks are the most numerous .
Large numbers of copper sharks have been observed hunting together in a seemingly cooperative fashion . Small schooling fish are " herded " into a tight ball , whereupon each shark swims through in turn with its mouth open to feed . For groups of tuna and larger prey , the pursuing sharks may adopt a " wing " formation to force their quarry closer together , with each shark targeting a particular fish and attacking in turn . In False Bay , South Africa , this species reportedly follows seine net fishing vessels .
= = = Life history = = =
Like other members of its family , the copper shark is viviparous , in which the yolk sac of the developing embryo , once depleted , is converted into a placental connection through which the mother delivers nourishment . Adult females have one functional ovary , on the right , and two functional uteruses . The male bites the female as a prelude to mating . In the Southern Hemisphere , mating takes place from October to December ( spring and early summer ) , when both sexes have migrated into offshore waters at higher latitudes . Birthing seems to occur from June to January , peaking in October and November .
Female copper sharks make use of shallow inshore habitats , varying from stretches of open coast to more sheltered bays and inlets , as nurseries . These nurseries provide abundant food and reduce the likelihood of predation by larger members of the species . Known and suspected nursery areas occur off northern North Island from Waimea Inlet to Hawke Bay for New Zealand sharks , off Albany , in and around Gulf St Vincent , and in Port Phillip Bay for Australian sharks , off Niigata ( Japan ) for northwestern Pacific sharks , off the Eastern Cape for South Africa sharks , off Rhodes ( Greece ) , Nice ( France ) , and Al Hoceima ( Morocco ) for Mediterranean sharks , off Río de Oro ( Western Sahara ) for northwest African sharks , off Rio de Janeiro ( Brazil ) and Buenos Aires and Bahía Blanca ( Argentina ) for southwestern Atlantic sharks , and off Paita and Guanape Cove ( Peru ) , in Sebastián Vizcaíno Bay ( Mexico ) , and in and around San Diego Bay for eastern Pacific sharks .
Most sources estimate a gestation period of 12 months , though some data support the interpretation of a 15 – 21 month long gestation period instead . Females produce litters every other year , with the number of pups ranging from 7 to 24 and averaging 15 or 16 . Females off California and the Baja Peninsula tend to bear fewer young relative to other parts of the world . The newborns measure 55 – 67 cm ( 22 – 26 in ) long . The copper shark is among the slowest @-@ growing Carcharhinus species : off South Africa , males reach sexual maturity at 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 4 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 7 @.@ 9 ft ) long and an age of 13 – 19 years , while females mature at 2 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 5 m ( 7 @.@ 5 – 8 @.@ 2 ft ) long and an age of 19 – 20 years . Females off Australia mature at a comparable length of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) , while females off Argentina mature at a slightly smaller length of 2 @.@ 2 m ( 7 @.@ 2 ft ) . The maximum lifespan is at least 30 years for males and 25 years for females .
= = Human interactions = =
= = = Attacks on Humans = = =
Copper sharks attack humans infrequently , but the species places sixth in the number of unprovoked attacks on people . During the tracking period through 2013 , the University of Florida attributed 20 attacks to the species . ( In comparison , great white sharks topped the list , with 279 attacks . ) Though large and powerful , the copper shark is not particularly aggressive towards humans unless in the presence of food . Copper Sharks have been known to harass and attack spear fishers in an attempt to steal catches . Copper sharks have bitten several swimmers in Australia and New Zealand , where the species is common . ( The species is commonly called bronze whalers in this part of the world . )
Fatal attacks attributed to the copper shark ( bronze whaler ) include the 2014 death of a swimmer in Tathra , New South Wales , Australia , and the 1976 death of a swimmer in Te Kaha , New Zealand . Three out of ten shark attacks in New Zealand are attributed to Copper sharks . Witnesses also attributed a fatal attack on September 2011 in Bunker Bay , Western Australia to a copper shark .
One problem with counting attacks on humans is that the copper shark is so similar to other requiem sharks . Victims and witnesses are unlikely to correctly identify which type of genus Carcharhinus shark is responsible for the attack . Experts trying to confirm shark attacks by species warn that their statistics undercount the number of attacks by requiem sharks like the copper .
= = = Captivity = = =
Like many large , active sharks , this species adapts poorly to captivity ; it tends to bump into the sides of its enclosure , and the resulting abrasions then become infected with often fatal consequences .
= = = Fishing = = =
Commercial fisheries for the copper shark exist off New Zealand , Australia ( though the " bronze whaler fishery " of Western Australia actually takes mostly dusky sharks ) , South Africa , Brazil , Uruguay , Argentina , Mexico , and China ; it also contributes to the bycatch of other commercial fisheries across its range . This species is caught in gillnets and on bottom longlines , and to a much lesser extent in bottom trawls and on pelagic longlines . The meat is sold for human consumption . The copper shark is also popular with recreational fishers in Namibia , New Zealand , Australia , South Africa , Argentina , Mexico and California , predominantly by anglers but also by bowfishers and gillnetters . In New Zealand , it is the Carcharhinus species most frequently caught by sport fishers and sustains a small , summer recreational fishery in northern North Island , that mainly captures pregnant and post @-@ partum females and for the most part practices tag and release . A tag and release program is also practiced in Namibia .
= = = Conservation = = =
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the copper shark as Near Threatened worldwide . While the global population is unknown , the long maturation time and low reproductive rate of this species render it highly susceptible to overfishing . Regionally , the IUCN has listed this species under Least Concern off Australia , New Zealand , and South Africa , where fisheries are generally well @-@ managed ; the local copper shark population for each of those three countries is contained almost entirely within their respective Exclusive Economic Zones ( EEZ ) . Reported catches by New Zealand have steadily declined from a peak of 40 tons in 1995 / 96 to 20 tons 2001 / 02 , though it is uncertain whether this reflects a genuine decline or changing fishing habits .
In the eastern Pacific , the copper shark is rare and little fishery information is available , leading to an assessment of Data Deficient . However , catch declines across all shark and ray species have been documented in the heavily @-@ fished Gulf of California . Off East Asia , the copper shark has been assessed as Vulnerable ; though species @-@ specific data is unavailable , shark populations overall have been decimated in the region . The number of large adults have been too low to sustain targeted fisheries since the 1970s , and most of the current shark catch consists of small juveniles . Additional threats to this species include the degradation and destruction of its coastal nurseries from development , pollution , and aquaculture , mortality from shark nets used to protect beaches in South Africa and Australia , and persecution by fish farmers in southern Australia .
= Fantastic ( magazine ) =
Fantastic was an American digest size fantasy and science fiction magazine , published from 1952 to 1980 . It was founded by Ziff Davis as a fantasy companion to Amazing Stories . Early sales were good , and Ziff Davis quickly decided to switch Amazing from pulp format to digest , and to cease publication of their other science fiction pulp , Fantastic Adventures . Within a few years sales fell , and Howard Browne , the editor , was forced to switch the focus to science fiction rather than fantasy . Browne lost interest in the magazine as a result and the magazine generally ran poor quality fiction in the mid @-@ 1950s , under Browne and his successor , Paul W. Fairman .
At the end of the 1950s Cele Goldsmith took over as editor of both Fantastic and Amazing , and quickly invigorated the magazines , bringing in many new writers and making them , in the words of one science fiction historian , the " best @-@ looking and brightest " magazines in the field . She helped to nurture the early careers of writers such as Roger Zelazny and Ursula K. Le Guin , but was unable to increase circulation , and in 1965 the magazines were sold to Sol Cohen , who hired Joseph Wrzos as editor and switched to a reprint @-@ only policy . This was financially successful , but brought Cohen into conflict with the newly formed Science Fiction Writers of America . After a turbulent period at the end of the 1960s , Ted White became editor and the reprints were phased out .
White worked hard to make the magazine successful , introducing artwork from artists who had made their names in comics , and working with new authors such as Gordon Eklund . His budget for fiction was low , but he was occasionally able to find good stories from well @-@ known writers which had been rejected by the other markets . Circulation continued to decline and in 1978 Cohen sold out his half of the business to his partner , Arthur Bernhard . White resigned shortly afterwards , and was replaced by Elinor Mavor , but within two years Bernhard decided to close down Fantastic , merging it with Amazing , which had always had slightly higher circulation .
= = Publishing history = =
In 1938 , Ziff @-@ Davis , a Chicago @-@ based publisher looking to expand into the pulp magazine market , acquired Amazing Stories . The number of science fiction magazines grew quickly ; several new titles appeared over the next few years , including Fantastic Adventures , which was launched by Ziff @-@ Davis in 1939 as a companion to Amazing . Under the editorship of Raymond Palmer the magazines were reasonably successful but published poor quality work , and when Howard Browne took over as editor of Amazing in January 1950 he decided to try to move the magazine upmarket . Ziff @-@ Davis agreed to back the new magazine , and Browne put together a sample copy , but when the Korean War broke out Ziff @-@ Davis cut their budgets and the project was abandoned . Browne did not give up , and in 1952 received the go @-@ ahead to try a new magazine instead , focused on high @-@ quality fantasy , a genre which had recently become more popular . The first issue of Fantastic , dated Summer 1952 , appeared on March 21 of that year .
= = = Early years = = =
Sales were very good , and Ziff @-@ Davis was sufficiently impressed to move the magazine from a quarterly to a bimonthly schedule after only two issues , and to switch Amazing from pulp format to digest @-@ size to match Fantastic . Shortly afterwards the decision was taken to eliminate Fantastic Adventures : the March 1953 issue was the last , and the May – June 1953 issue of Fantastic added a mention of Fantastic Adventures to the masthead , though this disappeared with the following issue . Payment started at two cents per word for all rights , but could go up to ten cents at the editor 's discretion ; this put Fantastic in the second echelon of magazines , behind markets such as Astounding and Galaxy . The experiment with quality fiction did not last ; circulation dropped , which led to budget cuts , and in turn the quality of the fiction fell . Browne had wanted to separate Fantastic from Amazing 's pulp roots , but now found he had to print more science fiction ( sf ) and less fantasy in order to attract Amazing 's readers to its sister magazine . Fantastic 's poor results were probably a consequence of the overloaded sf magazine market ; far more magazines appeared in the early 1950s than the market was able to support . Ziff @-@ Davis sales staff were able to help sell Fantastic and Amazing along with the technical magazines that it published , and the availability of a national sales network , even though it was not focused solely on Fantastic , undoubtedly helped the magazine to survive .
In May 1956 Browne left Ziff @-@ Davis to become a screenwriter . Paul W. Fairman took over as editor of both Fantastic and Amazing . In 1957 Bernard Davis left Ziff @-@ Davis ; it had been Davis who had suggested the acquisition of Amazing in 1939 , and he had stayed involved with the sf magazines throughout the time he spent there . With his departure Amazing and Fantastic stagnated ; they remained monthly but drew no attention from Ziff @-@ Davis 's management .
= = = Mid @-@ 1950s to late 1960s = = =
In November 1955 , Ziff @-@ Davis hired an assistant , Cele Goldsmith , who began by helping with two new magazines under development , Dream World and Pen Pals . She also read the slush piles for all the magazines , and was quickly given more responsibility . In 1957 she was made managing editor of both Amazing and Fantastic , doing the administrative chores and reading unsolicited manuscripts ; and at the end of 1958 she became editor , replacing Fairman , who left to edit Ellery Queen 's Mystery Magazine . Goldsmith ( who became Cele Lalli when she married in 1964 ) stayed as editor for six and a half years .
Circulation dropped for both Amazing and Fantastic ; in 1964 Fantastic had a paid circulation of only 27 @,@ 000 . In 1965 Sol Cohen , who at that time was Galaxy 's publisher , set up his own publishing company , Ultimate Publishing , and bought both Amazing and Fantastic from Ziff @-@ Davis . Cohen had decided to make the magazines as profitable as possible by filling them only with reprints . This was possible because Ziff @-@ Davis had acquired second serial rights for all stories they had published , and since Cohen had bought the backfile of stories he was able to reprint them using these rights . Using reprints in this way saved Cohen about $ 8 @,@ 000 a year between the two magazines . Lalli decided that she did not want to work for Cohen , and stayed with Ziff @-@ Davis . Her last issue was June 1965 . Cohen replaced Lalli with Joseph Wrzos , who used the name " Joseph Ross " on the magazines . Cohen had met Wrzos at the Galaxy offices not long before ; Wrzos was teaching English full @-@ time , but had worked for Gnome Press as an assistant editor in 1953 – 1954 .
Cohen also launched a series of reprint magazines , drawing from the backfile of both Amazing and Fantastic , again using the second serial rights he had acquired from Ziff @-@ Davis . The first reprint magazine was Great Science Fiction ; the first issue , titled Great Science Fiction from Amazing , appeared in August 1965 . By early 1967 this had been joined by The Most Thrilling Science Fiction Ever Told and Science Fiction Classics . These increased the workload on Wrzos , though Cohen made the selection of stories , and Wrzos found himself able to work on Fantastic and Amazing only part @-@ time . Cohen hired Herb Lehrman to help with the other magazines .
Although Cohen felt that his deal with Ziff @-@ Davis gave him the reprint rights he needed , the newly formed Science Fiction Writers of America ( SFWA ) received complaints about Cohen 's refusal to pay anything for the reprints . He was also reportedly not responding to requests for reassignment of copyright . SFWA organized a boycott of Cohen 's magazines ; after a year Cohen agreed to pay a flat fee for the reprints , and in August 1967 he agreed to a graduated scale of payments , and the boycott was withdrawn .
Harry Harrison had been involved in the negotiations between SFWA and Cohen , and when the agreement was reached in 1967 Cohen asked Harrison if he would take over as editor of both magazines . Harrison was available because SF Impulse , which he had been editing , had ceased publication in early 1967 . Cohen agreed to phase out the reprints by the end of the year , and Harrison took the job . Cohen added Harrison 's name to the masthead of two issues of Great Science Fiction , although Harrison had had nothing to do with that magazine , but the reprints in Fantastic and Amazing continued and Harrison decided to quit in February 1968 . He recommended Barry Malzberg as his replacement . Cohen had worked with Malzberg at the Scott Meredith Literary Agency , and felt Malzberg would be more cooperative than Harrison . Malzberg , however , turned out to be just as unwilling as Harrison to work with Cohen if the reprints continued , and soon regretted taking the job . In October 1968 Cohen refused to pay for a cover that Malzberg had commissioned ; Malzberg insisted , threatening to resign if Cohen did not agree . Cohen contacted Robert Silverberg , then the president of SFWA , and told him ( falsely ) that Malzberg had actually resigned . Silverberg recommended Ted White as a replacement . Cohen secured White 's agreement and then fired Malzberg ; White took over in October 1968 , but because there was a backlog of stories Malzberg had acquired , the first issue on which he was credited as editor was the June 1969 issue .
= = = 1970s to Present = = =
Like his immediate predecessors , White took the job on condition that the reprints would be phased out . It was some time before this was achieved : there was at least one reprinted story in every issue until the end of 1971 . The February 1972 issue contained some artwork reprinted from 1939 , and after that the reprints ceased .
Fantastic 's circulation was about 37 @,@ 000 when White took over ; only about 4 percent of this was subscription sales . Cohen 's wife filled the subscriptions from their garage , and according to White , Cohen regarded this as a burden , and never tried to increase the subscription base . Despite White 's efforts , Fantastic 's circulation fell , from almost 37 @,@ 000 when he took over as editor to less than 24 @,@ 000 in the summer of 1975 . Cohen was rumored to be interested in selling both Fantastic and Amazing ; among other possibilities , both Roger Elwood , at that time an active science fiction anthology editor , and Edward Ferman , the editor of The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction , approached Cohen with a view to acquiring the titles . Nothing came of it , however , and White was not aware of the possible sales . He was working at a low salary , with unpaid help from friends to read unsolicited submissions — at one point he introduced a 25 @-@ cent reading fee for manuscripts from unpublished writers ; the fee would be refunded if White bought the story . White sometimes found himself at odds with Cohen 's business partner , Arthur Bernhard , due to their different political views . White 's unhappiness with his working conditions culminated in his resignation after Cohen refused his proposal to publish Fantastic as a slick magazine , with larger pages and higher quality paper . White commented in an article in Science Fiction Review that he had brought to the magazines " a lot of energy and enthusiasm and a great many ideas for their improvement ... Well , I have put into effect nearly every idea which I was allowed to follow through on ... and have spent most of my energy and enthusiasm . " Cohen was able to persuade him to stay for another year ; in the event White stayed for another three .
White was unable to completely halt the slide in circulation , though it rose a little in 1977 . That year Cohen lost $ 15 @,@ 000 dollars on the magazines , and decided to sell . He spent some time looking for a new publisher — editor Roy Torgeson was one of those interested — but on September 15 , 1978 , he sold his half of the business to Arthur Bernhard , his partner . White renewed his suggestions for improving the format of the magazine : he wanted to make Fantastic the same size as Time , and believed he could avoid the mistakes that had been made by other sf magazines that had tried that approach . White also proposed an increase in the budget and asked for a raise . Bernhard not only turned down White 's ideas , but also stopped paying him : White responded by resigning . His last official day as editor was November 9 ; the last issue of Fantastic under his control was the January 1979 issue . He returned all submissions to their authors , saying that he had been told to do so by Bernhard ; Bernhard denied this .
Bernhard brought in Elinor Mavor to edit both Amazing and Fantastic . Mavor had previously edited Bill of Fare , a restaurant trade journal , and was a long @-@ time science fiction reader , but she had little knowledge of the history of the magazines . She was unaware , for example , that she was not the first woman to edit them , and so adopted a male pseudonym — " Omar Gohagen " — for a while . She suggested a campaign to increase circulation , and went so far as to gather information about costs while on a trip to New York in 1979 . Bernhard decided instead to merge the two magazines . Circulation was continuing to drop ; the figures for the last two years are not available , but sf historian Mike Ashley estimates that Fantastic paid circulation may have been as low as 13 @,@ 000 . Bernhard felt that since Fantastic had never been profitable , whereas Amazing had made money , it was best to keep Amazing . Until the March 1985 issue , Amazing included a mention of Fantastic on the spine and on the contents page . In 1999 , the fiction magazine formerly known as Pirate Writings revived the Fantastic title and Cele Goldsmith @-@ era logotype for several issues , ultimately unsuccessfully , though this was not intended as a continuation of the original magazine .
In August 2014 , Warren Lapine , former editor of Absolute Magnitude , Realms of Fantasy , and Weird Tales , revived the Fantastic logotype of Fantastic Stories of the Imagination as a free webzine .
= = Contents and reception = =
= = = Browne and Fairman = = =
The first issue of Fantastic was impressive , with a cover that sf historian Mike Ashley has described as " one of the most captivating of all first issues " ; the painting , by Barye Phillips and Leo Summers , illustrated Kris Neville 's " The Opal Necklace " . The fiction included some stories by well known names ; in particular , Raymond Chandler 's " Professor Bingo 's Snuff " would have caught readers ' eyes — the story had appeared the year before in Park East magazine , but would have been new to most readers . It was a short mystery in which the fantasy element was invisibility , achieved by magical snuff . Isaac Asimov and Ray Bradbury also contributed stories , and the issue led with " Six and Ten Are Johnny " , by Walter M. Miller . The rear cover reprinted Pierre Roy 's painting " Danger on the Stairs " , which depicted a snake on a staircase ; it was an odd choice , but subsequent back covers were more natural fits for a fantasy magazine . The quality of the fiction continued to be high for the first year ; sf historian Mike Ashley comments that almost every story in the first seven issues was of high quality , and historian David Kyle regards it as an " outstandingly successful experiment " . Science fiction bibliographer Donald Tuck dissents , however , regarding the first few years as containing " little of note " , and James Blish wrote a contemporary review of the second issue which found it lacking : Blish dismissed three of the seven stories in the Fall 1952 issue as being essentially crime stories written for the sf market , and commented that of the remaining four , only two were " reasonably competent and craftsmanlike " .
Other well @-@ known writers appeared in the early issues , including Shirley Jackson , B. Traven , Truman Capote and Evelyn Waugh . Mickey Spillane had written a story called " The Woman With Green Skin " , but had been unable to sell it ; Browne offered to buy it on condition that he had permission to rewrite it as he wished . This was agreed and Browne scrapped Spillane 's text completely , writing a new story called " The Veiled Woman " and publishing it as by Spillane in the November – December 1952 issue . The issue sold so well it was reprinted , with over 300 @,@ 000 copies sold .
The emphasis was on fantasy , and much of it was " slick " fantasy — the sort of genre fiction that the upmarket slick magazines , such as The Saturday Evening Post , were willing to buy . Some science fiction appeared as well in the first couple of years , including Isaac Asimov 's " Sally " , which portrays a world in which cars have been given robotic brains and are intelligent . In 1955 it was decided to move the focus from fantasy to sf : in Browne 's words , " Stories of straight fantasy were largely eliminated and straight science @-@ fiction substituted , cover subject matter became of a scientific nature , the words " science fiction " appeared under the title , interior artwork was tightened up to replace the loose , ' arty ' kind of drawing we had been using . " Sales rose 17 % within two issues . Browne was uninterested in science fiction , however , and the quality of the fiction soon dropped , with a small stable of writers producing much of Fantastic 's fiction under house names over the next couple of years . By the start of 1956 the fiction in Fantastic was , in the opinion of sf historian Mike Ashley , " [ in ] a trough of hack predictability " , but there was some inventiveness evident from newer writers such as Robert Silverberg , Harlan Ellison and Randall Garrett .
Although Browne had been unable to make Fantastic successful by specializing in fantasy , he was still interested in the fantasy genre , and experimented in the December 1955 issue with the theme of wish fulfilment . He dropped the words " Science Fiction " from the cover , and published five stories , all of which dealt with male fantasies in one form or another . The cover showed a man walking through a wall to find a woman undressing ; the art was by Ed Valigursky and illustrated Paul Fairman 's " All Walls Were Mist " . Reader reaction , according to Browne , was almost entirely favorable , and he continued to publish occasional stories on the wish @-@ fulfilment theme . The experiment was repeated with the October 1956 issue , which again ran without " Science Fiction " on the cover , and contained stories on the theme of " Incredible Powers " . Once again the cover illustrated a male fantasy : this time it showed a man materializing in a bath house where women were showering . Browne had left Ziff @-@ Davis by the time this issue appeared , but Browne 's plans for a magazine around these themes were well advanced , and Fairman , who by this time was editing both Fantastic and Amazing , was given Dream World to edit as well . It ran for three quarterly issues , starting in February 1957 , but proved too narrow a market to succeed .
Fairman devoted the July 1958 issue of Fantastic to the Shaver Mystery — a lurid set of beliefs propounded by Richard Shaver in the late 1940s that told of " detrimental robots " , or " deros " , who were behind many of the disasters that befell humanity . Most of these stories had run in Amazing , though the editor at that time , Ray Palmer , had been forced to drop Shaver by Ziff @-@ Davis when the stories began to attract ridicule in the press . Fantastic 's readers were no kinder , complaining vigorously .
= = = Goldsmith = = =
When Goldsmith took over as editor , there was some concern at Ziff @-@ Davis that she might not be able to handle the job . A consultant , Norman Lobsenz , was brought in to help her ; Lobsenz 's title was " editorial director " , but in fact Goldsmith made the story selections . Lobsenz provided blurbs and editorials , read the stories Goldsmith bought , and met with Goldsmith every week or so . Goldsmith was not a long @-@ time sf reader , and knew little about the field ; she simply looked for good quality fiction and bought what she liked . In Mike Ashley 's words , " the result , between 1961 and 1964 , was the two most exciting and original magazines in the field " . New writers whose first story appeared in Fantastic during this period included Phyllis Gotlieb , Larry Eisenberg , Ursula K. Le Guin , Thomas M. Disch , and Piers Anthony . The November 1959 issue was dedicated to Fritz Leiber ; it included " Lean Times in Lankhmar " , one of Leiber 's Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser stories . Goldsmith published another half @-@ dozen stories in the series over the next six years , along with other similar ( and sometimes imitative ) fiction such as early work by Michael Moorcock , and John Jakes ' early stories of Brak the Barbarian . This helped to invigorate the nascent sword and sorcery subgenre . Goldsmith obtained an early story by Cordwainer Smith , " The Fife of Bodidharma " , which ran in the June 1959 issue , but shortly thereafter Pohl at Galaxy reached an agreement to get first refusal on all Smith 's work .
During the early 1960s Goldsmith managed to make Fantastic and Amazing , in the words of Mike Ashley , " the best @-@ looking and brightest " magazines around . This applied both to the covers , where Goldsmith used artists such as Alex Schomburg and Leo Summers , and the content . Ashley also describes Fantastic as the " premier fantasy magazine " during Goldsmith 's tenure — at that time the only other magazine focused specifically on fantasy fiction was the British Science Fantasy .
Goldsmith 's tastes were too diverse for Fantastic to be limited to genre fantasy , however , and her willingness to buy fiction she liked , regardless of genre expectations , allowed many new writers to flourish on the pages of both Amazing and Fantastic . Writers such as Ursula K. Le Guin , Roger Zelazny and Thomas M. Disch sold regularly to her at the start of their careers Le Guin later commented that Goldsmith was " as enterprising and perceptive an editor as the science fiction magazines ever had " . Not all Goldsmith 's choices were universally popular with the magazine 's subscribers : she regularly published fiction by David R. Bunch , for example , to mixed reviews from the readership .
= = = Reprint era = = =
Wrzos persuaded Cohen that both Amazing and Fantastic should carry a new story in every issue , rather than running nothing but reprints ; Goldsmith had left a backlog of unpublished stories , and Wrzos was able to stretch these out for some time . One such story was Fritz Leiber 's " Stardock " , another Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story , which appeared in the September 1965 issue ; it was subsequently nominated for a Hugo Award . The reprints were well received by the fans , because Wrzos was able to find good quality stories that were unavailable except in the original magazines , meaning that to many of Fantastic 's readers they were fresh material . Wrzos also reprinted " The People of the Black Circle " , a Robert E. Howard story from Weird Tales , in 1967 , when Howard 's Conan stories were becoming popular .
In addition to the backlog of new stories from the Ziff @-@ Davis era , Wrzos was able to acquire some new material . He was especially glad to acquire " For a Breath I Tarry " , by Roger Zelazny ; however , he had to wait for Cohen 's approval for his acquisitions . Cohen , perhaps uncertain because of the story 's originality , delayed until it appeared in the British magazine New Worlds before agreeing to publish it . Wrzos commented years later that he would " never forgive him [ Cohen ] his timidity at that time " . Wrzos bought Doris Piserchia 's first story , " Rocket to Gehenna " , and was the first editor to acquire a story by Dean Koontz . He had to work with Koontz to improve it , and the delay this caused , in addition to the slow publishing schedule for new material , meant that Koontz appeared in print with " Soft Come the Dragons " , in the August 1967 Fantasy & Science Fiction , before " A Darkness in My Soul " appeared in the January 1968 Fantastic .
After Wrzos 's departure , Harrison and Malzberg had little opportunity to reshape the magazine as between them they only took responsibility for a handful of issues before Ted White took over . However , Harrison did print James Tiptree 's first sale , " Fault " , in the August 1968 issue ; again the slow schedule meant that this was not Tiptree 's first appearance in print . Harrison added a science column by Leon Stover , but was unable to change Cohen 's position on the reprints , and so could not print much new fiction . When Malzberg took over from Harrison he published John Sladek , Thomas M. Disch , and James Sallis , all of whom were associated with New Wave science fiction , but his tenure was too short for him to have a significant impact on the magazine .
= = = White and Mavor = = =
White was only able to offer his writers one cent per word , which was substantially lower than the leading magazines in the field — Analog Science Fiction and Fact paid five cents , and Galaxy and Fantasy & Science Fiction paid three . Most stories would only be submitted to White once the higher @-@ paying markets had rejected them , but among the rejects White was sometimes able to find experimental material that he liked . For example , Piers Anthony had been unable to sell an early fantasy novel , Hasan ; White saw a review of the manuscript and promptly acquired it for Fantastic , where it was serialized starting in the December 1969 issue . White also took care to establish relationships with newer writers . White bought Gordon Eklund 's first story , " Dear Aunt Annie " , it appeared in the April 1970 issue and was nominated for a Nebula award . Eklund was unwilling to become a full @-@ time writer , despite this success , because of the financial risks , so White agreed to buy anything Eklund wrote , on condition that Eklund himself believed it was a good story . The result was that much of Eklund 's fiction appeared in Amazing and Fantastic over the next few years . In addition to experimental work , White was able to obtain material by some of the leading sf writers of the day , including Brian Aldiss and John Brunner . White also acquired some early work by writers who became better known in other fields : Roger Ebert sold two stories in the early 1970s to Fantastic ; the first , " After the Last Mass " , appeared in the February 1972 issue ; and in 1975 White bought Ian McEwan 's second story , " Solid Geometry " . It was included in First Love , Last Rites , McEwan 's first short story collection , which won the Somerset Maugham Award in 1976 .
White had been an active science fiction fan before he became professionally involved in the field , and although he estimated that only 1 in 30 readers were active sf fans , he tried to use this fan base to help by urging the readership to give him feedback and to help with distribution by checking local newsstands for the magazines . White wanted to introduce established artists from outside the sf field , such as Jeff Jones , Vaughn Bodé , and Steve Hickman ; however , the company was saddled with cheap artwork acquired from European magazines to be used for the cover and he was instructed to make use of them . He commissioned a comic strip from Vaughn Bodé , but was outbid by Judy @-@ Lynn Benjamin at Galaxy ; he subsequently told his readers that he 'd signed up Bodé again for interior artwork , but this never materialized . Instead a four @-@ page comic strip by Jay Kinney appeared in December 1970 ; a second strip , by Art Spiegelman , was planned , but never published . Eventually White was allowed to commission original cover art ; he published early work by Mike Hinge , and Mike Kaluta made his first professional sale to Fantastic . He tried to hire Hinge as art director , but this fell through and White filled the role himself , sometimes using the pseudonym " J. Edwards " .
Because of poor distribution , Fantastic was never able to benefit from the increasing popularity of the fantasy genre , though White was able to publish several stories by well @-@ known writers in the field , including a sword and sorcery novella by Dean R. Koontz , which appeared in the October 1970 issue , and an Elric story by Michael Moorcock in February 1972 . A revival of Robert E. Howard 's character Conan , in stories by L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter , was successful at increasing sales ; the first of these stories appeared in August 1972 , and White reported that sales of that issue were higher than for any other issue of Amazing or Fantastic that year . Each Conan story , according to White , increased sales of that issue by 10 @,@ 000 copies . White also published several of Fritz Leiber 's Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser stories , and added " Sword and Sorcery " to the cover in 1975 . In the same year a companion magazine , Sword & Sorcery Annual , was launched , but the first issue was the only one to appear .
The quality of the magazine remained high even as the financial stress was mounting in the late 1970s . White acquired cover artwork by Stephen Fabian and Douglas Beekman , and stories by some of the new generation of sf writers , such as George R. R. Martin and Charles Sheffield . White departed in November 1978 , but the first issue of Fantastic under Elinor Mavor 's editorial control was April 1979 . Because White had returned unsold stories she had very little to work with and was forced to fill the magazine with reprints . This led to renewed conflict with the sf community , which she did her best to defuse . At a convention in 1979 she met Harlan Ellison , who complained about the reprint policy ; she explained that it was temporary and was able to get him to
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agree to contribute stories , publishing two pieces by him in Amazing over the next three years . The January 1980 issue of Fantastic ( Mavor 's fourth issue ) was the last to contain reprinted stories . Once the reprints had been phased out , Mavor was able to find new writers to work with , including Brad Linaweaver and John E. Stith , both of whom sold their first stories to Fantastic . The last year of Fantastic showed " a steady improvement in content " , according to Mike Ashley , who cites in particular Daemon , a serialized graphic story , illustrated by Stephen Fabian . However , at the end of 1980 Fantastic 's independent existence ceased , and it was merged with Amazing .
= = Publication details = =
= = = Editors = = =
The list below gives the person who was acting as editor . In some cases , such as at the start of Cele Goldsmith 's stint , the official editor was not the same person ; details are given above .
Howard Browne ( Summer 1952 – August 1956 ) .
Paul Fairman ( October 1956 – November 1958 ) .
Cele Goldsmith ( December 1958 – June 1965 ) . Goldsmith used her married name , Cele G. Lalli , from July 1964 .
Joseph Ross ( September 1965 – November 1967 ) .
Harry Harrison ( January 1968 – October 1968 ) .
Barry N. Malzberg ( December 1968 – April 1969 ) .
Ted White ( June 1969 – January 1979 )
Elinor Mavor ( April 1979 – October 1980 )
= = = Other bibliographic details = = =
The title changed multiple times , and was frequently inconsistently given between the cover , spine , indicia , and masthead .
The following table shows which issues appeared from which publisher .
A British edition published by Thorpe & Porter ran for eight bimonthly issues from December 1953 to February 1955 ; the issues were not dated on the cover . These correspond to the US issues from September / October 1953 to December 1954 , and were numbered volume 1 , numbers 1 through 8 .
Fantastic was digest @-@ sized throughout its life . The page count began at 160 but dropped to 144 with the September / October 1953 issue , and then again to 128 pages with the very next issue , November / December 1953 . The July 1960 issue had 144 pages , but apart from that one issue the page count stayed at 128 until September 1965 , when it increased to 160 . In January 1968 it went back down to 144 pages , and it dropped to 128 pages from February 1971 through the end of its run . The first issue was priced at 35 cents ; thereafter the price went up as follows : 50 cents in May 1963 , 60 cents in December 1969 , 75 cents in July 1974 , $ 1 @.@ 00 in October 1975 , $ 1 @.@ 25 in April 1978 , and finally $ 1 @.@ 50 from April 1979 until the last issue .
= = = Derivative anthologies = = =
Three anthologies of stories from Fantastic have been published . Note that Time Untamed contains stories that were published in Fantastic during its reprint years , but which did not necessarily first appear there .
= Mountain of Madness =
" Mountain of Madness " is the twelfth episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 2 , 1997 . In the episode , Mr. Burns tries to encourage more cooperation among his employees and forces the workers of Springfield Nuclear Power Plant to go for a team @-@ building hike in the mountains . Burns and Homer are paired together and trapped in a cabin that gets buried by multiple avalanches .
" Mountain of Madness " was directed by Mark Kirkland and written by John Swartzwelder . The script underwent many rewrites and the story was completely rewritten . Several new designs and backgrounds had to be created for the wilderness scenes . The episode received mostly positive reviews .
= = Plot = =
Mr. Burns decides to hold a good old @-@ fashioned fire drill in order to excite things up around the plant . Upon hearing the bells ring , the employees panic and fail to clear the plant within 15 minutes . Outraged , Burns declares that everyone will be subjected to a teamwork competition at Mt . Useful . Homer brings his family to the mountain , not realizing it was only for employees , so he leaves them in the visitor center . Homer ends up being partnered with Burns while Smithers has to journey on his own , fuming that he was not paired with his boss . The object of this competition is to reach a cabin at the top of the mountain ; the last team to arrive will be fired .
Along the way , Burns talks Homer into cheating and they use a snowmobile ( which Burns refers to as a " horseless sleigh " ) to reach the cabin . Arriving several hours early , they settle down in the comfortable surroundings . Burns and Homer quickly become friends . However , while clinking their champagne glasses , they inadvertently cause an avalanche that buries the entire cabin . Despite Burns 's attempt to operate a telegraph machine or Homer 's attempt to dig a tunnel through the snow , they remain trapped . The pair attempt further tunneling escapes , but each time they speak , they cause more avalanches that place even more snow between them and freedom . Meanwhile , Bart and Lisa meet Smithers and offer to help him proceed to the cabin , though they cause more stalling than helping .
Back in the cabin , Burns and Homer are beset by cabin fever . They build snowmen to pass the time ( though Burns insists they build real men out of snow ) and clothe them at the expense of their own warmth . The other employees reach what appears to be their destination ; however , it is actually a ranger station and they begin to realize that something bad has happened to their colleagues . In the cabin , Homer and Burns stare at each other 's eyes , filling their minds with paranoia . They are both driven mad and attempt to kill each other . After a vicious struggle , Burns ignites the cabin 's propane tank , launching the building out of the snow and propelling it toward the horrified onlookers . Once it comes to a halt , Mr. Burns reminds everyone of the contest , and all the workers hurry inside .
Lenny is the last person in the cabin , and is told he is fired . Burns is informed the completion time of the competition has set a new record , and then decides that no one will be fired after all ( although Lenny , who is outside and falls into a crevasse , does not know that ) . The episode ends with Mr. Burns and Homer alternately laughing and glaring at each other .
= = Production = =
" Mountain of Madness " was written by John Swartzwelder , although the script underwent many rewrites . According to Josh Weinstein , " a Swartzwelder script is like a finely tooled crazy German machine and if you have the wrong engineers try to fix it , it blows up . And that 's the thing , ' cause it had great jokes but we sort of changed the story and went through a bunch of drafts . " The story was completely rewritten and as a result , the plot became odder and quirkier with the scenes of paranoia deriving from this . The original script was " really crazy " but a lot of the more insane material was cut . However , most of the rewrites were done during the script @-@ writing and did not require any major animation changes . One change was the ending , which was added after the animatic . The episode features several pairings of established characters who had previously interacted little , such as Smithers with Bart and Lisa . Weinstein feels that this was one of the first episodes to really feature the duo of Lenny Leonard and Carl Carlson and developed them more .
The episode was directed by Mark Kirkland and a lot of new designs and backgrounds had to be created for the wilderness scenes . The backgrounds were designed by animator Debbie Silver . The design of the forest ranger was based on then @-@ Vice President Al Gore . In the episode , Marge watches an old film which includes a comment from naturalist John Muir . The impression of Muir was done by Dan Castellaneta , who originally based the voice on an impersonator he met at Yosemite National Park . However , the producers asked him to make the voice older and crazier .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Mountain of Madness " finished 38 in ratings for the week of February 2 – 9 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 5 million viewing households . It was the second @-@ highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following King of the Hill . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it " an inventive episode , with several memorable moments " . Tim Raynor of DVDTown.com said there are some " good , sidesplitting moments to say the least for this witty episode " . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson called the episode " a good show " and praised it for the " snowy setting [ that ] allows the other characters to expand as well " .
= Descent : FreeSpace – The Great War =
Descent : FreeSpace – The Great War is a 1998 space combat simulation IBM PC compatible computer game developed by Volition , Inc. when it was split off from Parallax Software . Published by Interplay Entertainment , it is also known as Conflict : FreeSpace – The Great War in Europe . In 2001 , it was ported to the Amiga platform as FreeSpace : The Great War by Hyperion Entertainment .
The story places the player in the role of a human pilot in the Galactic Terran Alliance , as it engages in war with the alien Parliamentary Vasudan Empire . This war is interrupted by the appearance of the enigmatic and militant Shivans , who begin slaughtering Terrans and Vasudans alike . Putting aside their differences , the Terrans and Vasudans form an alliance , and the player is assigned to missions to stop the Shivans ' genocidal advance . The player pilots a starfighter , and alongside competent AI wingmen , completes these missions to determine the fate of two races . Important battles in the story feature capital ships , which dwarf the fighters piloted by the player , and explode spectacularly when destroyed .
Descent : FreeSpace was well received as a single @-@ player space simulation that integrated all the desired features of its genre , but its multiplayer mode was plagued by lag and inaccurate tracking of statistics . Its expansion , Silent Threat , which comprised additional missions , was also released in 1998 . Its sequel , FreeSpace 2 , was released to critical acclaim a year later in 1999 .
= = Gameplay = =
Descent : FreeSpace – The Great War puts the player in a starfighter flying out on missions to investigate , protect , or destroy certain targets . Some have categorized it as a flight simulator , since it has more controls and commands than a typical arcade game . However , its flight model is simple , akin to that of the game TIE Fighter , though it incorporates some elements of Newtonian physics such as precise collision physics . In the single @-@ player mode , the player flies through a series of missions in a campaign .
Before flying a mission , the player goes through a briefing , which details relevant information and objectives . Ships and weapons are selected following the briefing , adding an element of strategy to the missions . When flying , the game 's perspective is a first @-@ person view from within the cockpit , but the only visible interface is that of the head @-@ up display ( HUD ) . The player can customize the HUD by changing its color , or by toggling the information displays .
Missions must be successfully completed for the campaign to advance . However , not all objectives must be met for a mission to be considered successful . Results of a mission can affect later missions ; for example , an enemy capital ship allowed to flee in a particular mission may return in a later mission . Completed missions can be replayed on the in @-@ game mission simulator . Training missions are mixed in with the regular missions ( and can be skipped ) , gradually introducing players to advanced commands and techniques as the missions become more sophisticated . The game has been said to be easily playable with the keyboard alone , or together with a mouse or joystick .
The game features multiplayer matches online or over a local area network ( LAN ) . Players can either band together to complete cooperative missions , or split up into teams to battle against one another . Voice chat is available , although reviewers advised it to be used only on broadband or LAN . Online gameplay was free over the services offered by Parallax Online , which also kept track of players ' statistics and rankings .
= = Setting = =
FreeSpace takes place in the 24th century when humanity has discovered interstellar travel by using interstellar subspace jump nodes which function the same way as wormholes , and have spread among the stars as the Galactic Terran Alliance ( GTA ) . The player character , a pilot in the GTA navy , is thrust into the game during the fourteenth year of war ( 2335 ) between the GTA and the alien Parliamentary Vasudan Empire ( PVE ) .
= = Plot = =
The story begins in 2335 , 14 years after the start of the Terran – Vasudan war . A lone GTA pilot , Lt. Ash , calls out for aid while being chased by ships belonging to an unknown race of aliens , who attacked both the GTA and PVE without warning , yet despite his best efforts to alert anyone in the GTA , the unknown ships jump in and promptly destroy his fighter and the nearby GTA space station , Riviera .
GTA command tries to cover up the incident as nothing more than an unsubstantiated rumor , as the player character is assigned as a fighter pilot to the Terran Orion @-@ class destroyer Galatea . The player is tasked with engaging Vasudan forces in the contested Antares , Ribos , Beta Cygni and Betelgeuse systems . During these engagements between the GTA and PVE , the prototype of the Terran " Avenger " cannon is stolen by a rogue Terran officer , Lt. Alexander McCarthy , who promptly attempts to defect to the Vasudans . The player subdues McCarthy but as they attempt to return the prototypes to the GTA , the same unknown ships attack again . The unknowns ' attacks intensify and with their energy shielding technology making their fighters virtually invincible , the GTA and PVE are forced into a ceasefire , as the two sides attempt to reverse @-@ engineer the shield technology for their own purposes as well as adapting their pre @-@ existing weapons to be more effective against the shields .
This new species is dubbed " Shivans " , and the GTA has squadrons embark on several missions , alongside the Vasudans as allies , to catch up with the Shivans ' technological superiority by capturing Shivan supply depots , acquiring Shivan shield generator technology in the process , while fending off a Vasudan death cult , the Hammer of Light , who worship the Shivans and refuses to accept the peace between the GTA and PVE . During operations , the GTA @-@ PVE alliance manage to capture a Shivan cruiser , the SC Taranis . But its capture is only celebrated for a short time , as a Shivan warship , a super @-@ destroyer dubbed the Lucifer , suddenly appears , destroying the captured Taranis and many other allied ships , while spearheading an invasion into the Vasudan systems and Terran outer colonies . To the shock of the alliance , they find that the Lucifer utilizes a powerful shield that makes it immune to all conventional weaponry . While continuing to do what is possible to stop the Shivans and eliminate the Hammer of Light , a Shivan fighter , dubbed a Dragon , is captured , and used to scan vessels entering a Vasudan controlled system , providing much intel on the super @-@ destroyer . Yet despite all efforts , the GTA fail to stop the Lucifer 's journey to the Vasudan 's homeworld , losing the GTD Galatea in the process . The Lucifer enters the Vasudan home system and soon bombards the species ' homeworld into oblivion , killing 4 billion Vasudans .
However a small Vasudan refugee fleet that managed to escape , sends out a transmission revealing that they were forced to land on an uncharted planet in the Altair system where they had discover the remnants of an extinct alien civilization dubbed " the Ancients " which were destroyed by the Shivans long ago ; their backstory is told through cutscenes at various points in the game . The Vasudans discover that the Ancients knew how to penetrate the Lucifer 's shields as well as how to track ships travelling through subspace . Learning that shield systems do not work in subspace , but that the Ancients could not capitalize on this and were wiped out , the GTA and PVE launch a desperate assault on the Lucifer .
As the Lucifer begins heading for Earth through a jump node between the Sol and Delta Serpentis systems , squadrons of fighters and bombers follow it into subspace and manage to destroy the super @-@ destroyer while its shields are offline , by hitting its reactors . While the plan works , the destruction of the Lucifer in the jump node causes it to collapse , along with the other jump nodes in the system , cutting Sol off from the rest of the Terran colonies .
The expansion Silent Threat continues the story in a straightforward manner . The player joins the Galactic Terran Intelligence ( GTI ) while the Terran – Vasudan alliance is in a fragile state , and is told to preserve the alliance by ruthlessly pacifying rebellious elements and fending off remnants of the Shivan forces . However , it all turns out to be a cover @-@ up , as the GTI is plotting a coup , and has constructed a Terran – Shivan hybrid superdestroyer of their own , the GTD Hades , which the player must destroy .
= = Development = =
FreeSpace was Volition 's first project after the split from Parallax Software , which also spawned Outrage Entertainment . It is not part of the canon of the Descent computer game series , and contained none of its ideas and only small portions of its code . It was only prefixed with Descent to avoid trademark issues with Mijenix Corporation 's " FreeSpace " , a disk compression utility . Volition also used the term " FreeSpace " in the game to initially describe what became later known as subspace . The game was conceived by Adam Pletcher , with all the features of space simulator games his team had found to be fun . The games TIE Fighter and Wing Commander were their primary inspirations , and those influences made their way into the game 's flight model , along with the influence of historical WWII dogfights . Themes from the fiction of Star Wars , Space : Above and Beyond , and Ender 's Game form a part in shaping the background and story of the FreeSpace world . The chaotic battles between masses of ships commonly found in science @-@ fiction anime became one of the features of FreeSpace .
Begun with a crew of five , the project grew to a staff of 17 . The game 's code was built from scratch . Most of the software modules were interlinked with each other , increasing the job 's complexity and difficulty . The code incorporated small portions of Descent 's code for specific functions . Kulas , who had worked on several versions of Flight Simulator and Descent , brought his experience into the game 's artificial intelligence ( AI ) . The game 's difficulty levels are based on advancing the enemy AI , rather than simply increasing damage and " hit points " of enemies . Some realism was incorporated into the game 's physics , such that an impact on one part of a starfighter 's body will send it spinning appropriately , unlike sphere @-@ based collision detection , in which an impact would simply ' push ' the starfighter in a particular direction . Due to time and budget constraints , many of the initially planned cutscenes and stories were cut from the final product . Examples of such cuts include a campaign path where the Terran @-@ Vasudan alliance goes on a retreat , and scenes of racial tension within the alliance . Despite the promise of a deathmatch mode for multiplayer , it was cut from the final product . The expansion Silent Threat also suffered the same fate of cuts due to budgetary and time concerns .
Apogee Software announced on December 12 , 1997 that they would be exclusively publishing FreeSpace for the first three months before handing the publishing rights back to Interplay Entertainment . This was part of their agreement with Interplay for the latter 's purchase of the rights to Descent , and Apogee decided to release FreeSpace as shareware , with themselves as the merchant of the registered version . Interplay , however , bought the full rights to FreeSpace from Apogee in late April , 1998 , keeping the ownership of the game solely to themselves .
Volition aimed for a quality release , and promised to deliver a product without major bugs . Minor bugs would be fixed in a prompt manner . The shipped game , however , had deficiencies admitted by the team , such as problems with the multiplayer code , and a few design issues . The game underwent four patches , which resolved most of the bugs , and improved the multiplayer performance . Complaints about an online mission giving unfair scores led to Volition removing the mission from scoring play . Another patch allowed EAX capability to be enabled for Creative Sound Blaster sound cards . Interplay played its part in drumming up the community 's interest by holding contests , and expanding material for the FreeSpace universe . Meanwhile , Volition created official star maps , and released Vasudan voice clips and story development notes . Interplay hired science @-@ fiction writers such as Fred Saberhagen , Simon Hawke , and Jeff Grubb to write weekly FreeSpace stories for two months . Preparing for Silent Threat 's release , Interplay held a contest from July 28 to August 25 , 1998 , in which the submitted fan @-@ designed missions could win their authors prizes such as free copies of Silent Threat , FreeSpace apparel , and gaming hardware . Entries were judged by a panel from PC Gamer , and qualified entries constituted half of the missions in Silent Threat .
On December 14 , 1999 , Hyperion Entertainment announced their acquisition of the license to port FreeSpace to the Amiga system . The publisher was changed to Haage & Partner Computer on October 18 , 2001 . Despite the game 's official release being announced for December 2001 , the approval to do so could only be gotten on January 7 , 2002 . The game was shipped without a printed manual , but had additional German and French language support . Hyperion had stated they would port over Silent Threat if the FreeSpace port sold well . To date , Silent Threat has yet to be ported over to the Amiga platform .
= = Reception = =
FreeSpace — which was placed 20th in PC Gamer UK 's 1999 Top 100 Awards — was frequently compared to Wing Commander : Prophecy and X @-@ Wing vs. TIE Fighter in its reviews , and stood up well against them . It has been said to be a combination of the two games , possessing the better qualities of each ; the plot is fairly epic , but the player is still just a pilot caught up in it all , fighting amongst fleets of starships . As the game took inspiration from space simulation classics and offered comparatively little of its own innovation , it was called unoriginal by a few reviewers .
Most reviewers glossed over the game 's story , but a few found it lacking the depth needed to captivate the player . Some suggested that the game would have been better if the player had a greater role in controlling the outcome of the story . Without this impetus , these reviewers found themselves simply playing a " very sweet looking arcade title " , and felt detached from their wingmen and environment . This feeling was made worse in Silent Threat with its " cold and inhuman " briefings and non @-@ player characters .
Several reviewers praised FreeSpace 's graphics , claiming asteroids are realistically rendered against softly glowing nebulae , while galaxies and stars of varying colors lay in the background . Others felt differently , stating the 3D effects were less spectacular than those of the software rendered version , the nebulae were unconvincing , and the ships ' textures were blurry and lacking detail . However , reviewers unanimously agreed the explosions in FreeSpace were the most spectacular they had ever seen , and were impressed with the many small details of capital ships breaking up . Sharky Extreme was dismayed by the game 's inability to go beyond 640x480 screen size . The game 's AI also received praise from reviewers , as the player 's wingmen were competent on their own and could be trusted with orders , even to the extent of co @-@ ordinating attacks on capital ships . Likewise , the player 's enemies acted in concert with each other to achieve their squadron 's objectives .
Despite one reviewer 's glowing praise for the FreeSpace 's online multiplayer over cable modems , the majority at that time were on dial @-@ up access and roundly condemned the online multiplayer mode . The chief complaint was lag . GameSpot 's Desslock was amazed the game dared to advertise as being able to support 16 players online when it could not even support two players on 56k modems . Combatsim.com 's Fitzgerald called the multiplayer " bug ridden " after experiencing many of his shots not registering hits or kills on enemy ships after over 40 minutes of play ; all of it due to lag . Other reviewers found their situations similar with their guns only firing seconds after depressing the trigger , and their ships randomly jumping over the playing area .
Silent Threat was judged to be a decent but uninspired add @-@ on . The campaign missions were either standard escort or destroy missions , and offered no new equipment which were unable to compete against the older equipment . The stand @-@ alone missions , however , were toasted for the way they were conceived . The contest @-@ winning entries gave breadth to the game 's variety of missions . This was made possible with the free editor FreeSpace Editor , or FRED for short . With the ability to import personal audio and 3D animation files , the editor allows users the same capability as Volition to create their own missions . The possibilities offered by the editor resulted in a call to the community to stop the flood of " Battle of Endor " -type missions , and to design missions following Volition 's Jason Hoffoss ' Zen philosophy of accomplishing more with less .
= = See Also = =
Freespace 2
= Ontario Highway 72 =
King 's Highway 72 , commonly referred to as Highway 72 , is a provincially maintained highway in the northern half of the Canadian province of Ontario . The highway connects Highway 17 in Dinorwic with the town of Sioux Lookout , where there are connections with Highway 516 towards Savant Lake and Highway 642 towards Silver Dollar .
Highway 72 was built as a trunk route by 1920 , and became a provincial highway in 1937 . It has remained largely unchanged since then , aside from the reconstruction and realignment of the Frog Rapids bridge , and the renumbering of the fork towards Hudson as Highway 664 . The length of the highway is 68 @.@ 5 km ( 42 @.@ 6 mi ) , the entirety of which is situated in Kenora District . There are no significant settlements between its endpoints .
= = Route description = =
Highway 72 is a 68 @.@ 5 km ( 42 @.@ 6 mi ) route which serves to connect Sioux Lookout with the Trans @-@ Canada Highway . The route begins at Highway 17 , on the western edge of Dinorwic . From there it follows an old routing of Highway 17 along the northern edge of the village , but eventually turns to the north into the wilderness . Between this point and south of the Frog Rapids Narrows , where Highway 664 intersects the route , the highways passes through a remote forested region dotted with lakes and muskeg ; there is almost no human habitation . After crossing the Frog Rapids Narrows , the highway enters Sioux Lookout . It zig @-@ zags through the town , crossing the old Grand Trunk Railroad , now a Canadian National Railway line , next to a large rail depot . It exits Sioux Narrows , ending at an intersection with the Ed Arlano Bypass , Highway 516 and Highway 642 just east of the town .
= = History = =
Sioux Lookout and Hudson were both originally accessible only by rail and water when they were established as stops on the Grand Trunk Railway shortly after 1900 ; roads would not reach the remote area until 1920 . The road connecting Sioux Lookout and Hudson with the Ignace – Dryden Road was initially under the upkeep of the Department of Northern Development . On April 1 , 1937 , that department was merged into the Department of Highways ( DHO ) , after which the provincial highway network was expanded into northern Ontario .
Shortly after the merger , the DHO began to assume highways throughout northern Ontario . On October 6 , 1937 , Highway 72 was established , connecting Highway 17 with both Sioux Lookout and Hudson . On the 1938 – 39 Official Ontario Road Map , the distance from Dinorwic to Sioux Lookout is listed as 48 @.@ 0 miles ( 77 @.@ 2 km ) , and from Dinorwic to Hudson as 53 @.@ 0 miles ( 85 @.@ 3 km ) . This routing remained in place until at least 1953 . By 1954 , however , the branch leading to Hudson was renumbered as Highway 116 . Highway 72 has , aside from minor realignments , remained unchanged since then .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 72 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . The entire route is located in Kenora District .
= Croatia – Serbia border dispute =
The Croatia – Serbia border dispute refers to differing views held by Croatia and Serbia regarding their border in the area of the Danube River . While Serbia holds the opinion that the thalweg of the Danube valley and the centerline of the river represents the international border between the two countries , Croatia disagrees and claims that the international border lies along the boundaries of the cadastral municipalities located along the river — departing from the course at several points along a 140 @-@ kilometre ( 87 mi ) section . The cadastre @-@ based boundary reflects the course of the Danube which existed in the 19th century , before meandering and hydraulic engineering works altered its course . The area size of the territory in dispute is reported variously , up to 140 square kilometres ( 54 square miles ) .
The dispute first arose in 1947 , but was left unresolved during the existence of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . It became a contentious issue after the breakup of Yugoslavia . Particular prominence was given to the dispute at the time of Croatia 's accession to the European Union . As of September 2014 the dispute remains unresolved , and the line of control mostly corresponds to Serbia 's claim .
= = Territorial claims = =
The Croatia – Serbia border dispute entails competing claims regarding the border at several points along the Danube River valley shared by the two countries . The disputed areas are located along a 140 @-@ kilometre ( 87 mi ) portion of the course , out of 188 @-@ kilometre ( 117 mi ) of the river course in the area . In that area , the border is defined differently by the neighbouring countries — either as following the course of the Danube , as claimed by Serbia , or following a line tracing the borders of cadastral municipalities having seat in either of the two countries , as claimed by Croatia . The cadastre @-@ based boundary also traces the former riverbed of the Danube , which was changed by meandering and hydraulic engineering works in the 19th century , after the cadastre was established . The border dispute involves up to 140 square kilometres ( 54 square miles ) of territory . Other sources specify somewhat different figures , indicating a Croatian claim over 100 square kilometres ( 39 square miles ) on the eastern bank of the river , in Bačka , while saying that the cadastre @-@ based boundary leaves 10 to 30 square kilometres ( 3 @.@ 9 to 11 @.@ 6 square miles ) of territory on the western bank of the Danube , in Baranja to Serbia . Yet another estimate cites a total area of 100 square kilometres ( 39 square miles ) in dispute , 90 % of which is located on the eastern bank of the Danube , controlled by Serbia .
The bulk of the territory in dispute is in the vicinity of the town of Apatin , while the Island of Šarengrad and the Island of Vukovar are cited as particularly contentious parts of the dispute . Further disputed areas are located near the town of Bačka Palanka , and in the municipality of Sombor , at the tripoint of Croatia , Hungary and Serbia . Croatia claims that the cadastre @-@ based boundary was adopted by the Đilas Commission , set up in 1945 to determine the borders between federal constituents of Yugoslavia , while Serbia claims that the same commission identified the boundary as the course of the Danube in 1945 . In 1991 , the Arbitration Commission of the Peace Conference on Yugoslavia ruled that the border between federal units of Yugoslavia became inviolable international borders , without referring to locations of any specific claim or line . The opinion was rendered at the request of Serbia . Prior to the ruling , Serbia asserted that the borders were subject to change following the breakup of Yugoslavia and the independence of Croatia . Since the Croatian War of Independence , the line of control coincides with the Serbian claim .
On 28 July 2002 , warning shots were fired by a patrol boat of the Yugoslav Army at four boats carrying the prefect of Vukovar @-@ Srijem County and the mayors of Vukovar and Bačka Palanka , as well as several other civilians to Bačka Palanka . The incident took place approximately 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 feet ) away from Šarengrad Island . Shots were also fired at a Croatian patrol boat after it attempted to approach the vessel carrying the prefect and the mayor . There were no casualties , but the passengers and crew of the civilian boat were arrested . Four elderly individuals and four children were released immediately , while the rest were interviewed at a Yugoslav military barracks for two hours before being set free . Yugoslav foreign minister Goran Svilanović expressed regret over the incident , but Croatian Prime Minister Ivica Račan stated that Croatia was not satisfied with the gesture . The Serbian Army withdrew from the border in October 2006 , turning control over to the Serbian police .
= = = Recent developments = = =
In early 2000 , Croatia and Serbia set up a commission tasked with determining the border , but in its first ten years it convened only once or twice . Since 2010 , the issue has gained increasing prominence in the disputing countries . Plans for construction of a port in Apatin , on a piece of territory claimed by Croatia , added fuel to the dispute . After years of inactivity the inter @-@ governmental commission established to identify and determine the border between Croatia and Serbia met in Zagreb in April 2010 , only to conclude that there was a difference of opinions on the matter . Later that month , the Serbian Radical Party ( SRS ) proposed a National Assembly resolution which would require that Serbian officials resolve the dispute in compliance with the Serbian claim . Months later , Radoslav Stojanović , a former legal representative of Serbia and Montenegro in the Bosnian Genocide Case and former ambassador to the Netherlands , likened the dispute to the Croatia – Slovenia border dispute in the Gulf of Piran . Stojanović said that the position held by Croatia in its dispute with Slovenia was favourable for Serbia and warned that Serbia might be in a disadvantageous position if Croatia joined the European Union ( EU ) before Serbia — which would allow it to impose its conditions to the process of accession of Serbia to the EU .
By 2011 , Serbian diplomats made several requests to the EU , asking it to pressure Croatia to resolve the dispute before Croatia 's accession to the union out of fear that it might follow the Slovene example and stall Serbian accession similar to the impasse between Croatia and Slovenia over their border disputes and the subsequent blockade of the Croatian EU accession negotiation process . The request was denied by the EU . Croatian President Ivo Josipović said that the dispute was the most contentious issue of Croatia – Serbia relations but added that it should not be difficult to resolve . In 2012 , Josipović stated that Croatia should not block Serbia 's EU accession over the issue and suggested that the dispute should be resolved through arbitration , which is considered to be an acceptable solution by both countries . In 2014 , the Croatian ambassador to Serbia reiterated Josipović 's stance from 2012 . On the other hand , Zoran Milanović , the Prime Minister of Croatia , said that the resolution of the border dispute would be Croatia 's condition placed before Serbia in its EU accession negotiations .
= = = = Vukovar Island Agreement = = = =
In 2006 , representatives of the city of Vukovar and the municipality of Bač , located on the bank opposite Vukovar , reached an agreement on use of the Vukovar Island as a recreational facility and beach . The island is accessible to organised transport by boats sailing from Vukovar . No border controls are involved in the process . By 2012 , visits to the island reached 150 @,@ 000 persons per year .
= = = = Liberland and other claims = = = =
In 2015 , Vít Jedlička from the Czech Party of Free Citizens proclaimed the micronation Liberland on what he said is land left unclaimed by both Croatia and Serbia .
Shortly after Liberland , another micronation project , the Kingdom of Enclava , was declared , eventually claiming the second largest pocket as their territory , founded in November 2014 Principality of Ongal claimed the all others pockets . The Croatian Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs has rejected these claims , stating that the differing border claims between Serbia and Croatia do not involve terra nullius , and are not subject to occupation by a third party . However , the Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated on 24 April 2015 that while Serbia does not consider " Liberland " to be an important matter , the " new state " does not impinge upon the Serbian border , which is delineated by the Danube River .
= = Evolution of the border = =
= = = Until 1922 = = =
The evolution of the Croatia – Serbia border began in 1699 with the Treaty of Karlowitz , transferring Slavonia and a portion of Syrmia from the Ottoman Empire to the Habsburg Monarchy at the conclusion of the Great Turkish War . The rest of Syrmia was transferred to the Habsburg Monarchy through the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718 . The transferred territories were organised within the monarchy into the Kingdom of Slavonia , with its eastern border established at the Danube , and the defensive belt of Military Frontier stretching along the Sava River , governed directly from Vienna .
Subsequent territorial changes in the region included the proclamation of the short @-@ lived Serbian Vojvodina during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 , which included Syrmia as its territory . A year later Serbian Vojvodina was abolished and replaced by the crown land of the Voivodeship of Serbia and Temes Banat , which ceded Syrmia back to the Kingdom of Slavonia . In 1868 , following the Croatian – Hungarian Settlement , the Kingdom of Slavonia was incorporated into the Kingdom of Croatia @-@ Slavonia , before the Slavonian Military Frontier was fully annexed to Croatia @-@ Slavonia in 1881 . At the end of World War I in 1918 , Croatia @-@ Slavonia became a part of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( renamed Yugoslavia in 1929 ) , as did Bačka and Baranja , which were formed after the division of Hungarian Baranya and Bács @-@ Bodrog Counties along the " Clemenceau line " established through the Treaty of Trianon of 1920 . The territory of southern Baranja was ceded to the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes on the premise that it formed a natural hinterland of the city of Osijek . The territory south of the " Clemenceau line " was not distributed to any administrative divisions in existence before the whole of the country was reorganised administratively in 1922 .
= = = After 1945 = = =
The first general outline of the post @-@ 1945 borders of Croatia was made by the Anti @-@ Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia on 24 February 1945 . Some issues regarding the border , such as Baranja , were left unresolved . The newly established Autonomous Province of Vojvodina , a part of the Socialist Republic of Serbia since April 1945 , sought to establish its border with the Socialist Republic of Croatia along the Drava River , thus including Baranja , the Danube and along the Vukovar – Županja line . To counter the claims made by Vojvodina , Croatian authorities staked counterclaims in the areas of Vukovar , Vinkovci , Baranja and in the area of Sombor .
In order to settle the matter , the federal authorities set up a five @-@ member commission presided over by Milovan Đilas in June 1945 . The commission identified three sets of disputed territories . Those were the districts of Subotica , Sombor , Apatin and Odžaci in Bačka , districts of Batina and Darda in Baranja , and districts of Vukovar , Šid and Ilok in Syrmia . The districts in Bačka were awarded to Vojvodina , while those in Baranja were awarded to Croatia , both primarily along ethnic lines . The commission also noted that if Yugoslavia managed to acquire the region of Baja from Hungary , the decision regarding Bačka would be reviewed . The district of Vukovar was also awarded to Croatia , while Ilok and Šid were assigned to Vojvodina . In case of Ilok , the decision was specified to be provisional until authorities are consolidated on either side of the boundary , when the issue would be reexamined .
Subsequently , the Serbian Parliament enacted a law establishing Vojvodina 's borders . It referred to the boundary proposed by the Đilas commission explicitly noting that it was temporary . The law noted that the border follows the Danube from the Hungarian border to Ilok , crosses the Danube leaving Ilok , Šarengrad and Mohovo in Croatia then moves south and leaves the cadastral municipalities of Opatovac , Lovas , Tovarnik , Podgrađe , Apševci , Lipovac , Strošinci and Jamena in Croatia , and everything east of the line in Vojvodina . The awarding of Ilok to Croatia was a departure from the findings of Đilas commission and it was based on a referendum held in the town on the matter in 1945 or 1946 , when its population voted to be added to Croatia .
= = = Start of the dispute = = =
In 1947 , Vojvodina 's Ministry of Agriculture complained to Serbia 's Ministry of Forestry that the authorities in Vukovar refused to hand over four river islands , and then to Croatia 's Ministry of Forestry regarding the same matter , asking for assistance . After Croatia refused the request , the Serbian authorities turned to the federal government . The federal authorities advised resolving the matter through mutual agreement and said that Vojvodina 's interpretation of the law on its borders — that the border runs along thalweg of the Danube valley , i.e. along the river 's midpoint — is erroneous because the law does not apply such wording . In a letter dated 18 April 1947 , Yugoslav authorities said that the disputed river islands were the territory of Vukovar district and that the territory could not be transferred to Vojvodina before the border was defined otherwise .
By May 1947 , authorities in Vojvodina noted that there was a dispute between them and the authorities in Croatia regarding the interpretation of the position of the border along the Danube , and that the federal authorities , who were asked to mediate in the dispute , supported the position of Croatia . At the same time , Vojvodina requested that Croatia return the territories on the right bank of the Danube that had previously been ceded to it ( Varoš @-@ Viza and Mala Siga ) . While in the Yugoslav framework , the issue received little further attention as its resolution was discouraged by the federal authorities , and because the area involved had limited economic value , was uninhabited and frequently flooded .
By 1948 , Croatia and Serbia agreed on two modifications of the border — the village of Bapska was transferred to Croatia , while Jamena was turned over to Vojvodina . No further changes to the border were agreed upon . A map of the area issued by the Yugoslav People 's Army Military @-@ Geographic Institute in 1967 depicts the border along the cadastre @-@ based boundary , corresponding to the Croatian claim in the dispute .
= = External link = =
Media related to Principality of Ongal at Wikimedia Commons
= The Boat Race 1958 =
The 104th Boat Race took place on 5 April 1958 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The race was umpired by former Cambridge rower Kenneth Payne and featured the first cox to follow his father in steering one of the boats . The reigning champions Cambridge won by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 18 minutes 15 seconds , the third @-@ fastest winning time in history , and took the overall record to 58 – 45 in their favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1957 race by two lengths , and led overall with 57 victories to Oxford 's 45 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge were coached by J. R. F. Best , James Crowden ( who rowed twice for Cambridge , in the 1951 and 1952 races ) , Charles Lloyd ( a three @-@ time Blue , rowing in the 1949 , 1950 and 1951 races ) , J. R. Owen ( who rowed in the 1959 and 1960 races ) and Harold Rickett ( three @-@ time Blue between 1930 and 1932 ) . Oxford 's coaches were Hugh " Jumbo " Edwards ( who rowed for Oxford in the 1926 and 1930 races ) , J. H. Page , C. F. Porter and L. A. F. Stokes ( who rowed in the 1951 and 1952 races . The race was umpired for the sixth time by the former British Olympian Kenneth Payne , who had rowed for Cambridge in the 1932 and 1934 races .
In the buildup to the race , Cambridge 's P. D. Rickett was struck down by influenza for a week and was unable to train .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 13 st 3 lb ( 83 @.@ 7 kg ) , 3 pounds ( 1 @.@ 4 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew had two rowers with Boat Race experience , including stroke G. Sorrell ( who was rowing in his third race ) and number four S. F. A. Miskin . Cambridge saw a single participant return in number three J. A. Pitchford . Two of the participants in the race were registered as non @-@ British . Oxford 's number six , Rodd Rubin , hailed from America while Cambridge 's number five R. B. Ritchie was Australian .
Cambridge 's James Sulley became the first cox to follow in his father 's footsteps : A. L. " Jimmy " Sulley steered the Light Blues in the 1928 race . Peter Rickett , the Light Blues ' number six , also followed his father ( and coach for this year ) Harold , while R. B. Ritchie 's father A. B. Ritchie and R. D. Carver 's father H. R. Carver also rowed for Cambridge , in the 1922 and 1925 races respectively . Oxford 's stroke , David Edwards was the son of Hugh " Jumbo " Edwards who rowed in the 1930 race while P. D. Rickett 's father and coach Harold rowed in three races for Cambridge , from 1930 to 1932 .
= = Race = =
Cambridge , who went into the race as favourites , won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . In conditions described in The Times as " wretched " with fog and rain , the race started at 1 : 30 p.m. Although Oxford out @-@ rated Cambridge , the Light Blues ' length of stroke saw them hold a three @-@ quarter length lead after the first minute . Continuing to pull away , Cambridge were clear by Beverley Brook , half a length clear by the time the crews passed Craven Steps and increased this to a length @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half by the Mile Post .
A spurt from Oxford at the Crab Tree pub made no impression on the lead . Oxford were still out @-@ rating by Cambridge three strokes per minute as they passed below Hammersmith Bridge , two lengths adrift of the Light Blues . By Chiswick Steps , the lead was three lengths where Cambridge saw off another spurt , with Oxford now rowing six strokes per minute faster than their opponents . Able to relax , Cambridge passed the finishing post three and a half lengths clear of Oxford in a time of 18 minutes 15 seconds , the third fastest winning time in the event 's history . It was Cambridge 's fourth consecutive victory and the fastest winning time since the 1948 race . A correspondent writing in The Times described the victory as a " great success " and attributed the win to Cambridge 's " uniformity , precision , and properly covered blades ... not to the brilliance of any individuals in the boat . " Jack Beresford , writing in The Observer , suggested that Cambridge 's crew was " as good as any since the war " but that while Oxford " rowed gallantly and never gave up " , their technique was inadequate .
= She : A History of Adventure =
She — subtitled A History of Adventure — is a novel by H. Rider Haggard ( 1856 – 1925 ) , first serialised in The Graphic magazine from October 1886 to January 1887 . She is one of the classics of imaginative literature , and one of the best @-@ selling books of all time , with over 100 million copies sold in 44 different languages as of 2013 . She was extraordinarily popular upon its release and has never been out of print . According to literary historian Andrew M. Stauffer , " She has always been Rider Haggard 's most popular and influential novel , challenged only by King Solomon 's Mines in this regard " .
The story is a first @-@ person narrative that follows the journey of Horace Holly and his ward Leo Vincey to a lost kingdom in the African interior . There they encounter a primitive race of natives and a mysterious white queen named Ayesha who reigns as the all @-@ powerful " She " , or " She @-@ who @-@ must @-@ be @-@ obeyed " . In this work , Rider Haggard developed the conventions of the Lost World subgenre , which many later authors emulated .
She is placed firmly in the imperialist literature of nineteenth @-@ century England , and inspired by Rider Haggard 's experiences of South Africa and British colonialism . The story expresses numerous racial and evolutionary conceptions of the late Victorians , especially notions of degeneration and racial decline prominent during the fin de siècle . In the figure of She , the novel notably explored themes of female authority and feminine behaviour . It has received praise and criticism alike for its representation of womanhood .
= = Synopsis = =
A young Cambridge University professor , Horace Holly , is visited by a colleague , Vincey , who reveals that he will soon die . Vincey proceeds to tell Holly a fantastical tale of his family heritage . He charges Holly with the task of raising his young son , Leo ( whom he has never seen ) and gives Holly a locked iron box , with instructions that it is not to be opened until Leo turns 25 . Holly agrees , and indeed Vincey is found dead the next day . Holly raises the boy as his own ; when the box is opened on Leo 's 25th birthday they discover the ancient and mysterious " Sherd of Amenartas " , which seems to corroborate Leo 's father 's story . Holly , Leo and their servant , Job , follow instructions on the Sherd and travel to eastern Africa but are shipwrecked . They alone survive , together with their Arab captain , Mahomed ; after a perilous journey into an uncharted region of the African interior , they are captured by the savage Amahagger people . The adventurers learn that the natives are ruled by a fearsome white queen , who is worshiped as Hiya or " She @-@ who @-@ must @-@ be @-@ obeyed " . The Amahagger are curious about the white @-@ skinned interlopers , having been warned of their coming by the mysterious queen .
Billali , the chief elder of one of the Amahagger tribes , takes charge of the three men , introducing them to the ways of his people . One of the Amahagger maidens , Ustane , takes a liking to Leo and , by kissing him and embracing him publicly , weds him according to Amahagger customs . Leo , likewise , grows very fond of her .
Billali tells Holly that he needs to go and report the white men 's arrival to She . In his absence , some of the Amahagger become restless and seize Mahomed , intending to eat him as part of a ritual " hotpot " . Realising what is about to happen , Holly shoots several of the Amahagger , killing Mahomed in the process ; in the ensuing struggle Leo is gravely wounded , but Ustane saves his life by throwing herself onto his prostrate body to shield him from spears . All seems lost as the Amahagger resolve to kill Ustane along with the white men but Billali returns in the nick of time and declares that the three men are under the protection of She . Leo 's condition , however , worsens and he nears death as Ustane faithfully tends to him .
They are taken to the home of the queen , which lies near the ruins of the lost city of Kôr , a once mighty civilisation that predated the Egyptians . The queen and her retinue live under a dormant volcano in a series of catacombs built as tombs for the people of Kôr . There , Holly is presented to the queen , a white sorceress named Ayesha . Her beauty is so great that it enchants any man who beholds it . She , who is veiled and lies behind a partition , warns Holly that the power of her splendour arouses both desire and fear , but he is dubious . When she shows herself , however , Holly is enraptured and prostrates himself before her . Ayesha reveals that she has learned the secret of immortality and that she possesses other supernatural powers including the ability to read the minds of others , a form of telegnosis and the ability to heal wounds and cure illness ; she is also revealed to have a tremendous knowledge of chemistry , but is notably unable to see into the future . She
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